proofreading team [page ] theory of silk weaving [page ] theory of silk weaving a treatise on the construction and application of weaves, and the decomposition and calculation of broad and narrow, plain, novelty and jacquard silk fabrics containing plates _by_ arnold wolfensberger graduate of the textile institute of zurich, switzerland * * * * * second revised and enlarged edition * * * * * new york _issued by_ the american silk journal clifford & lawton _publishers_ _ _ [page ] * * * * * copyright. . by clifford & lawton _all rights reserved_ * * * * * grolier craft press, printers. west twenty-eighth street, new york city * * * * * [page ] preface the silk industry of america has of late years rapidly advanced to the front rank among the great textile industries of the world. it may indeed be proud of this position, to which that enterprising spirit and untiring energy peculiar to our nation, combined with our great technical and natural resources, has brought it. that we are, on the other hand, not yet at the height of perfection we are also compelled to acknowledge, but if we consider the short space of time that the american industry has required for its development, as compared to the decades, almost centuries, to which some of the great european silk centers can look back, the fact is neither surprising nor discouraging. while it must not be our aim to imitate or copy their ways, inasmuch as out conditions and circumstances are quite different from theirs, we may still profitably study their methods in order to overcome our deficiencies. the greatest advantage which our competitors derive from such a long existence consists in having at their disposal a force of skilful, trained help. the manufacturers, appreciating the importance of this factor, make great efforts and pecuniary sacrifices to elevate and maintain the high standard of their industry. for instance, they support textile schools and lecture courses, where young men can acquire a thorough technical education and equip themselves for a career of usefulness, thereby serving their own interests and at the same time furthering those of their chosen profession. [page ] this beneficial influence cannot fail to exert itself from the standard of the higher employer down to that of the weaver, who would naturally take more pains and interest in his work than if he were a mere mechanical appendage to his loom in order to keep it in motion. very little has been done in his country for technical education as far as the silk industry is concerned, and it was on this special branch, that prompted the author to offer in the present little work a treatise on the theory of shaft weaving for broad silks and ribbons. it is divided into three principal parts: # st. drawing-in the warp in the harness. nd. the weaves and their application. rd. decomposition or analysis of the cloth.# to the foregoing there have been added in the revised and enlarged edition several additional parts covering the following: jacquard weaves, box loom weaves, including crepes, and cost calculations for plain and fancy weaves. the subject while condensed, is made as clear and comprehensible as possible, and to many desirous of increasing their knowledge in this direction, this should prove a valuable help. the author, through the medium of this work, hopes to win the approval and encouragement of the manufacturers, and will feel amply repaid should his efforts tend to develop a deeper interest in the "queen of textiles." * * * * * [page ] theory of silk weaving drawing-in with this term we designate the operation preceding the weaving, by which all the warp-threads are drawn through the heddles of the harness. the order in which this is done varies according to the weave and the nature of the fabric to be produced; so we distinguish: #straight draws, skip draws, point draws, section draws.# * * * * * straight draws [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] these form the simplest and most common method of drawing-in. we begin with the first heddle on the left side of the shaft _nearest to the warp-beam_, then take the first heddle of second shaft and so on until all the shafts the set contains are used in rotation. this completes one "draw," and this operation is repeated until all the warp-threads are taken up. the method of making the shaft nearest to the warp-beam the first, is almost universal with the silk business and is technically called _drawing-in from back to front_. the opposite, or drawing in from _front to rear_, is used occasionally, however, and in this case makes the first heddle on the left hand side of the front shaft no. . the making out of the _drawing-in draft_, which must indicate the arrangement or the rotation in which the warp-threads are drawn in, can be done in various ways, of which we will mention the two most popular methods. the first is by using common designing paper, and indicating the rotation by dots. the horizonal rows of squares represent the shafts, the vertical rows the warp-threads. fig. shows four repeats of a straight draw on six harness marked out according to this idea. a second method is to use paper ruled horizontally, the lines representing the shafts; and to draw vertical lines for the warp-threads. the latter are made to stop on [page ] the lines bearing the number of the shafts into which the respective threads are to be drawn. fig. is such a draft, illustrating six repeats of a draw on four harness from "front to rear." * * * * * skip draws [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] the draws coming under this heading are used very extensively in silk weaving, especially for fabrics requiring a heavy warp and a large number of shafts. enter first the odd and then the even shafts. an harness draw of this kind, of which three repeats are shown in fig. , runs as follows: , , , , , , , . fig. is a harness draw of the same class. * * * * * point draws [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] [page ] point draws are a combination of a regular straight draw from back to front and one from front to back, the first and the last shafts only being used once, while the rest receive two ends each in one repeat of the draw. fig. illustrates a regular point draw in repeats on shafts. it will be seen that ends make a repeat; in fact, the number of warp-threads required for one draw will always be double the number of harness less , hence a harness regular point draw will require warp-threads for a repeat. the drawing-in draft illustrated in fig. is a slight variation of the regular point draw; it consists, as will be seen, of a draw from back to front, and also a full one from front to back, there by causing a _double point_. another change from the regular point draw is illustrated in figs. and ; this class may be called _broken point draws_, because a new draw is begun before the other one is complete. fig. also comes in this class and represents a _zigzag draw_ on harness. the drawing-in drafts which we have described under the head of "point draws," are used mostly to obtain the various pointed and zigzag effects. * * * * * section draws [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] this division of drawing-in drafts is used extensively in silk manufacturing; for instance, in all fabrics having a ground warp and a binder warp, also in double-face goods, or where two different weaves are combined in one effect. one or more threads are drawn on the first section, then one or more on a second and third, if the harness is divided in so many sets. the following examples will illustrate the principle of these draws. in fig. , shafts , , , from the first set, shafts and the second, threads are drawn straight on the first, then on the second section. fig. , first set shafts to inclusive, second set shafts and . fig. is drawn end and end on two sections having shafts each. figs. , and , while not strictly belonging to the class of section draws, may, however, be considered under this heading. the idea is to draw a certain number of ends in one part of the harness and another group in another part, be it straight, point or skip, which will cause the effect on the cloth to be accordingly transposed or broken up. [page ] * * * * * the weaves and their construction in any woven fabric we distinguish two systems of threads, the _warp or chain_, running lengthways in the cloth, and the _filling or weft_, crossing the former at right angles. this crossing or interlacing consists of every individual warp-thread being placed alternately under and over one or more threads of the filling system. the arrangement of this interlacing is technically called the _weave_, and the variety in which the points of crossing can be distributed is practically endless. it is principally the weave that lends to a fabric its character, influenced, of course, by the material used, the size and tension of the threads and the combination of the colors. the weaves are divided into three main classes: _the foundation weaves_. in the silk business they are known under the following names: #the taffeta weave, the serge weave, the satin weave.# in the foundation weaves each thread effects only one crossing in one repeat of the weave, and the points of interlacing occur in a given rotation. a repeat in the foundation weaves comprises the same number of warp-threads as of _picks_ or filling threads, and if this number is , for [page ] instance, the weave is called an -shaft or an -harness weave. in marking out a weave, the warp-threads are represented by vertical lines, the filling by horizontal ones, or in each case by the space between these lines. the places where a warp-thread lies over the filling are marked with paint or simply with a cross. in a similar manner we mark out the _chain draft_, which indicates the rotation in which the shafts are raised. * * * * * [page ] the taffeta weave [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] [page ] this is the simplest and oldest method of interlacing. the odd numbers of warp-threads cross the even numbers after every pick; hence of two warp-threads one will always go over the first pick and under the second, and the other end under the first and over the second pick. taffeta cloth, therefore, has the same appearance on both sides, and in cotton and wool weaving this weave is technically--and properly indeed--called the _plain weave_. it has the smallest repeat, warp-threads and picks, and the exchanging of warp and filling is the most frequent possible. the cloth thus produced is firmer and stronger than that obtained with any other weave. fig. is a taffeta on shafts straight draw, the draft executed in the manner which we have already mentioned in explaining the drawing-in drafts. fig. on common designing paper, illustrates a taffeta made on -harness, skip draw. be it mentioned that the drawing-in draft and the chain draft will be added throughout this work, the former over the weave to correspond with the respective warp-threads, the latter to the right of the drawing-in draft. * * * * * [page ] gros de tours weaves [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [illustration: fig. ] in this weave the working of the warp is the same as in taffeta, except that instead of one pick, two or more are inserted in the same shed. it is mostly used in selvedges, where it serves to give more firmness to the edge of an otherwise loosely woven cloth, and prevents the weaving ahead of the edge in a tight weave. gros de tours is sometimes used, especially when cotton or wool filling is employed, with a view to lay two picks nicely side by side, whereas a thread entered two ply with the taffeta weave will always receive some twist, which may disturb the perfect evenness of the fabric. fig. is a gros de tours with two picks on four harness straight through. fig. illustrates this weave with three picks drawn end and end on two sections of four shafts each. * * * * * [page ] serge or twill weaves while the taffeta weave produces either an entirely smooth fabric, or one with a distinct transverse rib as in gros-grain, the twill weave forms diagonal lines on the cloth, running either from left to right or from right to left. to make a twill, not less than three ends and three picks are required, of which each thread floats over two of the other system and interlaces with the third. the rotation of the interlacing is always consecutive, that is it moves with each succeeding pick one thread to the right (or to the left if the lines are to run in that direction). if warp and filling have the same texture, that is the same number of threads in a given space, the twill lines will form an angle of °; if the warp stands closer than the filling, the incline will be steeper, and in the opposite case the angle will approach more the horizontal. the weaves can be expressed in numbers, for instance: the -end twill warp effect would be marked - , which indicates that each warp-thread goes over two and under one pick. twill weaves are called _evensided_ when the arrangement of "warp up" and "filling up" are evenly balanced, and _unevensided_ if either warp or filling predominate on the face of the fabric; the latter class is therefore subdivided in _warp effects_ and _filling effects_. in the following a number of serge weaves are illustrated, the french designations being added in some cases, as they are still extensively used in the trade. [page ] * * * * * filling effects _satin de lyon,_ - . on harness straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _levantine,_ - <h/ > on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _polonaise,_ - on harness skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _serge grosse côte,_ - on shafts straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _serge remaine,_ - on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _serge,_ - , - . on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _serge,_ - , - , - . on harness straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _serge,_ - , - , - , - , - . on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] warp effects _levantine,_ - . on shafts straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _serge,_ - , - . on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] evensided twills _surah,_ - on shafts straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _croise,_ - , - , - . on shafts straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _serge,_ - , - , - , - on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * pointed twills in the direction of the filling and also of the warp. [illustration: fig. ] on shafts point draw, weave - . * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] on shafts point draw, drawn as follows: eighteen ends from back to front and ends from front to rear, weave - . * * * * [illustration: fig. ] on shafts pointed draw, weave - , - . * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] on shafts, with weave - , drawn as follows: threads from back to front. " " front to rear. " " back to front. " " front to rear. * * * * [illustration: fig. ] on shafts straight draw, pointed weave - . * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] on shafts straight through, pointed weave - , - . * * * * [illustration: fig. ] _broken pointed twill_, on harness. * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] on shafts point draw, pointed weave - . * * * * [illustration: fig. ] on shafts point draw, pointed weave - , - . * * * * [page ] [illustration: fig. ] _fancy twill_, on shafts straight draw. * * * * * satin weaves the distinct diagonal lines which characterize the class of weaves explained in the previous chapter are absent in the satin weaves; and while the interlacing in the former is done in a strictly consecutive order, we endeavor to scatter the points of stitching in the latter as much as possible, in order to create an entirely smooth and brilliant surface on [page ] the cloth. in all satins the number of ends in a repeat is the same in warp and filling. the lowest repeat of a regular satin comprises five threads of each system, and the interlacing is done in the following order: the st pick with the st warp-thread " d " " d " " d " " th " " th " " d " " th " " th " fig. illustrates this weave. an examination of the rotation, as given above, will show that every warp-thread intersects two picks apart from its neighbor. the number " " is in this case what is technically known as the _counter_, that is the number which indicates the points of interlacing by adding it to number and continuing so until all the warp-threads are taken up. the following is the rule to find the counter for any regular satin: divide the number of harness into two parts, which must neither be equal nor have a common divisor. any of these two numbers can be used for counting off, but usually the smaller one is taken. according to this rule we obtain a regular satin on harness with counter " " " or " " " " " " or " " " " " " , , or " " " " " " , , , or " " " or " " " , or " " " , or . [page ] the harness broken twill, fig. , is sometimes classed among the satins. the harness satin, fig. , is irregular; as a counter cannot be derived from number by the given rule. the rotation generally used is , , , , , . * * * * * regular satins _ harness satin, "satin de chine."_ straight draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _ harness satin, "satin merveilleux."_ skip draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _ harness satin_ straight draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _ harness satin "duchese"_ skip draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _ harness satin_ straight draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _ harness satin_ straight draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _ harness satin_ skip draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _ harness satin_ skip draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _ harness satin_ on sections of shafts each, drawn end and end, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _ harness satin, warp effect._ straight draw, counter . [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * irregular satins _satin turc._ on shafts straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _satin à la reine_ on shafts straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] * * * * * derivative weaves # . from the taffeta# _royale_ is a modification of the regular gros de tours, inasmuch as the rib line, which in the latter runs straight across the cloth, is broken off after a given number of warp-threads. these groups, which may comprise , or more threads, will interlace each one pick higher than the preceding one. _royale of ends_ on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _velours ottoman or faille française._ in order to obtain a broader rib than that of gros de tours, and at the same time to lend firmness to the fabric, we add to the ground warp, which forms the ribs, another or binder warp, which works continually taffeta, [page ] while the ground warp changes only every or picks for the rib. _faille française._ ends of ground on the first section of shafts, skip draw. " binder " second " " [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _velours ottoman without a binder-warp._ in this weave, of which fig. illustrates a specimen, comprising warp-threads and picks in a repeat, the rib contains picks. of the warp-threads, float over and under the rib, while the others bind taffeta, which latter function is executed by other threads in the next rib. [page ] [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * . from the twills one variety is obtained by interlacing the warp-threads alternately one or more picks behind, and then a number of picks ahead of their respective neighbors; so the complete arrangement of the points of binding in a repeat will generally form two parallel diagonal lines. this will cause the twill lines to appear less pronounced than is the case in the regular twill, and the character of the fabric approaches more that of the satin. [page ] [illustration: fig. ] _satin sergé._ on shafts, straight draw. * * * * [illustration: fig. ] _côte satinée._ on harness, skip draw. * * * * _rhadzimir-surah - ._ after a certain number of picks of the regular surah all the warp-threads are crossed in two's thereby causing a sort of a rib or cut line across the fabric. [page ] _rhadzimir of picks._ on shafts, straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _rhadzimir of picks._ on shafts, straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] . from the satin weave _satin soleil_ shows a satin-like surface with a cross line appearance. fig. illustrates it as made on shafts, straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _satin grec_ is a -harness satin, in which a taffeta point is added to each place of interlacing, thus giving the cloth a much firmer hand. fig. represents this weave on shafts, skip draw. [page ] [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _peau de soie._ an -shaft satin with one point added on the right or left to the original spots, giving the fabric a somewhat grainy appearence. fig. represents a peau de soie on shafts, straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _fleur de soie._ the face is a satin de lyon ( - twill), with a backing interlaced on the -shaft satin principle, fig. , on shafts, skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] cannele and repp weaves are in their construction related to the taffeta, and are used mostly in the form of stripes as an additional ornament to a fabric. the threads going into the composition of these effects exchange continually from taffeta interlacing to floating over a certain number of threads, and must be introduced either in warp or filling close enough to make the floats cover up the taffeta work entirely, and thus enable the material used to show up with the full brilliancy it possesses. cannele effects can be produced in two distinct ways. one is to let every individual thread work alternately taffeta and float, while in the other method one thread weaves always taffeta, and a second thread is used for the cannele exclusively. these latter threads must come from a separate warp, which is introduced to embellish the ground or taffeta part of the fabric. the floating threads can either stitch all on one pick and so form a continuous cut line, or be divided in groups, of which one will bind in the middle of the floats of the other group. the following designs show both the face and backside of the respective weaves: [page ] _alternating cannele_ of picks. on shafts, straight through. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _canelle_ ( beams). over picks, interlacing on every fourth pick, drawn end and end on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _cannele_ over picks, binding on the sixth, but every second thread advanced picks (to the middle of the float of the first thread), drawn end and end on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _cannele_ arranged in groups of threads, floating over picks and binding on the seventh and eighth, drawn on sections, with shafts in first and in second section. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _repp_ on shafts straight through. rotation of filling. pick taffeta, pick float (rib). [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _repp_ of threads, on sections of shafts each, ends per section. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _repp_ of threads, binding on the sixth; every second pick binds on the middle of the first pick. on harness straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _repp_ in groups, floating over ends and binding on the seventh and eighth on shafts straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] double faced fabrics in this class we find either two systems of warp or of filling so combined that only one will be visible on either side. the color on one side is generally different from the other, and so may the interlacing be of a different nature on face and back. in the latter case great care must be exercised not to allow the weave on one side to disturb the one on the other, and as a rule the points of interlacing of the first warp or filling system are placed as much as possible in the middle of the floats of the second. this will prevent either color or weave to be seen on the opposite side, as the floats of one side will naturally lay themselves over the binders of the other. the number of ends in a repeat of the two weaves must either be alike or one a multiple of the other. warp effects _levantine_ on shafts straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _serge_ - on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _shaft satin_ on sections of harness each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _shaft satin_ on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _cannele_ of picks on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] filling effects _serge_ - on harness straight draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * _harness satin_ on shafts skip draw. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] _repp_ on sections of shafts each, threads per section. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] pekins with this name we designate fabrics in which stripes of a different interlacing run in the direction of the warp. in combining these weaves it is advantageous to have them contrast distinctly, for instance, a short weave such as taffeta or gros de tours, with a longer and looser one such as satin, sergé or cannele, also changes from warp to filling effects. care must be taken to arrange the joining of the two weaves so that the last thread of one weave will cross the first thread of the other. this will prevent the threads from either stripe to slide over into the other, and so make a clean cut line. #pekin.# a stripe of dents of ends each, shaft satin, on shafts straight draw. " " taffeta " " " " [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] #pekin#. a stripe of ends cannele of picks on st section of shafts. " repp " threads on d and d section of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] #pekin.# a stripe of ends leaf satin on the st section of shafts straight draw. " taffeta " d " " " " " serge - , - " d " " " " [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] bayadÈres while pekins are formed by warp stripes, bayadère shows us stripes of different weaves running in the direction of the filling. the rules given in the previous chapter as to the joining of the weaves will also apply here. the warp which was raised on the last pick of the weave must stay down wherever possible on the first pick of the following weave. the number of shafts employed must go up evenly in the repeat of each one of the weaves that go into the make up of the bayadère. #bayadère# a stripe of picks gros de tours } } on shafts straight through. " " -shaft satin, } [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] #bayadère# a stripe of picks -shaft satin } " " serge - , } on shafts, straight draw. " " taffeta, } [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] checks and plaids if pekin and bayadère stripes are combined, we obtain checked fabrics, and of these an endless variety and pleasing effects can be produced with the aid of suitable color combinations. #check# of threads and picks of the end broken twill, and " " " " royale of threads, drawn on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * [page ] #check# of threads and picks of -shaft satin, " " " " " taffeta, " " surah - , drawn on sections of shafts each. [illustration: fig. ] * * * * * [page ] decomposition under the name of _disposition_ we comprise all those points and details which we must ascertain before we can proceed with the construction of a fabric. they are: . #the weave.# . #length and width of the cloth.# . #the stock and the dyeing thereof.# . #reed calculation# (number of dents and ends per inch and total number of dents required). . #drawing-in the warp in harness and reed.# . #texture and arrangement of warp# (warping ticket) . #arrangement of harness.# . #reduction of filling.# . #calculation of warp and filling.# . #finishing.# . #calculation of cost.# [page ] . the weave if a given sample is to be reproduced or imitated, it must be analyzed, and the following hints will greatly facilitate this operation to the beginner. cut the sample straight on two sides, and draw out a number of warp and filling threads until there is a small fringe of perhaps ¼ of an inch. this will allow a thread to be raised a little for examination, without danger of its falling out of the fabric. in most cases it is easier to dissect the filling side, that is, the interlacing of each warp-thread in the threads of the filling system. with the help of the microscope or counting glass we can easily determine over and under how many picks that thread passes and the points of interlacing are accordingly marked on designing paper. this being done for at least the length of a repeat warpways, we take it out and examine the following thread, and so on until the repeat filling-ways is complete. it is advisable to ascertain how many picks ahead or back of the first examined thread the next following one binds before taking the former out. a knowledge of the construction of weaves as explained in the foregoing chapters will enable us to determine the weave of a simple pattern by merely raising a warp-thread with a needle on any point of interlacing and counting off how many picks apart from this place it makes an impression. . length and width of the fabric to the length and width which the finished product is to have, we must add a certain allowance for shrinkage and _taking up_ of warp during weaving. it may differ from one to ten per cent., according to the texture and weave of the fabric, and can be ascertained with sufficient accuracy by stretching out and measuring a thread of warp and filling and comparing their length with the respective measurements of the sample to be reproduced. [page ] . the stock and its dye under this heading we must give the particulars as to nature, _twist_, _quality_ and _size_ of the silk, and the directions for the dyeing, whether _bright_ or _souple_, and in what colors, also whether to be weighted or not. the size is generally ascertained (in practical work) by comparing it with other silk of which the exact count is known. another method is to count the number of cocoon threads which a thread of the sample contains, adding to that / or ¼, according to the quality of the silk; the result will be the count in deniers. to obtain it in drams, divide the latter number by , as dram is equal to , deniers. suppose we find cocoon ends in a thread of silk: add / , and we have - / deniers, which, divided by , make , drams. as silk is always more or less uneven, it is safer to count the cocoon fibers of several threads and to take average thereof. it requires the experience of years to judge with any degree of certainty as to the origin and quality of silk, whether it be "classical," "extra," "sublime," etc. there are machines wherewith to ascertain exactly the twist, that is, the number of turns the silk has received in the throwing process. in the dyeing we distinguish two great classes, of which the names themselves give a good definition. "bright" has a brilliant luster, while "souple" has more of a dull, subdued appearance. to find out whether the silk has been weighted in the dyeing process, we may compare it with other silk of which the exact conditions are known, or we may burn a small quantity of it. unweighted silk does not burn readily and leaves a residue of white ashes, while heavy weighted silk burns lively, leaving black, charry ashes. [page ] . reed calculation we count the number of repeats of the weave in a given space, generally ¼ or ½ inch, and multiply this with the number of threads one repeat contains, which gives us the reduction of the warp. suppose we had a taffeta, which, as we know, has only ends to a repeat, and counted interlacings per ¼ inch on one pick; we would have threads per ¼ inch or per one inch. in this case the reed may be by or by . another instance: in an -shaft satin we count warp-threads, which bind on the same pick in ¼ inch; this, multiplied by , equals ends per ¼, or per one inch; the reed will be an with in a dent or a by . in short, the number of the reed is found by dividing the number of warp-threads that are to go in one dent, in the number of ends per inch. sometimes, the reed marks are clearly visible in a sample by holding the latter against the light. silk fabrics move with very few exceptions within the limits of and dents per inch. to learn the full number of dents required for the width of the cloth, simply multiply the dents per one inch with the width, adding a certain allowance for shrinkage. the edges, of course, must also be taken in consideration, and very often the dents that are taken up by the latter are used to counter-balance that shrinkage. . drawing-in the warp in harness and reed here we must specify the number of dents that contain the same number of ends, and whether the latter are single or double, also the number of shafts and the method of drawing-in. [page ] . warping ticket to make out the warping ticket, we need to ascertain the total number of ends, whether leased single or double, and the arrangement of the colors. . harness arrangement this is governed by the number of ends to be drawn in and the necessary shafts. if we have, for instance, threads per inch to be drawn on shafts, we must give each shaft heddles per inch. there are generally between and heddles per inch on one shaft. . reduction of the filling here we state the number of picks per inch, give directions as to doubling, if such is necessary, and if more than one color or shuttle is used, the rotation thereof. . calculation of warp and filling the system adopted in this country for specifying the size of silk is based on the weight in drams (avoirdupois) of a skein containing yards. a skein, thus weighing drams, is technically called -dram silk. the number of yards of -dram silk to a pound must accordingly be . the formulas for figuring the amount of silk required for a piece of cloth are as follows: warp calculation _multiply_: number of ends×length×count ----------------------------- _divide by_: yards× drams [page ] filling calculation _multiply:_ picks×xply×width×length of piece×count -------------------------------------- = lbs. _divide by:_ yards× drams the result in both cases will be in pounds. the system of grading the silk which is in vogue in europe, and which is employed by a number of mills on this side, is as follows: skein of meters, weighing , grams = denier international or " " " , " = " turin system or " " " , " = " milan " the warp calculation, taking the international denier, would run: ends in warp×length×denier× , gram -------------------------------------- _divided by:_ meters for the filling: picks per meter×xply×width×denier× , gram --------------------------------------------- _divided by:_ meters result in metric weight, kilograms and grams. . finishing give directions as to the process of finishing to which the goods are to be subjected, whether to be pressed, calendered, sized, moiréd, etc. . calculation of cost if all the foregoing conditions are ascertained, and a sample or a piece of the fabric executed, it remains to the manufacturer to determine the exact figure at which he can produce the article. that this must be done with great accuracy is naturally of the utmost importance, and the calculator [page ] must know in the first place the raw stock prices, and also be acquainted with the details of the manufacturing process and the rates of wages paid therein. as a rule, the manufacturer establishes a scale of prices covering all the items of labor cost, mill expenses, etc., and uses this as a basis for his calculations. a rule or formula for this operation cannot very well be given, as the methods vary in almost every establishment, each choosing the one best adapted to its ideas or dictates of circumstances and conditions. [page ] disposition _taffeta glacé_ [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#--one piece yards long, ¾ inches wide. #stock and dye#--_warp._--ital. organ., / deniers = , drams, brown, bright, / oz. _filling._--japan tram, / deniers = , drams, gold, bright / oz. #reed calculation#--per inch, dents at single ends. " ¾ " " add " = % for shrinkage ---- total dents. #drawing in#-- st edge, dents at double ends. ground, " at single " d edge, " at double " on shafts, straight through. #warping ticket#-- st edge, double ends, brown. ground, single " " d edge, double " " ---- total single ends. length of warp yards, including % for take up. #harness#-- shafts, heddles per inches. " " " " #reduction of filling#--per inch, / picks, ends. #warp calculation#--? lbs = ends. end = yards. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × , × ------------------- = , lbs., or lbs. , oz. × × [page ] #filling calculation#--? lbs. = yards yard = inches. inch = \ picks. / ends. pick = inches. inches = yard yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × × × ------------------------- = , lbs., or lbs. , ozs. × × × * * * * [page ] disposition _surah - _ [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#-- piece yards long, ½ in. wide. #stock and dyeing#--_warp._--ital. organ., , drams = / deniers, black, bright, / % = / ozs. _filling._--cotton no. / black. #reed calculation#--per inch, dents at single ends. " ½ inch, " add " = % for shrinkage. ---- total dents. #drawing-in#-- st edge, dents, double ends. ground, " single " d edge, " double " on shafts, straight draw. #warping ticket#-- st edge, double ends, black. ground, single " " d edge, double " " ---- total single ends. warp yards long = % for take up. #harness#-- shafts, heddles per inches. " " " " #reduction of filling#--per inch, picks, end. #warp calculation#--? lbs. = ends. end = yards. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). 		 × × , × ------------------ = , lbs., or lb. , oz. × × [page ] #filling calculation#-?lbs. = yards. yard = inches. inch = picks. pick = inches. inches = yard yards = skein. (no. / ) skeins = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × ------------------ = . lbs., or lbs. . ozs. × × × * * * * [page ] #disposition # _satin duchesse._ [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#--one warp yards long, pieces of yards inches wide, pieces in width, with one cut edge. #stock and dyeing#--_warp._-- ital. organ., - / drams, black, bright, / oz. _filling._-- jap. tram., - / and - / drams, black, souple, / oz. we should use for this fabric end filling, -thread, - / drams, but as we have none of this size on hand, we take: end, thread, - / drams, and end, thread, - / drams. #reed calculation#-- inch, dents, single ends. " " " ( ¾% shrinkage). ---- total ... dents. #drawing-in#-- { st edge, { dents, × , black. { " × , white. ground, " × , black. 		 { " × " cut edge { " × , " { " empty. { " × , " ground, " × , black. 	 d edge, { " × , black. { " × , white. satin on shafts, straight draw. cross-thread for split edge on shafts, see design. #warping ticket#-- edge, { / black. } { / white. } ground, / black. } twice over. edge, { / white. } { / black. } ends black, { yards long. " white, { = % shrinkage. / black for ground thread, yards long. / " " whip " " " each one on a separate little roll. [page ] #harness#-- shafts, heddles, in " " " for the split edge shafts, of which one has only half a heddle. #filling#--per in., picks, ends (as described before). #warp calculation#--? lbs. = ends, black ( white). end = yards. , yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). ( ) × × . × -------------------- = , lbs. org. black. × × = , " " white. #filling calculation#--? lbs. = yards. yard = inches. inch = picks. pick = inches. inches = yard. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × , × ---------------------- = , lbs. × × × * * * * [page ] disposition _armure satinée_ [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#--one piece yards long, in. wide. #stock and dyeing#--_warp._--jap. organ., , drams, black, bright, / oz. _filling._-- threads jap. tram., , drams, black, bright, / oz. #reed calculation#--per inch, dents× single ends. " " " " ( % for shrinkage). ---- total . . . dents. #drawing-in#-- st edge, dents × double. ground, " × single. d edge, " × double. on shafts, straight through, or on shafts, as design indicates. #warping ticket#-- st edge, / black. ground, / " d edge, / " ------ total . . . single ends yards long. = ½% for take up. #harness#-- shafts, heddles per ½ inches. " " " " #reduction of filling#--per inch, picks, ends. #warp calculation#--? lbs. = ends. end = yards. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × , × ------------------ = , lbs., or lb. , ozs. × × [page ] #filling calculation#--? lbs. = yards. yard = inches. inch = } picks. } ends. pick = ½ inches. inches = yard. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × , × , × --------------------------- = , lbs., or lbs. , ozs. × × × * * * * [page ] disposition _surface printed armure._ [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#--one piece yards long, ½ in. wide. #stock and dyeing#--_warp._--ital. organ., , drams, / deniers, white bright, pure dye. _filling._-- thread ital. tram., drams, / deniers, white, bright, pure dye. #reed calculation#--per inch, dents, × . " ½ " " " ( % shrinkage). ---- total . . . dents. #drawing-in#-- st edge, dents, × gros de tours. ground, " × armure d edge, " × gros de tours. armure ground on shafts, straight draw. gros de tours, edges on shafts. #warping ticket#--ground warp, yards. / white. gros de tours edges, yards. × / white, on separate rolls. total . . . single ends. #harness#-- shafts, heddles, per ½ inches. " - / " " " shafts gros de tours edges, with heddles on each side. #reduction of filling#--per inch, picks, end. #warp calculation#--? lbs. = ends. end = yards. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × , × ------------------ = , lbs., or lb. , ozs. × × [page ] #filling calculation#--? lbs. = yards. yard = inches. inch = picks. pick = inches. inches = yard. yards = drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × × ------------------- = , lbs., or lb. , ozs. × × × after weaving, the small flower effects have to be printed on the cloth. * * * * [page ] disposition _pekin_: shaft satin and repp. [illustration: fig. ] [page ] #length and width#-- piece yards long, ¼ in. wide. { ital. organ., - / drams, black, { bright, / oz. #stock and dyeing#--_warp._ { ital. organ., - / drams, sky, { bright, pure dye { cotton no. / , scarlet. _filling._-- threads, jap. tram., - / drams, scarlet, bright, / oz. { × , black satin #reed calculation#--per inch, dents, { × , colored " { × , " repp. " ¼ " " " ( ½% for shrinkage). ---- total dents. #drawing-in#-- st edge, dents, × satin. } ground, " × " } " × " } " × " } twice } " × repp. } over. } " × satin. } " × " } " × " } " × repp. } twice } " × satin. } over. } times " × repp. } over. " × satin. } " × repp. } " × satin. } " × repp. } twice } " × satin. } over. } " × repp. } " × satin. } " × " } d edge, " × " } satin on st section of shaft skip draw. binder " nd " " " repp " d " " " [page ] on each side of every repp stripe two ends of the satin warp must be entered on the binder shafts ( d section), to prevent the ends of the satin to slide over into the repp stripes. #warping ticket#--i. _beam satin_, yards. st edge, / black. ground, / " } / sky. } / black. } / sky. } / black. } / sky. } times over. / black. } / sky. } / black. } / " } d edge, / " } single ends black. " " sky. ii. _beam repp_, yards. / scarlet. } / " } / " } / " } / " } times over. / " } / " } / " } / " } single ends scarlet cotton this warp has to be beamed in stripes. make out a diagram for the warper the same as shown in fig. . [page ] [illustration: fig. ] #harness#--fig. shows how to make a diagram of a harness for a pekin. the heddles are marked per one shaft. as the repp stripes are only small ones, we use for the satin a full harness, that is, one without open spaces for the repp stripe. all together we have in the satin warp single and double ends to draw in; of these ends are used for binders, on both sides of the repp stripes. thus remain for shafts, heddles per ½ inches " " " " #reduction of filling#--per inch, picks, end. #warp calculation#--? lbs. = ends ( ends sky). end = yards. yards = , drams (sky , drams). drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × , × ------------------- = , lbs. for black, or lbs. , ozs. × × × × , × ------------------- = , lbs. for sky, or lbs. , ozs. × × [page ] ? lbs. = ends. end = yards. yards = skein. (no. / ) skeins = lb. = ( % waste). × × ------------- = , lbs. scarlet cotton, or lb. , ozs. × × #filling calculation#--? lbs. = yards. yard = inches. inch = picks. pick = inches. inches = yard. yards = , drams. drams = lb. = ( % waste). × × × × , × ----------------------- = , lbs., or lbs. , ozs. × × × * * * * * [page ] jacquard weaves jacquard weaves usually show on a plain ground figure or flower effects. to obtain these effects the ground is made of one weave, say taffeta, while the figures or flowers are produced in another weave, say satin. we enter the warp through a jacquard harness, and according to the repeat use a , , , , , etc., hook jacquard machine, which means , , , and ends per repeat. with a -hook machine a larger repeat can be produced than with a -hook machine. for instance, if we want to make a cloth the figures of which are to be two inches apart, it is a two-inch repeat, and use the count of / or ends per inch, we can use a -hook machine, in. x ends. but we can make this cloth also on a -hook machine, only the repeat must be designed three times. the advantage of using a -hook machine with the count / is that , , , -inch repeats can be produced, while with a -hook machine, only a -inch repeat can be made. there is no end to all the different weaves and the possible flower and other pattern effects that can be made with the jacquard machine. for a jacquard weaving plant the designing is the most important factor. * * * * * box loom weaves including crepes box looms are required for weaves such as bayadères, checks, plaids (see pages - ), bengalines, crêpes, etc., where two or more shuttles are needed to bring out the effect. for the crêpes (crêpe de chine, crêpe georgette) only two shuttles are needed, while plaids and other articles are made with more shuttles. to weave such articles the loom or the lay must be fitted with two or more shuttle boxes on one or both sides of the loom. [page ] if a manufacturer decides to change plain looms to box looms or buy new box looms, it is wise to get × boxes, or four shuttle boxes on each side. with these looms about everything can be made that is called for in box-loom effects, and as styles change, it is wise to be prepared. * * * * * manufacturing costs the calculator first ascertains for the warp: what silk will be used, the cost of the same, total number of ends in the warps for the amount of silk, cost of throwing, dyeing, winding, warping, twisting, entering, and weaving. then the filling: silk to be used, how much, cost of silk, cost of throwing, dyeing, winding, doubling, quilling. after this determine the cost of weaving, cloth picking, finishing, factory costs, and selling expenses. to-day most of the operations are paid by "piece work." the calculator must always take into consideration that poor raw silk or poor dyeing make production slow, increase the cost of labor, and also that more waste will be made. throwing: regular organ usually has turns per inch in the first twist and turns to the inch in the second or reverse twist. tram receives only one twisting, about three turns to the inch. as the warp twisting-in is paid for at so much per hundred or thousand ends, no matter how short or long the warp is, it is a saving to make the warps as long as possible, especially in raw, black and staple colors. the calculator must not forget the cost of entering the first warp in a harness, also the reeding. most mills figure the cost of harness and reed in the expense accounts. if plain and fancy goods are made an extra percentage should be figured for the latter. [page ] expenses are figured differently, as almost every manufacturer has his own system. if a mill makes only a few staple articles it is easy to put down the cost of expenses. say the mill has a production of , yards per year, that the expense amounts to $ , , the cost then is cents per yard. manufacturers making all kinds of goods sometimes figure the expenses in percentage, say, for plain goods, with a few picks, like gros-grain, peau de soie, etc., per cent. per yard. taffeta, satin, etc., having more picks, ½ per cent. per yard, and fancy and jacquard goods, per cent. per yard. in the expense account we include all charges except raw silk, throwing, dyeing and piece work. selling expenses. before a calculation is finished we must add the selling expenses to the cost, also take account of the trade discount. small mills usually sell through a commission house, which pays all expenses and charges a certain commission. many large firms have their own selling end, and some have their sales guaranteed by a commission house or a bank. [page ] calculations the prices marked in the following calculations are about as in "normal times." absolutely correct piece work prices cannot be given as different localities have different prices. calculations are usually made per yards, -meter warps. most goods gain from to per cent. in weaving. that is, if we make a warp of meters for a satin and we obtain yards of cloth, this gain should not be calculated, as usually there is no account taken of samples used in the selling department. but the loss in length should be figured and taken account of on goods with a heavy rib, such as moiré, faille, etc. disp. --a / -inch repeat can be obtained with a -hook jacquard machine, seven repeats in a width of inches. disp. --taffeta weave, but the two cotton picks must go in one hole. this article can only be made with at least two shuttle boxes on each side. for warping use a single and double cross reed, heavy cotton, no knots must be tied. disp. --this article must be warped with as much tension as possible and no knots should be tied in. silk is to be delivered on bobbins from throwster. canton crepe disp. --can also be made with canton silk for filling and may be called canton crêpe. as canton silk is much cheaper than japan, the manufacturer can use -thread canton instead of -thread japan for filling at a little difference in cost, thus the cloth will be heavier, but canton silk is not as even and clean as japan. [page ] article--taffeta glace reed / disp. width ¾ in. warp--ital. ex. class / $ . raw silk . throwing -thread organ. brown bright . dyeing -oz. . winding ----- raw lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¢. . twisting-- at ¢. per meters . filling--jap. tram. best no. / $ . raw silk . throwing / ends picks . dyeing . winding gold bright oz. . doubling . quilling ----- raw lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . expenses . ------ $ . % trade discount ½% selling commission divide by ½ cost per yard = $ . * * * * article--surah - reed / disp. width in. warp--ital. ex. class. / $ . . -thread organ. bright black . discount % oz. . dyed % ----- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¾¢. . twisting-- at ¢.-- lb. warp . filling--cotton / $ . . dye black end picks . winding . quilling ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . expenses . ----- $ . % discount % commission divide by cost per yard = $ . * * * * 								 [page ] article--satin duchesse reed / disp. width x in. warp--ital. ex. class. / $ . . -thread organ. black bright . oz. . ----- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¾¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling--jap. tram no. -- / $ . . black souple oz. . net . / and / = / picks . doubling . ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . expenses . ------- $ . divide by cost per yard = $ . * * * * article--armure satin reed / disp. width in. stock and dye warp--jap. ex. / $ . . -thread organ. black bright . oz. . ----- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¾¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling--jap. tram no. / $ . . black bright oz. . . / ends picks . . ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . expenses . ------ $ . divide by cost per yard = $ . * * * * [page ] article--printed armure reed / / disp. width ½ in. stock and dye warp--ital. ex. class. / $ . -thread organ. white bright . p.d. . . ----- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- / at ¢. . twisting-- / at ¢. meters . filling--ital. tram. souple / $ . . white bright p.d. . . / end picks . ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing and printing . expenses . ------ $ . divide by ½ cost per yard = $ . * * * * [page ] article--satin striped reps reed / disp. width ¼ in. stock and dye warp--ital. ex. organ. / $ . black bright oz. . . . ----- lbs. . $ . $ . ital. ex. organ. / $ . . sky bright p.d. . . ----- lbs. . $ . . cotton / $ . . . ----- scarlet lbs. . $ . . warping-- at ¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling--jap. tram. no. / $ . . scarlet bright oz. / ends . . picks. lbs. . . ----- $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . ------ $ . expenses % . ------ $ . divide by ½ cost per yard = $ . * * * * [page ] article--messaline brocade reed / disp. width in. warp--jap. ex. / $ . . -thread navy bright oz. . . ---- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling--jap. tram no. / $ . . emerald ex. bright dye oz. . . / ends picks . ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . ------ $ . expenses % . ------ $ . divide by ½ cost per yard = $ . * * * * article--bengaline reed / by single; double disp. width in. warp--jap. ex. / $ . . -thread organ. black bright . oz. . ----- lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- at ¾¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling-- picks by $ . organ. cotton . . . . . . ----- picks organ. as warp $ . . . lbs. . picks black cotton / ----- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing . expenses . ------ $ . divide by cost per yard = $ . * * * * [page ] article--crepe de chine (taffeta weave) reed / / disp. width in. ½ in. in reed warp--jap. ex. grege / $ . . winding ----- % waste lbs. . $ . $ . warping-- / at ½¢. . twisting-- / at ¢. meters . filling--jap. no. / ends hard twist turns $ . . throwing picks by right, left . quilling twist ----- % waste and shrinkage $ . lbs. . . weaving . finishing and dyeing . picking . expenses . ------ $ . % discount % selling expense divide by cost per yard = $ . * * * * article--crepe georgette reed / (taffeta weave) by right, left twist disp. width in. in. in reed warp--ital. ex. class / raw $ . . ----- -thread hardtwist turns $ . $ . % shrinkage and waste lbs. . warping-- / / at ¢. . twisting-- at ¢. meters . filling--same silk as warp picks by right, left twist $ . . . ---- lbs. . $ . . weaving . picking . finishing and dyeing . ------ $ . expenses ½% . ------- $ . divide by ½ cost per yard = $ . [page ] calculation blank article_____________________________________reed_____________________ disp________________________________________width____________________ warp_________________________________________________________________ | | | | | --------------------------------------------|---|---|---|---|-------- | | | | | --------------------------------------------|---|---|---|---|-------- | | | | | --------------------------------------------|---|---|---|---|-------- | | | | | warping_____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | twisting____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | filling_____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | ____________________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | weaving_____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | picking_____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | finishing___________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | expenses____________________________________|___|___|___|___|________ | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------+---+---+---+---+-------- price per yard [page ] index drawing-in, straight draws, skip draws, point draws, section draws, the weaves and their construction, the taffeta weave, gros de tours weaves, serge weaves, twill weaves, filling effects satin de lyon, levantine, polonaise, serge grosse coté, serge romaine, serge, warp effects, levantine, evensided twills, surah, croise, pointed twills, satin weaves, satine de chine, satin merveilleux, harness satin, duchesse, irregular satins, satin ture, satin à la reine, derivative weaves, from the taffeta, from the twills, from the satin weave, cannele and repp weaves, double faced fabrics, warp effects, filling effects, pekins, bayadères, [page ] checks and plaids, decomposition, the weave, length and width of the fabric, the stock and its dye, reed calculation, drawing-in the warp in harness and reed, warping ticket, harness arrangement, reduction of the filling, calculation of warp and filling, finishing, calculation of cost, dispositions, jacquard weaves, box loom weaves including crêpes, manufacturing costs, calculations, calculation blank, [page ] other books published by clifford & lawton fourth avenue new york. * * * * * the american silk journal established . a monthly magazine devoted exclusively to dress silks, ribbons, and all silken materials, reflecting the progress of mill and market, fashions, trade events and news. published on the first of each month. subscription: united states, $ ; canada, $ . ; foreign, $ a year. serivalor or the true value of raw silk by adolf rosenzweig, the great international authority on silk. a practical and logical system of standardizing raw silks. price, $ . postpaid. dictionary of silk terms the most complete and authentic dictionary ever published on silk terms, from the raw silk to the finished broad and narrow silks, including weaves, styles, patterns, effects, colors, trade-marks, etc. bound in cloth, pages, price, $ . postpaid. color value by c.r. clifford. a valuable book treating on color contrasts and harmonies. it will assist the manufacturer, styler, designer and retailer in the selection of colors. colored plates and diagrams illustrating the fundamental principles of the subject, of inestimable value to either student or artisan. price, $ . postpaid. period furnishings by c.r. clifford an encyclopedia of furnishings, decorations, furniture. contains , illustrations, pages, size ¼ x ; fabric illustrations, covering all periods. price, $ . postpaid. the working of steel annealing, heat treating and hardening of carbon and alloy steel by fred h. colvin member american society of mechanical engineers and franklin institute; editor of the _american machinist_, author of "_machine shop arithmetic_," "_machine shop calculations_," "_american machinists' hand book_." and k. a. juthe, m.e. chief engineer, american metallurgical corp. member american society mechanical engineers, american society testing materials, heat treatment association, etc. second edition third impression mcgraw-hill book company, inc. new york: seventh avenue london: & bouverie st., e. c. preface to second edition advantage has been taken of a reprinting to revise, extensively, the portions of the book relating to the modern science of metallography. considerable of the matter relating to the influence of chemical composition upon the properties of alloy steels has been rewritten. furthermore, opportunity has been taken to include some brief notes on methods of physical testing--whereby the metallurgist judges of the excellence of his metal in advance of its actual performance in service. new york, n. y., _august, ._ preface to first edition the ever increasing uses of steel in all industries and the necessity of securing the best results with the material used, make a knowledge of the proper working of steel more important than ever before. for it is not alone the quality of the steel itself or the alloys used in its composition, but the proper working or treatment of the steel which determines whether or not the best possible use has been made of it. with this in mind, the authors have drawn, not only from their own experience but from the best sources available, information as to the most approved methods of working the various kinds of steel now in commercial use. these include low carbon, high carbon and alloy steels of various kinds, and from a variety of industries. the automotive field has done much to develop not only new alloys but efficient methods of working them and has been drawn on liberally so as to show the best practice. the practice in government arsenals on steels used in fire arms is also given. while not intended as a treatise on steel making or metallurgy in any sense, it has seemed best to include a little information as to the making of different steels and to give considerable general information which it is believed will be helpful to those who desire to become familiar with the most modern methods of working steel. it is with the hope that this volume, which has endeavored to give due credit to all sources of information, may prove of value to its readers and through them to the industry at large. _july_, . the authors. contents preface introduction chapter i. steel making ii. composition and properties of steels iii. alloys and their effect upon steel iv. application of liberty engine materials to the automotive industry v. the forging of steel vi. annealing vii. case-hardening or surface-carburizing viii. heat treatment of steel ix. hardening carbon steel for tools x. high speed steel xi. furnaces xii. pyrometry and pyrometers appendix index introduction the abc of iron and steel in spite of all that has been written about iron and steel there are many hazy notions in the minds of many mechanics regarding them. it is not always clear as to just what makes the difference between iron and steel. we know that high-carbon steel makes a better cutting tool than low-carbon steel. and yet carbon alone does not make all the difference because we know that cast iron has more carbon than tool steel and yet it does not make a good cutting tool. pig iron or cast iron has from to per cent carbon, while good tool steel rarely has more than - / per cent of carbon, yet one is soft and has a coarse grain, while the other has a fine grain and can be hardened by heating and dipping in water. most of the carbon in cast iron is in a form like graphite, which is almost pure carbon, and is therefore called graphitic carbon. the resemblance can be seen by noting how cast-iron borings blacken the hands just as does graphite, while steel turnings do not have the same effect. the difference is due to the fact that the carbon in steel is not in a graphitic form as well as because it is present in smaller quantities. in making steel in the old way the cast iron was melted and the carbon and other impurities burned out of it, the melted iron being stirred or "puddled," meanwhile. the resulting puddled iron, also known as wrought iron, is very low in carbon; it is tough, and on being broken appears to be made up of a bundle of long fibers. then the iron was heated to redness for several days in material containing carbon (charcoal) until it absorbed the desired amount, which made it steel, just as case-hardening iron or steel adds carbon to the outer surface of the metal. the carbon absorbed by the iron does not take on a graphitic form, however, as in the case of cast iron, but enters into a chemical compound with the iron, a hard brittle substance called "cementite" by metallurgists. in fact, the difference between the hard, brittle cementite and the soft, greasy graphite, accounts for many of the differences between steel and gray cast iron. wrought iron, which has very little carbon of any sort in it, is fairly soft and tough. the properties of wrought iron are the properties of pure iron. as more and more carbon is introduced into the iron, it combines with the iron and distributes itself throughout the metal in extremely small crystals of cementite, and this brittle, hard substance lends more and more hardness and strength to the steel, at the expense of the original toughness of the iron. as more and more carbon is contained in the alloy--for steel is a true alloy--it begins to appear as graphite, and its properties counteract the remaining brittle cementite. eventually, in gray cast iron, we have properties which would be expected of wrought iron, whose tough metallic texture was shot through with flakes of slippery, weak graphite. but to return to the methods of making steel tools in use years ago. the iron bars, after heating in charcoal, were broken and the carbon content judged by the fracture. those which had been in the hottest part of the furnace would have the deepest "case" and highest carbon. so when the steel was graded, and separated into different piles, a few bars of like kind were broken into short lengths, melted in fire-clay crucibles at an intense white heat, cast carefully into iron molds, and the resulting ingot forged into bars under a crude trip hammer. this melting practice is still in use for crucible steel, and will be described further on page . the working of steel annealing, heat treating and hardening of carbon and alloy steel chapter i steel making there are four processes now used for the manufacture of steel. these are: the bessemer, open hearth, crucible and electric furnace methods. bessemer process the bessemer process consists of charging molten pig iron into a huge, brick-lined pot called the bessemer converter, and then in blowing a current of air through holes in the bottom of the vessel into the liquid metal. the air blast burns the white hot metal, and the temperature increases. the action is exactly similar to what happens in a fire box under forced draft. and in both cases some parts of the material burn easier and more quickly than others. thus it is that some of the impurities in the pig iron--including the carbon--burn first, and if the blast is shut off when they are gone but little of the iron is destroyed. unfortunately sulphur, one of the most dangerous impurities, is not expelled in the process. a bessemer converter is shown in fig. , while fig. shows the details of its construction. this shows how the air blast is forced in from one side, through the trunnion, and up through the metal. where the steel is finished the converter is tilted, or swung on its trunnions, the blast turned off, and the steel poured out of the top. open hearth process the open hearth furnace consists of a big brick room with a low arched roof. it is charged with pig iron and scrap through doors in the side walls. [illustration: fig. .--a typical bessemer converter.] through openings at one end of the furnace come hot air and gas, which burn in the furnace, producing sufficient heat to melt the charge and refine it of its impurities. lime and other nonmetallic substances are put in the furnace. these melt, forming a "slag" which floats on the metal and aids materially in the refining operations. in the bessemer process air is forced _through_ the metal. in the open-hearth furnace the metal is protected from the flaming gases by a slag covering. therefore it is reasonable to suppose that the final product will not contain so much gas. [illustration: fig. .--action of bessemer converter.] [illustration: fig. .--regenerative open hearth furnace.] a diagram of a modern regenerative furnace is shown in fig. . air and gas enter the hearth through chambers loosely packed with hot fire brick, burn, and exit to the chimney through another pair of chambers, giving to them some of the heat which would otherwise waste. the direction is reversed about every twenty minutes by changing the position of the dampers. crucible steel crucible steel is still made by melting material in a clay or graphite crucible. each crucible contains about lb. of best puddled iron, lb. of clean "mill scrap"--ends trimmed from tool steel bars--and sufficient rich alloys and charcoal to make the mixture conform to the desired chemical analysis. the crucible is covered, lowered into a melting hole (fig. ) and entirely surrounded by burning coke. in about four hours the metal is converted into a quiet white hot liquid. several crucibles are then pulled out of the hole, and their contents carefully poured into a metal mold, forming an ingot. [illustration: fig. .--typical crucible furnace.] if modern high-speed steel is being made, the ingots are taken out of the molds while still red hot and placed in a furnace which keeps them at this temperature for some hours, an operation known as annealing. after slow cooling any surface defects are ground out. ingots are then reheated to forging temperature, hammered down into "billets" of about one-quarter size, and to per cent of the length cut from the top. after reheating the billets are hammered or rolled into bars of desired size. finished bars are packed with a little charcoal into large pipes, the ends sealed, and annealed for two or three days. after careful inspection and testing the steel is ready for market. the electric process the fourth method of manufacturing steel is by the electric furnace. these furnaces are of various sizes and designs; their size may be sufficient for only lb. of metal--on the other hand electric furnaces for making armor-plate steel will hold tons of steel. designs vary widely according to the electrical principles used. a popular furnace is the -ton heroult furnace illustrated in fig. . it is seen to be a squat kettle, made of heavy sheet steel, with a dished bottom and mounted so it can be tilted forward slightly and completely drained. this kettle is lined with special fire brick which will withstand most intense heat and resist the cutting action of hot metal and slag. for a roof, a low dome of fire brick is provided. the shell and lining is pierced in front for a pouring spout, and on either side by doors, through which the raw material is charged. two or three carbon "electrodes"-- -in. cylinders of specially prepared coke or graphite--extend through holes in the roof. electrical connections are made to the upper ends, and a very high current sent through them. this causes tremendous arcs to form between the lower ends of the electrodes and the metal below, and these electric arcs are the only source of heat in this style of furnace. electric furnaces can be used to do the same work as is done in crucible furnaces--that is to say, merely melt a charge of carefully selected pure raw materials. on the other hand it can be used to produce very high-grade steel from cheap and impure metal, when it acts more like an open-hearth furnace. it can push the refining even further than the latter furnace does, for two reasons: first the bath is not swept continuously by a flaming mass of gases; second, the temperature can be run up higher, enabling the operator to make up slags which are difficult to melt but very useful to remove small traces of impurities from the metal. electric furnaces are widely used, not only in the iron industry, but in brass, copper and aluminum works. it is a useful melter of cold metal for making castings. it can be used to convert iron into steel or vice versa. its most useful sphere, however, is as a refiner of metal, wherein it takes either cold steel or molten steel from open hearth or bessemer furnaces, and gives it the finishing touches. [illustration: fig. .--"slagging off" an electric furnace.] [illustration: fig. .--pouring the ingots.] as an illustration of the furnace reactions that take place the following schedule is given, showing the various stages in the making of a heat of electric steel. the steel to be made was a high-carbon chrome steel used for balls for ball bearings: -ton heroult furnace : a.m.--material charged: boiler plate , lb. stampings , lb. ----------- , lb. limestone lb. : p.m.--completed charging (current switched on). : p.m.--charge melted down. preliminary analysis under black slag. analysis: carbon silicon sulphur phosphorus manganese . . . . . note the practical elimination of phosphorus. : p.m.--the oxidizing (black) slag is now poured and skimmed off as clean as possible to prevent rephosphorizing and to permit of adding carburizing materials. for this purpose carbon is added in the form of powdered coke, ground electrodes or other forms of pure carbon. the deoxidizing slag is now formed by additions of lime, coke and fluorspar (and for some analyses ferrosilicon). the slag changes from black to white as the metallic oxides are reduced by these deoxidizing additions and the reduced metals return to the bath. a good finishing slag is creamy white, porous and viscous. after the slag becomes white, some time is necessary for the absorption of the sulphur in the bath by the slag. the white slag disintegrates to a powder when exposed to the atmosphere and has a pronounced odor of acetylene when wet. further additions of recarburizing material are added as needed to meet the analysis. the further reactions are shown by the following: : p.m.--recarburizing material added: lb. ground electrodes. lb. ferromanganese. analysis: carbon silicon sulphur phosphorus manganese . . . . . to form white slag there was added: lb. lime. lb. powdered coke. lb. fluorspar. : p.m.-- analysis: carbon silicon sulphur phosphorus manganese . . . . . note reduction of the sulphur content. during the white-slag period the following alloying additions were made: lb. pig iron. lb. ferrosilicon. lb. ferromanganese. lb. per cent carbon ferrochrome. the furnace was rotated forward to an inclined position and the charge poured into the ladle, from which in turn it was poured into molds. : p.m.--heat poured. analysis: carbon silicon sulphur phosphorus manganese chromium . . . . . . ingot weight poured . per cent scull . per cent loss . per cent total current consumption for the heat, , kw.-hr. or kw.-hr. per ton. electric steel, in fact, all fine steel, should be cast in big-end-up molds with refractory hot tops to prevent any possibility of pipage in the body of the ingot. in the further processing of the ingot, whether in the rolling mill or forge, special precautions should be taken in the heating, in the reduction of the metal and in the cooling. no attempt is made to compare the relative merits of open hearth and electric steel; results in service, day in and day out, have, however, thoroughly established the desirability of electric steel. ten years of experience indicate that electric steel is equal to crucible steel and superior to open hearth. the rare purity of the heat derived from the electric are, combined with definite control of the slag in a neutral atmosphere, explains in part the superiority of electric steel. commenting on this recently dr. h. m. howe stated that "in the open hearth process you have such atmosphere and slag conditions as you can get, and in the electric you have such atmosphere and slag conditions as you desire." another type of electric furnace is shown in figs. and . this is the ludlum furnace, the illustrations showing a -ton size. figure shows it in normal, or melting position, while in fig. it is tilted for pouring. in melting, the electrodes first rest on the charge of material in the furnace. after the current is turned on they eat their way through, nearly to the bottom. by this time there is a pool of molten metal beneath the electrode and the charge is melted from the bottom up so that the roof is not exposed to the high temperature radiating from the open arc. the electrodes in this furnace are of graphite, in. in diameter and the current consumed is about kw.-hr. per ton. [illustration: fig. .--ludlum electric furnace.] [illustration: fig. s.--the furnace tilted for pouring.] one of the things which sometimes confuse regarding the contents of steel is the fact that the percentage of carbon and the other alloys are usually designated in different ways. carbon is usually designated by "points" and the other alloys by percentages. the point is one ten-thousandth while per cent is one one-hundredth of the whole. in other words, "one hundred point carbon" is steel containing per cent carbon. twenty point carbon, such as is used for carbonizing purposes is . per cent. tool steel varies from one hundred to one hundred and fifty points carbon, or from . to . per cent. nickel, chromium, etc., are always given in per cent, as a . per cent nickel, which means exactly what it says-- - / parts in . bearing this difference in mind all confusion will be avoided. classifications of steel among makers and sellers, carbon tool-steels are classed by "grade" and "temper." the word grade is qualified by many adjectives of more or less cryptic meaning, but in general they aim to denote the process and care with which the steel is made. _temper_ of a steel refers to the carbon content. this should preferably be noted by "points," as just explained; but unfortunately, a -point steel (containing . per cent carbon) may locally be called something like "no. temper." a widely used method of classifying steels was originated by the society of automotive engineers. each specification is represented by a number of digits, the first figure indicating the class, the second figure the approximate percentage of predominant alloying element, and the last two the average carbon content in points. plain carbon steels are class , nickel steels are class , nickel-chromium steels are class , chromium steels are class , chromium-vanadium steels are class , and silico-manganese steels are class . thus by this system, steel would be a per cent nickel steel with . per cent carbon; or steel would be a . plain carbon steel. steel makers have no uniform classification for the various kinds of steel or steels used for different purposes. the following list shows the names used by some of the well-known makers: air-hardening steel chrome-vanadium steel alloy steel circular saw plates automobile steel coal auger steel awl steel coal mining pick or cutter steel axe and hatchet steel coal wedge steel band knife steel cone steel band saw steel crucible cast steel butcher saw steel crucible machinery steel chisel steel cutlery steel chrome-nickel steel drawing die steel (wortle) drill rod steel patent, bush or hammer steel facing and welding steel pick steel fork steel pivot steel gin saw steel plane bit steel granite wedge steel quarry steel gun barrel steel razor steel hack saw steel roll turning steel high-speed tool steel saw steel hot-rolled sheet steel scythe steel lathe spindle steel shear knife steel lawn mower knife steel silico-manganese steel machine knife steel spindle steel magnet steel spring steel mining drill steel tool holder steel nail die shapes vanadium tool steel nickel-chrome steel vanadium-chrome steel paper knife steel wortle steel passing to the tonnage specifications, the following table from tiemann's excellent pocket book on "iron and steel," will give an approximate idea of the ordinary designations now in use: approximate grades carbon range common uses extra soft . - . pipe, chain and other welding purposes; (dead soft) case-hardening purposes; rivets; pressing and stamping purposes. structural (soft) . - . structural plates, shapes and bars for (medium) bridges, buildings, cars, locomotives; boiler (flange) steel; drop forgings; bolts. medium . - . structural purposes (ships); shafting; automobile parts; drop forgings. medium hard . - . locomotive and similar large forgings; car axles; rails. hard . - . wrought steel wheels for steam and electric railway service; locomotive tires; rails; tools, such as sledges, hammers, pick points, crowbars, etc. spring . - . automobile and other vehicle springs; tools, such as hot and cold chisels, rock drills and shear blades. spring . - . railway springs; general machine shop tools. chapter ii composition and properties of steel it is a remarkable fact that one can look through a dozen text books on metallurgy and not find a definition of the word "steel." some of them describe the properties of many other irons and then allow you to guess that everything else is steel. if it was difficult a hundred years ago to give a good definition of the term when the metal was made by only one or two processes, it is doubly difficult now, since the introduction of so many new operations and furnaces. we are in better shape to know what steel is than our forefathers. they went through certain operations and they got a soft malleable, weldable metal which would not harden; this they called iron. certain other operations gave them something which looked very much like iron, but which would harden after quenching from a red heat. this was steel. not knowing the essential difference between the two, they must distinguish by the process of manufacture. to-day we can make either variety by several methods, and can convert either into the other at will, back and forth as often as we wish; so we are able to distinguish between the two more logically. we know that iron is a chemical element--the chemists write it fe for short, after the latin word "ferrum," meaning iron--it is one of those substances which cannot be separated into anything else but itself. it can be made to join with other elements; for instance, it joins with the oxygen in the air and forms scale or rust, substances known to the chemist as iron oxide. but the same metal iron can be recovered from that rust by abstracting the oxygen; having recovered the iron nothing else can be extracted but iron; _iron is elemental_. we can get relatively pure iron from various minerals and artificial substances, and when we get it we always have a magnetic metal, almost infusible, ductile, fairly strong, tough, something which can be hardened slightly by hammering but which cannot be hardened by quenching. it has certain chemical properties, which need not be described, which allow a skilled chemist to distinguish it without difficulty and unerringly from the other known elements--nearly of them. carbon is another chemical element, written c for short, which is widely distributed through nature. carbon also readily combines with oxygen and other chemical elements, so that it is rarely found pure; its most familiar form is soot, although the rarer graphite and most rare diamond are also forms of quite pure carbon. it can also be readily separated from its multitude of compounds (vegetation, coal, limestone, petroleum) by the chemist. with the rise of knowledge of scientific chemistry, it was quickly found that the essential difference between iron and steel was that the latter was _iron plus carbon_. consequently it is an alloy, and the definition which modern metallurgists accept is this: "steel is an iron-carbon alloy containing less than about per cent carbon." of course there are other elements contained in commercial steel, and these elements are especially important in modern "alloy steels," but carbon is the element which changes a soft metal into one which may be hardened, and strengthened by quenching. in fact, carbon, of itself, without heat treatment, strengthens iron at the expense of ductility (as noted by the percentage elongation an -in. bar will stretch before breaking). this is shown by the following table: -------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | |elastic |ultimate|percentage. class by use. | class by | per cent | limit |strength|elongation | hardness. | carbon. |lb. per |lb. per |in inches. | | |sq. in. |sq. in. | ------------------|-----------|------------|--------|--------|------------ boiler rivet steel|dead soft | . to . | , | , | struc. rivet steel|soft | . to . | , | , | boiler plate steel|soft | . to . | , | , | structural steel |medium | . to . | , | , | machinery steel |hard | . to . | , | , | rail steel |hard | . to . | , | , | spring steel |high carbon| . to . | , | , | tool steel |high carbon| . to . | , | , | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- just why a soft material like carbon (graphite), when added to another soft material like iron, should make the iron harder, has been quite a mystery, and one which has caused a tremendous amount of study. the mutual interactions of these two elements in various proportions and at various temperatures will be discussed at greater length later, especially in chap. viii, p. . but we may anticipate by saying that some of the iron unites with all the carbon to form a new substance, very hard, a carbide which has been called "cementite." the compound always contains iron and carbon in the proportions of three atoms of iron to one atom of carbon; chemists note this fact in shorthand by the symbol fe c (a definite chemical compound of three atoms of iron to one of carbon). many of the properties of steel, as they vary with carbon content, can be linked up with the increasing amount of this hard carbide cementite, distributed in very fine particles through the softer iron. sulphur is another element (symbol s) which is always found in steel in small quantities. some sulphur is contained in the ore from which the iron is smelted; more sulphur is introduced by the coke and fuel used. sulphur is very difficult to get rid of in steel making; in fact the resulting metal usually contains a little more than the raw materials used. only the electric furnace is able to produce the necessary heat and slags required to eliminate sulphur, and as a matter of fact the sulphur does not go until several other impurities have been eliminated. consequently, an electric steel with extremely low sulphur ( . per cent) is by that same token a well-made metal. sulphur is of most trouble to rolling and forging operations when conducted at a red heat. it makes steel tender and brittle at that temperature--a condition known to the workmen as "red-short." it seems to have little or no effect upon the physical properties of cold steel--at least as revealed by the ordinary testing machines--consequently many specifications do not set any limit on sulphur, resting on the idea that if sulphur is low enough not to cause trouble to the manufacturer during rolling, it will not cause the user any trouble. tool steel and other fine steels should be very low in sulphur, preferably not higher than . per cent. higher sulphur steels ( . per cent, and even up to . per cent) have given very good service for machine parts, but in general a high sulphur steel is a suspicious steel. screw stock is purposely made with up to . per cent sulphur and a like amount of phosphorus so it will cut freely. manganese counteracts the detrimental effect of sulphur when present in the steel to an amount at least five times the sulphur content. phosphorus is an element (symbol p) which enters the metal from the ore. it remains in the steel when made by the so-called acid process, but it can be easily eliminated down to . per cent in the basic process. in fact the discovery of the basic process was necessary before the huge iron deposits of belgium and the franco-german border could be used. these ores contain several per cent phosphorus, and made a very brittle steel ("cold short") until basic furnaces were used. basic furnaces allow the formation of a slag high in lime, which takes practically all the phosphorus out of the metal. not only is the resulting metal usable, but the slag makes a very excellent fertilizer, and is in good demand. silicon is a very widespread element (symbol si), being an essential constituent of nearly all the rocks of the earth. it is similar to carbon in many of its chemical properties; for instance it burns very readily in oxygen, and consequently native silicon is unknown--it is always found in combination with one or more other elements. when it bums, each atom of silicon unites with two atoms of oxygen to form a compound known to chemists as silica (sio ), and to the small boy as "sand" and "agate." iron ore (an oxide of iron) contains more or less sand and dirt mixed in it when it is mined, and not only the iron oxide but also some of the silicon oxide is robbed of its oxygen by the smelting process. pig iron--the product of the blast furnace--therefore contains from to per cent of silicon, and some silicon remains in the metal after it has been purified and converted into steel. however, silicon, as noted above, burns very readily in oxygen, and this property is of good use in steel making. at the end of the steel-making process the metal contains more or less oxygen, which must be removed. this is sometimes done (especially in the so-called acid process) by adding a small amount of silicon to the hot metal just before it leaves the furnace, and stirring it in. it thereupon abstracts oxygen from the metal wherever it finds it, changing to silica (sio ) which rises and floats on the surface of the cleaned metal. most of the silicon remaining in the metal is an excess over that which is required to remove the dangerous oxygen, and the final analysis of many steels show enough silicon (from . to . ) to make sure that this step in the manufacture has been properly done. manganese is a metal much like iron. its chemical symbol is mn. it is somewhat more active than iron in many chemical changes--notably it has what is apparently a stronger attraction for oxygen and sulphur than has iron. therefore the metal is used (especially in the so-called basic process) to free the molten steel of oxygen, acting in a manner similar to silicon, as explained above. the compound of manganese and oxygen is readily eliminated from the metal. sufficient excess of elemental manganese should remain so that the purchaser may be sure that the iron has been properly "deoxidized," and to render harmless the traces of sulphur present. no damage is done by the presence of a little manganese in steel, quite the reverse. consequently it is common to find steels containing from . to . per cent. alloying elements.--commercial steels of even the simplest types are therefore primarily alloys of iron and carbon. impurities and their "remedies" are always present: sulphur, phosphorus, silicon and manganese--to say nothing of oxygen, nitrogen and carbon oxide gases, about which we know very little. it has been found that other metals, if added to well-made steel, produce definite improvements in certain directions, and these "alloy steels" have found much use in the last ten years. alloy steels, in addition to the above-mentioned elements, may commonly contain one or more of the following, in varying amounts: nickel (ni), chromium (cr), vanadium (va), tungsten (w), molybdenum (mo). these steels will be discussed at more length in chapters iii and iv. properties of steel steels are known by certain tests. early tests were more or less crude, and depended upon the ability of the workman to judge the "grain" exhibited by a freshly broken piece of steel. the cold-bend test was also very useful--a small bar was bent flat upon itself, and the stretched fibers examined for any sign of break. harder stiff steels were supported at the ends and the amount of central load they would support before fracture, or the amount of permanent set they would acquire at a given load noted. files were also used to test the hardness of very hard steel. these tests are still used to a considerable extent, especially in works where the progress of an operation can be kept under close watch in this way, the product being periodically examined by more precise methods. the chief furnace-man, or "melter," in a steel plant, judges the course of the refining process by casting small test ingots from time to time, breaking them and examining the fracture. cutlery manufacturers use the bend test to judge the temper of blades. file testing of case-hardened parts is very common. however there is need of standardized methods which depend less upon the individual skill of the operator, and which will yield results comparable to others made by different men at different places and on different steels. hence has grown up the art of testing materials. tensile properties strength of a metal is usually expressed in the number of pounds a -in. bar will support just before breaking, a term called the "ultimate strength." it has been found that the shape of the test bar and its method of loading has some effect upon the results, so it is now usual to turn a rod - / in. long down to . in. in diameter for a central length of - / in., ending the turn with / -in. fillets. the area of the bar equals . sq. in., so the load it bears at rupture multiplied by will represent the "ultimate strength" in pounds per square inch. such a test bar is stretched apart in a machine like that shown in fig. . the upper end of the bar is held in wedged jaws by the top cross-head, and the lower end grasped by the movable head. the latter is moved up and down by three long screws, driven at the same speed, which pass through threads cut in the corners of the cross-head. when the test piece is fixed in position the motor which drives the machine is given a few turns, which by proper gearing pulls the cross-head down with a certain pull. this pull is transmitted to the upper cross-head by the test bar, and can be weighed on the scale arm, acting through a system of links and levers. thus the load may be increased as rapidly as desirable, always kept balanced by the weighing mechanism, and the load at fracture may be read directly from the scale beam. this same test piece may give other information. if light punch marks are made, in. apart, before the test is begun, the broken ends may be clamped together, and the distance between punch marks measured. if it now measures in. the stretch has been in. in , or per cent. this figure is known as the elongation at fracture, or briefly, the "elongation," and is generally taken to be a measure of ductility. when steel shows any elongation, it also contracts in area at the same time. often this contraction is sharply localized at the fracture; the piece is said to "neck." a figure for contraction in area is also of much interest as an indication of toughness; the diameter at fracture is measured, a corresponding area taken out from a table of circles, subtracted from the original area ( . sq. in.) and the difference divided by . to get the percentage contraction. [illustration: fig. .--olsen testing machine.] quite often it is desired to discover the elastic limit of the steel, in fact this is of more use to the designer than the ultimate strength. the elastic limit is usually very close to the load where the metal takes on a permanent set. that is to say, if a delicate caliper ("extensometer," so called) be fixed to the side of the test specimen, it would show the piece to be somewhat longer under load than when free. furthermore, if the load had not yet reached the yield point, and were released at any time, the piece would return to its original length. however, if the load had been excessive, and then relieved, the extensometer would no longer read exactly . in., but something more. soft steels "give" very quickly at the yield point. in fact, if the testing machine is running slowly, it takes some time for the lower head to catch up with the stretching steel. consequently at the yield point, the top head is suddenly but only temporarily relieved of load, and the scale beam drops. in commercial practice, the yield point is therefore determined by the "drop of the beam." for more precise work the calipers are read at intervals of or , lb. load, and a curve plotted from these results, a curve which runs straight up to the elastic limit, but there bends off. a tensile test therefore gives four properties of great usefulness: the yield point, the ultimate strength, the elongation and the contraction. compression tests are seldom made, since the action of metal in compression and in tension is closely allied, and the designer is usually satisfied with the latter. impact tests impact tests are of considerable importance as an indication of how a metal will perform under shock. some engineers think that the tensile test, which is one made under slow loading, should therefore be supplemented by another showing what will happen if the load is applied almost instantaneously. this test, however, has not been standardized, and depends to a considerable extent upon the type of machine, but more especially the size of the specimen and the way it is "nicked." the machine is generally a swinging heavy pendulum. it falls a certain height, strikes the sample at the lowest point, and swings on past. the difference between the downward and upward swing is a measure of the energy it took to break the test piece. fatigue tests it has been known for fifty years that a beam or rod would fail at a relatively low stress if only repeated often enough. it has been found, however, that each material possesses a limiting stress, or endurance limit, within which it is safe, no matter how often the loading occurs. that limiting stress for all steels so far investigated causes fracture below million reversals. in other words, a steel which will not break before , , reversals can confidently be expected to endure , , , and doubtless into the billions. about the only way to test one piece such a large number of times is to fashion it into a beam, load it, and then turn the beam in its supports. thus the stress in the outer fibers of the bar varies from a maximum stretch through zero to a maximum compression, and back again. a simple machine of this sort is shown in fig. , where _b_ and _e_ are bearings, _a_ the test piece, turned slightly down in the center, _c_ and _d_ ball bearings supporting a load _w_. _k_ is a pulley for driving the machine and _n_ is a counter. [illustration: fig. .--sketch of rotating beam machine for measuring endurance of metal.] hardness testing the word "hardness" is used to express various properties of metals, and is measured in as many different ways. "scratch hardness" is used by the geologist, who has constructed "moh's scale" as follows: talc has a hardness of rock salt has a hardness of calcite has a hardness of fluorite has a hardness of apatite has a hardness of feldspar has a hardness of quartz has a hardness of topaz has a hardness of corundum has a hardness of diamond has a hardness of a mineral will scratch all those above it in the series, and will be scratched by those below. a weighted diamond cone drawn slowly over a surface will leave a path the width of which (measured by a microscope) varies inversely as the scratch hardness. "cutting hardness" is measured by a standardized drilling machine, and has a limited application in machine-shop practice. "rebounding hardness" is commonly measured by the shore scleroscope, illustrated in fig. . a small steel hammer, / in. in diameter, / in. in length, and weighing about / oz. is dropped a distance of in. upon the test piece. the height of rebound in arbitrary units represents the hardness numeral. [illustration: fig. .--shore scleroscope.] should the hammer have a hard flat surface and drop on steel so hard that no impression were made, it would rebound about per cent of the fall. the point, however, consists of a slightly spherical, blunt diamond nose . in. in diameter, which will indent the steel to a certain extent. the work required to make the indentation is taken from the energy of the falling body; the rebound will absorb the balance, and the hammer will now rise from the same steel a distance equal to about per cent of the fall. a permanent impression is left upon the test piece because the impact will develop a force of several hundred thousand pounds per square inch under the tiny diamond-pointed hammer head, stressing the test piece at this point of contact much beyond its ultimate strength. the rebound is thus dependent upon the indentation hardness, for the reason that the less the indentation, the more energy will reappear in the rebound; also, the less the indentation, the harder the material. consequently, the harder the material, the more the rebound. "indentation hardness" is a measure of a material's resistance to penetration and deformation. the standard testing machine is the brinell, fig. . a hardened steel ball, mm. in diameter, is forced into the test piece with a pressure of , kg. ( - / tons). the resulting indentation is then measured. [illustration: fig. .--hydraulic testing machine. (brinell principle.)] while under load, the steel ball in a brinell machine naturally flattens somewhat. the indentation left behind in the test piece is a duplicate of the surface which made it, and is usually regarded as being the segment of a sphere of somewhat larger radius than the ball. the radius of curvature of this spherical indentation will vary slightly with the load and the depth of indentation. the brinell hardness numeral is the quotient found by dividing the test pressure in kilograms by the spherical area of the indentation. the denominator, as before, will vary according to the size of the sphere, the hardness of the sphere and the load. these items have been standardized, and the following table has been constructed so that if the diameter of the identation produced by a load of , kg. be measured the hardness numeral is found directly. table for brinell ball test ------------------------------------------------------------------------ diameter of ball | hardness number | diameter of ball | hardness number impression, mm. | for a load of | impression, mm. | for a load of | , kg. | | , kg. -----------------|-----------------|------------------|----------------- . | | . | . | | . | . | | | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | | | | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | | | | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | | | | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | | | | . | | . | . | | . | . | | . | . . | | . | ------------------------------------------------------------------------ chapter iii alloys and their effect upon steel in view of the fact that alloy steels are coming into a great deal of prominence, it would be well for the users of these steels to fully appreciate the effects of the alloys upon the various grades of steel. we have endeavored to summarize the effect of these alloys so that the users can appreciate their effect, without having to study a metallurgical treatise and then, perhaps, not get the crux of the matter. nickel nickel may be considered as the toughest among the non-rare alloys now used in steel manufacture. originally nickel was added to give increased strength and toughness over that obtained with the ordinary rolled structural steel and little attempt was made to utilize its great possibilities so far as heat treatment was concerned. the difficulties experienced have been a tendency towards laminated structure during manufacture and great liability to seam, both arising from improper melting practice. when extra care is exercised in the manufacture, particularly in the melting and rolling, many of these difficulties can be overcome. the electric steel furnace, of modern construction, is a very important step forward in the melting of nickel steel; neither the crucible process nor basic or acid open-hearth furnaces give such good results. great care must be exercised in reheating the billet for rolling so that the steel is correctly soaked. the rolling must not be forced; too big reduction per pass should not be indulged in, as this sets up a tendency towards seams. nickel steel has remarkably good mechanical qualities when suitably heat-treated, and it is preeminently adapted for case-hardening. it is not difficult to machine low-nickel steel, consequently it is in great favor where easy machining properties are of importance. nickel influences the strength and ductility of steel by being dissolved directly in the iron or ferrite; in this respect differing from chromium, tungsten and vanadium. the addition of each per cent nickel up to per cent will cause an approximate increase of from , to , lb. per square inch in the tensile strength and elastic limit over the corresponding steel and without any decrease in ductility. the static strength of nickel steel is affected to some degree by the percentage of carbon; for instance, steel with . per cent carbon and . per cent nickel has a tensile strength, in its normal state, equal to a straight carbon steel of . per cent with a proportionately greater elastic limit and retaining all the advantages of the ductility of the lower carbon. to bring out the full qualities of nickel it must be heat-treated, otherwise there is no object in using nickel as an alloy with carbon steel as the additional cost is not justified by increased strength. nickel has a peculiar effect upon the critical ranges of steel, the critical range being lowered by the percentage of nickel; in this respect it is similar to manganese. nickel can be alloyed with steel in various percentages, each percentage having a very definite effect on the microstructure. for instance, a steel with . per cent carbon and per cent nickel has a pearlitic structure but the grain is much finer than if the straight carbon were used. with the same carbon content and say per cent nickel, the structure would still be pearlitic, but much finer and denser, therefore capable of withstanding shock, and having greater dynamic strength. with about . per cent carbon and per cent nickel, the steel is nearing the stage between pearlite and martensite, and the structure is extremely fine, the ferrite and pearlite having a very pronounced tendency to mimic a purely martensite structure. steel with . per cent carbon and per cent nickel is entirely martensite. higher percentages of nickel change the martensitic structure to austenite, the steel then being non-magnetic. the higher percentages, that is to per cent nickel, are used for valve seats, valve heads, and valve stems, as the alloy is a poor conductor of heat and is particularly free from any tendency towards corrosion or pitting from the action of waste gases of the internal-combustion engine. nickel steels having - / per cent nickel and . to . per cent carbon are excellent for case-hardening purposes, giving hard surfaces and tough interiors. to obtain the full effect of nickel as an alloy, it is essential that the correct percentage of carbon be used. high nickel and low carbon will not be more efficient than lower nickel and higher carbon, but the cost will be much greater. generally speaking, heat-treated nickel alloy steels are about two to three times stronger than the same steel annealed. this point is very important as many instances have been found where nickel steel is incorrectly used, being employed when in the annealed or normal state. chromium chromium when alloyed with steel, has the characteristic function of opposing the disintegration and reconstruction of cementite. this is demonstrated by the changes in the critical ranges of this alloy steel taking place slowly; in other words, it has a tendency to raise the _ac_ range (decalescent points) and lower the _ar_ range (recalescent points). chromium steels are therefore capable of great hardness, due to the rapid cooling being able to retard the decomposition of the austenite. the great hardness of chromium steels is also due to the formation of double carbides of chromium and iron. this condition is not removed when the steel is slightly tempered or drawn. this additional hardness is also obtained without causing undue brittleness such as would be obtained by any increase of carbon. the degree of hardness of the lower-chrome steels is dependent upon the carbon content, as chromium alone will not harden iron. the toughness so noticeable in this steel is the result of the fineness of structure; in this instance, the action is similar to that of nickel, and the tensile strength and elastic limit is therefore increased without any loss of ductility. we then have the desirable condition of tough hardness, making chrome steels extremely valuable for all purposes requiring great resistance to wear, and in higher-chrome contents resistance to corrosion. all chromium-alloy steels offer great resistance to corrosion and erosion. in view of this, it is surprising that chromium steels are not more largely used for structural steel work and for all purposes where the steel has to withstand the corroding action of air and liquids. bridges, ships, steel building, etc., would offer greater resistance to deterioration through rust if the chromium-alloy steels were employed. prolonged heating and high temperatures have a very bad effect upon chromium steels. in this respect they differ from nickel steels, which are not so affected by prolonged heating, but chromium steels will stand higher temperatures than nickel steels when the period is short. chromium steels, due to their admirable property of increased hardness, without the loss of ductility, make very excellent chisels and impact tools of all types, although for die blocks they do not give such good results as can be obtained from other alloy combinations. for ball bearing steels, where intense hardness with great toughness and ready recovery from temporary deflection is required, chromium as an alloy offers the best solution. two per cent chromium steels; due to their very hard tough surface, are largely used for armor-piercing projectiles, cold rolls, crushers, drawing dies, etc. the normal structure of chromium steels, with a very low carbon content is roughly pearlitic up to per cent, and martensitic from to per cent; therefore, the greatest application is in the pearlitic zone or the lower percentages. nickel-chromium a combination of the characteristics of nickel and the characteristics of chromium, as described, should obviously give a very excellent steel as the nickel particularly affects the ferrite of the steel and the chromium the carbon. from this combination, we are able to get a very strong ferrite matrix and a very hard tough cementite. the strength of a strictly pearlitic steel over a pure iron is due to the pearlitic being a layer arrangement of cementite running parallel to that of a pure iron layer in each individual grain. the ferrite _i.e._, the iron is increased in strength by the resistance offered by the cementite which is the simple iron-carbon combination known to metallurgists as fe c. the cementite, although adding to the tensile strength, is very brittle and the strength of the pearlite is the combination of the ferrite and cementite. in the event of the cementite being strengthened, as in the case of strictly chromium steels, an increased tensile strength is readily obtained without loss of ductility and if the ferrite is strengthened then the tensile strength and ductility of the metal is still further improved. nickel-chromium alloy represents one of the best combinations available at the present time. the nickel intensifies the physical characteristics of the chromium and the chromium has a similar effect on the nickel. for case-hardening, nickel-chromium steels seem to give very excellent results. the carbon is very rapidly taken up in this combination, and for that reason is rather preferable to the straight nickel steel. with the mutually intensifying action of chromium and nickel there is a most suitable ratio for these two alloys, and it has been found that roughly - / parts of nickel to about part of chromium gives the best results. therefore, we have the standard types of . per cent nickel with . per cent chromium to . per cent nickel with . per cent chromium and the various intermediate types. this ratio, however, does not give the whole story of nickel-chromium combinations, and many surprising results have been obtained with these alloys when other percentage combinations have been employed. vanadium vanadium has a very marked effect upon alloy steels rich in chromium, carbon, or manganese. vanadium itself, when combined with steel very low in carbon, is not so noticeably beneficial as in the same carbon steel higher in manganese, but if a small quantity of chromium is added, then the vanadium has a very marked effect in increasing the impact strength of the alloy. it would seem that vanadium has the effect of intensifying the action of chromium and manganese, or that vanadium is intensified by the action of chromium or manganese. vanadium has the peculiar property of readily entering into solution with ferrite. if vanadium contained is considerable it also combines with the carbon, forming carbides. the ductility of carbon-vanadium steels is therefore increased, likewise the ductility of chrome-vanadium steels. the full effect of vanadium is not felt unless the temperatures to which the steel is heated for hardening are raised considerably. it is therefore necessary that a certain amount of "soaking" takes place, so as to get the necessary equalization. this is true of all alloys which contain complex carbides, i.e., compounds of carbon, iron and one or more elements. chrome-vanadium steels also are highly favored for case hardening. when used under alternating stresses it appears to have superior endurance. it would appear that the intensification of the properties due to chromium and manganese in the alloy steel accounts for this peculiar phenomenon. vanadium is also a very excellent scavenger for either removing the harmful gases, or causing them to enter into solution with the metal in such a way as to largely obviate their harmful effects. chrome-vanadium steels have been claimed, by many steel manufacturers and users, to be preferable to nickel-chrome steels. while not wishing to pass judgment on this, it should be borne in mind that the chrome-vanadium steel, which is tested, is generally compared with a very low nickel-chromium alloy steel (the price factor entering into the situation), but equally good results can be obtained by nickel-chromium steels of suitable analysis. where price is the leading factor, there are many cases where a stronger steel can be obtained from the chrome and vanadium than the nickel-chrome. it will be safe to say that each of these two systems of alloys have their own particular fields and chrome-vanadium steel should not be regarded as the sole solution for all problems, neither should nickel-chromium. manganese manganese adds considerably to the tensile strength of steel, but this is dependent on the carbon content. high carbon materially adds to the brittleness, whereas low-carbon, pearlitic-manganese steels are very tough and ductile and are not at all brittle, providing the heat-treating is correct. manganese steel is very susceptible to high temperatures and prolonged heating. in low-carbon pearlitic steels, manganese is more effective in increasing ultimate strength than is nickel; that is to say, a . carbon steel with . per cent manganese is as strong as a . carbon steel with . per cent nickel. the former steel is much used for rifle barrels, and in the heat-treated condition will give , to , lb. per square inch elastic limit, , to , lb. per square inch tensile strength, per cent elongation, and per cent reduction in area. manganese when added to steel has the effect of lowering the critical range; per cent manganese will lower the upper critical point °f. the action of manganese is very similar to that of nickel in this respect, only twice as powerful. as an instance, per cent nickel would have the effect of lowering the upper critical range from to °f. low-carbon pearlitic-manganese steel, heat-treated, will give dynamic strength which cannot be equaled by low-priced and necessarily low-content nickel steels. in many instances, it is preferable to use high-grade manganese steel, rather than low-content nickel steel. high-manganese steels or austenite manganese steels are used for a variety of purposes where great resistance to abrasion is required, the percentage of manganese being from to per cent, and carbon to . per cent. this steel is practically valueless unless heat-treated; that is, heated to about yellow red and quenched in ice water. the structure is then austenite and the air-cooled structure of this steel is martensite. therefore this steel has to be heated and very rapidly cooled to obtain the ductile austenite structure. manganese between and per cent is a very brittle material when the carbon is about per cent or higher and is, therefore, quite valueless. below per cent manganese steel low in carbon is very ductile and tough steel. the high-content manganese steels are known as the "hadfield manganese steels," having been developed by sir robert hadfield. small additions of chrome up to per cent increase the elastic limit of low-carbon pearlitic-manganese steels without affecting the steel in its resistance to shock, but materially decrease the percentage of elongation. vanadium added to low-carbon pearlitic manganese steel has a very marked effect, increasing greatly the dynamic strength and changing slightly the susceptibility of this steel to heat treatments, giving a greater margin for the hardening temperature. manganese steel with added vanadium is most efficient when heat-treated. tungsten tungsten, as an alloy in steel, has been known and used for a long time. the celebrated and ancient damascus steel being a form of tungsten-alloy steel. tungsten and its effects, however, did not become generally realized until robert mushet experimented and developed his famous mushet steel and the many improvement made since that date go to prove how little mushet himself understood the peculiar effects of tungsten as an alloy. tungsten acts on steel in a similar manner to carbon, that is, it increases its hardness, but is much less effective than carbon in this respect. if the percentage of tungsten and manganese is high, the steel will be hard after cooling in the air. this is impossible in a carbon steel. it was this combination that mushet used in his well-known "air-hardening" steel. the principal use of tungsten is in high-speed tool steel, but here a high percentage of manganese is distinctly detrimental, making the steel liable to fire crack, very brittle and weak in the body, less easily forged and annealed. manganese should be kept low and a high percentage of chromium used instead. tools of tungsten-chromium steels, when hardened, retain their hardness, even when heated to a dark cherry red by the friction of the cutting or the heat arising from the chips. this characteristic led to the term "red-hardness," and it is this property that has made possible the use of very high cutting speeds in tools made of the tungsten-chromium alloy, that is, "high-speed" steel. tungsten steels containing up to per cent do not have the property of red hardness any more than does carbon tool steel, providing the manganese or chromium is low. when chromium is alloyed with tungsten, a very definite red-hardness is noticed with a great increase of cutting efficiency. the maximum red-hardness seems to be had with steels containing per cent tungsten, . per cent chromium and . per cent carbon. very little is known of the actual function of tungsten, although a vast amount of experimental work has been done. it is possible that when the effect of tungsten with iron-carbon alloys is better known, a greater improvement can be expected from these steels. tungsten has been tried and is still used by some steel manufacturers for making punches, chisels, and other impact tools. it has also been used for springs, and has given very good results, although other less expensive alloys give equally good results, and are in some instances, better. tungsten is largely used in permanent magnets. in this, its action is not well understood. in fact, the reason why steel becomes a permanent magnet is not at all understood. theories have been evolved, but all are open to serious questioning. the principal effect of tungsten, as conceded by leading authorities, is that it distinctly retards separation of the iron-carbon solution, removing the lowest recalescent point down to atmospheric temperature. a peculiar property of tungsten steels is that if a heating temperature of , °f. is not exceeded, the cooling curves indicate but one critical point at about , °f. but when the heating temperature is raised above , °f., this critical point is nearly if not quite suppressed, while a lower critical point appears and grows enormously in intensity at a temperature between and °f. the change in the critical ranges, which is produced by heating tungsten steels to over , °f., is the real cause of the red-hard properties of these alloys. its real nature is not understood, and there is no direct evidence to show what actually happens at these high temperatures. it may readily be understood that an alloy containing four essential elements, namely: iron, carbon, tungsten and chromium, is one whose study presents problems of extreme complexity. it is possible that complex carbides may be formed, as in chromium steels, and that compounds between iron and tungsten exist. behavior of these combinations on heating and cooling must be better known before we are able to explain many peculiarities of tungsten steels. molybdenum molybdenum steels have been made commercially for twenty-five years, but they have not been widely exploited until since the war. very large resources of molybdenum have been developed in america, and the mining companies who are equipped to produce the metal are very active in advertising the advantages of molybdenum steels. it was early found that part molybdenum was the equivalent of from to - / parts of tungsten in tool steels, and magnet steels. it fell into disrepute as an alloy for high-speed tool steel, however, because it was found that the molybdenum was driven out of the surface of the tool during forging and heat treating. within the last few years it has been found that the presence of less than per cent of molybdenum greatly enhances certain properties of heat-treated carbon and alloy steels used for automobiles and high-grade machinery. in general, molybdenum when added to an alloy steel, increases the figure for reduction of area, which is considered a good measure of "toughness." molybdenum steels are also relatively insensible to variations in heat treatment; that is to say, a chromium-nickel-molybdenum steel after quenching in oil from , °f. may be drawn at any temperature between and , °f. with substantially the same result (static tensile properties and hardness). silicon silicon prevents, to a large extent, defects such as gas bubbles or blow holes forming while steel is solidifying. in fact, steel after it has been melted and before it has been refined, is "wild" and "gassy." that is to say, if it would be cast into molds it would froth up, and boil all over the floor. a judicious amount of silicon added to the metal just before pouring, prevents this action--in the words of the steel maker, silicon "kills" the steel. if about . per cent metallic silicon remains in a . carbon steel, it makes excellent springs. phosphorus phosphorus is one of the impurities in steel, and it has been the object of steel makers for years to eliminate it. on cheap grades of steel, not subject to any abnormal strain or stress, . per cent phosphorus is not objectionable. high phosphorus makes steel "cold short," i.e., brittle when cold or moderately warm. sulphur sulphur is another impurity and high sulphur is even a greater detriment to steel than phosphorus. high sulphur up to . per cent helps machining properties, but has a tendency to make the steel "hot short," i.e., subject to opening up cracks and seams at forging or rolling heats. sulphur should never exceed . per cent nor phosphorus . per cent. steel used for tool purposes should have as low phosphorus and sulphur contents as possible, not over . per cent. we can sum up the various factors something as follows for ready reference. the ingredient its effect iron the basis of steel carbon the determinative sulphur a strength sapper phosphorus the weak link oxygen a strength destroyer manganese for strength nickel for strength and toughness tungsten hardener and heat resister chromium for resisting shocks vanadium purifier and fatigue resister silicon impurity and hardener titanium removes nitrogen and oxygen molybdenum hardener and heat resister aluminum kills or deoxidizes steel properties of alloy steels the following table shows the percentages of carbon, manganese, nickel, chromium and vanadium in typical steel alloys for engineering purposes. it also gives the elastic limit, tensile strength, elongation and reduction of area of the various alloys, all being given the same heat treatment with a drawing temperature of , °f. ( °c.). the specimens were one inch rounds machined after heat treatment. tungsten is not shown in the table because it is seldom used in engineering construction steels and then usually in combination with chromium. tungsten is used principally for the magnets of magnetos, to some extent in the manufacture of hacksaws, and for special tool steels. table i.--properties of alloy steels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ \manganese,/ \chromium,/ |elastic|tensile |elongation|reduction carbon,\ per /nickel,\ per /vanadium,|limit, |strength,|in in., | of area, per | cent | per | cent |per cent |lb. per|lb. per |per cent | per cent cent | | cent | | |sq. in.|sq. in. | | -------|------|-------|------|---------|-------|---------|----------|--------- . | . | | | | , | , | | . | . | | | . | , | , | | . | . | | | | , | , | | . | . | | | . | , | , | | . | . | | | | , | , | | . | . | | | . | , | , | | . | . | | | . | , | , | | . | . | . | | | , | , | | . | . | . | | . | , | , | | . | . | . | . | | , | , | | . | . | . | . | . | , | , | | . | . | . | . | | , | , | | . | . | . | . | | , | , | | . | . | . | . | . | , | , | | . | . | . | . | | , | , | | . | . | . | . | . | , | , | | . | . | | . | | , | , | | . | . | | . | . | , | , | | . | . | | . | . | , | , | | . | . | | . | . | , | , | | . | . | | . | . | , | , | | ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ non-shrinking, oil-hardening steels certain steels have a very low rate of expansion and contraction in hardening and are very desirable for test plugs, gages, punches and dies, for milling cutters, taps, reamers, hard steel bushings and similar work. it is recommended that for forging these steels it be heated slowly and uniformly to a bright red, but not in a direct flame or blast. harden at a dull red heat, about , °f. a clean coal or coke fire, or a good muffle-gas furnace will give best results. fish oil is good for quenching although in some cases warm water will give excellent results. the steel should be kept moving in the bath until perfectly cold. heated and cooled in this way the steel is very tough, takes a good cutting edge and has very little expansion or contraction which makes it desirable for long taps where the accuracy of lead is important. the composition of these steels is as follows: per cent manganese . to . carbon . to . vanadium . to . [illustration: fig. .--effect of copper in steel.] effect of a small amount of copper in medium-carbon steel this shows the result of tests by c. r. hayward and a. b. johnston on two types of steel: one containing . per cent carbon, . per cent phosphorus, and . per cent copper, and the other . per cent carbon, . per cent phosphorus, and . per cent copper. the accompanying chart in fig. shows that high-copper steel has decided superiority in tensile strength, yield point and ultimate strength, while the ductility is practically the same. hardness tests by both methods show high-copper steel to be harder than low-copper, and the charpy shock tests show high-copper steel also superior to low-copper. the tests confirm those made by stead, showing that the behavior of copper steel resembles that of nickel steel. the high-copper steels show finer grain than the low-copper. the quenched and drawn specimens of high-copper steel were found to be slightly more martensitic. high-chromium or rust-proof steel high-chromium, or what is called stainless steel containing from to per cent chromium, was originally developed for cutlery purposes, but has in the past few years been used to a considerable extent for exhaust valves in airplane engines because of its resistance to scaling at high temperatures. percentage carbon . to . manganese, not to exceed . phosphorus, not to exceed . sulphur, not to exceed . chromium . to . silicon, not to exceed . the steel should be heated slowly and forged at a temperature above , °f. preferably between , and , °f. if forged at temperatures between , and , °f. there is considerable danger of rupturing the steel because of its hardness at red heat. owing to the air-hardening property of the steel, the drop-forgings should be trimmed while hot. thin forgings should be reheated to redness before trimming, as otherwise they are liable to crack. the forgings will be hard if they are allowed to cool in air. this hardness varies over a range of from to brinell, depending on the original forging temperature. annealing can be done by heating to temperatures ranging from , to , °f. and cooling in air or quenching in water or oil. after this treatment the forgings will have a hardness of about brinell and a tensile strength of , to , lb. per square inch. if softer forgings are desired they can be heated to a temperature of from , to , °f. and cooled very slowly. although softer the forgings will not machine as smoothly as when annealed at the lower temperature. hardening.--the forgings can be hardened by cooling in still air or quenching in oil or water from a temperature between , and , °f. the physical properties do not vary greatly when the carbon is within the range of composition given, or when the steel is hardened and tempered in air, oil, or water. when used for valves the following specification of physical properties have been used: yield point, pounds per square inch , tensile strength, pounds per square inch , elongation in in., per cent reduction of area, per cent the usual heat treatment is to quench in oil from , °f. and temper or draw at , to , °f. one valve manufacturer stated that valves of this steel are hardened by heating the previously annealed valves to , °f. and cooling in still air. this treatment gives a scleroscope hardness of about . in addition to use in valves this steel should prove very satisfactory for shafting for water-pumps and other automobile parts subject to objectionable corrosion. table .--comparison of physical properties for high-chromium steels of different carbon content -------------------------------------------------------------------------- | c . | c . | c . | mn . | mn . | | cr . | cr . | cr . -----------------------------------------|----------|----------|---------- quenched in oil from degrees fahrenheit | , | , | , tempered at degrees fahrenheit | , | , | , yield point, pounds per square inch | , | , | , tensile strength, pounds per square inch | , | , | , elongation in in., per cent | . | . | . reduction of area, per cent | . | . | . -------------------------------------------------------------------------- table .--comparison of physical properties between air, oil and water-hardened steel having chemical analysis in percentage of ------------------------------------------------------------------------- carbon . manganese . phosphorus . sulphur . chromium . silicon . ------------------------------------------------------------------------- | hardened | | elastic | tensile | | hardening| from, | tempered | limit, |strength,|elongation|reduction medium | degrees |at, degrees| per lb. |lb. per | in in. |of area, |fahrenheit|fahrenheit | sq. in. | sq. in. | per cent |per cent ---------|----------|-----------|---------|---------|----------|--------- | | | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . air | , | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . ---------|----------|-----------|---------|---------|----------|--------- | | | , | , | . | . oil | , | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . ---------|----------|-----------|---------|---------|----------|--------- | | | , | , | . | . water | , | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . | | , | , | , | . | . ------------------------------------------------------------------------- this steel can be drawn into wire, rolled into sheets and strips and drawn into seamless tubes. corrosion.--this steel like any other steel when distorted by cold working is more sensitive to corrosion and will rust. rough cut surfaces will rust. surfaces finished with a fine cut are less liable to rust. ground and polished surfaces are practically immune to rust. when chromium content is increased to to per cent and silicon is added, from to per cent, this steel becomes rust proof in its raw state, as soon as the outside surface is removed. it does not need to be heat-treated in any way. these compositions are both patented. s. a. e. standard steels the following steel specifications are considered standard by the society of automotive engineers and represents automobile practice in this country. these tables give the s. a. e. number, the composition of the steel and the heat treatment. these are referred to by letter--the heat treatments being given in detail on pages to in chap. . it should be noted that the percentage of the different ingredients desired is the mean, or halfway between the minimum and maximum. table .--carbon steels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ s. a. e. | carbon | manganese | | | specification|(minimum and |(minimum and |phosphorus| sulphur | heat no. | maximum) | maximum) |(maximum) |(maximum)| treatment -------------|-------------|-------------|----------|---------|--------------- , | . to . | . to . | . | . |quench at , , | . to . | . to . | . | . | a or b , | . to . | . to . | . | . | h | | | | | , | . to . | . to . | . | . | h, d or e , | . to . | . to . | . | . | h, d or e , | . to . | . to . | . | . | f ------------------------------------------------------------------------------ table .--screw stock --------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | carbon | manganese | phosphorus | sulphur specification no.| | | (maximum) | -----------------|--------------|--------------|------------|-------------- , | . to . | . to . | . | . to . --------------------------------------------------------------------------- table .--nickel steels ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | | | phosphorus| | | specification | | | (maximum) | | | no. ---- | \ / | | | carbon | manganese | | sulphur | nickel | heat |(minimum and|(minimum and| |(maximum)|(minimum and|treatment | maximum) | maximum) | | | maximum) | ---------|------------|------------|-------|---------|------------|---------- , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |g, h or k , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |g, h or k , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | h or k | | | | | | , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | h or k , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | h or k , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | h or k ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- table .--nickel-chromium steels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | | | phosphorus| sulphur | | | specification| | | (maximum)|(maximum) | | | heat no. ------ | ------ | ---- | |treatment | carbon | manganese | | | nickel | chromium \ |(minimum and|(minimum and| | |(minimum and|(minimum and | | maximum) | maximum) | | | maximum) | maximum) | ------|------------|------------|----|-----|------------|-------------|-------- , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . *|g,h or d , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . *|h,d or e , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . *|h,d or e | | | | | | | , | . to . | . to | . | . | . to . | . to *|h,d or e , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . *|h,d or e , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . |g,h or d | | | | | | | , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | h or d , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | h or d , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | m or q | | | | | | | x , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | g x , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | p or r x , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | p or r | | | | | | | , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | l , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | p or r , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . to . | p or r ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- * another grade of this type of steel is available with chromium content of . per cent to per cent. it has somewhat lower physical properties. table .--chromium steels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | | | | | | specification| | | | | | no. --- carbon | manganese | | | chromium | |(minimum and|(minimum and|phosphorus|sulphur |(minimum and| heat | maximum) | maximum) |(maximum) |(maximum)| maximum) |treatment ---------|------------|------------|----------|---------|------------|--------- , | . to . | * | . | . | . to . | b , | . to . | * | . | . | . to . | h or d , | . to . | * | . | . | . to . | h or d | | | | | | , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |m, p or r , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |m, p or r , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |m, p or r , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . |m, p or r ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- --two types of steel are available in this class, one with manganese . to . per cent ( . per cent desired), and silicon not over . per cent; the other with manganese . to . per cent ( . per cent desired), and silicon . to . per cent. table .--chromium-vanadium steels ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | | |phosphorus| sulphur | |vanadium | specification| | | (maximum)|(maximum)| |(minimum)| no. ------ | -- | / - | | carbon | manganese | | | chromium | | heat |(minimum and|(minimum and| | |(minimum and| |treatment | maximum) | maximum) | | | maximum) | | ------|------------|------------|-------|-------|------------|-------|--------- , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | s , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | s or t , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | t or u , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | t or u , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | t or u , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | u , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . | u , | . to . | . to . | . | . | . to . | . u ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- table .--silico-manganese steels ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- s. a. e. | | | | | | specification| | | | | | no. ----- carbon| manganese | | | silicon | |(minimum and|(minimum and|phosphorus|sulphur |(minimum and| heat | maximum) | maximum) |(maximum) |(maximum)| maximum) |treatment -------|------------|------------|----------|---------|------------|--------- , | . to . | . to . | . * | . | . to . | v , | . to . | . to . | . * | . | . to . | v ----------------------------------------------------------------------------- * steel made by the acid process may contain maximum . phosphorus. liberty motor connecting rods the requirements for materials for the liberty motor connecting rods are so severe that the methods of securing the desired qualities will be of value in other lines. the original specifications called for chrome-nickel but the losses due to the difficulty of handling caused the lincoln motor company to suggest the substitution of chrome-vanadium steel, and this was accepted by the signal corps. the rods were accordingly made from chromium-vanadium steel, containing carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, not over . per cent; sulphur, not over . per cent; chromium, . to . per cent; vanadium, not less than . per cent. this steel is ordinarily known in the trade as . carbon steel, s. a. e., specification , , which provides a first-rate quality steel for structural parts that are to be heat-treated. the fatigue resisting or endurance qualities of this material are excellent. it has a tensile strength of , lb. minimum per square inch; elastic limit, , lb. minimum per square inch; elongation, per cent minimum in in.; and minimum reduction in area, per cent. the original production system as outlined for the manufacturers had called for a heat treatment in the rough-forged state for the connecting rods, and then semi-machining the rod forgings before giving them the final treatment. the lincoln motor company insisted from the first that the proper method would be a complete heat treatment of the forging in the rough state, and machining the rod after the heat treatment. after a number of trial lots, the signal corps acceded to the request and production was immediately increased and quality benefited by the change. this method was later included in a revised specification issued to all producers. the original system was one that required a great deal of labor per unit output. the lincoln organization developed a method of handling connecting rods whereby five workmen accomplished the same result that would have required about or by the original method. even after revising the specification so as to allow complete heat treatments in the rough-forged state, the ordinary methods employed in heat-treating would have required to men. with the fixtures employed, five men could handle , connecting rods, half of which are plain and half, forked, in a working period of little over hr. [illustration: fig. .--rack for holding rods.] [illustration: fig. .--sliding rods into tank.] the increase in production was gained by devising fixtures which enabled fewer men to handle a greater quantity of parts with less effort and in less time. in heat-treating the forgings were laid on a rack or loop _a_, fig. , made of - / -in. double extra-heavy pipe, bent up with parallel sides about in. apart, one end being bent straight across and the other end being bent upward so as to afford an easy grasp for the hook. fifteen rods were laid on each loop, there being four loops of rods charged into a furnace with a hearth area of by in. the rods were charged at a temperature of approximately °f. they were heated for refining over a period of hr. to , °f., soaked min, at this degree of heat and quenched in soluble quenching oil. in pulling the heat to quench the rods, the furnace door was raised and the operator pulls one of the loops _a_, fig. forward to the shelf of the furnace, supporting the straight end of the loop by means of the porter bar _b_. they swung the loop of rods around from the furnace shelf and set the straight end of the loop on the edge of the quenching tank, then raise the curved end _c_, by means of their hook _d_ so that all the rods on the loop slide into the oil bath. before the rods cooled entirely, the baskets in the quenching tank were raised and the oil allowed to partly drain off the forgings, and they were stacked on curved-end loops or racks and charged into the furnace for the second or hardening heat. the temperature of the furnace was raised in - / hr. to , °f., the rods soaked for min. at this degree of heat and quenched in the same manner as above. they were again drained while yet warm, placed on loops and charged into the furnace for the third or tempering heat. the temperature of the furnace was brought to , °f. in hr., and the rods soaked at this degree of heat for hr. they were then removed from the furnace the same as for quenching, but were dumped onto steel platforms instead of into the quenching oil, and allowed to cool on these steel platforms down to the room temperature. pickling the forgings the forgings were then pickled in a hot solution of either niter cake or sulphuric acid and water at a temperature of °f., and using a solution of about per cent. the solution was maintained at a constant point by taking hydrometer readings two or three times a day, maintaining a reading of about . . sixty forked or one hundred single rods were placed in wooden racks and immersed in a lead-lined vat by by ft. long. the rack was lowered or lifted by means of an air hoist and the rods were allowed to stay in solution from / to hr., depending on the amount of scale. the rods were then swung and lowered in the rack into running hot water until all trace of the acid was removed. the rod was finally subjected to brinell test. this shows whether or not the rod has been heat-treated to the proper hardness. if the rods did not read between and , they were re-treated until the proper hardness is obtained. chapter iv application of liberty engine materials to the automotive industry[ ] [footnote : paper presented at the summer meeting of the s. a. e. at ottawa beach in june, .] the success of the liberty engine program was an engineering achievement in which the science of metallurgy played an important part. the reasons for the use of certain materials and certain treatments for each part are given with recommendations for their application to the problems of automotive industry. the most important items to be taken into consideration in the selection of material for parts of this type are uniformity and machineability. it has been demonstrated many times that the ordinary grades of bessemer screw stock are unsatisfactory for aviation purposes, due to the presence of excessive amounts of unevenly distributed phosphorus and sulphide segregations. for this reason, material finished by the basic open hearth process was selected, in accordance with the following specifications: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . to . per cent. this material in the cold-drawn condition will show: elastic limit, , lb. per square inch, elongation in in., per cent, reduction of area, per cent. this material gave as uniform physical properties as s. a. e. no. steel and at the same time was sufficiently free cutting to produce a smooth thread and enable the screw-machine manufacturers to produce, to the same thread limits, approximately per cent as many parts as from bessemer screw stock. there are but seven carbon-steel carbonized parts on the liberty engine. the most important are the camshaft, the camshaft rocker lever roller and the tappet. the material used for parts of this type was s. a. e. no. , steel, which is of the following chemical analysis: carbon . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent. the heat treatment consisted in carbonizing at a temperature of from , to , °f. for a sufficient length of time to secure the proper depth of case, cool slowly or quench; then reheat to a temperature of , to , °f. to refine the grain of the case, and quench in water. the only thing that should limit the rate of cooling from the carbonizing heat is distortion. camshaft rocker lever rollers and tappets, as well as gear pins, were quenched directly from the carbonizing heat in water and then case-refined and rehardened by quenching in water from a temperature of from , to , °f. the advantage of direct quenching from the carbonizing heat is doubtless one of economy, and in many cases will save the cost of a reheating. specifications for case hardening, issued by the society of automotive engineers, have lately been revised; whereas they formerly called for a slow cooling, they now permit a quenching from the pot. doubtless this is a step in advance. warpage caused by quenching can be reduced to a minimum by thoroughly annealing the stock before any machine work is done on it. another advantage obtained from rapid cooling from the carbonizing heat is the retaining of the majority of the excess cementite in solution which produces a less brittle case and by so doing reduces the liability of grinding checks and chipping of the case in actual service. in the case of the camshaft, it is not possible to quench directly from the carbonizing heat because of distortion and therefore excessive breakage during straightening operations. all liberty camshafts were cooled slowly from carbonizing heat and hardened by a single reheating to a temperature of from , to , °f. and quenching in water. considerable trouble has always been experienced in obtaining uniform hardness on finished camshafts. this is caused by insufficient water circulation in the quenching tank, which allows the formation of steam pockets to take place, or by decarbonization of the case during heating by the use of an overoxidizing flame. another cause, which is very often overlooked, is due to the case being ground off one side of cam more than the other and is caused by the roughing master cam being slightly different from the finishing master cam. great care should be taken to see that this condition does not occur, especially when the depth of case is between / and / in. carbon-steel forgings low-stressed, carbon-steel forgings include such parts as carbureter control levers, etc. the important criterion for parts of this type is ease of fabrication and freedom from over-heated and burned forgings. the material used for such parts was s. a. e. no. , steel, which is of the following chemical composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent. to obtain good machineability, all forgings produced from this steel were heated to a temperature of from , to , °f. to refine the grain of the steel thoroughly and quenched in water and then tempered to obtain proper machineability by heating to a temperature of from , to , °f. and cooled slowly or quenched. forgings subjected to this heat treatment are free from hard spots and will show a brinell hardness of to , which is proper for all ordinary machining operations. great care should be taken not to use steel for parts of this type containing less than . per cent carbon, because the lower the carbon the greater the liability of hard spots, and the more difficult it becomes to eliminate them. the only satisfactory method so far in commercial use for the elimination of hard spots is to give forgings a very severe quench from a high temperature followed by a proper tempering heat to secure good machine ability as outlined above. the important carbon-steel forgings consisted of the cylinders, the propeller-hubs, the propeller-hub flange, etc. the material used for parts of this type was s. a. e. no. , steel, which is of the following chemical composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent. all forgings made from this material must show, after heat treatment, the following minimum physical properties: elastic limit, , ; lb. per square inch, elongation in in., per cent, reduction of area, ; per cent, brinell hardness, to . to obtain these physical properties, the forgings were quenched in water from a temperature of , to , °f., followed by tempering to meet proper brinell requirements by heating to a temperature of , to , °f. and cooled slowly or quenched. no trouble of any kind was ever experienced with parts of this type. the principal carbon-steel pressed parts used on the liberty engine were the water jackets and the exhaust manifolds. the material used for parts of this type was s. a. e. no. , steel, which is of the following chemical composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent. no trouble was experienced in the production of any parts from this material with the exception of the water jacket. due to the particular design of the liberty cylinder assembly, many failures occurred in the early days, due to the top of the jacket cracking with a brittle fracture. it was found that these failures were caused primarily from the use of jackets which showed small scratches or die marks at this joint and secondarily by improper annealing of the jackets themselves between the different forming operations. by a careful inspection for die marks and by giving the jackets , °f. annealing before the last forming operation, it was possible to completely eliminate the trouble encountered. highly stressed parts the highly stressed parts on the liberty engine consisted of the connecting-rod bolt, the main-bearing bolt, the propeller-hub key, etc. the material used for parts of this type was selected at the option of the manufacturer from standard s. a. e. steels, the composition of which are given in table . table .--composition of s. a. e. steels nos. , , , and , steel no , , , carbon, minimum . . . carbon, maximum . . . manganese, minimum . . . manganese, maximum . . . phosphorus, maximum . . . sulphur, maximum . . . nickel, minimum . . nickel, maximum . . chromium, minimum . . chromium, maximum . . vanadium, minimum . all highly stressed parts on the liberty engine must show, after heat treatment, the following minimum physical properties: elastic limit, , lb. per square inch; elongation in in., per cent; reduction of area, per cent; scleroscope hardness, to . the heat treatment employed to obtain these physical properties consisted in quenching from a temperature of , to , °f., in oil, followed by tempering at a temperature of from to °f. due to the extremely fine limits used on all threaded parts for the liberty engine, a large percentage of rejection was due to warpage and scaling of parts. to eliminate this objection, many of the liberty engine builders adopted the use of heat-treated and cold-drawn alloy steel for their highly stressed parts. on all sizes up to and including / in. in diameter, the physical properties were secured by merely normalizing the hot-rolled bars by heating to a temperature of from , to , °f., and cooling in air, followed by the usual cold-drawing reductions. for parts requiring stock over / in. in diameter, the physical properties desired were obtained by quenching and tempering the hot-rolled bars before cold-drawing. it is the opinion that the use of heat-treated and cold-drawn bars is very good practice, provided proper inspection is made to guarantee the uniformity of heat treatment and, therefore, the uniformity of the physical properties of the finished parts. the question has been asked many times by different manufacturers, as to which alloy steel offers the best machineability when heat-treated to a given brinell hardness. the general consensus of opinion among the screw-machine manufacturers is that s. a. e. no. , steel gives the best machineability and that s. a. e. no. , steel would receive second choice of the three specified. in the finishing of highly stressed parts for aviation engines, extreme care must be taken to see that all tool marks are eliminated, unless they are parallel to the axis of strain, and that proper radii are maintained at all changes of section. this is of the utmost importance to give proper fatigue resistance to the part in question. gears the material used for all gears on the liberty engine was selected at the option of the manufacturer from the following standard s. a. e. steels, the composition of which are given in table , table .--composition of steels nos. x- , and , steel no x- , , carbon, minimum . . carbon, maximum . . manganese, minimum . . manganese, maximum . . phosphorus, maximum . . sulphur, maximum . . nickel, minimum . nickel, maximum . chromium, minimum . . chromium, maximum . . vanadium, minimum . all gears were heat-treated to a scleroscope hardness of from to . the heat treatment used to secure this hardness consisted in quenching the forgings from a temperature of , to , °f. in oil and annealing for good machineability at a temperature of from , to , °f. forgings treated in this manner showed a brinell hardness of from to . rate of cooling at the option of the manufacturer, the above treatment of gear forgings could be substituted by normalizing the forgings at a temperature of from , to , °f. the most important criterion for proper normalizing, consisted in allowing the forgings to cool through the critical temperature of the steel, at a rate not to exceed °f. per hour. for the two standard steels used, this consisted in cooling from the normalizing temperature down to a temperature of , °f., at the rate indicated. forgings normalized in this manner will show a brinell hardness of from to . the question has been repeatedly asked as to which treatment will produce the higher quality finished part. in answer to this i will state that on simple forgings of comparatively small section, the normalizing treatment will produce a finished part which is of equal quality to that of the quenched and annealed forgings. however, in the case of complex forgings, or those of large section, more uniform physical properties of the finished part will be obtained by quenching and annealing the forgings in the place of normalizing. the heat treatment of the finished gears consisted of quenching in oil from a temperature of from , to , °f. for the no. x- , steel, or from a temperature of from , to , °f. for no. , steel, followed by tempering in saltpeter or in an electric furnace at a temperature of from to °f. the question has been asked by many engineers, why is the comparatively low scleroscope hardness specified for gears? the reason for this is that at best the life of an aviation engine is short, as compared with that of an automobile, truck or tractor, and that shock resistance is of vital importance. a sclerescope hardness of from to will give sufficient resistance to wear to prevent replacements during the life of an aviation engine, while at the same time this hardness produces approximately per cent greater shock-resisting properties to the gear. in the case of the automobile, truck or tractor, resistance to wear is the main criterion and for that reason the higher hardness is specified. great care should be taken in the design of an aviation engine gear to eliminate sharp corners at the bottom of teeth as well as in keyways. any change of section in any stressed part of an aviation engine must have a radius of at least / in. to give proper shock and fatigue resistance. this fact has been demonstrated many times during the liberty engine program. connecting rods the material used for all connecting rods on the liberty engine was selected at the option of the manufacturer from one of two standard s. a. e. steels, the composition of which are given in table . table .--composition of steels nos. x- , and , steel no. x- , , carbon, minimum . . carbon, maximum . . manganese, minimum . . manganese, maximum . . phosphorus, maximum . . sulphur, maximum . . nickel, minimum . nickel, maximum . chromium, minimum . . chromium, maximum . . vanadium minimum . all connecting rods were heat-treated to show the following minimum physical properties; elastic limit, , lb. per square inch: elongation in in., . ; per cent, reduction of area . ; per cent., brinell hardness, to . the heat treatment used to secure these physical properties consisted in normalizing the forgings at a temperature of from , to , °f., followed by cooling in the furnace or in air. the forgings were then quenched in oil from a temperature of from , to , °f. for the no. x- , steel, or from a temperature of from , to , °f. for no. , steel, followed by tempering at a temperature of from , to , °f. at the option of the manufacturer, the normalizing treatment could be substituted by quenching the forgings from a temperature of from , to , °f., in oil, and annealing for the best machineability at a temperature of from , to , °f. the double quench, however, did not prove satisfactory on no. x- , steel, due to the fact that it was necessary to remove forgings from the quenching bath while still at a temperature of from to °f. to eliminate any possibility of cracking. in view of the fact that this practice is difficult to carry out in the average heat-treating plant, considerable trouble was experienced. the most important criterion in the production of aviation engine connecting rods is the elimination of burned or severely overheated forgings. due to the particular design of the forked rod, considerable trouble was experienced in this respect because of the necessity of reheating the forgings before they are completely forged. as a means of elimination of burned forgings, test lugs were forged on the channel section as well as on the top end of fork. after the finish heat treatment, these test lugs were nicked and broken and the fracture of the steel carefully examined. this precaution made it possible to eliminate burned forgings as the test lugs were placed on sections which would be most likely to become burned. there is a great difference of opinion among engineers as to what physical properties an aviation engine connecting rod should have. many of the most prominent engineers contend that a connecting rod should be as stiff as possible. to produce rods in this manner in any quantity, it is necessary for the final heat treatment to be made on the semi-machined rod. this practice would make it necessary for a larger percentage of the semi-machined rods to be cold-straightened after the finish heat treatment. the cold-straightening operation on a part having important functions to perform as a connecting rod is extremely dangerous. in view of the fact that a connecting rod functions as a strut, it is considered that this part should be only stiff enough to prevent any whipping action during the running of the engine. the greater the fatigue-resisting property that one can put into the rod after this stiffness is reached, the longer the life of the rod will be. this is the reason for the brinell limits mentioned being specified. in connection with the connecting rod, emphasis must be laid on the importance of proper radii at all changes of section. the connecting rods for the first few liberty engines were machined with sharp corners at the point where the connecting-rod bolt-head fits on assembly. on the first long endurance test of a liberty engine equipped with rods of this type, failure resulted from fatigue starting at this point. it is interesting to note that every rod on the engine which did not completely fail at this point had started to crack. the adoption of a / -in. radius at this point completely eliminated fatigue failures on liberty rods. crankshaft the crankshaft was the most highly stressed part of the entire liberty engine, and, therefore, every metallurgical precaution was taken to guarantee the quality of this part. the material used for the greater portion of the liberty crankshafts produced was nickel-chromium steel of the following chemical composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; nickel, . to . per cent; chromium, . to . per cent. each crankshaft was heat-treated to show the following minimum physical properties: elastic limit, , lb. per square inch; elongation in in., per cent, reduction of area, per cent, izod impact, ft.-lb.; brinell hardness, to . for every increase of , lb. per square inch in the elastic limit above , lb. per square inch, the minimum izod impact required was reduced ft.-lb. the heat treatment used to produce these physical properties consisted in normalizing the forgings at a temperature of from , to , °f., followed by quenching in water at a temperature of from , to , °f. and tempering at a temperature of from , to , °f. it is absolutely necessary that the crankshafts be removed from the quenching tank before being allowed to cool below a temperature of °f., and immediately placed in the tempering furnace to eliminate the possibility of quenching cracks. a prolongation of not less than the diameter of the forging bearing was forged on one end of each crankshaft. this was removed from the shaft after the finish heat treatment, and physical tests were made on test specimens which were cut from it at a point half way between the center and the surface. one tensile test and one impact test were made on each crankshaft, and the results obtained were recorded against the serial number of the shaft in question. this serial number was carried through all machining operations and stamped on the cheek of the finished shaft. in addition to the above tensile and impact tests, at least two brinell hardness determinations were made on each shaft. all straightening operations on the liberty crankshaft which were performed below a temperature of °f. were followed by retempering at a temperature of approximately °f. below the original tempering temperature. another illustration of the importance of proper radii at all changes of section is given in the case of the liberty crankshaft. the presence of tool marks or under cuts must be completely eliminated from an aviation engine crankshaft to secure proper service. during the duration of the liberty program, four crankshafts failed from fatigue, failures starting from sharp corners at bottom of propeller-hub keyway. two of the shafts that failed showed torsional spirals running more than completely around the shaft. as soon as this difficulty was removed no further trouble was experienced. one of the most important difficulties encountered in connection with the production of liberty crankshafts was hair-line seams. the question of hair-line seams has been discussed to greater length by engineers and metallurgists during the war than any other single question. hair-line seams are caused by small non-metallic inclusions in the steel. there is every reason to believe that these inclusions are in the greater majority of cases manganese sulphide. there is a great difference of opinion as to the exact effect of hair-line seams on the service of an aviation engine crankshaft. it is the opinion of many that hair-line seams do not in any way affect the endurance of a crankshaft in service, provided they are parallel to the grain of the steel and do not occur on a fillet. of the , liberty engines produced, fully per cent of the crankshafts used contain hair-line seams but not at the locations mentioned. there has never been a failure of a liberty crankshaft which could in any way be traced to hair-line seams. it was found that hair-line seams occur generally on high nickel-chromium steels. one of the main reasons why the comparatively mild analysis nickel-chromium steel was used was due to the very few hair-line seams present in it. it was also determined that the hair lines will in general be found near the surface of the forgings. for that reason, as much finish as possible was allowed for machining. a number of tests have been made on forging bars to determine the depths at which hair-line seams are found, and many cases came up in which hair-line seams were found / in. from the surface of the bar. this means that in case a crankshaft does not show hair-line seams on the ground surface this is no indication that it is free from such a defect. one important peculiarity of nickel-chromium steel was brought out from the results obtained on impact tests. this peculiarity is known as "blue brittleness." just what the effect of this is on the service of a finished part depends entirely upon the design of the particular part in question. there have been no failures of any nickel-chromium steel parts in the automotive industry which could in any way be traced to this phenomena. whether or not nickel-chromium-steel forgings will show "blue brittleness" depends entirely upon the temperature at which they are tempered and their rate of cooling from this temperature. the danger range for tempering nickel-chromium steels is between a temperature of from to , °f. from the data so far gathered on this phenomena, it is necessary that the nickel-chromium steel to show "blue brittleness" be made by the acid process. there has never come to my attention a single instance in which basic open hearth steel has shown this phenomena. just why the acid open hearth steel should be sensitive to "blue brittleness" is not known. all that is necessary to eliminate the presence of "blue brittleness" is to quench all nickel-chromium-steel forgings in water from their tempering temperature. the last , liberty crankshafts that were made were quenched in this manner. piston pin the piston pin on an aviation engine must possess maximum resistance to wear and to fatigue. for this reason, the piston pin is considered, from a metallurgical standpoint, the most important part on the engine to produce in quantities and still possess the above characteristics. the material used for the liberty engine piston pin was s. a. e. no. steel, which is of the following chemical composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; nickel, . to . per cent. each finished piston pin, after heat treatment, must show a minimum scleroscope hardness of the case of , a scleroscope hardness of the core of from to and a minimum crushing strength when supported as a beam and the load applied at the center of , lb. the heat treatment used to obtain the above physical properties consisted in carburizing at a temperature not to exceed , °f., for a sufficient length of time to secure a case of from . to . in. deep. the pins are then allowed to cool slowly from the carbonizing heat, after which the hole is finish-machined and the pin cut to length. the finish heat treatment of the piston pin consisted in quenching in oil from a temperature of from , to , °f. to refine the grain of core properly and then quenching in oil at a temperature of from , to , °f. to refine and harden the grain of the case properly, as well as to secure proper hardness of core. after this quenching, all piston pins are tempered in oil at a temperature of from to °f. a per cent inspection for scleroscope hardness of the case and the core was made, and no failures were ever recorded when the above material and heat treatment was used. application to the automotive industry the information given on the various parts of the liberty engine applies with equal force to the corresponding parts in the construction of an automobile, truck or tractor. we recommend as first choice for carbon-steel screw-machine parts material produced by the basic open hearth process and having the following chemical composition; carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . to . per cent. this material is very uniform and is nearly as free cutting as bessemer screw stock. it is sufficiently uniform to be used for unimportant carburized parts, as well as for non-heat-treated screw-machine parts. a number of the large automobile manufacturers are now specifying this material in preference to the regular bessemer grades. as second choice for carbon-steel screw-machine parts we recommend ordinary bessemer screw stock, purchased in accordance with s. a. e. specification no. . the advantage of using no. steel lies in the fact that the majority of warehouses carry standard sizes of this material in stock at all times. the disadvantage of using this material is due to its lack of uniformity. the important criterion for transmission gears is resistance to wear. to secure proper resistance to wear a brinell hardness of from to must be obtained. the material selected to obtain this hardness should be one which can be made most nearly uniform, will undergo forging operations the easiest, will be the hardest to overheat or burn, will machine best and will respond to a good commercial range of heat treatment. it is a well-known fact that the element chromium, when in the form of chromium carbide in alloy steel, offers the greatest resistance to wear of any combination yet developed. it is also a well-known fact that the element nickel in steel gives excellent shock-resisting properties as well as resistance to wear but not nearly as great a resistance to wear as chromium. it has been standard practice for a number of years for many manufacturers to use a high nickel-chromium steel for transmission gears. a typical nickel-chromium gear specification is as follows: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; chromium, . to . per cent. there is no question but that a gear made from material of such an analysis will give excellent service. however, it is possible to obtain the same quality of service and at the same time appreciably reduce the cost of the finished part. the gear steel specified is of the air-hardening type. it is extremely sensitive to secondary pipe, as well as seams, and is extremely difficult to forge and very easy to overheat. the heat-treatment range is very wide, but the danger from quenching cracks is very great. in regard to the machineability, this material is the hardest to machine of any alloy steel known. composition of transmission-gear steel if the nickel content of this steel is eliminated, and the percentage of chromium raised slightly, an ideal transmission-gear material is obtained. this would, therefore, be of the following composition: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; chromium, . to . per cent. the important criterion in connection with the use of this material is that the steel be properly deoxidized, either through the use of ferrovanadium or its equivalent. approximately , sets of transmission gears are being made daily from material of this analysis and are giving entirely satisfactory results in service. the heat treatment of the above material for transmission gears is as follows: "normalize forgings at a temperature of from , . to , °f. cool from this temperature to a temperature of , °f. at the rate of ° per hour. cool from , °f., either in air or quench in water." forgings so treated will show a brinell hardness of from to , which is the proper range for the best machineability. the heat treatment of the finished gears consists of quenching in oil from a temperature of , to , °f., followed by tempering in oil at a temperature of from to °f. gears so treated will show a brinell hardness of from to , or a scleroscope hardness of from to . one tractor builder has placed in service , sets of gears of this type of material and has never had to replace a gear. taking into consideration the fact that a tractor transmission is subjected to the worst possible service conditions, and that it is under high stress per cent of the time, it seems inconceivable that any appreciable transmission trouble would be experienced when material of this type is used on an automobile, where the full load is applied not over per cent of the time, or on trucks where the full load is applied not over per cent of the time. the gear hardness specified is necessary to reduce to a minimum the pitting or surface fatigue of the teeth. if gears having a brinell hardness of over are used, danger is encountered, due to low shock-resisting properties. if the brinell hardness is under , trouble is experienced due to wear and surface fatigue of the teeth. for ring gears and pinions material of the following chemical composition is recommended: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; chromium, . to . per cent; nickel, . to . per cent. care should be taken to see that this material is properly deoxidized either by the use of ferrovanadium or its equivalent. the advantage of using a material of the above type lies in the fact that it will produce a satisfactory finished part with a very simple treatment. the heat treatment of ring gears and pinions is as follows: "carburize at a temperature of from , to , °f. for a sufficient length of time to secure a depth of case of from / to / in., and quench directly from carburizing heat in oil. reheat to a temperature of from , to , °f. and quench in oil. temper in oil at a temperature of from to °f. the final quenching operation on a ring gear should be made on a fixture similar to the gleason press to reduce distortion to a minimum." one of the largest producers of ring gears and pinions in the automotive industry has been using this material and treatment for the last years, and is of the opinion that he is now producing the highest quality product ever turned out by that plant. on some designs of automobiles a large amount of trouble is experienced with the driving pinion. if the material and heat treatment specified will not give satisfaction, rather than to change the design it is possible to use the following analysis material, which will raise the cost of the finished part but will give excellent service: carbon, . to . per cent; manganese, . to . per cent; phosphorus, . maximum per cent; sulphur, . maximum per cent; nickel, . to . per cent. the heat treatment of pinions produced from this material consists in carburizing at a temperature of from , to , °f. for a sufficient length of time to secure a depth of case from / to / in. the pinions are then quenched in oil from a temperature of , to , °f. to refine the grain of the core and quenched in oil from a temperature of from , to , °f. to refine and harden the case. the use of this material however, is recommended only in an emergency, as high-nickel steel is very susceptible to seams, secondary pipe and laminations. the main criterion on rear-axle and pinion shafts, steering knuckles and arms and parts of this general type is resistance to fatigue and torsion. the material recommended for parts of this character is either s. a. e. no. or no. steel, which have the chemical composition given in tables and . heat treatment of axles parts of this general type should be heat-treated to show the following minimum physical properties: elastic limit, , lb. per square inch; elongation in in., per cent; reduction of area, per cent; brinell hardness, to . the heat treatment used to secure these physical properties consists in quenching from a temperature of from , to , °f. in water and tempering at a temperature of from to , °f. where the axle shaft is a forging, and in the case of steering knuckles and arms, this heat treatment should be preceded by normalizing the forgings at a temperature of from , to , °f. it will be noted that these physical properties correspond to those worked out for an ideal aviation engine crankshaft. if parts of this type are designed with proper sections, so that this range of physical properties can be used, the part in question will give maximum service. one of the most important developments during the liberty engine program was the fact that it is not necessary to use a high-analysis alloy steel to secure a finished part which will give proper service. this fact should save the automotive industry millions of dollars on future production. if the proper authority be given the metallurgical engineer to govern the handling of the steel from the time it is purchased until it is assembled into finished product, mild-analysis steels can be used and the quality of the finished product guaranteed. it was only through the careful adherence to these fundamental principles that it was possible to produce , liberty engines, which are considered to be the most highly stressed mechanism ever produced, without the failure of a single engine from defective material or heat treatment. making steel balls steel balls are made from rods or coils according to size, stock less than / -in. comes in coils. stock / -in. and larger comes in rods. ball stock is designated in thousandths so that / -in. rods are known as . -in. stock. steel for making balls of average size is made up of: carbon . to . per cent silicon . to . per cent manganese . to . per cent chromium . to . per cent sulphur and phosphorus not to exceed . per cent for the larger sizes a typical analysis is: carbon . per cent silicon . per cent manganese . per cent chromium . per cent sulphur . per cent phosphorus . per cent balls / in. and below are formed cold on upsetting or heading machines, the stock use is as follows: table .--sizes of stock for forming balls on header ------------------------------------------------------- diameter of | diameter of | diameter of | diameter of ball, inch | stock inch | ball, inch | stock, inch -------------|-------------|-------------|------------- / | . | / | . / | . | / | . / | . | / | . / | . | / | . / | . | / | . / | . | / | . ------------------------------------------------------- for larger balls the blanks are hot-forged from straight bars. they are usually forged in multiples of four under a spring hammer and then separated by a suitable punching or shearing die in a press adjoining the hammer. the dimensions are: ----------------------------------------------------------- diameter of ball, | diameter of die, | diameter of stock, inch | inch | inch -------------------|------------------|-------------------- / | . | . / | . | . | . | . ----------------------------------------------------------- before hardening, the balls are annealed to relieve the stresses of forging and grinding, this being done by passing them through a revolving retort made of nichrome or other heat-resisting substance. the annealing temperature is , °f. the hardening temperature is from , to , °f. according to size and composition of steel. small balls, / and under, are quenched in oil, the larger sizes in water. in some special cases brine is used. quenching small balls in water is too great a shock as the small volume is cooled clear through almost instantly. the larger balls have metal enough to cool more slowly. balls which are cooled in either water or brine are boiled in water for hr. to relieve internal stresses, after which the balls are finished by dry-grinding and oil-grinding. the ball makers have an interesting method of testing stock for seams which do not show in the rod or wire. the hoover steel ball company cut off pieces of rod or wire / in. long and subject them to an end pressure of from , to , lb. a pressure of , lb. compresses the piece to / in. and the , lb. pressure to / in. this opens any seam which may exist but a solid bar shows no seam. another method which has proved very successful is to pass the bar or rod to be tested through a solenoid electro-magnet. with suitable instruments it is claimed that this is an almost infallible test as the instruments show at once when a seam or flaw is present in the bar. chapter v the forging of steel so much depends upon the forging of steel that this operation must be carefully supervised. this is especially true because of the tendency to place unskilled and ignorant men as furnace-tenders and hammer men. the main points to be supervised are the slow and careful heating to the proper temperature; forging must be continued at a proper rate to the correct temperature. the bar of stock from which a forging was made may have had a fairly good structure, but if the details of the working are not carefully watched, a seamy, split article of no value may easily result. heating.--although it is possible to work steels cold, to an extent depending upon their ductility, and although such operations are commonly performed, "forging" usually means working _heated_ steel. _heating_ is therefore a vital part of the process. heating should be done slowly in a soaking heat. a soft "lazy" flame with excess carbon is necessary to avoid burning the corners of the bar or billet, and heavily scaling the surface. if the temperature is not raised slowly, the outer part of the metal may be at welding heat while the inner part is several hundred degrees colder and comparatively hard and brittle. the above refers to muffle furnaces. if the heating is done in a small blacksmith's forge, the fire should be kept clean, and remade at intervals of about two hours. ashes and cinders should be cleaned from the center down to the tuyere and oily waste and wood used to start a new fire. as this kindles a layer of coke from the old fire is put on top, and another layer of green coal (screened and dampened blacksmiths' coal) as a cover. when the green coal on top has been coked the fire is ready for use. as the fuel burns out in the center, the coke forming around the edge is pushed inward, and its place taken by more green coal. thus the fire is made up of three parts; the center where coke is burning and the iron heating; a zone where coke is forming, and the outside bank of green coal. steel worked in austenitic state.--as a general rule steel should be worked when it is in the austenitic state. (see page .) it is then soft and ductile. as the steel is heated above the critical temperature the size of the austenite crystals tends to grow rapidly. when forging starts, however, these grains are broken up. the growth is continually destroyed by the hammering, which should consequently be continued down to the upper critical temperature when the austenite crystals break up into ferrite and cementite. the size of the final grains will be much smaller and hence a more uniform structure will result if the "mother" austenite was also fine grained. a final steel will be composed of pearlite; ferrite and pearlite; or cementite and pearlite, according to the carbon content. the ultimate object is to secure a fine, uniform grain throughout the piece and this can be secured by uniform heating and by thoroughly rolling it or working it at a temperature just down to its critical point. if this is correctly done the fracture will be fine and silky. steel which has been overheated slightly and the forging stopped at too high a temperature will show a "granular" fracture. a badly overheated or "burned" steel will have iridescent colors on a fresh fracture, it will be brittle both hot and cold, and absolutely ruined. steel can be worked cold.--as noted above, steel can be worked cold, as in the case of cold-rolled steel. heat treatment of cold-worked steel is a very delicate operation. cold working hardens and strengthens steel. it also introduces internal stresses. heat-treatments are designed to eliminate the stresses without losing the hardness and strength. this is done by tempering at a low heat. avoid the "blue" range ( to °c.). tempering for a considerable time just under the critical is liable to cause great brittleness. annealing (reheating through the critical) destroys the effect of cold work. forging high-speed steel.--heat very slowly and carefully to from , to , °f. and forge thoroughly and uniformly. if the forging operation is prolonged do not continue forging the tool when the steel begins to stiffen under the hammer. do not forge below , °f. (a dark lemon or orange color). reheat frequently rather than prolong the hammering at the low heats. after finishing the forging allow the tool to cool as slowly as possible in lime or dry ashes; avoid placing the tool on the damp ground or in a draught of air. use a good clean fire for heating. do not allow the tool to soak at the forging heat. do not heat any more of the tool than is necessary in order to forge it to the desired shape. carbon tool steel.--heat to a bright red, about , to , °f. do not hammer steel when it cools down to a dark cherry red, or just below its hardening point, as this creates surface cracks. oil-hardening steel.--heat slowly and uniformly to , °f. and forge thoroughly. do not under any circumstances attempt to harden at the forging heat. after cooling from forging reheat to about , °f. and cool slowly so as to remove forging strains. chrome-nickel steel.--forging heat of chrome-nickel steel depends very largely on the percentage of each element contained in the steel. steel containing from / to per cent chromium and from - / to - / per cent nickel, with a carbon content equal to the chromium, should be heated very slowly and uniformly to approximately , ° f., or salmon color. after forging, reheat the steel to about , ° and cool slowly so as to remove forging strains. do not attempt to harden the steel before such annealing. a great deal of steel is constantly being spoiled by carelessness in the forging operation. the billets may be perfectly sound, but even if the steel is heated to a good forging heat, and is hammered too lightly, a poor forging results. a proper blow will cause the edges and ends to bulge slightly outwards--the inner-most parts of the steel seem to flow faster than the surface. light blows will work the surface out faster; the edges and ends will curve inwards. this condition in extreme cases leaves a seam in the axis of the forging. steel which is heated quickly and forging begun before uniform heat has penetrated to its center will open up seams because the cooler central portion is not able to flow with the hot metal surrounding it. uniform heating is absolutely necessary for the best results. figure shows a sound forging. the bars in fig. were burst by improper forging, while the die, fig. , burst from a piped center. figure shows a piece forged with a hammer too light for the size of the work. this gives an appearance similar to case-hardening, the refining effect of the blows reaching but a short distance from the surface. while it is impossible to accurately rate the capacity of steam hammers with respect to the size of work they should handle, on account of the greatly varying conditions, a few notes from the experience of the bement works of the niles-bement-pond company will be of service. [illustration: fig. .--a sound forging.] [illustration: fig. .--burst from improper forging.] for making an occasional forging of a given size, a smaller hammer may be used than if we are manufacturing this same piece in large quantities. if we have a -in. piece to forge, such as a pinion or a short shaft, a hammer of about , -lb. capacity would answer very nicely. but should the general work be as large as this, it would be very much better to use a , -lb. hammer. if, on the other hand, we wish to forge -in. axles economically, it would be necessary to use a , - or , -lb. hammer. the following table will be found convenient for reference for the proper size of hammer to be used on different classes of general blacksmith work, although it will be understood that it is necessary to modify these to suit conditions, as has already been indicated. [illustration: fig. .--burst from a piped center.] [illustration: fig. .--result of using too light a hammer.] diameter of stock size of hammer - / in. to lb. in. to lb. - / in. to lb. in. to , lb. in. , to , lb. steam hammers are always rated by the weight of the ram, and the attached parts, which include the piston and rod, nothing being added on account of the steam pressure behind the piston. this makes it a little difficult to compare them with plain drop or tilting hammers, which are also rated in the same way. [illustration: fig. .--good and bad ingots.] steam hammers are usually operated at pressures varying from to lb. of steam per square inch, and may also be operated by compressed air at about the same pressures. it is cheaper, however, in the case of compressed air to use pressures from to lb. instead of going higher. forgings must, however, be made from sound billets if satisfactory results are to be secured. figure shows three cross-sections of which _a_ is sound, _b_ is badly piped and _c_ is worthless. plant for forging rifle barrels the forging of rifle barrels in large quantities and heat-treating them to meet the specifications demanded by some of the foreign governments led wheelock, lovejoy & company to establish a complete plant for this purpose in connection with their warehouse in cambridge, mass. this plant, designed and constructed by their chief engineer, k. a. juthe, had many interesting features. many features of this plant can be modified for other classes of work. [illustration: fig .--cutting up barrels.] [illustration: fig. .--upsetting the ends.] the stock, which came in bars of mill length, was cut off so as to make a barrel with the proper allowances for trimming (fig. ). they then pass to the forging or upsetting press in the adjoining room. this press, which is shown in more detail in fig. , handled the barrels from all the heating furnaces shown. the men changed work at frequent intervals, to avoid excessive fatigue. [illustration: fig. .--continuous heating furnace.] then the barrels were reheated in the continuous furnace, shown in fig. , and straightened before being tested. the barrels were next tested for straightness. after the heat-treating, the ends are ground, a spot ground on the enlarged end and each barrel tested on a brinell machine. the pressure used is , kg., or , lb., on a -millimeter ball, which is standard. hardness of was desired. the heat-treating of the rifle blanks covered four separate operations: ( ) heating and soaking the steel above the critical temperature and quenching in oil to harden the steel through to the center; ( ) reheating for drawing of temper for the purpose of meeting the physical specifications; ( ) reheating to meet the machine ability test for production purposes; and ( ) reheating to straighten the blanks while hot. a short explanation of the necessity for the many heats may be interesting. for the first heat, the blanks were slowly brought to the required heat, which is about °f. above the critical temperature. they are then soaked at a high heat for about hr. before quenching. the purpose of this treatment is to eliminate any rolling or heat stresses that might be in the bars from mill operations; also to insure a thorough even heat through a cross-section of the steel. this heat also causes blanks with seams or slight flaws to open up in quenching, making detection of defective blanks very easy. the quenching oil was kept at a constant temperature of °f., to avoid subjecting the steel to shocks, thereby causing surface cracks. the drawing of temper was the most critical operation and was kept within a ° fluctuation. the degree of heat necessary depends entirely on the analysis of the steel, there being a certain variation in the different heats of steel as received from the mill. machineability reheating for machine ability was done at ° less than the drawing temperature, but the time of soaking is more than double. after both drawing and reheating, the blanks were buried in lime where they remain, out of contact with the air, until their temperature had dropped to that of the workroom. for straightening, the barrels were heated to from to , °f. in an automatic furnace ft. long, this operation taking about hr. the purpose of hot straightening was to prevent any stresses being put into the blanks, so that after rough-turning, drilling or rifling operations they would not have a tendency to spring back to shape as left by the quenching bath. a method that produces an even better machining rifle blank, which practically stays straight through the different machining operations, was to rough-turn the blanks, then subject them to a heat of practically , for hr. production throughout the different operations is materially increased, with practically no straightening required after drilling, reaming, finish-turning or rifling operations. [illustration: fig. . fig. . figs. and .--roof system of cooling quenching oil.] this method was tested out by one of the largest manufacturers and proved to be the best way to eliminate a very expensive finished gun-barrel straightening process. [illustration: fig. .--details of the cooler.] the heat-treating required a large amount of cooling oil, and the problem of keeping this at the proper temperature required considerable study. the result was the cooling plant on the roof, as shown in figs. , and . the first two illustrations show the plant as it appeared complete. figure shows how the oil was handled in what is sometimes called the ebulator system. the oil was pumped up from the cooling tanks through the pipe _a_ to the tank _b_. from here it ran down onto the breakers or separators _c_, which break the oil up into fine particles that are caught by the fans _d_. the spray is blown up into the cooling tower _e_, which contains banks of cooling pipes, as can be seen, as well as baffies _f_. the spray collects on the cool pipes and forms drops, which fall on the curved plates _g_ and run back to the oil-storage tank below ground. the water for this cooling was pumped from artesian wells at the rate of gal. per minute and cooled gal. of oil per minute, lowering the temperature from or to °f. the water as it came from the wells averaged around °f. the motor was of a - / -hp. variable-speed type with a range of from to , r.p.m., which could be varied to suit the amount of oil to be cooled. the plant handled gal. of oil per minute. chapter vi annealing there is no mystery or secret about the proper annealing of different steels, but in order to secure the best results it is absolutely necessary for the operator to know the kind of steel which is to be annealed. the annealing of steel is primarily done for one of three specific purposes: to soften for machining purposes; to change the physical properties, largely to increase ductility; or to release strains caused by rolling or forging. proper annealing means the heating of the steel slowly and uniformly to the right temperature, the holding of the temperature for a given period and the gradual cooling to normal temperature. the proper temperature depends on the kind of steel, and the suggestions of the maker of the special steel being used should be carefully followed. for carbon steel the temperatures recommended for annealing vary from , to , °f. this temperature need not be long continued. the steel should be cooled in hot sand, lime or ashes. if heated in the open forge the steel should be buried in the cooling material as quickly as possible, not allowing it to remain in the open air any longer than absolutely necessary. best results, however, are secured when the fire does not come in direct contact with the steel. good results are obtained by packing the steel in iron boxes or tubes, much as for case-hardening or carbonizing, using the same materials. pieces do not require to be entirely surrounded by carbon for annealing, however. do not remove from boxes until cold. steel to be annealed may be classified into four different groups, each of which must be treated according to the elements contained in its particular analysis. different methods are therefore necessary to bring about the desired result. the classifications are as follows: high-speed steel, alloy steel, tool or crucible steel, and high-carbon machinery steel. annealing of high-speed steel for annealing high-speed steel, some makers recommend using ground mica, charcoal, lime, fine dry ashes or lake sand as a packing in the annealing boxes. mixtures of one part charcoal, one part lime and three parts of sand are also suggested, or two parts of ashes may be substituted for the one part of lime. to bring about the softest structure or machine ability of high-speed steel, it should be packed in charcoal in boxes or pipes, carefully sealed at all points, so that no gases will escape or air be admitted. it should be heated slowly to not less than , °f. and the steel must not be removed from its packing until it is cool. slow heating means that the high heat must have penetrated to the very core of the steel. when the steel is heated clear through it has been in the furnace long enough. if the steel can remain in the furnace and cool down with it, there will be no danger of air blasts or sudden or uneven cooling. if not, remove the box and cover quickly with dry ashes, sand or lime until it becomes cold. too high a heat or maintaining the heat for too long a period, produces a harsh, coarse grain and greatly increases the liability to crack in hardening. it also reduces the strength and toughness of the steel. steel which is to be used for making tools with teeth, such as taps, reamers and milling cutters, should not be annealed too much. when the steel is too soft it is more apt to tear in cutting and makes it more difficult to cut a smooth thread or other surface. moderate annealing is found best for tools of this kind. tool or crucible steel crucible steel can be annealed either in muffled furnace or by being packed. packing is by far the most satisfactory method as it prevents scaling, local hard spots, uneven annealing, or violent changes in shape. it should be brought up slowly to just above its calescent or hardening temperature. the operator must know before setting his heats the temperature at which the different carbon content steels are hardened. the higher the carbon contents the lower is the hardening heat, but this should in no case be less than , °f. annealing alloy steel the term alloy steel, from the steel maker's point of view, refers largely to nickel and chromium steel or a combination of both. these steels are manufactured very largely by the open-hearth process, although chromium steels are also a crucible product. it is next to impossible to give proper directions for the proper annealing of alloy steel unless the composition is known to the operator. nickel steels may be annealed at lower temperatures than carbon steels, depending upon their alloy content. for instance, if a pearlitic carbon steel may be annealed at , °c., the same analysis containing - / per cent nickel may be annealed at , °c. and a per cent nickel steel at , °. in order that high chromium steels may be readily machined, they must be heated at or slightly above the critical for a very long time, and cooled through the critical at an extremely slow rate. for a steel containing . to . per cent carbon, under . per cent manganese, and about . per cent chromium, bullens recommends the following anneal: . heat to , or , °f. . air cool to about °f. . soak at , to , °f. . cool slowly in furnace. high-carbon machinery steel the carbon content of this steel is above points and is hardly ever above points or . per cent. annealing such steel is generally in quantity production and does not require the care that the other steels need because it is very largely a much cheaper product and a great deal of material is generally removed from the outside surface. the purpose for which this steel is annealed is a deciding factor as to what heat to give it. if it is for machineability only, the steel requires to be brought up slowly to just below the critical and then slowly cooled in the furnace or ash pit. it must be thoroughly covered so that there will be no access of cool air. if the annealing is to increase ductility to the maximum extent it should be slowly heated to slightly over the upper critical temperature and kept at this heat for a length of time necessary for a thorough penetration to the core, after which it can be cooled to about , °f., then reheated to about , °f., when it can be removed and put in an ash pit or covered with lime. if the annealing is just to relieve strains, slow heating is not necessary, but the steel must be brought up to a temperature not much less than a forging or rolling heat and gradually cooled. covering in this case is only necessary in steel of a carbon content of more than points. annealing in bone steel and cast iron may both be annealed in granulated bone. pack the work the same as for case-hardening except that it is not necessary to keep the pieces away from each other. pack with bone that has been used until it is nearly white. heat as hot as necessary for the steel and let the furnace cool down. if the boxes are removed from furnace while still warm, cover boxes and all in warm ashes or sand, air slaked lime or old, burned bone to retain heat as long as possible. do not remove work from boxes until cold. annealing of rifle components at springfield armory in general, all forgings of the components of the arms manufactured at the armory and all forgings for other ordnance establishments are packed in charcoal, lime or suitable material and annealed before being transferred from the forge shop. except in special cases, all annealing will be done in annealing pots of appropriate size. one fire end of a thermo-couple is inserted in the center of the annealing pot nearest the middle of the furnace and another in the furnace outside of but near the annealing pots. the temperatures used in annealing carbon steel components of the various classes used at the armory vary from °c. to °c. or , to , °f. the fuel is shut off from the annealing furnace gradually as the temperature of the pot approaches the prescribed annealing temperature so as to prevent heating beyond that temperature. the forgings of the rifle barrel and the pistol barrel are exceptions to the above general rule. these forgings will be packed in lime and allowed to cool slowly from the residual heat after forging. chapter vii case-hardening or surface-carburizing carburizing, commonly called case-hardening, is the art of producing a high-carbon surface, or case, upon a low carbon steel article. wrenches, locomotive link motions, gun mechanisms, balls and ball races, automobile gears and many other devices are thereby given a high-carbon _case_ capable of assuming extreme hardness, while the interior body of metal, the _core_, remains soft and tough. the simplest method is to heat the piece to be hardened to a bright red, dip it in cyanide of potassium (or cover it by sprinkling the cyanide over it), keep it hot until the melted cyanide covers it thoroughly, and quench in water. carbon and nitrogen enter the outer skin of the steel and harden this skin but leave the center soft. the hard surface or "case" varies in thickness according to the size of the piece, the materials used and the length of time which the piece remains at the carburizing temperature. cyanide case-hardening is used only where a light or thin skin is sufficient. it gives a thickness of about . in. in some cases of cyanide carburizing, the piece is heated in cyanide to the desired temperature and then quenched. for a thicker case the steel is packed in carbon materials of various kinds such as burnt leather scraps, charcoal, granulated bone or some of the many carbonizing compounds. machined or forged steel parts are packed with case-hardening material in metal boxes and subjected to a red heat. under such conditions, carbon is absorbed by the steel surfaces, and a carburized case is produced capable of responding to ordinary hardening and tempering operations, the core meanwhile retaining its original softness and toughness. such case-hardened parts are stronger, cheaper, and more serviceable than similar parts made of tool steel. the tough core resists breakage by shock. the hardened case resists wear from friction. the low cost of material, the ease of manufacture, and the lessened breakage in quenching all serve to promote cheap production. for successful carburizing, the following points should be carefully observed: the utmost care should be used in the selection of pots for carburizing; they should be as free as possible from both scaling and warping. these two requirements eliminate the cast iron pot, although many are used, thus leaving us to select from malleable castings, wrought iron, cast steel, and special alloys, such as nichrome or silchrome. if first cost is not important, it will prove cheaper in the end to use pots of some special alloy. [illustrations: figs. to .--case-hardening or carburizing boxes.] [illustration: fig. .--a lid that is easily luted.] the pots should be standardized to suit the product. pots should be made as small as possible in width, and space gained by increasing the height; for it takes about - / hr. to heat the average small pot of in. in width, between and hr. to heat to the center of an -in. box, and to hr. to heat to the center of a -in. box; and the longer the time required to heat to the center, the more uneven the carburizing. the work is packed in the box surrounded by materials which will give up carbon when heated. it must be packed so that each piece is separate from the others and does not touch the box, with a sufficient amount of carburizing material surrounding each. figures to show the kind of boxes used and the way the work should be packed. figure shows a later type of box in which the edges can be easily luted. figure shows test wires broken periodically to determine the depth of case. figure shows the minimum clearance which should be used in packing and fig. the way in which the outer pieces receive the heat first and likewise take up the carbon before those in the center. this is why a slow, soaking heat is necessary in handling large quantities of work, so as to allow the heat and carbon to soak in equally. while it has been claimed that iron below its critical temperature will absorb some carbon, giolitti has shown that this absorption is very slow. in order to produce quick and intense carburization the iron should preferably be above its upper critical temperature or , °f.,--therefore the carbon absorbed immediately goes into austenite, or solid solution. it is also certain that the higher the temperature the quicker will carbon be absorbed, and the deeper it will penetrate into the steel, that is, the deeper the "case." at sheffield, england, where wrought iron is packed in charcoal and heated for days to convert it into "blister steel," the temperatures are from , to , °f. charcoal by itself carburizes slowly, consequently commercial compounds also contain certain "energizers" which give rapid penetration at lower temperatures. the most important thing in carburizing is the human element. most careful vigilance should be kept when packing and unpacking, and the operator should be instructed in the necessity for clean compound free from scale, moisture, fire clay, sand, floor sweepings, etc. from just such causes, many a good carburizer has been unjustly condemned. it is essential with most carburizers to use about to per cent of used material, in order to prevent undue shrinking during heating; therefore the necessity of properly screening used material and carefully inspecting it for foreign substances before it is used again. it is right here that the greatest carelessness is generally encountered. don't pack the work to be carburized too closely; leave at least in. from the bottom, / in. from the sides, and in. from the top of pots, and for a -hr. run, have the pieces at least / in. apart. this gives the heat a chance to thoroughly permeate the pot, and the carburizing material a chance to shrink without allowing carburized pieces to touch and cause soft spots. good case-hardening pots and annealing tubes can be made from the desired size of wrought iron pipe. the ends are capped or welded, and a slot is cut in the side of the pot, equal to one quarter of its circumference, and about / of its length. another piece of the same diameter pipe cut lengthwise into thirds forms a cover for this pot. we then have a cheap, substantial pot, non-warping, with a minimum tendency to scale, but the pot is difficult to seal tightly. this idea is especially adaptable when long, narrow pots are desired. when pots are packed and the carburizer thoroughly tamped down, the covers of the pot are put on and sealed with fire clay which has a little salt mixed into it. the more perfect the seal the more we can get out of the carburizer. the rates of penetration depend on temperature and the presence of proper gas in the required volume. any pressure we can cause will, of course, have a tendency to increase the rate of penetration. if you have a wide furnace, do not load it full at one time. put one-half your load in first, in the center of the furnace, and heat until pots show a low red, about , to , °f. then fill the furnace by putting the cold pots on the outside or, the section nearest the source of heat. this will give the work in the slowest portion of the furnace a chance to come to heat at the same time as the pots that are nearest the sources of heat. to obtain an even heating of the pots and lessen their tendency to warp and scale, and to cause the contents of the furnace to heat up evenly, we should use a reducing fire and fill the heating chamber with flame. this can be accomplished by partially closing the waste gas vents and reducing slightly the amount of air used by the burners. a short flame will then be noticed issuing from the partially closed vents. thus, while maintaining the temperature of the heating chamber, we will have a lower temperature in the combustion chamber, which will naturally increase its longevity. sometimes it is advisable to cool the work in the pots. this saves compound, and causes a more gradual diffusion of the carbon between the case and the core, and is very desirable condition, inasmuch as abrupt cases are inclined to chip out. the most satisfactory steel to carburize contains between . and . per cent carbon, less than . per cent manganese, less than . per cent phosphorus and sulphur, and low silicon. but steel of this composition does not seem to satisfy our progressive engineers, and many alloy steels are now on the market, these, although more or less difficult to machine, give when carburized the various qualities demanded, such as a very hard case, very tough core, or very hard case and tough core. however, the additional elements also have a great effect both on the rate of penetration during the carburizing operation, and on the final treatment, consequently such alloy steels require very careful supervision during the entire heat treating operations. rate of absorption according to guillet, the absorption of carbon is favored by those special elements which exist as double carbides in steel. for example, manganese exists as manganese carbide in combination with the iron carbide. the elements that favor the absorption of carbon are: manganese, tungsten, chromium and molybdenum those opposing it, nickel, silicon, and aluminum. guillet has worked out the effect of the different elements on the rate of penetration in comparison with steel that absorbed carbon at a given temperature, at an average rate of . in. per hour. his tables show that the following elements require an increased time of exposure to the carburizing material in order to obtain the same depth of penetration as with simple steel: when steel contains increased time of exposure . per cent nickel per cent . per cent nickel per cent . per cent titanium per cent . per cent titanium per cent . per cent silicon per cent . per cent silicon per cent . per cent silicon per cent . per cent silicon no penetration . per cent aluminum per cent . per cent aluminum per cent the following elements seem to assist the rate of penetration of carbon, and the carburizing time may therefore be reduced as follows: when steel contains decreased time of exposure . per cent manganese per cent . per cent manganese per cent . per cent chromium per cent . per cent chromium per cent . per cent tungsten . per cent tungsten . per cent tungsten per cent . per cent molybdenum . per cent molybdenum per cent the temperature at which carburization is accomplished is a very important factor. hence the necessity for a reliable pyrometer, located so as to give the temperature just below the tops of the pots. it must be remembered, however, that the pyrometer gives the temperature of only one spot, and is therefore only an aid to the operator, who must use his eyes for successful results. the carbon content of the case generally is governed by the temperature of the carburization. it generally proves advisable to have the case contain between . per cent and . carbon; more carbon than this gives rise to excess free cementite or carbide of iron, which is detrimental, causing the case to be brittle and apt to chip. t. g. selleck gives a very useful table of temperatures and the relative carbon contents of the case of steels carburized between and hrs. using a good charcoal carburizer. this data is as follows: table .--carbon content obtained at various temperatures at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent at , °f., the surface carbon content will be . per cent to this very valuable table, it seems best to add the following data, which we have used for a number of years. we do not know the name of its author, but it has proved very valuable, and seems to complete the above information. the table is self-explanatory, giving depth of penetration of the carbon of the case at different temperatures for different lengths of time: --------------------------------------------------------- | temperature penetration |----------------------------- | , | , | , ---------------------------|---------|---------|--------- penetration after / hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . penetration after hr. | . | . | . --------------------------------------------------------- from the tables given, we may calculate with a fair degree of certainty the amount of carbon in the case, and its penetration. these figures vary widely with different carburizers, and as pointed out immediately above, with different alloy steels. carburizing material the simplest carburizing substance is charcoal. it is also the slowest, but is often used mixed with something that will evolve large volumes of carbon monoxide or hydrocarbon gas on being heated. a great variety of materials is used, a few of them being charcoal (both wood and bone), charred leather, crushed bone, horn, mixtures of charcoal and barium carbonate, coke and heavy oils, coke treated with alkaline carbonates, peat, charcoal mixed with common salt, saltpeter, resin, flour, potassium bichromate, vegetable fibre, limestone, various seed husks, etc. in general, it is well to avoid complex mixtures. h. l. heathcote, on analyzing seventeen different carburizers, found that they contained the following ingredients: per cent moisture . to . oil . to . carbon (organic) . to . calcium phosphate . to . calcium carbonate . to . barium carbonate nil to . zinc oxide nil to . silica nil to . sulphates (so ) trace to . sodium chloride nil to . sodium carbonate nil to . sulphides (s) nil to . carburizing mixtures, though bought by weight, are used by volume, and the weight per cubic foot is a big factor in making a selection. a good mixture should be porous, so that the evolved gases, which should be generated at the proper temperature, may move freely around the steel objects being carburized; should be a good conductor of heat; should possess minimum shrinkage when used; and should be capable of being tamped down. many "secret mixtures" are sold, falsely claimed to be able to convert inferior metal into crucible tool steel grade. they are generally nothing more than mixtures of carbonaceous and cyanogen compounds possessing the well-known carburizing properties of those substances. quenching it is considered good practice to quench alloy steels from the pot, especially if the case is of any appreciable depth. the texture of carbon steel will be weakened by the prolonged high heat of carburizing, so that if we need a tough core, we must reheat it above its critical range, which is about , °f. for soft steel, but lower for manganese and nickel steels. quenching is done in either water, oil, or air, depending upon the results desired. the steel is then very carefully reheated to refine the case, the temperature varying from , to , °f., depending on whether the material is an alloy or a simple steel, and quenched in either water or oil. [illustration: fig. .--case-hardening depths.] there are many possibilities yet to be developed with the carburizing of alloy steels, which can produce a very tough, tenacious austenitic case which becomes hard on cooling in air, and still retains a soft, pearlitic core. an austenitic case is not necessarily file hard, but has a very great resistance to abrasive wear. the more carbon a steel has to begin with the more slowly will it absorb carbon and the lower the temperature required. low-carbon steel of from to points is generally used and the carbon brought up to or points. tool steels may be carbonized as high as points. in addition to the carburizing materials given, a mixture of per cent of barium carbonate and per cent charcoal gives much faster penetration than charcoal, bone or leather. the penetration of this mixture on ordinary low-carbon steel is shown in fig. , over a range of from to hr. effect of different carburizing material [illustrations: figs. to .] each of these different packing materials has a different effect upon the work in which it is heated. charcoal by itself will give a rather light case. mixed with raw bone it will carburize more rapidly, and still more so if mixed with burnt bone. raw bone and burnt bone, as may be inferred, are both quicker carbonizers than charcoal, but raw bone must never be used where the breakage of hardened edges is to be avoided, as it contains phosphorus and tends to make the piece brittle. charred leather mixed with charcoal is a still faster material, and horns and hoofs exceed even this in speed; but these two compounds are restricted by their cost to use with high-grade articles, usually of tool or high-carbon steel, that are to be hardened locally--that is, "pack-hardened." cyanide of potassium or prussiate of potash are also included in the list of carbonizing materials; but outside of carburizing by dipping into melted baths of this material, their use is largely confined to local hardening of small surfaces, such as holes in dies and the like. dr. federico giolitti has proven that when carbonizing with charcoal, or charcoal plus barium carbonate, the active agent which introduces carbon into the steel is a gas, carbon monoxide (co), derived by combustion of the charcoal in the air trapped in the box, or by decomposition of the carbonate. this gas diffuses in and out of the hot steel, transporting carbon from the charcoal to the outer portions of the metal: if energizers like tar, peat, and vegetable fiber are used, they produce hydrocarbon gases on being heated--gases principally composed of hydrogen and carbon. these gases are unstable in the presence of hot iron: it seems to decompose them and sooty carbon is deposited on the surface of the metal. this diffuses into the metal a little, but it acts principally by being a ready source of carbon, highly active and waiting to be carried into the metal by the carbon monoxide--which as before, is the principal transfer agent. animal refuse when used to speed up the action of clean charcoal acts somewhat in the same manner, but in addition the gases given off by the hot substance contain nitrogen compounds. nitrogen and cyanides (compounds of carbon and nitrogen) have long been known to give a very hard thin case very rapidly. it has been discovered only recently that this is due to the steel absorbing nitrogen as well as carbon, and that nitrogen hardens steel and makes it brittle just like carbon does. in fact it is very difficult to distinguish between these two hardening agents when examining a carburized steel under the microscope. one of the advantages of hardening by carburizing is the fact that you can arrange to leave part of the work soft and thus retain the toughness and strength of the original material. figures to show ways of doing this. the inside of the cup in fig. is locally hardened, as illustrated in fig. , "spent" or used bone being packed around the surfaces that are to be left soft, while cyanide of potassium is put around those which are desired hard. the threads of the nut in fig. are kept soft by carburizing the nut while upon a stud. the profile gage, fig. , is made of high-carbon steel and is hardened on the inside by packing with charred leather, but kept soft on the outside by surrounding it with fireclay. the rivet stud shown in fig. is carburized while of its full diameter and then turned down to the size of the rivet end, thus cutting away the carburized surface. after packing the work carefully in the boxes the lids are sealed or luted with fireclay to keep out any gases from the fire. the size of box should be proportioned to the work. the box should not be too large especially for light work that is run on a short heat. if it can be just large enough to allow the proper amount of material around it, the work is apt to be more satisfactory in every way. pieces of this kind are of course not quenched and hardened in the carburizing heat, but are left in the box to cool, just as in box annealing, being reheated and quenched as a second operation. in fact, this is a good scheme to use for the majority of carburizing work of small and moderate size. material is on the market with which one side of the steel can be treated; or copper-plating one side of it will answer the same purpose and prevent that side becoming carburized. quenching the work in some operations case-hardened work is quenched from the box by dumping the whole contents into the quenching tank. it is common practice to leave a sieve or wire basket to catch the work, allowing the carburizing material to fall to the bottom of the tank where it can be recovered later and used again as a part of a new mixture. for best results, however, the steel is allowed to cool down slowly in the box after which it is removed and hardened by heating and quenching the same as carbon steel of the same grade. it has absorbed sufficient carbon so that, in the outer portions at least, it is a high-carbon steel. the quenching tank the quenching tank is an important feature of apparatus in case-hardening--possibly more so than in ordinary tempering. one reason for this is because of the large quantities of pieces usually dumped into the tank at a time. one cannot take time to separate the articles themselves from the case-hardening mixture, and the whole content of the box is droped into the bath in short order, as exposure to air of the heated work is fatal to results. unless it is split up, it is likely to go to the bottom as a solid mass, in which case very few of the pieces are properly hardened. [illustration: fig. .--combination cooling tank for case-hardening.] a combination cooling tank is shown in fig. . water inlet and outlet pipes are shown and also a drain plug that enables the tank to be emptied when it is desired to clean out the spent carburizing material from the bottom. a wire-bottomed tray, framed with angle iron, is arranged to slide into this tank from the top and rests upon angle irons screwed to the tank sides. its function is to catch the pieces and prevent them from settling to the tank bottom, and it also makes it easy to remove a batch of work. a bottomless box of sheet steel is shown at _c_. this fits into the wire-bottomed tray and has a number of rods or wires running across it, their purpose being to break up the mass of material as it comes from the carbonizing box. below the wire-bottomed tray is a perforated cross-pipe that is connected with a compressed-air line. this is used when case-hardening for colors. the shop that has no air compressor may rig up a satisfactory equivalent in the shape of a low-pressure hand-operated air pump and a receiver tank, for it is not necessary to use high-pressure air for this purpose. when colors are desired on case-hardened work, the treatment in quenching is exactly the same as that previously described except that air is pumped through this pipe and keeps the water agitated. the addition of a slight amount of powdered cyanide of potassium to the packing material used for carburizing will produce stronger colors, and where this is the sole object, it is best to maintain the box at a dull-red heat. [illustration: fig. .--why heat treatment of case-hardened work is necessary.] the old way of case-hardening was to dump the contents of the box at the end of the carburizing heat. later study in the structure of steel thus treated has caused a change in this procedure, the use of automobiles and alloy steels probably hastening this result. the diagrams reproduced in fig. show why the heat treatment of case-hardened work is necessary. starting at _a_ with a close-grained and tough stock, such as ordinary machinery steel containing from to points of carbon, if such work is quenched on a carbonizing heat the result will be as shown at _b_. this gives a core that is coarse-grained and brittle and an outer case that is fine-grained and hard, but is likely to flake off, owing to the great difference in structure between it and the core. reheating this work beyond the critical temperature of the core refines this core, closes the grain and makes it tough, but leaves the case very brittle; in fact, more so than it was before. refining the grain this is remedied by reheating the piece to a temperature slightly above the critical temperature of the case, this temperature corresponding ordinarily to that of steel having a carbon content of points, when this is again quenched, the temperature, which has not been high enough to disturb the refined core, will have closed the grain of the case and toughened it. so, instead of but one heat and one quenching for this class of work, we have three of each, although it is quite possible and often profitable to omit the quenching after carburizing and allow the piece or pieces and the case-carburizing box to cool together, as in annealing. sometimes another heat treatment is added to the foregoing, for the purpose of letting down the hardness of the case and giving it additional toughness by heating to a temperature between ° and °. usually this is done in an oil bath. after this the piece is allowed to cool. it is possible to harden the surface of tool steel extremely hard and yet leave its inner core soft and tough for strength, by a process similar to case-hardening and known as "pack-hardening." it consists in using tool steel of carbon contents ranging from to points, packing this in a box with charred leather mixed with wood charcoal and heating at a low-red heat for or hr., thus raising the carbon content of the exterior of the piece. the article when quenched in an oil bath will have an extremely hard exterior and tough core. it is a good scheme for tools that must be hard and yet strong enough to stand abuse. raw bone is never used as a packing for this class of work, as it makes the cutting edges brittle. case-hardening treatments for various steels plain water, salt water and linseed oil are the three most common quenching materials for case-hardening. water is used for ordinary work, salt water for work which must be extremely hard on the surface, and oil for work in which toughness is the main consideration. the higher the carbon of the case, the less sudden need the quenching action take hold of the piece; in fact, experience in case-hardening work gives a great many combinations of quenching baths of these three materials, depending on their temperatures. thin work, highly carbonized, which would fly to pieces under the slightest blow if quenched in water or brine, is made strong and tough by properly quenching in slightly heated oil. it is impossible to give any rules for the temperature of this work, so much depending on the size and design of the piece; but it is not a difficult matter to try three or four pieces by different methods and determine what is needed for best results. the alloy steels are all susceptible of case-hardening treatment; in fact, this is one of the most important heat treatments for such steels in the automobile industry. nickel steel carburizes more slowly than common steel, the nickel seeming to have the effect of slowing down the rate of penetration. there is no cloud without its silver lining, however, and to offset this retardation, a single treatment is often sufficient for nickel steel; for the core is not coarsened as much as low-carbon machinery steel and thus ordinary work may be quenched on the carburizing heat. steel containing from to . per cent of nickel is carburized between , and , °f. nickel steel containing less than points of carbon, with this same percentage of nickel, may be slightly hardened by cooling in air instead of quenching. chrome-nickel steel may be case-hardened similarly to the method just described for nickel steel, but double treatment gives better results and is used for high-grade work. the carburizing temperature is the same, between , and , °f., the second treatment consisting of reheating to , ° and then quenching in boiling salt water, which gives a hard surface and at the same time prevents distortion of the piece. the core of chrome-nickel case-hardened steel, like that of nickel steel, is not coarsened excessively by the first heat treatment, and therefore a single heating and quenching will suffice. carburizing by gas the process of carburizing by gas, briefly mentioned on page , consists of having a slowly revolving, properly heated, cylindrical retort into which illuminating gas (a mixture of various hydrocarbons) is continuously injected under pressure. the spent gases are vented to insure the greatest speed in carbonizing. the work is constantly and uniformly exposed to a clean carbonizing atmosphere instead of partially spent carbonaceous solids which may give off very complex compounds of phosphorus, sulphur, carbon and nitrogen. originally this process was thought to require a gas generator but it has been discovered that city gas works all right. the gas consists of vapors derived from petroleum or bituminous coal. sometimes the gas supply is diluted by air, to reduce the speed of carburization and increase the depth. preventing carburizing by copper-plating copper-plating has been found effective and must have a thickness of . in. less than this does not give a continuous coating. the plating bath used has a temperature of °f. a voltage of . is to be maintained across the terminals. regions which are to be hardened can be kept free from copper by coating them with paraffin before they enter the plating tank. the operation is as follows: operation no. contents of bath purpose gasoline to remove grease sawdust to dry warm potassium hydroxide solution to remove grease and dirt warm water to wash warm sulphuric acid solution to acid clean warm water to wash cold water additional wash cold potassium cyanide solution cleanser cold water to wash electric cleaner, warm sodium cleanser to give good hydroxide case-iron anode plating surface copper plating bath of copper plating bath sulphate and potassium cyanide solution warm there are also other methods of preventing case-hardening, one being to paint the surface with a special compound prepared for this purpose. in some cases a coating of plastic asbestos is used while in others thin sheet asbestos is wired around the part to be kept soft. preparing parts for local case-hardening at the works of the dayton engineering laboratories company, dayton, ohio, they have a large quantity of small shafts, fig. , that are to be case-hardened at _a_ while the ends _b_ and _c_ are to be left soft. formerly, the part _a_ was brush-coated with melted paraffin but, as there were many shafts, this was tedious and great care was necessary to avoid getting paraffin where it was not wanted. [illustration: fig. .--shaft to be coated with paraffin.] to insure uniform coating the device shown in fig. was made. melted paraffin is poured in the well _a_ and kept liquid by setting the device on a hot plate, the paraffin being kept high enough to touch the bottoms of the rollers. the shaft to be coated is laid between the rollers with one end against the gage _b_, when a turn or two of the crank _c_ will cause it to be evenly coated. [illustration: fig. .--device for coating the shaft.] the penetration of carbon carburized mild steel is used to a great extent in the manufacture of automobile and other parts which are likely to be subjected to rough usage. the strength and ability to withstand hard knocks depend to a very considerable degree on the thoroughness with which the carburizing process is conducted. many automobile manufacturers have at one time or another passed through a period of unfortunate breakages, or have found that for a certain period the parts turned out of their hardening shops were not sufficiently hard to enable the rubbing surfaces to stand up against the pressure to which they were subjected. so many factors govern the success of hardening that often this succession of bad work has been actually overcome without those interested realizing what was the weak point in their system of treatment. as the question is one that can create a bad reputation for the product of any firm it is well to study the influential factors minutely. introduction of carbon the matter to which these notes are primarily directed is the introduction of carbon into the case of the article to be hardened. in the first place the chances of success are increased by selecting as few brands of steel as practicable to cover the requirements of each component of the mechanism. the hardener is then able to become accustomed to the characteristics of that particular material, and after determining the most suitable treatment for it no further experimenting beyond the usual check-test pieces is necessary. although a certain make of material may vary in composition from time to time the products of a manufacturer of good steel can be generally relied upon, and it is better to deal directly with him than with others. in most cases the case-hardening steels can be chosen from the following: ( ) case-hardening mild steel of . per cent carbon; ( ) case-hardening - / per cent nickel steel; ( ) case-hardening nickel-chromium steel; ( ) case-hardening chromium vanadium. after having chosen a suitable steel it is best to have the sample analyzed by reliable chemists and also to have test pieces machined and pulled. to prepare samples for analysis place a sheet of paper on the table of a drilling machine, and with a / -in. diameter drill, machine a few holes about / in. deep in various parts of the sample bar, collecting about oz. of fine drillings free from dust. this can be placed in a bottle and dispatched to the laboratory with instructions to search for carbon, silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus and alloys. the results of the different tests should be carefully tabulated, and as there would most probably be some variation an average should be made as a fair basis of each element present, and the following tables may be used with confidence when deciding if the material is reliable enough to be used. table .--case-hardening mild steel of . per cent carbon carbon . to . per cent silicon not over . per cent manganese . to . per cent sulphur not over . per cent phosphorus not over . per cent a tension test should register at least , lb. per square inch. table .--case-hardening - / per cent nickel steel carbon . to . per cent manganese . per cent sulphur not over . per cent phosphorus not over . per cent nickel . to . per cent table .--case-hardening nickel chromium steel carbon . to . per cent manganese . to . per cent sulphur not over . per cent phosphorus not over . per cent nickel to . per cent chromium . to . per cent table .--case-hardening chromium vanadium steel carbon not over . per cent manganese . to . per cent sulphur not over . per cent phosphorus not over . per cent chromium . to . per cent vanadium not less than . per cent having determined what is required we now proceed to inquire into the question of carburizing, which is of vital importance. using illuminating gas the choice of a carburizing furnace depends greatly on the facilities available in the locality where the shop is situated and the nature and quantity of the work to be done. the furnaces can be heated with producer gas in most cases, but when space is of value illuminating gas from a separate source of supply has some compensations. when the latter is used it is well to install a governor if the pressure is likely to fluctuate, particularly where the shop is at a high altitude or at a long distance from the gas supply. many furnaces are coal-fired, and although greater care is required in maintaining a uniform temperature good results have been obtained. the use of electricity as a means of reaching the requisite temperature is receiving some attention, and no doubt it would make the control of temperature comparatively simple. however, the cost when applied to large quantities of work will, for the present at least, prevent this method from becoming popular. it is believed that the results obtainable \with the electric furnace would surpass any others; but the apparatus is expensive, and unless handled with intelligence would not last long. the most elementary medium of carburization is pure carbon, but the rate of carburization induced by this material is very low, and other components are necessary to accelerate the process. many mixtures have been marketed, each possessing its individual merits, and as the prices vary considerably it is difficult to decide which is the most advantageous. absorption from actual contact with solid carbon is decidedly slow, and it is necessary to employ a compound from which gases are liberated, and the steel will absorb the carbon from the gases much more readily. both bone and leather charcoal give off more carburizing gases than wood charcoal, and although the high sulphur content of the leather is objectionable as being injurious to the steel, as also is the high phosphorus content of the bone charcoal, they are both preferable to the wood charcoal. by mixing bone charcoal with barium carbonate in the proportions of per cent of the former to per cent of the latter a very reliable compound is obtained. the temperature to which this compound is subjected causes the liberation of carbon monoxide when in contact with hot charcoal. many more elaborate explanations may be given of the actions and reactions taking place, but the above is a satisfactory guide to indicate that it is not the actual compound which causes carburization, but the gases released from the compound. until the temperature of the muffle reaches about , °f. carburization does not take place to any useful extent, and consequently it is advisable to avoid the use of any compound from which the carburizing gases are liberated much before that temperature is reached. in the case of steel containing nickel slightly higher temperatures may be used and are really necessary if the same rate of carbon penetration is to be obtained, as the presence of nickel resists the penetration. at higher temperatures the rate of penetration is higher, but not exactly in proportion to the temperature, and the rate is also influenced by the nature of the material and the efficiency of the compound employed. the so-called saturation point of mild steel is reached when the case contains . per cent of carbon, but this amount is frequently exceeded. should it be required to ascertain the amount of carbon in a sample at varying depths below the skin this can be done by turning off a small amount after carburizing and analyzing the turnings. this can be repeated several times, and it will probably be found that the proportion of carbon decreases as the test piece is reduced in diameter unless decarburization has taken place. [illustration: fig. .--chart showing penetration of carbon.] the chart, fig. , is also a good guide. in order to use the chart it is necessary to harden the sample we desire to test as we would harden a piece of tool steel, and then test by scleroscope. by locating on the chart the point on the horizontal axis which represents the hardness of the sample the curve enables one to determine the approximate amount of carbon present in the case. should the hardness lack uniformity the soft places can be identified by etching. to accomplish this the sample should be polished after quenching and then washed with a weak solution of nitric acid in alcohol, whereupon the harder points will show up darker than the softer areas. the selection of suitable boxes for carburizing is worthy of a little consideration, and there can be no doubt that in certain cases results are spoiled and considerable expense caused by using unsuitable containers. as far as initial expense goes cast-iron boxes are probably the most expedient, but although they will withstand the necessary temperatures they are liable to split and crack, and when they get out of shape there is much difficulty in straightening them. the most suitable material in most cases is steel boiler plate / or / in. thick, which can be made with welded joints and will last well. the sizes of the boxes employed depend to a great extent on the nature of the work being done, but care should be exercised to avoid putting too much in one box, as smaller ones permit the heat to penetrate more quickly, and one test piece is sufficient to give a good indication of what has taken place. if it should be necessary to use larger boxes it is advisable to put in three or four test pieces in different positions to ascertain if the penetration of carbon has been satisfactory in all parts of the box, as it is quite possible that the temperature of the muffle is not the same at all points, and a record shown by one test piece would not then be applicable to all the parts contained in the box. it has been found that the rate of carbon penetration increases with the gas pressure around the articles being carburized, and it is therefore necessary to be careful in sealing up the boxes after packing. when the articles are placed within and each entirely surrounded by compound so that the compound reaches to within in. of the top of the box a layer of clay should be run around the inside of the box on top of the compound. the lid, which should be a good fit in the box, is then to be pressed on top of this, and another layer of clay run just below the rim of the box on top of the cover. a satisfactory luting mixture a mixture of fireclay and sand will be found very satisfactory for closing up the boxes, and by observing the appearance of the work when taken out we can gage the suitability of the methods employed, for unless the boxes are carefully sealed the work is generally covered with dark scales, while if properly done the articles will be of a light gray. by observing the above recommendations reliable results can be obtained, and we can expect uniform results after quenching. gas consumption for carburizing although the advantages offered by the gas-fired furnace for carburizing have been generally recognized in the past from points of view as close temperature regulation, decreased attendance, and greater convenience, very little information has been published regarding the consumption of gas for this process. it has therefore been a matter of great difficulty to obtain authentic information upon this point, either from makers or users of such furnaces. in view of this, the details of actual consumption of gas on a regular customer's order job will be of interest. the "revergen" furnace, manufactured by the davis furnace company, luton, bedford, england, was used on this job, and is provided with regenerators and fired with illuminating gas at ordinary pressure, the air being introduced to the furnace at a slight pressure of to in. water gage. the material was charged into a cold furnace, raised to , °f., and maintained at that temperature for hr. to give the necessary depth of case. the work consisted of automobile gears packed in six boxes, the total weight being lb. the required temperature of , °f. was obtained in min. from lighting up, and a summary of the data is shown in the following table: cubic foot total per pound number of of load cubic foot gas to raise furnace and charge from cold to , °f., min. . gas to maintain , °f. for st hour . gas to maintain , °f. for nd hour . gas to maintain , °f. for rd hour . gas to maintain , °f. for th hour . gas to maintain , °f. for th hour . gas to maintain , °f. for th hour . gas to maintain , °f. for th hour . gas to maintain , °f. for th hour . the overall gas consumption for this run of hr. min. was only . cu. ft. per pound of load. the care of carburizing compounds of all the opportunities for practicing economy in the heat-treatment department, there is none that offers greater possibilities for profitable returns than the systematic cleaning, blending and reworking of artificial carburizers, or compounds. the question of whether or not it is practical to take up the work depends upon the nature of the output. if the sole product of the hardening department consists of a . carbon case or harder, requiring a strong highly energized material of deep penetrative power such as that used in the carburizing of ball races, hub-bearings and the like, it would be best to dispose of the used material to some concern whose product requires a case with from . to . carbon, but where there is a large variety of work the compound may be so handled that there will be practically no waste. this is accomplished with one of the most widely known artificial carburizers by giving all the compound in the plant three distinct classifications: "new," being direct from the maker; "half and half," being one part of new and one part first run; and " to ," which consists of two parts of old and one part new. separating the work from the compound during the pulling of the heat, the pots are dumped upon a cast-iron screen which forms a table or apron for the furnace. directly beneath this table is located one of the steel conveyor carts, shown in fig. , which is provided with two wheels at the rear and a dolly clevis at the front, which allows it to be hauled away from beneath the furnace apron while filled with red-hot compound. a steel cover is provided for each box, and the material is allowed to cool without losing much of the evolved gases which are still being thrown off by the compound. [illustration: fig. .--the cooling carts.] [illustration: fig. .--machine for blending the mixture.] as this compound comes from the carburizing pots it contains bits of fireclay which represent a part of the luting used for sealing, and there may be small parts of work or bits of fused material in it as well. after cooling, the compound is very dusty and disagreeable to handle, and, before it can be used again, must be sifted, cleaned and blended. some time ago the writer was confronted with this proposition for one of the largest consumers of carburizing compound in the world, and the problem was handled in the following manner: the cooled compound was dumped from the cooling cars and sprinkled with a low-grade oil which served the dual purposes of settling the dust and adding a certain percentage of valuable hydrocarbon to the compound. in fig. is shown the machine that was designed to do the cleaning and blending. blending the compound essentially, this consists of the sturdy, power-driven separator and fanning mill which separates the foreign matter from the compound and elevates it into a large settling basin which is formed by the top of the steel housing that incloses the apparatus. after reaching the settling basin, the compound falls by gravity into a power-driven rotary mixing tub which is directly beneath the settling basin. here the blending is done by mixing the proper amount of various grades of material together. after blending the compound, it is ready to be stored in labeled containers and delivered to the packing room. it will be seen that by this simple system there is the least possible loss of energy from the compound. the saving commences the moment the cooling cart is covered and preserves the valuable dust which is saved by the oiling and the settling basin of the blending machine. then, too, there is the added convenience of the packers who have a thoroughly cleaned, dustless, and standardized product to work with. of course, this also tends to insure uniformity in the case-hardening operation. with this outfit, one man cleans and blends as much compound in one hour as he formerly did in ten. chapter vii heat treatment of steel heat treatment consists in heating and cooling metal at definite rates in order to change its physical condition. many objects may be attained by correct heat treatment, but nothing much can be expected unless the man who directs the operations knows what is the essential difference in a piece of steel at room temperature and at a red heat, other than the obvious fact that it is hot. the science of metallography has been developed in the past years, and aided by precise methods of measuring temperature, has done much to systematize the information which we possess on metallic alloys, and steel in particular. critical points one of the most important means of investigating the properties of pure metals and their alloys is by an examination of their heating and cooling curves. such curves are constructed by taking a small piece and observing and recording the temperature of the mass at uniform intervals of time during a _uniform_ heating or cooling. these observations, when plotted in the form of a curve will show whether the temperature of the mass rises or falls uniformly. the heat which a body absorbs serves either to raise the temperature of the mass or change its physical condition. that portion of the heat which results in an increase in temperature of the body is called "sensible heat," inasmuch as such a gain in heat is apparent to the physical senses of the observer. if heat were supplied to the body at a uniform rate, the temperature would rise continuously, and if the temperature were plotted against time, a smooth rising curve would result. or, if sensible heat were abstracted from the body at a uniform rate, a time-temperature curve would again be a smooth falling curve. such a curve is called a "cooling curve." however, we find that when a body is melting, vaporizing, or otherwise suffering an abrupt change in physical properties, a quantity of heat is absorbed which disappears without changing the temperature of the body. this heat absorbed during a change of state is called "latent heat," because it is transformed into the work necessary to change the configuration and disposition of the molecules in the body; but it is again liberated in equal amount when the reverse change takes place. from these considerations it would seem that should the cooling curve be continuous and smooth, following closely a regular course, all the heat abstracted during cooling is furnished at the expense of a fall in temperature of the body; that is to say, it disappears as "sensible heat." these curves, however, frequently show horizontal portions or "arrests" which denote that at that temperature all of the heat constantly radiating is being supplied by internal changes in the alloy itself; that is, it is being supplied by the evolution of a certain amount of "latent heat." in addition to the large amount of heat liberated when a metal solidifies, there are other changes indicated by the thermal analysis of many alloys which occur _after_ the body has become entirely solidified. these so-called transformation points or ranges may be caused by chemical reactions taking place within the solid, substances being precipitated from a "solid solution," or a sudden change in some physical property of the components, such as in magnetism, hardness, or specific gravity. it may be difficult to comprehend that such changes can occur in a body after it has become entirely solidified, owing to the usual conception that the particles are then rigidly fixed. however, this rigidity is only comparative. the molecules in the solid state have not the large mobility they possess as a liquid, but even so, they are still moving in circumscribed orbits, and have the power, under proper conditions, to rearrange their position or internal configuration. in general, such rearrangement is accompanied by a sudden change in some physical property and in the total energy of the molecule, which is evidenced by a spontaneous evolution or absorption of latent heat. cooling curves of the purest iron show at least two well-defined discontinuities at temperatures more than , °f., below its freezing-point. it seems that the soft, magnetic metal so familiar as wrought iron, and called "alpha iron" or "ferrite" by the metallurgist, becomes unstable at about , °f. and changes into the so-called "beta" modification, becoming suddenly harder, and losing its magnetism. this state in turn persists no higher than , °c., when a softer, non-magnetic "gamma" iron is the stable modification up to the actual melting-point of the metal. these various changes occur in electrolytic iron, and therefore cannot be attributed to any chemical reaction or solution; they are entirely due to the existence of "allotropic modifications" of the iron in its solid state. [illustration: fig. .--inverse rate cooling curve of . c steel.] steels, or iron containing a certain amount of carbon, develop somewhat different cooling curves from those produced by pure iron. figure shows, for instance, some data observed on a cooling piece of . per cent carbon steel, and the curve constructed therefrom. it will be noted that the time was noted when the needle on the pyrometer passed each dial marking. if the metal were not changing in its physical condition, the time between each reading would be nearly constant; in fact for a time it required about sec. to cool each unit. when the dial read about . (corresponding in this instrument to a temperature of °c. or , °f.) the cooling rate shortened materially, sec. then , then , then ; showing that some change inside the metal was furnishing some of the steadily radiating heat. this temperature is the so-called "upper critical" for this steel. further down, the "lower critical" is shown by a large heat evolution at °c. or , °f. just the reverse effects take place upon heating, except that the temperatures shown are somewhat higher--there seems to be a lag in the reactions taking place in the steel. this is an important point to remember, because if it was desired to anneal a piece of . carbon steel, it is necessary to heat it up to and beyond , ° f. ( , °f. _plus_ this lag, which may be as much as °). it may be said immediately that above the upper critical the carbon exists in the iron as a "solid solution," called "austenite" by metallographers. that is to say, it is uniformly distributed as atoms throughout the iron; the atoms of carbon are not present in any fixed combination, in fact any amount of carbon from zero to . per cent can enter into solid solution above the upper critical. however, upon cooling this steel, the carbon again enters into combination with a definite proportion of iron (the carbide "cementite," fe c), and accumulates into small crystals which can be seen under a good microscope. formation of all the cementite has been completed by the time the temperature has fallen to the lower critical, and below that temperature the steel exists as a complex substance of pure iron and the iron carbide. it is important to note that the critical points or critical range of a plain steel varies with its carbon content. the following table gives some average figures: carbon content. upper critical. lower critical. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. . , °f. , °f. it is immediately noted that the critical range narrows with increasing carbon content until all the heat seems to be liberated at one temperature in a steel of . per cent carbon. beyond that composition the critical range widens rapidly. note also that the lower critical is constant in plain carbon steels containing no alloying elements. [illustration: fig. .--microphotograph of steel used in s. k. f. bearings, polished and etched with nitric acid and magnified , times. made by h. o. walp.] this steel of . carbon content is an important one. it is called "eutectoid" steel. under the microscope a properly polished and etched sample shows the structure to consist of thin sheets of two different substances (fig. ). one of these is pure iron, and the other is pure cementite. this structure of thin sheets has received the name "pearlite," because of its pearly appearance under sunlight. pearlite is a constituent found in all annealed carbon steels. pure iron, having no carbon, naturally would show no pearlite when examined under a microscope; only abutting granules of iron are delicately traced. the metallographist calls this pure iron "ferrite." as soon as a little carbon enters the alloy and a soft steel is formed, small angular areas of pearlite appear at the boundaries of the ferrite crystals (fig. ). with increasing carbon in the steel the volume of iron crystals becomes less and less, and the relative amount of pearlite increases, until arriving at . per cent carbon, the large ferrite crystals have been suppressed and the structure is all pearlite. higher carbon steels show films of cementite outlining grains of pearlite (fig. ). this represents the structure of annealed, slowly cooled steels. it is possible to change the relative sizes of the ferrite and cementite crystals by heat treatment. large grains are associated with brittleness. consequently one must avoid heat treatments which produce coarse grains. [illustration: fig. .--structure of low carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed under magnifications. tiny white granules of pure iron (ferrite) have small accumulations of dark-etching pearlite interspersed between them. photograph by h. s. rawdon.] [illustration: fig. .--slowly cooled high-carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed at magnifications. the dark grains are pearlite, separated by white films of iron carbide (cementite). photograph by h. s. rawdon.] in general it may be said that the previous crystalline structure of a steel is entirely obliterated when it passes just through the critical range. at that moment, in fact, the ferrite, cementite or pearlite which previously existed has lost its identity by everything going into the solid solution called austenite. if sufficient time is given, the chemical elements comprising a good steel distribute themselves uniformly through the mass. if the steel be then cooled, the austenite breaks up into new crystals of ferrite, cementite and pearlite; and in general if the temperature has not gone far above the critical, and cooling is not excessively slow, a very fine texture will result. this is called "refining" the grain; or in shop parlance "closing" the grain. however, if the heating has gone above the critical very far, the austenite crystals start to grow; a very short time at an extreme temperature will cause a large grain growth. subsequent cooling gives a coarse texture, or an arrangement of ferrite, cementite and pearlite grains which is greatly coarsened, reflecting the condition of the austenite crystals from which they were born. it maybe noted in passing that the coarse crystals of cast metal cannot generally be refined by heat treatment unless some forging or rolling has been done in the meantime. heat treatment alone does not seem to be able to break up the crystals of an ingot structure. hardening steel is hardened by quenching from above the upper critical. apparently the quick cooling prevents the normal change back to definite and sizeable crystals of ferrite and cementite. hardness is associated with this suppressed change. if the change is allowed to continue by a moderate reheating, like a tempering, the hardness decreases. if a piece of steel could be cooled instantly, doubtless austenite could be preserved and examined. in the ordinary practice of hardening steels, the quenching is not so drastic, and the transformation of austenite back to ferrite and cementite is more or less completely effected, giving rise to certain transitory forms which are known as "martensite," "troostite," "sorbite," and finally, pearlite. austenite has been defined as a solid solution of cementite (fe c) in gamma iron. it is stable at various temperatures dependent upon its carbon content, which may be any amount up to the saturated solution containing . per cent. austenite is not nearly as hard as martensite, owing to its content of the soft gamma iron. fig. shows austenite to possess the typical appearance of any pure, crystallized substance. in the most quickly quenched high carbon steels, austenite commonly forms the ground mass which is interspersed with martensite, a large field of which is illustrated in fig. . martensite is usually considered to be a solid solution of cementite in beta iron. it represents an unstable condition in which the metal is caught during rapid cooling. it is very hard, and is the chief constituent of hardened high-carbon steels, and of medium-carbon nickel-steel and manganese-steel. troostite is of doubtful composition, but possibly is an unstable mixture of untransformed martensite with sorbite. it contains more or less untransformed material, as it is too hard to be composed entirely of the soft alpha modification, and it can also be tempered more or less without changing in appearance. its normal appearance as rounded grains is given in fig. ; larger patches show practically no relief in their structure, and a photograph merely shows a dark, structureless area. [illustration: fig. .--coarse-grained martensite, polished and etched with nitric acid and magnified times. made by prof. chas. y. clayton.] sorbite is believed to be an early stage in the formation of pearlite, when the iron and iron carbide originally constituting the solid solution (austenite) have had an opportunity to separate from each other, and the iron has entirely passed into the alpha modification, but the particles are yet too small to be distinguishable under the microscope. it also, possibly, contains some incompletely transformed matter. sorbite is softer and tougher than troostite, and is habitually associated with pearlite. its components are tending to coagulate into pearlite, and will do so in a fairly short time at temperatures near the lower critical, which heat will furnish the necessary molecular freedom. the normal appearance, however, is the cloudy mass shown in fig. . pearlite is a definite conglomerate of ferrite and cementite containing about six parts of the former to one of the latter. when pure, it has a carbon content of about . per cent. it represents the complete transformation of the eutectoid austenite accomplished by slow-cooling of an iron-carbon alloy through the transformation range. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--quenched high-carbon steel, polished, etched and viewed at magnifications. this structure is called martensite and is desired when maximum hardness is essential. photograph by h. s. rawdon.] [illustration: fig. .--martensite (light needles) passing into troosite (dark patches). x. from a piece of eutectoid steel electrically welded.] [illustration: fig. .--sorbite (dark patches) passing into pearlite (wavy striations). light areas are patches of ferrite. x. from a piece of hypo-eutectoid steel electrically welded.] these observations are competent to explain annealing and toughening practice. a quickly quenched carbon steel is mostly martensitic which, as noted, is a solid solution of beta iron and cementite, hard and brittle. moderate reheating or annealing changes this structure largely into troostite, which is a partly transformed martensite, possessing much of the hardness of martensite, but with a largely increased toughness and shock resistance. this toughness is the chief characteristic of the next material in the transformation series, sorbite, which is merely martensite wholly transformed into a mixture of ultramicroscopic crystals of ferrite (alpha iron) and cementite (fe c). "tempering" or "drawing" should be restricted to mean moderate reheating, up to about ° c., forming troostitic steel. "toughening" represents the practice of reheating hardened carbon steels from ° c. up to just below the lower critical, and forms sorbitic steel; while "annealing" refers to a heating for grain size at or above the transformation ranges, followed by a slow cooling. any of these operations not only allows the transformations from austenite to pearlite to proceed, but also relieves internal stresses in the steel. normalizing is a heating like annealing, followed by a moderately rapid quench. judging the heat of steel while the use of a pyrometer is of course the only way to have accurate knowledge as to the heat being used in either forging or hardening steels, a color chart will be of considerable assistance if carefully studied. these have been prepared by several of the steel companies as a guide, but it must be remembered that the colors and temperatures given are only approximate, and can be nothing else. [illustration: fig. .--finding hardening heats with a magnet.] _the magnet test_.--the critical point can also be determined by an ordinary horse-shoe magnet. touch the steel with a magnet during the heating and when it reaches the temperature at which steel fails to attract the magnet, or in other words, loses its magnetism, the critical point has been reached. figures and show how these are used in practice. the first (fig. ) shows the use of a permanent horse-shoe magnet and the second (fig. ) an electro-magnet consisting of an iron rod with a coil or spool magnet at the outer end. in either case the magnet should not be allowed to become heated but should be applied quickly. [illustration: fig. .--using electro-magnet to determine heat.] the work is heated up slowly in the furnace and the magnet applied from time to time. the steel being heated will attract the magnet until the heat reaches the critical point. the magnet is applied frequently and when the magnet is no longer attracted, the piece is at the lowest temperature at which it can be hardened properly. quenching slightly above this point will give a tool of satisfactory hardness. the method applies only to carbon steels and will not work for modern high-speed steels. heat treatment of gear blanks this section is based on a paper read before the american gear manufacturers' association at white sulphur springs, w. va., apr. , . great advancement has been made in the heat treating and hardening of gears. in this advancement the chemical and metallurgical laboratory have played no small part. during this time, however, the condition of the blanks as they come to the machine shop to be machined has not received its share of attention. there are two distinct types of gears, both types having their champions, namely, carburized and heat-treated. the difference between the two in the matter of steel composition is entirely in the carbon content, the carbon never running higher than -point in the carburizing type, while in the heat-treated gears the carbon is seldom lower than -point. the difference in the final gear is the hardness. the carburized gear is file hard on the surface, with a soft, tough and ductile core to withstand shock, while the heat-treated gear has a surface that can be touched by a file with a core of the same hardness as the outer surface. annealing work.--with the exception of several of the higher types of alloy steels, where the percentages of special elements run quite high, which causes a slight air-hardening action, the carburizing steels are soft enough for machining when air cooled from any temperature, including the finishing temperature at the hammer. this condition has led many drop-forge and manufacturing concerns to consider annealing as an unnecessary operation and expense. in many cases the drop forging has only been heated to a low temperature, often just until the piece showed color, to relieve the so-called hammer strains. while this has been only a compromise it has been better than no reheating at all, although it has not properly refined the grain, which is necessary for good machining conditions. annealing is heating to a temperature slightly above the highest critical point and cooling slowly either in the air or in the furnace. annealing is done to accomplish two purposes: ( ) to relieve mechanical strains and ( ) to soften and produce a maximum refinement of grain. process of carburizing.--carburizing imparts a shell of high-carbon content to a low-carbon steel. this produces what might be termed a "dual" steel, allowing for an outer shell which when hardened would withstand wear, and a soft ductile core to produce ductility and withstand shock. the operation is carried out by packing the work to be carburized in boxes with a material rich in carbon and maintaining the box so charged at a temperature in excess of the highest critical point for a length of time to produce the desired depth of carburized zone. generally maintaining the temperature at , to , ° f. for hr. will produce a carburized zone / in. deep. heating to a temperature slightly above the highest critical point and cooling suddenly in some quenching medium, such as water or oil hardens the steel. this treatment produces a maximum refinement with the maximum strength. drawing to a temperature below the highest critical point (the temperature being governed by the results required) relieves the hardening strains set up by quenching, as well as the reducing of the hardness and brittleness of hardened steel. effects of proper annealing.--proper annealing of low-carbon steels causes a complete solution or combination to take place between the ferrite and pearlite, producing a homogeneous mass of small grains of each, the grains of the pearlite being surrounded by grains of ferrite. a steel of this refinement will machine to good advantage, due to the fact that the cutting tool will at all times be in contact with metal of uniform composition. while the alternate bands of ferrite and pearlite are microscopically sized, it has been found that with a gleason or fellows gear-cutting machine that rough cutting can be traced to poorly annealed steels, having either a pronounced banded structure or a coarse granular structure. temperature for annealing.--theoretically, annealing should be accomplished at a temperature at just slightly above the critical point. however, in practice the temperature is raised to a higher point in order to allow for the solution of the carbon and iron to be produced more rapidly, as the time required to produce complete solution is reduced as the temperature increases past the critical point. for annealing the simpler types of low-carbon steels the following temperatures have been found to produce uniform machining conditions on account of producing uniform fine-grain pearlite structure: . to . per cent carbon, straight carbon steel.--heat to , °f. hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air. . to . per cent carbon, - / per cent nickel, / per cent chromium steel.--heat to , °f. hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air. . to . per cent carbon, - / per cent nickel steel.--heat to , °f. hold at this temperature until the work is uniformly heated; pull from the furnace and cool in air. care in annealing.--not only will benefits in machining be found by careful annealing of forgings but the subsequent troubles in the hardening plant will be greatly reduced. the advantages in the hardening start with the carburizing operation, as a steel of uniform and fine grain size will carburize more uniformly, producing a more even hardness and less chances for soft spots. the holes in the gears will also "close in more uniformly," not causing some gears to require excessive grinding and others with just enough stock. also all strains will have been removed from the forging, eliminating to a great extent distortion and the noisy gears which are the result. with the steels used, for the heat-treated gears, always of a higher carbon content, treatment after forging is necessary for machining, as it would be impossible to get the required production from untreated forgings, especially in the alloy steels. the treatment is more delicate, due to the higher percentage of carbon and the natural increase in cementite together with complex carbides which are present in some of the higher types of alloys. where poor machining conditions in heat-treated steels are present they are generally due to incomplete solution of cementite rather than bands of free ferrite, as in the case of case-hardening steels. this segregation of carbon, as it is sometimes referred to, causes hard spots which, in the forming of the tooth, cause the cutter to ride over the hard metal, producing high spots on the face of the tooth, which are as detrimental to satisfactory gear cutting as the drops or low spots produced on the face of the teeth when the pearlite is coarse-grained or in a banded condition. in the simpler carburized steels it is not necessary to test the forgings for hardness after annealing, but with the high percentages of alloys in the carburizing steels and the heat-treated steels a hardness test is essential. to obtain the best results in machining, the microstructure of the metal should be determined and a hardness range set that covers the variations in structure that produce good machining results. by careful control of the heat-treating operation and with the aid of the brinell hardness tester and the microscope it is possible to continually give forgings that will machine uniformly and be soft enough to give desired production. the following gives a few of the hardness numerals on steel used in gear manufacture that produce good machining qualities: . per cent carbon, per cent nickel, - / ; per cent chromium--brinell to . . per cent carbon, per cent nickel, per cent chromium--brinell to . . per cent carbon chrome-vanadium--brinell to . the influence of size the size of the piece influences the physical properties obtained in steel by heat treatment. this has been worked out by e. j. janitzky, metallurgical engineer of the illinois steel company, as follows: [illustration: fig. .--effect of size on heating.] "with an increase in the mass of steel there is a corresponding decrease in both the minimum surface hardness and depth hardness, when quenched from the same temperature, under identical conditions of the quenching medium. in other words, the physical properties obtained are a function of the surface of the metal quenched for a given mass of steel. keeping this primary assumption in mind, it is possible to predict what physical properties may be developed in heat treating by calculating the surface per unit mass for different shapes and sizes. it may be pointed out that the figures and chart that follow are not results of actual tests, but are derived by calculation. they indicate the mathematical relation, which, based on the fact that the physical properties of steel are determined not alone by the rate which heat is lost per unit of surface, but by the rate which heat is lost per unit of weight in relation to the surface exposed for that unit. the unit of weight has for the different shaped bodies and their sizes a certain surface which determines their physical properties. "for example, the surface corresponding to lb. of steel has been computed for spheres, rounds and flats. for the sphere with a unit weight of lb. the portion is a cone with the apex at the center of the sphere and the base the curved surface of the sphere (surface exposed to quenching). for rounds, a unit weight of lb. may be taken as a disk or cylinder, the base and top surfaces naturally do not enter into calculation. for a flat, a prismatic or cylindrical volume may be taken to represent the unit weight. the surfaces that are considered in this instance are the top and base of the section, as these surfaces are the ones exposed to cooling." the results of the calculations are as follows: table .--sphere diameter surface per of sphere pound of steel _x_ _y_ in. . sq. in. in. . sq. in. in. . sq. in. in. . sq. in. in. . sq. in. _xy_ = . . table .--round diameter surface per of round pound of steel _x_ _y_ . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. _xy_ = . . table .--flat thickness surface per of flat pound of steel _x_ _y_ . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. . in. . sq. in. _xy_ = . . having once determined the physical qualities of a certain specimen, and found its position on the curve we have the means to predict the decrease of physical qualities on larger specimens which receive the same heat treatment. when the surfaces of the unit weight as outlined in the foregoing tables are plotted as ordinates and the corresponding diameters as abscissæ, the resulting curve is a hyperbola and follows the law _xy = c_. in making these calculations the radii or one-half of the thickness need only to be taken into consideration as the heat is conducted from the center of the body to the surface, following the shortest path. the equations for the different shapes are as follows: for flats _xy_ = . for rounds _xy_ = . for spheres _xy_ = . it will be noted that the constants increase in a ratio of , , and , and the three bodies in question will increase in hardness on being quenched in the same ratio, it being understood that the diameter of the sphere and round and thickness of the flat are equal. relative to shape, it is interesting to note that rounds, squares, octagons and other three axial bodies, with two of their axes equal, have the same surface for the unit weight. for example: size length surface weight surface for lb. in. sq. in. . sq. in. . lb. . sq. in. in. round in. . sq. in. . lb. . sq. in. although this discussion is at present based upon mathematical analysis, it is hoped that it will open up a new field of investigation in which but little work has been done, and may assist in settling the as yet unsolved question of the effect of size and shape in the heat treatment of steel. heat-treating equipment and methods for mass production the heat-treating department of the brown-lipe-chapin company, syracuse, n. y., runs day and night, and besides handling all the hardening of tools, parts of jigs, fixtures, special machines and appliances, carburizes and heat-treats every month between , and , gears, pinions, crosses and other components entering into the construction of differentials for automobiles. the treatment of the steel really begins in the mill, where the steel is made to conform to a specific formula. on the arrival of the rough forgings at the brown-lipe-chapin factory, the first of a long series of inspections begins. annealing method.--forgings which are too hard to machine are put in pots with a little charcoal to cause a reducing atmosphere and to prevent scale. the covers are then luted on and the pots placed in the furnace. carbon steel from to points is annealed at , °f. nickel steel of the same carbon and containing in addition - / per cent nickel is annealed at , °f. when the pots are heated through, they are rolled to the yard and allowed to cool. this method of annealing gives the best hardness for quick machining. the requirements in the machine operations are very rigid and, in spite of great care and probably the finest equipment of special machines in the world, a small percentage of the product fails to pass inspection during or at the completion of the machine operations. these pieces, however, are not a loss, for they play an important part in the hardening process, indicating as they do the exact depth of penetration of the carburizing material and the condition of both case and core. heat-treating department.--the heat-treating department occupies an l-shaped building. the design is very practical, with the furnace and the floor on the same level so that there is no lifting of heavy pots. fuel oil is used in all the furnaces and gives highly satisfactory results. the consumption of fuel oil is about gal. per hour per furnace. the work is packed in the pots in a room at the entrance to the heat-treatment building. before packing, each gear is stamped with a number which is a key to the records of the analysis and complete heat treatment of that particular gear. should a question at any time arise regarding the treatment of a certain gear, all the necessary information is available if the number on the gear is legible. for instance, date of treatment, furnace, carburizing material, position of the pot in the furnace, position of gear in pot, temperature of furnace and duration of treatment are all tabulated and filed for reference. after marking, all holes and parts which are to remain uncarburized are plugged or luted with a mixture of kaolin and mellville gravel clay, and the gear is packed in the carburizing material. bohnite, a commercial carburizing compound is used exclusively at this plant. this does excellent work and is economical. broadly speaking, the economy of a carburizing compound depends on its lightness. the space not occupied by work must be filled with compound; therefore) other things being equal, a compound weighing lb. would be worth more than twice as much as one weighing lb. per cubic foot. it has been claimed that certain compounds can be used over and over again, but this is only true in a limited way, if good work is required. there is, of course, some carbon in the compound after the first use, but for first-class work, new compound must be used each time. the packing department.--in fig. is shown the packing pots where the work is packed. these are of malleable cast iron, with an internal vertical flange around the hole _a_. this fits in a bell on the end of the cast-iron pipe _b_, which is luted in position with fireclay before the packing begins. at _c_ is shown a pot ready for packing. the crown gears average to in. in diameter and weigh about lb. each. when placed in the pots, they surround the central tube, which allows the heat to circulate. each pot contains five gears. two complete scrap gears are in each furnace (_i.e._, gears which fail to pass machining inspection), and at the top of front pot are two or more short segments of scrap gear, used as test pieces to gage depth of case. [illustration: fig. .--packing department and special pots.] after filling to the top with compound, the lid _d_ is luted on. ten pots are then placed in a furnace. it will be noted that the pots to the right are numbered , , , , indicating the position they are to occupy in the furnace. the cast-iron ball shown at _e_ is small enough to drop through the pipe _b_, but will not pass through the hole _a_ in the bottom of the pot. it is used as a valve to plug the bottom of the pot to prevent the carburizing compound from dropping through when removing the carburized gears to the quenching bath. without detracting from the high quality of the work, the metallurgist in this plant has succeeded in cutting out one entire operation and reducing the time in the hardening room by about hr. formerly, the work was carburized at about , °f. for hr. the pots were then run out into the yard and allowed to cool slowly. when cool, the work was taken out of the pots, reheated and quenched at , °f. to refine the core. it was again reheated to , °f. and quenched to refine the case. finally, it was drawn to the proper temper. short method of treatment.--in the new method, the packed pots are run into the case-hardening furnaces, which are heated to , °f. on the insertion of the cold pots, the temperature naturally falls. the amount of this fall is dependent upon a number of variables, but it averages nearly °f. as shown in the pyrometer chart, fig. . the work and furnace must be brought to , °f. within - / hr.; otherwise, a longer time will be necessary to obtain the desired depth of case. on this work, the depth of case required is designated in thousandths, and on crown gears, the depth in . in. having brought the work to a temperature of , °f. the depth of case mentioned can be obtained in about - / hr. by maintaining this temperature. as stated before, at the top of each pot are several test pieces consisting of a whole scrap gear and several sections. after the pots have been heated at , °f. for about - / hr., they are removed, and a scrap-section test-piece is quenched direct from the pot in mineral oil at _not more than_ °f. the end of a tooth of this is then ground and etched to ascertain the depth of case. as these test pieces are of exactly the same cross-section as the gears themselves, the carburizing action is similar. when the depth of case has been found from the etched test pieces to be satisfactory, the pots are removed. the iron ball then is dropped into the tube to seal the hole in the bottom of the pot; the cover and the tube are removed, and the gears quenched direct from the pot in mineral oil, which is kept at a temperature not higher than °f. the effect.--the heating at , °f. gives the first heat treatment which refines the core, which under the former high heat ( , °f.) was rendered coarsely crystalline. all the gears, including the scrap gears, are quenched direct from the pot in this manner. the gears then go to the reheating furnaces, situated in front of a battery of gleason quenching machines. these furnaces accommodate from to crown gears. the carbon-steel gears are heated in a reducing atmosphere to about , °f. (depending on the carbon content) placed in the dies in the gleason quenching machine, and quenched between dies in mineral oil at less than °f. the test gear receives exactly the same treatment as the others and is then broken, giving a record of the condition of both case and core. affinity of nickel steel for carbon.--the carbon- and nickel-steel gears are carburized separately owing to the difference in time necessary for their carburization. practically all printed information on the subject is to the effect that nickel steel takes longer to carburize than plain carbon steel. this is directly opposed to the conditions found at this plant. for the same depth of case, other conditions being equal, a nickel-steel gear would require from to min. less than a low carbon-steel gear. from the quenching machines, the gears go to the sand-blasting machines, situated in the wing of the heat-treating building, where they are cleaned. from here they are taken to the testing department. the tests are simple and at the same time most thorough. testing and inspection of heat treatment.--the hard parts of the gear must be so hard that a new mill file does not bite in the least. having passed this file test at several points, the gears go to the center-punch test. the inspector is equipped with a wooden trough secured to the top of the bench to support the gear, a number of center punches (made of / -in. hex-steel having points sharpened to an angle of deg.) and a hammer weighing about oz. with these simple tools, supplemented by his skill, the inspector can _feel_ the depth and quality of the case and the condition of the core. the gears are each tested in this way at several points on the teeth and elsewhere, the scrap gear being also subjected to the test. finally, the scrap gear is securely clamped in the straightening press shown in fig. . with a - / -lb. hammer and a suitable hollow-ended drift manipulated by one of sandow's understudies, teeth are broken out of the scrap gear at various points. these give a record confirming the center-punch tests, which, if the angle of the center punch is kept at deg. and the weight of the hammer and blow are uniform, is very accurate. after passing the center-punch test the ends of the teeth are peened lightly with a hammer. if they are too hard, small particles fly off. such gears are drawn in oil at a temperature of from to °f., depending on their hardness. some builders prefer to have the extreme outer ends of the teeth drawn somewhat lower than the rest. this drawing is done on gas-heated red-hot plates, as shown at _a_ in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--press for holding test gears for breaking.] nickel steel, in addition to all the tests given to carbon steel, is subjected to a brinell test. for each steel, the temperature and the period of treatment are specific. for some unknown reason, apparently like material with like treatment will, in isolated cases, not produce like results. it then remains for the treatment to be repeated or modified, but the results obtained during inspection form a valuable aid to the metallurgist in determining further treatment. temperature recording and regulation.--each furnace is equipped with pyrometers, but the reading and recording of all temperatures are in the hands of one man, who occupies a room with an opening into the end of the hardening department. the opening is about ft. above the floor level. on each side of it, easily legible from all of the furnaces, is a board with the numbers of the various furnaces, as shown in figs. and . opposite each furnace number is a series of hooks whereon are hung metal numbers representing the pyrometer readings of the temperature in that particular furnace. within the room, as shown in fig. , the indicating instrument is to the right, and to the left is a switchboard to connect it with the thermo-couples in the various furnaces. the boards shown to the right and the left swing into the room, which enables the attendant easily to change the numbers to conform to the pyrometer readings. readings of the temperatures of the carburizing furnaces are taken and tabulated every ten minutes. these, numbered to , are shown on the board to the right in fig. . the card shown in fig. gives such a record. these records are filed away for possible future reference. [illustration: fig. .--gas heated drawing plate for tooth ends.] the temperatures of the reheating furnaces, numbered from to and shown on the board to the left in fig. , are taken every min. each furnace has a large metal sign on which is marked the temperature at which the furnace regulator is required to keep his heat. as soon as any variation from this is posted on the board outside the pyrometer room, the attendant sees it and adjusts the burners to compensate. [illustration: fig. .--pyrometer recording room.] [illustration: fig. .--inside of pyrometer switch room.] dies for gleason tempering machines.--in fig. is shown a set of dies for the gleason tempering machine. these accurately made dies fit and hold the gear true during quenching, thus preventing distortion. [illustration: fig. .--carburizing furnace record.] referring to fig. , the die _a_ has a surface _b_ which fits the face of the teeth of the gear _c_. this surface is perforated by a large number of holes which permit the quenching oil to circulate freely. the die _a_ is set in the upper end of the plunger _a_ of the tempering machine, shown in fig. , a few inches above the surface of the quenching oil in the tank _n_. inside the die _a_ are the centering jaws _d_, fig. , which are an easy fit for the bore of the gear _c_. the inner surface of the centering jaws is in the shape of a female cone. the upper die is shown at _e_. in the center (separate from it, but a snug sliding fit in it) is the expander _g_, which, during quenching, enters the taper in the centering jaws _d_, expanding them against the bore of the gear _c_. the faces _f_ of the upper die _e_ fit two angles at the back of the gear and are grooved for the passage of the quenching oil. the upper die _e_ is secured to the die carrier _b_, shown in fig. , and inside the die is the expander _g_, which is backed up by compression springs. [illustration: fig. .--dies for gleason gear-hardening machine.] hardening operation.--hardening a gear is accomplished as follows: the gear is taken from the furnace by the furnaceman and placed in the lower die, surrounding the centering jaws, as shown at _h_ in fig. and _c_ in fig. . air is then turned into the cylinder _d_, and the piston rod _e_, the die carrier _b_, the top die _f_ and the expander _g_ descend. the pilot _h_ enters a hole in the center of the lower die, and the expander _g_ enters the centering jaws _i_, causing them to expand and center the gear _c_ in the lower die. on further advance of the piston rod _e_, the expander _g_ is forced upward against the pressure of the springs _j_ and the upper die _f_ comes in contact with the upper surface of the gear. further downward movement of the dies, which now clamp the work securely, overcomes the resistance of the pressure weight _k_ (which normally keeps up the plunger _a_), and the gear is submerged in the oil. the quenching oil is circulated through a cooling system outside the building and enters the tempering machine through the inlet pipe _l_. when the machine is in the position shown, the oil passes out through the ports _m_ in the lower plunger to the outer reservoir _n_, passing to the cooling system by way of the overflow _o_. when the lower plunger _a_ is forced downward, the ports _m_ are automatically closed and the cool quenching oil from the inlet pipe _l_, having no other means of escape, passes through the holes in the lower die and the grooves in the upper, circulating in contact with the surfaces of the gear and passes to the overflow. when the air pressure is released, the counterweights return the parts to the positions shown in fig. , and the operator removes the gear. [illustration: fig. .--gleason tempering machine.] the gear comes out uniformly hard all over and of the same degree of hardness as when tempered in an open tank. the output of the machine depends on the amount of metal to be cooled, but will average from to per hour. each machine is served by one man, two furnaces being required to heat the work. a slight excess of oil is used in the firing of the furnaces to give a reducing atmosphere and to avoid scale. [illustration: fig. .--hardening and shrinking sleeves.] carburizing low-carbon sleeves.--low-carbon sleeves are carburized and pushed on malleable-iron differential-case hubs. formerly, these sleeves were given two treatments after carburization in order to refine the case and the core, and then sent to the grinding department, where they were ground to a push fit for the hubs. after this they were pushed on the hubs. by the method now employed, the first treatment refines the core, and on the second treatment, the sleeves are pushed on the hub and at the same time hardened. this method cuts out the internal grinding time, pressing on hubs, and haulage from one department to another. also, less work is lost through splitting of the sleeves. the machine for pushing the sleeves on is shown in fig. . at _a_ is the stem on which the hot sleeve _b_ is to be pushed. the carburized sleeves are heated in an automatic furnace, which takes them cold at the back and feeds them through to the front, by which time they are at the correct temperature. the loose mandrel _c_ is provided with a spigot on the lower end, which fits the hole in the differential-case hub. the upper end is tapered as shown and acts as a pilot for the ram _d_. the action of pushing on and quenching is similar to the action of the gleason tempering machine, with the exception that water instead of oil is used as a quenching medium. the speed of operation depends on a number of variables, but from to can be heated and pressed on in hr. cyanide bath for tool steels.--all high-carbon tool steels are heated in a cyanide bath. with this bath, the heat can be controlled within deg. the steel is evenly heated without exposure to the air, resulting in work which is not warped and on which there is no scale. the cyanide bath is, of course, not available for high-speed steel because of the very high temperatures necessary. drop forging dies the kind of steel used in the die of course influences the heat treatment it is to receive, but this also depends on the kind of work the die is to perform. if the die is for a forging which is machined all over and does not have to be especially close to size, where a variation of / in. is not considered excessive, a low grade steel will be perfectly satisfactory. in cases of fine work, however, where the variation cannot be over . to . in. we must use a fine steel and prevent its going out of shape in the heating and quenching. a high quality crucible steel is suggested with about the following analysis: carbon . per cent, manganese . per cent, silicon . per cent, sulphur . per cent, and phosphorus . per cent. such a steel will have a decalescent point in the neighborhood of , °f. and for the size used, probably in a die of approximately in., it will harden around , °f. to secure best results care must be taken at every step. the block should be heated slowly to about , °f., the furnace closed tight and allowed to cool slowly in the furnace itself. it should not soak at the high temperature. after machining, and before it is put in the furnace for hardening, it should be slowly preheated to or °f. this can be done in several ways, some putting the die block in front of the open door of a hardening furnace and keeping the furnace at about , °f. the main thing is to heat the die block very slowly and evenly. the hardening heat should be very slow, hr. being none too long for such a block, bringing the die up gradually to the quenching temperature of , °. this should be held for / hr. or even a little more, when the die can be taken out and quenched. there should be no guess work about the heating, a good pyrometer being the only safe way of knowing the correct temperature. the quenching tank should be of good size and have a spray or stream of water coming up near the surface. dip the die block about in. deep and let the stream of water get at the face so as to play on the forms. by leaving the rest of the die out of the water, moving the die up and down a trifle to prevent a crack at the line of immersion, the back of the block is left tough while the face is very hard. to overcome the tendency to warp the face it is a good plan to pour a little water on the back of the die as this tends to even up the cooling. the depth to which the die is dipped can be easily regulated by placing bars across the tank at the proper depth. after the scleroscope shows the die to be properly hardened, which means from to , the temper should be drawn as soon as convenient. a lead pot in which the back of the die can be suspended so as to heat the back side, makes a good method. or the die block can be placed back to the open door of a furnace. on a die of this size it may take several hours to draw it to the desired temper. this can be tested while warm by the scleroscope method, bearing in mind that the reading will not be the same as when cold. if the test shows from to while warm, the hardness when cold will be about , which is about right for this work. s. a. e. heat treatments the society of automotive engineers have adopted certain heat treatments to suit different steels and varying conditions. these have already been referred to on pages to in connection with the different steels used in automobile practice. these treatments are designated by letter and correspond with the designations in the table. heat treatments _heat treatment a_ after forging or machining: . carbonize at a temperature between , °f. and , °f. ( , - , °f. desired.) . cool slowly or quench. . reheat to , - , °f. and quench. _heat treatment b_ after forging or machining: . carbonize between , °f. and , °f. ( , - , °f. desired.) . cool slowly in the carbonizing mixture. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . draw in hot oil at to °f., depending upon the degree of hardness desired. _heat treatment d_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment e_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . cool slowly. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment f_ after shaping or coiling: . heat to , - , °f. . quench in oil. . reheat to - °f., in accordance with temper desired and cool slowly. _heat treatment g_ after forging or machining: . carbonize at a temperature between , °f. and , °f. ( , - , °f. desired). . cool slowly in the carbonizing mixture. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - °f. (in accordance with the necessities of the case) and cool slowly. _heat treatment h_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment k_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment l_ after forging or machining: . carbonize between , °f. and , °f. ( , - , °f. desired). . cool slowly in the carbonizing mixture. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment m_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - . °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment p_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. slowly. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment q_ after forging: . heat to , - , °f. (hold at this temperature one-half hour, to insure thorough heating.) . cool slowly. . machine. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment r_ after forging: . heat to , - , °f. . quench in oil. . reheat to , - , °f. (hold at this temperature three hours.) . cool slowly. . machine. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench in oil. . reheat to - °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment s_ after forging or machining: . carbonize at a temperature between , and , °f. ( , - , °f. desired.) . cool slowly in the carbonizing mixture. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment t_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment u_ after forging: . heat to , - , °f. (hold for about one-half hour.) . cool slowly. . machine. . reheat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - °f. and cool slowly. _heat treatment v_ after forging or machining: . heat to , - , °f. . quench. . reheat to - , °f. and cool slowly. restoring overheated steel the effect of heat treatment on overheated steel is shown graphically in fig. to the series of illustrations on pages to . this was prepared by thos. firth & sons, ltd., sheffield, england. [illustration: fig. .--chart of changes due to heating and cooling.] the center piece fig. represents a block of steel weighing about lb. the central hole accommodated a thermo-couple which was attached to an autographic recorder. the curve is a copy of the temperature record during heating and cooling. into the holes in the side of the block small pegs of overheated mild steel were inserted. one peg was withdrawn and quenched at each of the temperatures indicated by the numbered arrows, and after suitable preparation these pegs were photographed in order to show the changes in structure taking place during heating and cooling operations. the illustrations here reproduced are selected from those photographs with the object of presenting pictorially the changes involved in the refining of overheated steel or steel castings. figures to with their captions show much that is of value to steel users. [illustration: fig. .--the structure of overheated mild steel from which all the pegs were made (magnified diameters). the pegs withdrawn at °c., or earlier, had this structure and were quite soft.] [illustration: fig. .--peg withdrawn at °c. (magnified diameters). the structure is apparently unaltered, but the peg was hard and, unlike the earlier ones, would not bend double.] [illustration: fig. .--a portion of magnified diameters to show that the dark (pearlite) areas are laminated.] [illustration: fig. .--a portion of magnified diameters, showing that pearlite areas are no longer laminated and providing reason for observed hardness.] [illustration fig. .--peg withdrawn at °c. (magnified diameters), showing inter-diffusion of transformed pearlite and ferrite areas.] [illustration: fig. .--peg withdrawn at °c. (magnified diameters), showing inter-diffusion so far advanced that the original outline of the crystals is now only faintly suggested.] [illustration: fig. .--peg withdrawn at °c. (magnified diameters) after inter-diffusion was completed. note the regular outlines and the small size of the crystals as compared with .] [illustration: fig. .--to facilitate comparison was enlarged to the same magnification as , and the one superimposed on the other. the single large crystal occupied as much space as , of the smaller ones.] [illustration: fig. .--the peg withdrawn on cooling at °c. (magnified diameters) shows the first reappearance of free ferrite. all pegs withdrawn at higher temperatures were like fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--peg withdrawn after cooling to °c. the increased amount of free ferrite arranges itself about the crystals as envelopes.] [illustration: fig. .-peg withdrawn after cooling to °c.] [illustration: fig. .--peg withdrawn after cooling to °c. (magnified diameters). just at this moment the lamination of pearlite, which now occupied its original area, was taking place. in some parts the lamination was perfect, in other parts the iron and iron-carbide were still dissolved in each other.] [illustration: fig. .--any peg withdrawn after °c. on cooling (magnified diameters).] [illustration: fig. .--structure of overheated steel before (left) and after refining (right).] chapter ix hardening carbon steel for tools for years the toolmaker had full sway in regard to make of steel wanted for shop tools, he generally made his own designs, hardened, tempered, ground and usually set up the machine where it was to be used and tested it. most of us remember the toolmaker during the sewing machine period when interchangeable tools were beginning to find their way; rather cautiously at first. the bicycle era was the real beginning of tool making from a manufacturing standpoint, when interchangeable tools for rapid production were called for and toolmakers were in great demand. even then, jigs, and fixtures were of the toolmaker's own design, who practically built every part of it from start to finish. the old way, however, had to be changed. instead of the toolmaker starting his work from cutting off the stock in the old hack saw, a place for cutting off stock was provided. if, for instance, a forming tool was wanted, the toolmaker was given the master tool to make while an apprentice roughed out the cutter. the toolmaker, however, reserved the hardening process for himself. that was one of the particular operations that the old toolmaker refused to give up. it seemed preposterous to think for a minute that any one else could possibly do that particular job without spoiling the tools, or at least warp it out of shape (most of us did not grind holes in cutters to years ago); or a hundred or more things might happen unless the toolmaker did his own hardening and tempering. that so many remarkably good tools were made at that time is still a wonder to many, when we consider that the large shop had from to different men, all using their own secret compounds, heating to suit eyesight, no matter if the day was bright or dark, and then tempering to color. but the day of the old toolmaker has changed. now a tool is designed by a tool designer, o.k.'d, and then a print goes to the foreman of the tool department, who specifies the size and gets the steel from the cutting-off department. after finishing the machine work it goes to the hardening room, and this is the problem we shall now take up in detail. the modern hardening room.--a hardening room of today means a very different place from the dirty, dark smithshop in the corner with the open coal forge. there, when we wanted to be somewhat particular, we sometimes shoveled the coal cinders to one side and piled a great pile of charcoal on the forge. we now have a complete equipment; a gas- or oil-heating furnace, good running water, several sizes of lead pots, and an oil tank large enough to hold a barrel of oil. by running water, we mean a large tank with overflow pipes giving a constant supply. the ordinary hardening room equipment should consist of: gas or oil muffle furnace for hardening. gas or oil forge furnace. a good size gas or oil furnace for annealing and case-hardening. a gas or oil furnace to hold lead pots. oil tempering tank, gas- or oil-heated. pressure blower. large oil tank to hold at least a barrel of oil. big water tank with screen trays connected with large pipe from bottom with overflow. straightening press. the furnace should be connected with pyrometers and tempering tank with a thermometer. beside all this you need a good man. it does not make much difference how completely the hardening department is fitted up, if you expect good work, a small percentage of loss and to be able to tackle anything that comes along, you must have a good man, one who understands the difference between low- and high-carbon steel, who knows when particular care must be exercised on particular work. in other words, a man who knows how his work should be done, and has the intelligence to follow directions on treatments of steel on which he has had no experience. jewelers' tools, especially for silversmith's work, probably have to stand the greatest punishment of any all-steel tools and to make a spoon die so hard that it will not sink under a blow from an , -lb. hammer with a -ft. drop, and still not crack, demands careful treatment. to harden such dies, first cover the impression on the die with paste made from bone dust or lampblack and oil. place face down in an iron box partly filled with crushed charcoal, leaving back of die uncovered so that the heat can be seen at all times. heat slowly in furnace to a good cherry red. the heat depends on the quality and the analysis of steel and the recommended actions of the steel maker should be carefully followed. when withdrawn from the fire the die should be quenched as shown in fig. with the face of die down and the back a short distance out of the water. when the back is black, immerse all over. [illustration: fig. .--quenching a die, face down.] if such a tank is not at hand, it would pay to rig one up at once, although a barrel of brine may be used, or the back of the die may be first immersed to a depth of about / in. when the piece is immersed, hold die on an angle as in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--hold die at angle to quench.] this is for the purpose of expelling all steam bubbles as they form in contact with hot steel. we are aware of the fact that a great many toolmakers in jewelry shops still cling to the overhead bath, as in fig. , but more broken pieces and more dies with soft spots are due to this method than to all the others combined, as the water strikes one spot in force, contracting the surface so much faster than the rest of the die that the results are the same as if an uneven heating had been given the steel. take time for hardening.--uneven heating and poor quenching has caused loss of many very valuable dies, and it certainly seems that when a firm spends from $ to $ in cutting a die that a few hours could be spared for proper hardening. but the usual feeling is that a tool must be hurried as soon as the hardener gets it, and if a burst die is the result from either uneven or overheated steel and quenching same without judgment, the steel gets the blame. [illustration: fig. .--an obsolete method.] give the steel a chance to heat properly, mix a little common sense with "your years experience on the other fellows steel." remember that high-carbon steel hardens at a lower heat than low-carbon steel, and quench when at the right heat in the two above ways, and per cent of the trouble will vanish. when a die flies to pieces in quenching, don't rush to the superintendent with a "poor-steel" story, but find out first why it broke so that the salesman who sold it will not be able to harden piece after piece from the same bar satisfactorily. if you find a "cold short," commonly called "a pipe," you can lay the blame on the steelmaker. if it is a case of overheating and quenching when too hot, you will find a coarse grain with many bright spots like crystals to the hardening depth. if uneven heating is the cause, you will find a wider margin of hardening depth on one side than on the other, or find the coarse grain from over-heating on one side while on the other you will find a close grain, which may be just right. if you find any other faults than a "pipe," or are not able to harden deep enough, then take the blame like a man and send for information. the different steel salesmen are good fellows and most of them know a thing or two about their own business. for much work a cooling bath at from to °f. is very good both for small hobs, dies, cutter plates or plungers. some work will harden best in a barrel of brine, but in running cold water, splendid results will be obtained. cutter plates should always be dipped corner first and if any have stripper holes, they should first be plugged with asbestos or fire clay cement. in general it may be said that the best hardening temperature for carbon steel is the lowest temperature at which it will harden properly. carbon in tool steel carbon tool steel, or "tool steel" as it is commonly called, usually contains from to points (or from . to . per cent) of carbon, and none of the alloys which go to make up the high speed steels. this was formerly known also as crucible or "cast" steel, or crucible cast steel, from the way in which it was made. this was before the days of steel castings. the advent of these caused so much confusion that the term was soon dropped. when we say "tool steel," we nearly always refer to carbon-tool steel, high-speed steel being usually designated by that name. for many purposes carbon-steel cutters are still found best, although where a large amount of material is to be removed at a rapid rate, it has given way to high-speed steels. carbon steels for different tools all users of tool steels should carefully study the different qualities of the steels they handle. different uses requires different kinds of steel for best results, and for the purpose of designating different steels some makers have adopted the two terms "temper," and "quality," to distinguish between them. in this case temper refers to the amount of carbon which is combined with the iron to make the metal into a steel. the quality means the absence of phosphorous, sulphur and other impurities, these depending on the ores and the methods of treatment. steel makers have various ways of designating carbon steels for different purposes. some of these systems involve the use of numbers, that of the latrobe steel company being given herewith. it will be noted that the numbers are based on points of carbon per unit. the names given the different tempers are also of interest. other makers use different numbers. the temper list follows: latrobe temper list of carbon tool steels no. temper . to . per cent carbon no. - / temper . to . per cent carbon no. temper . to . per cent carbon no. - / temper . to . pet cent carbon no. temper . to . per cent carbon no. - / temper . to . per cent carbon no. temper . to . per cent carbon no. - / temper . to . per cent carbon no. temper . to . per cent carbon uses of the various tempers of carbon tool steel die temper.--no. : all kinds of dies for deep stamping, pressing and drop forgings. mining drills to harden only. easily weldable. smiths' tool temper.--no. - / : large punches, minting and rivet dies, nailmakers' tools, hammers, hot and cold sets, snaps and boilermakers' tools, various smiths' tools, large shear blades, double-handed chisels, caulking tools, heading dies, masons' tools and tools for general welding purposes. shear blade temper.--no. : punches, large taps, screwing dies, shear blades, table cutlery, circular and long saws, heading dies. weldable. general purpose temper.--no. - / : taps, small punches, screwing dies, sawwebs, needles, etc., and for all general purposes. weldable. axe temper.--no. : axes, chisels, small taps, miners' drills and jumpers to harden and temper, plane irons. weldable with care. cutlery temper.--no. - / : large milling cutters, reamers, pocket cutlery, wood tools, short saws, granite drills, paper and tobacco knives. weldable with very great care. tool temper.--no. : turning, planing, slotting, and shaping tools, twist drills, mill picks, scythes, circular cutters, engravers' tools, surgical cutlery, circular saws for cutting metals, bevel and other sections for turret lathes. not weldable. hard tool temper.--no. - / : small twist drills, razors, small and intricate engravers' tools, surgical instruments, knives. not weldable. razor temper.--no. : razors, barrel boring bits, special lathe tools for turning chilled rolls. not weldable. steel for chisels and punches the highest grades of carbon or tempering steels are to be recommended for tools which have to withstand shocks, such as for cold chisels or punches. these steels are, however, particularly useful where it is necessary to cut tempered or heat-treated steel which is more than ordinarily hard, for cutting chilled iron, etc. they are useful for boring, for rifle-barrel drilling, for fine finishing cuts, for drawing dies for brass and copper, for blanking dies for hard materials, for formed cutters on automatic screw machines and for roll-turning tools. steel of this kind, being very dense in structure, should be given more time in heating for forging and for hardening, than carbon steels of a lower grade. for forging it should be heated slowly and uniformly to a bright red and only light blows used as the heat dies out. do not hammer at all at a black heat. reheat slowly to a dark red for hardening and quench in warm water. grind on a wet grindstone. where tools have to withstand shocks and vibration, as in pneumatic hammer work, in severe punching duty, hot or cold upsetting or similar work, tool steels containing vanadium or chrome-vanadium give excellent results. these are made particularly for work of this kind. chisels-shapes and heat treatment[ ] [footnote : abstract of paper by henry fowler, chief mechanical engineer of the midland ry., england, before the institution of mechanical engineers.] in the chief mechanical engineer's department of the midland ry., after considerable experimenting, it was decided to order chisel steel to the following specifications: carbon, . to . per cent, the other constituents being normal. this gives a complete analysis as follows: carbon, . to . ; manganese, . ; silicon, . ; sulphur, . ; phosphorus, . . the analysis of a chisel which had given excellent service was as follows: carbon, . ; manganese, . ; silicon, . ; sulphur, . ; phosphorus, . . the heat treatment is unknown. [illustration: fig. .--forms of chisels standardized for the locomotive shops of the midland ry., england.] at the same time that chisel steel was standardized, the form of the chisels themselves was revised, and a standard chart of these as used in the locomotive shops was drawn up. figure shows the most important forms, which are made to stock orders in the smithy and forwarded to the heat-treatment room where the hardening and tempering is carried out on batches of fifty. a standard system of treatment is employed, which to a very large extent does away with the personal element. since the chemical composition is more or less constant, the chief variant is the section which causes the temperatures to be varied slightly. the chisels are carefully heated in a gas-fired furnace to a temperature of from to °c. ( , to , °f.) according to section. in practice, the first chisel, is heated to °c.; and the second to °c. ( , °f.); and a in. half round chisel to °c., because of their varying increasing thickness of section at the points. upon attaining this steady temperature, the chisels are quenched to a depth of / to / in. from the point in water, and then the whole chisel is immersed and cooled off in a tank containing linseed oil. the oil-tank is cooled by being immersed in a cold-water tank through which water is constantly circulated. after this treatment, the chisels have a dead hard point and a tough or sorbitic shaft. they are then tempered or the point "let down." this is done by immersing them in another oil-bath which has been raised to about °c. ( °f). the first result is, of course, to drop the temperature of the oil, which is gradually raised to its initial point. on approaching this temperature the chisels are taken out about every °c. rise and tested with a file, and at a point between and °c. ( °f.), when it is found that the desired temper has been reached, the chisels are removed, cleaned in sawdust, and allowed to cool in an iron tray. no comparative tests of these chisels with those bought and treated by the old rule-of-thumb methods have been made, as no exact method of carrying out such tests mechanically, other than trying the hardness by the brinell or scleroscope method, are known; any ordinary test depends so largely upon the dexterity of the operator. the universal opinion of foremen and those using the chisels as to the advantages of the ones receiving the standard treatment described is that a substantial improvement has been made. the chisels were not "normalized." tests of chisels normalized at about °c. ( , °f.) showed that they possessed no advantage. tools or pieces which have holes or deep depressions should be filled before heating unless it is necessary to have the holes hard on the inside. in that case the filling would keep the water away from the surface and no hardening would take place. where filling is to be done, various materials are used by different hardeners. fireclay and common putty seem to be favored by many. every mechanic who has had anything to do with the hardening of tools knows how necessary it is to take a cut from the surface of the bar that is to be hardened. the reason is that in the process of making the steel its outer surface has become decarbonized. this change makes it low-carbon steel, which will of course not harden. it is necessary to remove from / to / in. of diameter on bars ranging from / to in. this same decarbonization occurs if the steel is placed in the forge in such a way that unburned oxygen from the blast can get at it. the carbon is oxidized, or burned out, converting the outside of the steel into low-carbon steel. the way to avoid this is to use a deep fire. lack of this precaution is the cause of much spoiled work, not only because of decarbonization of the outer surface of the metal, but because the cold blast striking the hot steel acts like boiling hot water poured into an ice-cold glass tumbler. the contraction sets up stresses that result in cracks when the piece is quenched. preventing decarbonization of tool steel it is especially important to prevent decarbonization in such tools as taps and form cutters, which must keep their shape after hardening and which cannot be ground away on the profile. for this reason it is well to put taps, reamers and the like into pieces of pipe in heating them. the pipe need be closed on one end only, as the air will not circulate readily unless there is an opening at both ends. even if used in connection with a blacksmith's forge the lead bath has an advantage for heating tools of complicated shapes, since it is easier to heat them uniformly and they are submerged and away from the air. the lead must be stirred frequently or the heat is not uniform in all parts of the lead bath. covering the lead with powdered charcoal will largely prevent oxidization and waste of lead. such a bath is good for temperatures between and , °f. at higher temperatures there is much waste of lead. annealing to relieve internal stresses work quenched from a high temperature and not afterward tempered will, if complex in shape, contain many internal stresses which may later cause it to break. they may be eased off by slight heating without materially lessening the hardness of the piece. one way to do this is to hold the piece over a fire and test it with a moistened finger. another way is to dip the piece in boiling water after it has first been quenched in a cold bath. such steps are not necessary with articles which will afterward be tempered and in which the strains are thus reduced. in annealing steels the operation is similar to hardening, as far as heating is concerned. the critical temperatures are the proper ones for annealing as well as hardening. from this point on there is a difference, for annealing consists in cooling as slowly as possible. the slower the cooling the softer will be the steel. annealing may be done in the open air, in furnaces, in hot ashes or lime, in powdered charcoal, in burnt bone, in charred leather and in water. open-air annealing will do as a crude measure in cases where it is desired to take the internal stresses out of a piece. care must be taken in using this method that the piece is not exposed to drafts or placed on some cold substance that will chill it. furnace annealing is much better and consists in heating the piece in a furnace to the critical temperature and then allowing the work and the furnace to cool together. when lime or ashes are used as materials to keep air away from the steel and retain the heat, they should be first heated to make sure that they are dry. powdered charcoal is used for high-grade annealing, the piece being packed in this substance in an iron box and both the work and the box raised to the critical temperature and then allowed to cool slowly. machinery steel may be annealed in spent ground-bone that has been used in casehardening; _but tool steel must never be annealed in this way_, as it will be injured by the phosphorus contained in the bone. charred leather is the best annealing material for high-carbon steel, because it prevents decarbonizing taking place. double annealing water annealing consists in heating the piece, allowing it to cool in air until it loses its red heat and becomes black and then immediately quenching it in water. this plan works well for very low-carbon steel; but for high-carbon steel what is known as the "double annealing treatment" must be given, provided results are wanted quickly. the process consists in heating the steel quickly to ° or more above the upper critical, cooling in air down through the recalescence point, then reheating it to just above the critical point and again cooling slowly through the recalescence, then quenching in oil. this process retains in the steel a fine-grained structure combined with softness. quenching tool steel to secure proper hardness, the cooling of quenching of steel is as important as its heating. quenching baths vary in nature, there being a large number of ways to cool a piece of steel in contrast to the comparatively few ways of heating it. plain water, brine and oil are the three most common quenching materials. of these three the brine will give the most hardness, and plain water and oil come next. the colder that any of these baths is when the piece is put into it the harder will be the steel; but this does not mean that it is a good plan to dip the heated steel into a tank of ice water, for the shock would be so great that the bar would probably fly to pieces. in fact, the quenching bath must be sometimes heated a bit to take off the edge of the shock. brine solutions will work uniformly, or give the same degree of hardness, until they reach a temperature of °f. above which their grip relaxes and the metals quenched in them become softer. plain water holds its grip up to a temperature of approximately °f.; but oil baths, which are used to secure a slower rate of cooling, may be used up to ° or more. a compromise is sometimes effected by using a bath consisting of an inch or two of oil floating on the surface of water. as the hot steel passes through the oil, the shock is not as severe as if it were to be thrust directly into the water; and in addition, oil adheres to the tool and keeps the water from direct contact with the metal. the old idea that mercury will harden steel more than any other quenching material has been exploded. a bath consisting of melted cyanide of potassium is useful for heating fine engraved dies and other articles that are required to come out free from scale. one must always be careful to provide a hood or exhaust system to get rid of the deadly fumes coming from the cyanide pot. the one main thing to remember in hardening tool steel is to quench on a rising heat. this does not mean a rapid heating as a slow increase in temperature is much better in every way. the theory of tempering.--steel that has been hardened is generally harder and more brittle than is necessary, and in order to bring it to the condition that meets our requirements a treatment called tempering is used. this increases the toughness of the steel, _i.e._, decrease the brittleness at the expense of a slight decrease in hardness. there are several theories to explain this reaction, but generally it is only necessary to remember that in hardening we quench steel from the austenite phase, and, due to this rapid cooling, the normal change from austenite to the eutectoid composition does not have time to take place, and as a consequence the steel exists in a partially transformed, unstable and very hard condition at atmospheric temperatures. but owing to the internal rigidity which exists in cold metal the steel is unable to change into its more stable phase until atoms can rearrange themselves by the application of heat. the higher the heat, the greater the transformation into the softer phases. as the transformation takes place, a certain amount of heat of reaction, which under slow cooling would have been released in the critical range, is now released and helps to cause a further slight reaction. if a piece of steel is heated to a certain temperature and held there, the tempering color, instead of remaining unchanged at this temperature, will advance in the tempering-color scale as it would with increasing temperature. this means that the tempering colors do not absolutely correspond to the temperatures of steels, but the variations are so slight that we can use them in actual practice. (see table , page .) temperatures to use.--as soon as the temperature of the steel reaches °c. ( °f.) the transformation begins, increasing in intensity as the temperature is raised, until finally when the lower critical range is reached, the steel has been all changed into the ordinary constituents of unhardened steels. if a piece of polished steel is heated in an ordinary furnace, a thin film of oxides will form on its surface. the colors of this film change with temperature, and so, in tempering, they are generally used as an indication of the temperature of the steel. the steel should have at least one polished face so that this film of oxides may be seen. an alternative method to the determination of temper by color is to temper by heating in an oil or salt bath. oil baths can be used up to temperatures of °f.; above this, fused-salt baths are required. the article to be tempered is put into the bath, brought up to and held at the required temperature for a certain length of time, and then cooled, either rapidly or slowly. this takes longer than the color method, but with low temperatures the results are more satisfactory, because the temperature of the bath can be controlled with a pyrometer. the tempering temperatures given in the following table are taken from a handbook issued by the midvale steel company. table .--tempering temperatures for steels ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- temperature | | temperature | for hr. | | for min. | ---------------| color |---------------| uses deg. f.|deg. c.| |deg. f.|deg. c.| -------|-------|------------|-------|-------|------------------------------- | |faint yellow| | |scrapers, brass-turning tools, | | | | |reamers, taps, milling cutters, | | | | |saw teeth. | |light straw | | |twist drills, lathe tools, | | | | |planer tools, finishing tools | |dark straw | | |stone tools, hammer faces, | | | | |chisels for hard work, boring | | | | |cutters. | |brown | | |trephining tools, stamps. | |purple | | |cold chisels for ordinary work, | | | | |carpenters' tools, picks, cold | | | | |punches, shear blades, slicing | | | | |tools, slotter tools. | |dark blue | | |hot chisels, tools for hot | | | | |work, springs. | |light blue | | |springs, screw drivers. ---------------------------------------------------------------------------- it will be noted that two sets of temperatures are shown, one being specified for a time interval of min. and the other for hr. for the finest work the longer time is preferable, while for ordinary rough work min. is sufficient, after the steel has reached the specified temperature. the rate of cooling after tempering seems to be immaterial, and the piece can be cooled at any rate, providing that in large pieces it is sufficiently slow to prevent strains. knowing what takes place.--how are we to know if we have given a piece of steel the very best possible treatment? the best method is by microscopic examination of polished and etched sections, but this requires a certain expense for laboratory equipment and upkeep, which may prevent an ordinary commercial plant from attempting such a refinement. it is highly recommended that any firm that has any large amount of heat treatment to do, install such an equipment, which can be purchased for from $ to $ . its intelligent use will save its cost in a very short time. the other method is by examination of fractures of small test bars. steel heated to its correct temperatures will show the finest possible grain, whereas underheated steel has not had its grain structure refined sufficiently, and so will not be at its best. on the other hand, overheated steel will have a coarser structure, depending on the extent of overheating. to determine the proper quenching temperature of any particular grade of steel it is only necessary to heat pieces to various temperatures not more than °c. ( °f.) apart, quench in water, break them, and examine the fractures. the temperature producing the finest grain should be used for annealing and hardening. similarly, to determine tempering temperatures, several pieces should be hardened, then tempered to various degrees, and cooled in air. samples, say six, reheated to temperatures varying by ° from to °c. will show a considerable range of properties, and the drawing temperature of the piece giving the desired results can be used. for drawing tempers up to °f. oil baths of fresh cotton seed oil can be safely and satisfactorily used. for higher temperature a bath of some kind of fused salt is recommended. hints for tool steel users do not hesitate to ask for information from the maker as to the best steel to use for a given purpose, mentioning in as much detail as possible the use for which it is intended. do not heat the steel to a higher degree than that fixed in the description of each class. never heat the steel to more than a cherry red without forging it or giving it a definite heat treatment. heating steel at even moderate temperature is liable to coarsen the grain which can only be restored by forging or by heat treating. let the forging begin as soon as the steel is hot enough and never let tool steel soak in the fire. continue the hammering vigorously and constantly, using lighter blows as it cools off, and stopping when the heat becomes a very dull red or a faint brown. should welding be necessary care should be taken not to overheat in order to make an easy weld. keep it below the sparkling point as this indicates that the steel is burnt. begin to forge as soon as the welds are put together, taking care to use gentle strokes at first increasing them as the higher heat falls, but not overdoing the hammering when the steel cools. the hammering should be extended beyond the welding point and should continue until the dull red or brown heat is reached. preventing cracks in hardening the blacksmith in the small shop, where equipment is usually very limited, often consisting of a forge, a small open hard-coal furnace, a barrel of water and a can of oil must have skill and experience. with this equipment the smith is expected to, and usually can, produce good results if proper care is taken. in hardening carbon tool steel in water, too much cannot be said in favor of slow, careful heating, nor against overheating if cracks are to be avoided. it is not wise to take the work from the hardening bath and leave it exposed to the air if there is any heat left in it, because it is more liable to crack than if left in the bath until cold. in heating, plenty of time is taken for the work to heat evenly clear through, thus avoiding strains caused by quick and improper heating, in quenching in water, contraction is much more rapid than was the expansion while heating, and strains begin the moment the work touches the water. if the piece has any considerable size and is taken from the bath before it is cold and allowed to come to the air, expansion starts again from the inside so rapidly that the chilled hardened surface cracks before the strains can be relieved. many are most successful with the hardening bath about blood warm. when the work that is being hardened is nearly cold, it is taken from the water and instantly put into a can of oil, where it is allowed to finish cooling. the heat in the body of the tool will come to the surface more slowly, thus relieving the strain and overcoming much of the danger of cracking. some contend that the temper should be drawn as soon as possible after hardening: but that if this cannot be done for some hours, the work should be left in the oil until the tempering can be done. it is claimed that forming dies and punch-press dies that are difficult to harden will seldom crack if treated in this way. small tools or pieces that are very troublesome because of peculiar shape should be made of steel which has been thoroughly annealed. it is often well to mill or turn off the outer skin of the bar, to remove metal which has been cold-worked. then heat slowly just through the critical range and cool in the furnace, in order to produce a very fine grain. tools machined from such stock, and hardened with the utmost care, will have the best chance to survive without warping, growth or cracking. shrinking and enlarging work steel can be shrunk or enlarged by proper heating and cooling. pins for forced fits can be enlarged several thousandths of an inch by rapid heating to a dull red and quenching in water. the theory is that the metal is expanded in heating and that the sudden cooling sets the outer portion before the core can contract. in dipping the piece is not held under water till cold but is dipped, held a moment and removed. then dipped again and again until cold. rings and drawing dies are also shrunk in a similar way. the rings are slowly heated to a cherry red, slipped on a rod and rolled in a shallow pan of water which cools only the outer edge. this holds the outside while the inner heated portion is forced inward, reducing the hole. this operation can be repeated a number of times with considerable success. tempering round dies a number of circular dies of carbon tool steel for use in tool holders of turret lathes were required. no proper tempering oven was available, so the following method was adopted and proved quite successful. after the dies had been hardened dead hard in water, they were cleaned up bright. a pair of ordinary smiths' tongs was made with jaws of heavy material and to fit nicely all around the outside of the die, leaving a / -in. space when the jaws were closed around the die. the dies being all ready, the tongs were heated red hot, and the dies were picked up and held by the tongs. this tempered them from the outside in, left the teeth the temper required and the outside slightly softer. the dies held up the work successfully and were better than when tempered in the same bath. the effect of tempering on water-quenched gages the following information has been supplied by automatic and electric furnaces, ltd., , queenstreet, london, s. w.: two gages of / in. diameter, threads per inch, were heated in a wild-barfield furnace, using the pyroscopic detector, and were quenched in cold water. they were subsequently tempered in a salt bath at various increasing temperatures, the effective diameter of each thread and the scleroscope hardness being measured at each stage. the figures are in , ths of an inch, and indicate the change + or - with reference to the original effective diameter of the gages. the results for the two gages have been averaged. table .--changes due to quenching ---------------------------------------------------------------- | after |tempering temperature, degrees centigrade thread |quenching|----------------------------------------- | | | | | | | ------------|---------|------|------|------|------|------|------ | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | | | | + | + | + | + | ... | | - | + | + | + | + | | | | + | + | + | + | | | | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | | | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | + | | | | | | | scleroscope | | | | | | | ---------------------------------------------------------------- had these gages been formed with a plain cylindrical end projecting in front of the screw, the first two threads would have been prevented from increasing more than the rest. the gages would then have been fairly easily corrected by lapping after tempering at °c. practically no lapping would be required if they were tempered at °c. there seems to be no advantage in going to a higher temperature than this. the same degree of hardness could have been obtained with considerably less distortion by quenching directly in fused salt. it is interesting to note that when the swelling after water quenching does not exceed . in., practically the whole of it may be recovered by tempering at a sufficiently high temperature, but when the swelling exceeds this amount the steel assumes a permanently strained condition, and at the most only . in. can be recovered by tempering. tempering colors on carbon steels opinions differ as to the temperature which is indicated by the various colors, or oxides, which appear on steel in tempering. the figures shown are from five different sources and while the variations are not great, it is safer to take the average temperature shown in the last column. table .--colors, temperatures, degrees fahrenheit ---------------------------------------------------------- | _a_ | _b_ | _c_ | _d_ | _e_ | average ------------------|-----|-----|-----|-----|-----|--------- faint yellow | | | | | | light straw | | | | ... | | dark straw | | | | | | purple (reddish) | | | | | | purple (bluish) | ... | | | | | blue | | | | | | gray blue | ... | | ... | | | greenish blue | ... | | ... | ... | | ---------------------------------------------------------- table .--another color table ---------------------------------------------------------- degrees | fahrenheit | high temperatures judged by color ------------|--------------------------------------------- | very pale yellow \ | straw-yellow | | dark yellow | | brown-yellow > visible in full daylight | brown-purple | | full purple | | full blue | | very dark blue / | red heat, visible in the dark | red heat, visible in the twilight | red heat, visible in the daylight , | dark red , | cherry-red , | bright cherry-red , | orange-red , | orange-yellow , | yellow-white , | white welding heat , | brilliant white , | dazzling white (bluish-white) ---------------------------------------------------------- these differences might easily be due to the difference in the light at the time the colors were observed. it must also be remembered that even a thin coating of oil will make quite a difference and cause confusion. it is these possible sources of error, coupled with the ever present chance of human error, that makes it advisable to draw the temper of tools in an oil bath heated to the proper temperature as shown by an accurate high-temperature thermometer. another table, by gilbert and barker, runs to much higher temperatures. beyond , °, however, the eye is very uncertain. table .--colors for tempering tools ----------------------------------------------------------------------- approximate | color and | kind of tool temperature | --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- yellow | thread chasers, hollow mills (solid type) twist drills to °f.| centering tools, forming tools, cut-off tools, profile | cutters, milling cutters, reamers, dies, etc. --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- straw-yellow | thread rolling dies, counterbores, countersinks. shear °f. | blades, boring tools, engraving tools, etc. --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- brown-yellow | taps, thread dies, cutters, reamers, etc. °f. | --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- light purple | taps, dies, rock drills, knives, punches, gages, etc. °f. | --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- dark purple | circular saws for metal, augers, dental and surgical °f. | instruments, cold chisels, axes. --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- pale blue | bone saws, chisels, needles, cutters, etc. °f. | --------------|-------------------------------------------------------- blue | hack saws, wood saws, springs, etc. °f. | ----------------------------------------------------------------------- chapter x high-speed steel for centuries the secret art of making tool steel was handed down from father to son. the manufacture of tool steel is still an art which, by the aid of science, has lost much of its secrecy; yet tool steel is today made by practical men skilled as melters, hammer-men, and rollers, each knowing his art. these practical men willingly accept guidance from the chemist and metallurgists. a knowledge of conditions existing today in the manufacture of high-speed steel is essential to steel treaters. it is well for the manufacturer to have steel treaters understand some of his troubles and difficulties, so that they will better comprehend the necessity of certain trade customs and practices, and, realizing the manufacturer's desire to cooperate with them, will reciprocate. the manufacturer of high-speed steel knows and appreciates the troubles and difficulties that may sometimes arise in the heat-treating of his product. his aim is to make a uniform steel that will best meet the requirements of the average machine shop on general work, and at the same time allow the widest variation in heat treatment to give desired results. high speed steel is one of the most complex alloys known. a representative steel contains approximately per cent of alloying metals, namely, tungsten, chromium, vanadium, silicon, manganese, and in addition there is often found cobalt, molybdenum, uranium, nickel, tin, copper and arsenic. standard analysis the selection of a standard analysis by the manufacturer is the result of a series of compromises between various properties imparted to the steel by the addition of different elements and there is a wide range of chemical analyses of various brands. the steel, to be within the range of generally accepted analysis, should contain over per cent and under per cent tungsten; if of lower tungsten content it should carry proportionately more chromium and vanadium. the combined action of tungsten and chromium in steel gives to it the remarkable property of maintaining its cutting edge at relatively high temperature. this property is commonly spoken of as "red-hardness." the percentages of tungsten and chromium present should bear a definite relationship to each other. chromium imparts to steel a hardening property similar to that given by carbon, although to a less degree. the hardness imparted to steel by chromium is accompanied by brittleness. the chromium content should be between . and per cent. vanadium was first introduced in high-speed steel as a "scavenger," thereby producing a more homogeneous product, of greater density and physical strength. it soon became evident that vanadium used in larger quantities than necessary as a scavenger imparted to the steel a much greater cutting efficiency. recently, no less an authority than prof. j. o. arnold, of the university of sheffield, england, stated that "high-speed steels containing vanadium have a mean efficiency of . , as against a mean efficiency of . obtained from those without vanadium content." a wide range of vanadium content in steel, from . to . per cent, is permissible. an ideal analysis for high-speed steel containing per cent tungsten is a chromium content of approximately . per cent; vanadium, . to . per cent, and carbon, between . and . per cent. detrimental elements.--sulphur and phosphorus are two elements known to be detrimental to all steels. sulphur causes "red-shortness" and phosphorus causes "cold-shortness." the detrimental effects of these two elements counteract each other to some extent but the content should be not over . sulphur and . phosphorus. the serious detrimental effect of small quantities of sulphur and phosphorus is due to their not being uniformly distributed, owing to their tendency to segregate. the manganese and silicon contents are relatively unimportant in the percentages usually found in high-speed steel. the detrimental effects of tin, copper and arsenic are not generally realized by the trade. small quantities of these impurities are exceedingly harmful. these elements are very seldom determined in customers' chemical laboratories and it is somewhat difficult for public chemists to analyze for them. in justice to the manufacturer, attention should be called to the variations in chemical analyses among the best of laboratories. generally speaking, a steel works' laboratory will obtain results more nearly true and accurate than is possible with a customer's laboratory, or by a public chemist. this can reasonably be expected, for the steel works' chemist is a specialist, analyzing the same material for the same elements day in and day out. the importance of the chemical laboratory to a tool-steel plant cannot be over-estimated. every heat of steel is analyzed for each element, and check analyses obtained; also, every substance used in the mix is analyzed for all impurities. the importance of using pure base materials is known to all manufacturers despite chemical evidence that certain detrimental elements are removed in the process of manufacture. the manufacture of high-speed steel represents the highest art in the making of steel by tool-steel practice. some may say, on account of our increased knowledge of chemistry and metallurgy, that the making of such steel has ceased to be an art, but has become a science. it is, in fact an art; aided by science. the human element in its manufacture is a decided factor, as will be brought in the following remarks: the heat treatment of steel in its broad aspect may be said to commence with the melting furnace and end with the hardening and tempering of the finished product. high-speed steel is melted by two general types of furnace, known as crucible and electric. steel treaters, however, are more vitally interested in the changes that take place in the steel during the various processes of manufacture rather than a detailed description of those processes, which are more or less familiar to all. in order that good high-speed steel may be furnished in finished bars, it must be of correct chemical analysis, properly melted and cast into solid ingots, free from blow-holes and surface defects. sudden changes of temperature are to be guarded against at every stage of its manufacture and subsequent treatment. the ingots are relatively weak, and the tendency to crack due to cooling strains is great. for this reason the hot ingots are not allowed to cool quickly, but are placed in furnaces which are of about the same temperature and are allowed to cool gradually before being placed in stock. good steel can be made only from good ingots. steel treaters should be more vitally interested in the important changes which take place in high-speed steel during the hammering operations than that of any other working the steel receives in the course of its manufacture. quality and structure the quality of high-speed steel is dependent to a very great extent upon its structure. the making of the structure begins under the hammer, and the beneficial effects produced in this stage persist through the subsequent operations, provided they are properly carried out. the massive carbides and tungstides present in the ingot are broken down and uniformly distributed throughout the billet. to accomplish this the reduction in area must be sufficient and the hammer blows should be heavy, so as to carry the compression into the center of the billet; otherwise, undesirable characteristics such as coarse structure and carbide envelopes will exist and cause the steel treater much trouble. surface defects invisible in the ingot may be opened up under the hammering operation, in which event they are chipped from the hot billet. ingots are first hammered into billets. these billets are carefully inspected and all surface defects ground or chipped. the hammered billets are again slowly heated and receive a second hammering, known as "cogging." the billet resulting therefrom is known as a "cogged" billet and is of the proper size for the rolling mill or for the finishing hammer. although it is not considered good mill practice, some manufacturers who have a large rolling mill perform the very important cogging operation in the rolling mill instead of under the hammer. cogging in a rolling mill does not break up and distribute the carbides and tungstides as efficiently as cogging under the hammer; another objection to cogging in the rolling mill is that there is no opportunity to chip surface defects developed as they can be under the trained eye of a hammer-man, thereby eliminating such defects in the finished billet. the rolling of high-speed steel is an art known to very few. the various factors governing the proper rolling are so numerous that it is necessary for each individual rolling mill to work out a practice that gives the best results upon the particular analysis of steel it makes. important elements entering into the rolling are the heating and finishing temperatures, draft, and speed of the mill. in all of these the element of time must be considered. high-speed steel should be delivered from the rolling mill to the annealing department free from scale, for scale promotes the formation of a decarbonized surface. in preparation of bars for annealing, they are packed in tubes with a mixture of charcoal, lime, and other material. the tubes are sealed and placed in the annealing furnace and the temperature is gradually raised to about , °f., and held there for a sufficient length of time, depending upon the size of the bars. after very slow cooling the bars are removed from the tubes. they should then show a brinnell number of between and . the inspection department ranks with the chemical and metallurgical departments in safeguarding the quality of the product. it inspects all finished material from the standpoint of surface defects, hardness, size and fracture. it rejects such steel as is judged not to meet the manufacturer's standard. the inspection and metallurgical departments work hand in hand, and if any department is not functioning properly it will soon become evident to the inspectors, enabling the management to remedy the trouble. the successful manufacture of high-speed steel can only be obtained by those companies who have become specialists. the art and skill necessary in the successful working of such steel can be attained only by a man of natural ability in his chosen trade, and trained under the supervision of experts. to become an expert operator in any department of its manufacture, it is necessary that the operator work almost exclusively in the production of such steel. as to the heat treatment, it is customary for the manufacturer to recommend to the user a procedure that will give to his steel a high degree of cutting efficiency. the recommendations of the manufacturer should be conservative, embracing fairly wide limits, as the tendency of the user is to adhere very closely to the manufacturer's recommendations. unless one of the manufacturer's expert service men has made a detailed study of the customer's problem, the manufacturer is not justified in laying down set rules, for if the customer does a little experimenting he can probably modify the practice so as to produce results that are particularly well adapted to his line of work. the purpose of heat-treating is to produce a tool that will cut so as to give maximum productive efficiency. this cutting efficiency depends upon the thermal stability of the complex hardenites existing in the hardened and tempered steel. the writer finds it extremely difficult to convey the meaning of the word "hardenite" to those that do not have a clear conception of the term. the complex hardenites in high-speed steel may be described as that form of solid solution which gives to it its cutting efficiency. the complex hardenites are produced by heating the steel to a very high temperature, near the melting point, which throws into solution carbides and tungstides, provided they have been properly broken up in the hammering process and uniformly distributed throughout the steel. by quenching the steel at correct temperature this solid solution is retained at atmospheric temperature. it is not the intention to make any definite recommendations as to heat-treating of high-speed steel by the users. it is recognized that such steel can be heat-treated to give satisfactory results by different methods. it is, however, believed that the american practice of hardening and tempering is becoming more uniform. this is due largely to the exchange of opinions in meetings and elsewhere. the trend of american practice for hardening is toward the following: _first_, slowly and carefully preheat the tool to a temperature of approximately , °f., taking care to prevent the formation of excessive scale. _second_, transfer to a furnace, the temperature of which is approximately , to , °f., and allow to remain in the furnace until the tool is heated uniformly to the above temperature. _third_, cool rapidly _in oil_, dry air blast, or lead bath. _fourth_, draw back to a temperature to meet the physical requirements of the tool, and allow to cool in air. it was not very long ago that the desirability of drawing hardened high-speed steel to a temperature of , ° was pointed out, and it is indeed encouraging to learn that comparatively few treaters have failed to make use of this fact. many treaters at first contended that the steel would be soft after drawing to this temperature and it is only recently, since numerous actual tests have demonstrated its value, that the old prejudice has been eliminated. high-speed steel should be delivered only in the annealed condition because annealing relieves the internal strains inevitable in the manufacture and puts it in vastly improved physical condition. the manufacturer's inspection after annealing also discloses defects not visible in the unannealed state. the only true test for a brand of high-speed steel is the service that it gives by continued performance month in and month out under actual shop conditions. the average buyer is not justified in conducting a test, but can well continue to purchase his requirements from a reputable manufacturer of a brand that is nationally known. the manufacturer is always willing to cooperate with the trade in the conducting of a test and is much interested in the information received from a well conducted test. a test, to be valuable, should be conducted in a manner as nearly approaching actual working conditions in the plant in which the test is made as is practical. in conducting a test a few reputable brands should be allowed to enter. all tools entered should be of exactly the same size and shape. there is much difference of opinion as to the best practical method of conducting a test, and the decision as to how the test should be conducted should be left to the customer, who should cooperate with the manufacturers in devising a test which would give the best basis for conclusions as to how the particular brands would perform under actual shop conditions. the value of the file test depends upon the quality of the file and the intelligence and experience of the person using it. the file test is not reliable, but in the hands of an experienced operator, gives some valuable information. almost every steel treater knows of numerous instances where a lathe tool which could be touched with a file has shown wonderful results as to cutting efficiency. modern tool-steel practice has changed from that of the past, not by the use of labor-saving machinery, but by the use of scientific devices which aid and guide the skilled craftsman in producing a steel of higher quality and greater uniformity. it is upon the intelligence, experience, and skill of the individual that quality of tool steel depends. hardening high-speed steels we will now take up the matter of hardening high-speed steels. the most ordinary tools used are for lathes and planers. the forging should be done at carbon-steel heat. rough-grind while still hot and preheat to about carbon-steel hardening heat, then heat quickly in high-speed furnace to white heat, and quench in oil. if a very hard substance is to be cut, the point of tool may be quenched in kerosene or water and when nearly black, finish cooling in oil. tempering must be done to suit the material to be cut. for cutting cast iron, brass castings, or hard steel, tempering should be done merely to take strains out of steel. on ordinary machinery steel or nickel steel the temper can be drawn to a dark blue or up to °f. if the tool is of a special form or character, the risk of melting or scaling the point cannot be taken. in these cases the tool should be packed, but if there is no packing equipment, a tool can be heated to as high heat as is safe without risk to cutting edges, and cyanide or prussiate of potash can be sprinkled over the face and then quenched in oil. some very adverse criticism may be heard on this point, but experience has proved that such tools will stand up very nicely and be perfectly free from scales or pipes. where packing cannot be done, milling cutters, and tools to be hardened all over, can be placed in muffled furnace, brought to , ° and quenched in oil. all such tools, however, must be preheated slowly to , to , ° then placed in a high-speed furnace and brought up quickly. do not soak high-speed steel at high heats. quench in oil. we must bear in mind that the heating furnace is likely to expand tools, therefore provision must be made to leave extra stock to take care of such expansion. tools with shanks such as counter bores, taps, reamers, drills, etc., should be heated no further than they are wanted hard, and quench in oil. if a forge is not at hand and heating must be done, use a muffle furnace and cover small shanks with a paste from fire clay or ground asbestos. hollow mills, spring threading dies, and large cutting tools with small shanks should have the holes thoroughly packed or covered with asbestos cement as far as they are wanted soft. cutting-off steel from bar to cut a piece from an annealed bar, cut off with a hack saw, milling cutter or circular saw. cut clear through the bar; do not nick or break. to cut a piece from an unannealed bar, cut right off with an abrasive saw; do not nick or break. if of large cross-section, cut off hot with a chisel by first slowly and uniformly heating the bar, at the point to be cut, to a good lemon heat, , to , °f. and cut right off while hot; do not nick or break. allow the tool length and bar to cool before reheating for forging. lathe and planer tools forging.--gently warm the steel to remove any chill, is particularly desirable in the winter, then heat slowly and carefully to a scaling heat, that is a lemon heat ( , to , °f.), and forge uniformly. reheat the tool for further forging directly the steel begins to stiffen under the hammer. under no circumstances forge the steel when the temperature falls below a dark lemon to an orange color about , °f. reheat as often as is necessary to finish forging the tool to shape. allow the tool to cool after forging by burying the tool in dry ashes or lime. do not place on the damp ground or in a draught of air. the heating for forging should be done preferably in a pipe or muffle furnace but if this is not convenient use a good clean fire with plenty of fuel between the blast pipe and the tool. never allow the tool to soak after the desired forging heat has been reached. do not heat the tool further back than is necessary to shape the tool, but give the tool sufficient heat. see that the back of the tool is flatly dressed to provide proper support under the nose of the tool. hardening high-speed steel.--slowly reheat the cutting edge of the tool to a cherry red, , °f., then force the blast so as to raise the temperature quickly to a full white heat, , to , °f., that is, until the tool starts to sweat at the cutting face. cool the point of the tool in a dry air blast or preferably in oil, further cool in oil keeping the tool moving until the tool has become black hot. to remove hardening strains reheat the tool to from to , °f. cool in oil or atmosphere. this second heat treatment adds to the toughness of the tool and therefore to its life. grinding tools.--grind tools to remove all scale. use a quick-cutting, dry, abrasive wheel. if using a wet wheel, be sure to use plenty of water. do not under any circumstances force the tool against the wheel so as to draw the color, as this is likely to set up checks on the surface of the tool to its detriment. for milling cutters and formed tools forging.--forge as before.--annealing.--place the steel in a pipe, box or muffle. arrange the steel so as to allow at least in. of packing, consisting of dry powder ashes, powdered charcoal, mica, etc., between the pieces and the walls of the box or pipe. if using a pipe close the ends. heat slowly and uniformly to a cherry red, , to , °f. according to size. hold the steel at this temperature until the heat has thoroughly saturated through the metal, then allow the muffle box and tools to cool very slowly in a dying furnace or remove the muffle with its charge and bury in hot ashes or lime. the slower the cooling the softer the steel. the heating requires from to hr. depending upon the size of the piece. hardening and tempering.--it is preferable to use two furnaces when hardening milling cutters and special shape tools. one furnace should be maintained at a uniform temperature from , to , °f. while the other should be maintained at about , °f. keep the tool to be hardened in the low temperature furnace until the tool has attained the full heat of this furnace. a short time should be allowed so as to be assured that the center of the tool is as hot as the outside. then quickly remove the tool from this preheating furnace to the full heat furnace. keep the tool in this furnace only as long as is necessary for the tool to attain the full temperature of this furnace. then quickly remove and quench in oil or in a dry air blast. remove before the tool is entirely cold and draw the temper in an oil bath by raising the temperature of the oil to from to °f. and allow this tool to remain, at this temperature, in the bath for at least min., insuring uniformity of temper; then cool in the bath, atmosphere or oil. if higher drawing temperatures are desired than those possible with oil, a salt bath can be used. a very excellent bath is made by mixing two parts by weight of crude potassium nitrate and three parts crude sodium nitrate. these will melt at about °f. and can be used up to , °f. before heating the steel in the salt bath, slowly preheat, preferably in oil. reheating the hardened high-speed steel to , °f. will materially increase the life of lathe tools, but milling and form cutters, taps, dies, etc., should not be reheated higher than to °f., unless extreme hardness is required, when , to , °f., will give the hardest edge. instructions for working high-speed steel owing to the wide variations in the composition of high-speed steels by various makers, it is always advisable to follow the directions of each when using his brand of steel. in the absence of specific directions the following general suggestions from several makers will be found helpful. the ludlum steel company recommend the following: cutting-off.--to cut a piece from an annealed bar, cut off with a hack saw, milling cutter or circular saw. cut clear through the bar; do not nick or break. to cut a piece from an unannealed bar, cut right off with an abrasive saw; do not nick or break. if of large cross-section, cut off hot with a chisel by first slowly and uniformly heating the bar, at the point to be cut, to a good lemon heat, , °- , °f. and cut right off while hot; do not nick or break. allow the tool length and bar to cool before reheating for forging. lathe and planer tools to forge.--gently warm the steel to remove any chill is particularly desirable in the winter. then heat slowly and carefully to a scaling heat, that is a lemon heat ( , °- , °f.), and forge uniformly. reheat the tool for further forging directly the steel begins to stiffen under the hammer. under no circumstances forge the steel when the temperature falls below a dark lemon to an orange color: about , °f. reheat as often as is necessary to finish forging the tool to shape. allow the tool to cool after forging by burying the tool in dry ashes or lime. do not place on the damp ground or in a draught of air. the heating for forging should be done preferably in a pipe or muffle furnace, but if this is not convenient use a good clean fire with plenty of fuel between the blast pipe and the tool. never allow the tool to soak after the desired forging heat has been reached. do not heat the tool further back than is necessary to shape the tool, but give the tool sufficient heat. see that the back of the tool is flatly dressed to provide proper support under the nose of the tool. hardening.--slowly reheat the cutting edge of the tool to a cherry red, , °f., then force the blast so as to raise the temperature quickly to a full white heat, , °- , °f., that is, until the tool starts to sweat at the cutting face. cool the point of the tool in a dry air blast or preferably in oil; further cool in oil, keeping the tool moving until the tool has become black hot. to remove hardening strains reheat the tool to from ° to , °f. cool in oil or atmosphere. this second heat treatment adds to the toughness of the tool and therefore to its life. grinding.--grind tools to remove all scale. use a quick cutting, dry, abrasive wheel. if using a wet wheel, be sure to use plenty of water. do not under any circumstances force the tool against the wheel so as to draw the color, as this is likely to set up checks on the surface of the tool to its detriment. the firth-sterling steel company say: instead of printing any rules on the hardening and tempering of firth-sterling steels we wish to say to our customers: trust the steel to the skill and the judgement of your toolsmith and tool temperer. the steel workers of today know by personal experience and by inheritance all the standard rules and theories on forging, hardening and tempering of all fine tool steels. they know the importance of slow, uniform heating, and the danger of overheating some steels, and underheating others. the tempering of tools and dies is a science taught by heat, muscle and brains. the tool temperer is the man to hold responsible for results. the tempering of tools has been his life work. he may find suggestions on the following pages interesting, but we are always ready to trust the treatment of our steels to the experienced man at the fire. heat treatment of lathe, planer and similar tools fire.--for these tools a good fire is one made of hard foundry coke, broken in small pieces, in an ordinary blacksmith forge with a few bricks laid over the top to form a hollow fire. the bricks should be thoroughly heated before tools are heated. hard coal may be used very successfully in place of hard coke and will give a higher heat. it is very easy to give blue chip the proper heat if care is used in making up the fire. forging.--heat slowly and uniformly to a good forging heat. do not hammer the steel after it cools below a bright red. avoid as much as possible heating the body of the tool, so as to retain the natural toughness in the neck of the tool. hardening.--heat the point of the tool to an extreme white heat (about , °f.) until the flux runs. this heat should be the highest possible short of melting the point. care should be taken to confine the heat as near to the point as possible so as to leave the annealing and consequent toughness in the neck of the tool and where the tool is held in the tool post. cool in an air blast, the open air or in oil, depending upon the tools or the work they are to do. for roughing tools temper need not be drawn except for work where the edge tends to crumble on account of being too hard. for finishing tools draw the temper to suit the purpose for which they are to be used. grind thoroughly on dry wheel (or wet wheel if care is used to prevent checking). heat treatment of milling cutters, drills, reamers, etc. the fire.--gas and electric furnaces designed for high heats are now made for treating high-speed steels. we recommend them for treating all kinds of blue chip tools and particularly the above class. after tools reach a yellow heat in the forge fire they must not be allowed to touch the fuel or come in contact with the blast or surrounding air. heating.--tools of this kind should be heated to a mellow white heat, or as hot as possible without injuring the cutting edges ( , to , °f.). for most work the higher the heat the better the tool. where furnaces are used, we recommend preheating the tools to a red heat in one furnace before putting them in a white hot furnace. cooling.--we recommend quenching all of the above tools in oil when taken from the fire. we have found fish oil, cottonseed oil, houghton's no. soluble oil and linseed oil satisfactory. the high heat is the important thing in hardening blue chip tools. if a white hot tool is allowed to cool in the open air it will be hard, but the air scales the tool. drawing the temper.--tools of this class should be drawn considerably more than water-hardening steel for the same purpose. heat treatment of punches and dies, shears, taps, etc. heating.--the degree to which tools of the above classes should be heated depends upon the shape, size and use for which they are intended. generally, they should not be heated to quite as high a heat as lathe tools or milling cutters. they should have a high heat, but not enough to make the flux run on the steel (by pyrometer , to , °f.). cooling.--depending on the tools, some should be dipped in oil all over, some only part way, and others allowed to cool down in the air naturally, or under air blast. in cooling, the toughness is retained by allowing some parts to cool slowly and quenching parts that should be hard. drawing the temper.--as in cooling, some parts of these tools will require more drawing than others, but, on the whole, they must be drawn more than water hardening tools for the same purpose or to about °f. all over, so that a good file will just "touch" the cutting or working parts. barium chloride process.--this is a process developed for treating certain classes of tools, such as taps, forming tools, etc. it is being successfully used in many large plants. briefly the treatment is as follows: in this treatment the tools are first preheated to a red heat, but small tools may be immersed without preheating. the barium chloride bath is kept at a temperature of from , to , °f., and tools are held in it long enough to reach the same temperature. they are then dipped in oil. the barium chloride which adheres to the tools is brushed off, leaving the tools as dean as before heating. a chromium-cobalt steel the latrobe steel company make a high-speed steel without tungsten, its red-hardness properties depending on chromium and cobalt instead of tungsten. it is known as p. r. k- steel. it does not require the high temperature of the tungsten steels, hardening at , to , °f. instead of , ° or even higher, as with the tungsten. this steel is forged at , to , °f. and must not be worked at a lower temperature than , °f. it requires soaking in the fire more than the tungsten steels. it can be normalized by heating slowly and thoroughly to , °f., holding this for from to min. according to the size of the piece and cooling in the open air, protected from drafts. a peculiarity of this steel is that it becomes non-magnetic at or above , °f. and the magnetic quality is not restored by cooling. normalizing as above, however, restores the magnetic qualities. this enables the user to detect any tools which have been overheated, with a horseshoe magnet. it is sometimes advantageous to dip tools, before heating for hardening, in ordinary fuel or quenching oil. the oil leaves a thin film of carbon which tends to prevent decarbonization, giving a very hard surface. for other makes of high-speed steel used in lathe and planer tools the makers recommend that the tools be cut from the bar with a hack saw or else heated and cut with a chisel. the heating should be very slow until the steel reaches a red after which it can be heated more rapidly and should only be forged at a high heat. it can be forged at very high heats but care should be taken not to forge at a low heat. the heating should be uniform and penetrate clear to the center of the bar before forging is begun. reheat as often as necessary to forge at the proper heat. after forging cool in lime before attempting to harden. do not attempt to harden with the forging heat as was sometimes done with the carbon tools. for hardening forged tools, heat slowly up to a bright red and then rapidly until the point of the tool is almost at a melting heat. cool in a blast of cold, dry air. for large sizes of steel, cool in linseed oil or in fish oil as is most convenient. if the tools are to be used for finishing cuts heat to a bright yellow and quench in oil. grind for use on a sand wheel or grindstone in preference to an emery or an artificial abrasive wheel. for hardening milling and similar cutters, preheat to a bright red, place the cutter on a round bar of suitable size, and revolve it quickly over a very hot fire. heat as high as possible without melting the points of the teeth and cool in a cold blast of dry air or in fish oil. light fragile cutters, twist drills, taps and formed cutters may be heated almost white and then dipped in fish oil for hardening. where possible it is better to give an even higher heat and cool in the blast of cold, dry air as previously recommended. suggestions for handling high-speed steels the following suggestions for handling high-speed steels are given by a maker whose steel is probably typical of a number of different makes, so that they will be found useful in other cases as well. these include hints as to forging as well as hardening, together with a list of "dont's" which are often very useful. this applies to forging, hardening of lathe, slotting, planing and all similar tools. [illustration: fig. .--all-steel, / in. square, / x in., and larger is usually mild finished, and can be cut in a hack saw. if cut off hot, be sure to heat the butt end slowly and thoroughly in a clean fire. rapid and insufficient heating invariably cracks the steel. if you want to stamp the end with the name of the steel, it is necessary that this is done at a good high orange color heat, as it is otherwise apt to split the steel. (take your time, do not hurry.)] hardening high-speed steel in forging use coke for fuel in the forge. heat steel slowly and thoroughly to a lemon heat. do not forge at a lower heat. do not let the steel cool below a bright cherry red while forging. after the tool is dressed, reheat to forging heat to remove the forging strain, and lay on the floor until cold. then have the tool rough ground on a dry emery wheel. [illustration: fig. .--be sure to have a full yellow heat at the dotted line. remember this is a boring mill tool and will stand out in the tool-post, and if you do not have a high thorough lemon heat, your tool will snap off at the dotted line. (ninety-five per cent of all tools which break, have been forged at too low a heat or at a heat not thorough to the center.)] [illustration: fig. .--keep your high lemon forging heat up. if you forge under a steam hammer, take light blows. do not jam your tool into shape. put frequently back into the fire. never let the high lemon color go down and beyond the dotted line.] for built-up and bent tools special care should be taken that the forging heat does not go below a bright cherry. for tools / by - / or larger where there is a big strain in forging, such as bending at angles of about deg. and building the tools up, they should be heated to at least , °f. slowly and without much blast. for a / by - / tool it should take about min. with the correct blast in a coke fire. larger tools in proportion. they can then be bent readily, but no attempt should be made to forge the steel further without reheating to maintain the bright cherry red. this is essential, as otherwise the tools crack in hardening or while in use. [illustration: fig. .--be sure that the tool is absolutely straight at the bottom, so as to lie flat in the tool-post.] [illustration: fig. .--this is the finished forged tool, and let this grow cold by itself, the slower the better. it is well to cool the tool slowly in hot ashes, to remove all forging strain. you can now grind the tool dry on a sharp emery wheel. the more you now finish the tool in grinding, the less there is to come off after hardening.] in hardening place the tool in a coke fire (hollow fire if possible) with a slow blast and heat gradually up to a white welding heat on the nose of the tool. then dip the white hot part only into thin oil or hold in a strong cold air blast. when hardening in oil do not hold the tool in one place but keep it moving so that it cools as quickly as possible. it is not necessary to draw the temper after hardening these tools. [illustration: fig. .--this tool is ground, ready for hardening. never harden from the forging heat.] [illustration: fig. .--heat the nose of the tool only up to dotted line, very slowly and thoroughly to an absolutely white welding heat, so that it shows a trifle fused around the edges, and be very sure that this fusing has gone thoroughly through the nose, otherwise the fusing effect will be taken off after the second grinding. note the difference of the nose between this and fig. .] [illustration: fig. .--shows unnecessary roasting and drossing. such hardening requires a great amount of grinding and is not good. after hardening grind carefully on a wet emery wheel, and be sure that the wheel is sharp with a plentiful supply of water. do not force the grinding, otherwise the cold water striking the steel heated up by friction, will crack the nose. be sure that the grinding wheel is sharp.] in grinding all tools should be ground as lightly as possible on a soft wet sandstone or on a wet emery wheel, and care should be taken not to create any surface cracks, which are invariably the result of grinding too forcibly. the foregoing illustrations, figs. to , with their captions, will be found helpful. special points of caution to be observed when hardening high-speed steel. don't use a green coal fire; use coke, or build a hollow fire. don't have the bed of the fire free from coal. don't hurry the heating for forging. the heating has to be done very slowly and the forging heat has to be kept very high (a full lemon color) heat and the tool has to be continually brought back into the fire to keep the high heat up. when customers complain about seams and cracks, in cases out of , this has been caused by too low a forging heat, and when the blacksmith complains about tools cracking, it is necessary to read this paragraph to him. don't try to jam the tool into shape under a steam hammer with one or two blows; take easy blows and keep the heat high. don't have the tool curved at the bottom; it must lie perfectly flat in the tool post. don't harden from your forging heat; let the tool grow cold or fairly cold. after forging you can rough grind the tool dry, but not too forcibly. don't, for hardening, get more than the nose white hot. don't get the white heat on the surface only. don't hurry your heating for hardening; let the heat soak thoroughly through the nose of the tool. don't melt the nose of the tool. don't, as a rule, dip the nose into water; this should be done only for extremely hard material. it is dangerous to put the nose into water for fear of cracking and when you do put the nose into water put just / in. only of the extreme white hot part into the water and don't keep it too long in the water; just a few seconds, and then harden in oil. we do not recommend water hardening. don't grind too forcibly. don't grind dry after hardening. don't discolor the steel in grinding. don't give too much clearance on tools for cutting cast iron. don't start on cast iron with a razor edge on the tool. take an oil stone and wipe three or four times over the razor edge. don't use tool holder steel from bars without hardening the nose of each individual tool bit. air-hardening steels.--these steels are recommended for boring, turning and planing where the cost of high-speed seems excessive. they are also recommended for hard wood knives, for roughing and finishing bronze and brass, and for hot bolt forging dies. this steel cannot be cut or punched cold but can be shaped and ground on abrasive wheels of various kinds. it should be heated slowly and evenly for forging and kept as evenly heated at a bright red as possible. it should not be forged after it cools to a dark red. after the tool is made, heat it again to a bright red and lay it down to cool in a dry place or it can be cooled in a cold, dry air blast. water must be kept away from it while it is hot. chapter xi furnaces there are so many standard furnaces now on the market that it is not necessary to go into details of their design and construction and only a few will be illustrated. oil, gas and coal or coke are most common but there is a steady growth of the use of electric furnaces. [illustration: fig. .--standard lead pot furnace.] typical oil-fired furnaces.--several types of standard oil-fired furnaces are shown herewith. figure is a lead pot furnace, fig. is a vertical furnace with a center column. this column reduces the cubical contents to be heated and also supports the cover. [illustration: fig. .--furnace with center column.] a small tool furnace is shown in fig. , which gives the construction and heat circulation. a larger furnace for high-speed steel is given in fig. . the steel is supported above the heat, the lower flame passing beneath the support. for hardening broaches and long reamers and taps, the furnace shown in fig. is used. twelve jets are used, these coming in radially to produce a whirling motion. [illustration: fig. .--furnace for cutting tools.] [illustration: fig. .--high-speed steel furnace.] oil and gas furnaces may be divided into three types: the open heating chamber in which combustion takes place in the chamber and directly over the stock; the semimuffle heating chamber in which combustion takes place beneath the floor of the chamber from which the hot gases pass into the chamber through suitable openings; and the muffle heating chamber in which the heat entirely surrounds the chamber but does not enter it. the open furnace is used for forging, tool dressing and welding. the muffle furnace is used for hardening dies, taps, cutters and similar tools of either carbon or high-speed steel. the muffle furnace is for spring hardening, enameling, assaying and work where the gases of combustion may have an injurious effect on the material. [illustration: fig. .--furnace for hardening broaches.] [illustration: fig. .--forging and welding furnace.] [illustration: fig. .--semi-muffle furnace.] [illustration: fig. .--muffle furnace.] furnaces of these types of oil-burning furnaces are shown in figs. , , and ; these being made by the gilbert & barker manufacturing company. the first has an air curtain formed by jets from the large pipe just below the opening, to protect the operator from heat. [illustration: fig. .--gas fired furnace.] [illustration: fig. .--car door type of annealing furnace.] oil furnaces are also made for both high- and low-pressure air, each having its advocates. the same people also make gas-fired furnaces. several types of furnaces for various purposes are illustrated in fig. and . the first is a gas-fired hardening furnace of the surface-combustion type. a large gas-fired annealing furnace of the maxon system is shown in fig. . this is large enough for a flat car to be run into as can be seen. it shows the arrangement of the burners, the track for the car and the way in which it fits into the furnace. these are from the designs of the industrial furnace corporation. before deciding upon the use of gas or oil, all sides of the problem should be considered. gas is perhaps the nearest ideal but is as a rule more expensive. the tables compiled by the gilbert & barker manufacturing company and shown herewith, may help in deciding the question. table .--showing comparison of oil fuel with various gaseous fuels heat units per thousand cubic feet natural gas , , air gas (gas machine) cp , public illuminating gas, average , water gas (from bituminous coal) , water and producer gas, mixed , producer gas , since a gallon of fuel oil ( lb.) contains , heat units, the following comparisons may evidently be made. at cts. a gallon, the equivalent heat units in oil would equal: per thousand cubic feet natural gas at $ . air gas, cp at . public illuminating gas, average at . water gas (from bituminous coal) at . water and producer gas, mixed at . producer gas at . comparing oil and coal is not always simple as it depends on the work to be done and the construction of the furnaces. the variation rises from to gal. of oil to a ton of coal. for forging and similar work it is probably safe to consider gal. of oil as equivalent to a ton of coal. then there is the saving of labor in handling both coal and ashes, the waiting for fires to come up, the banking of fires and the dirt and nuisance generally. the continuous operation possible with oil adds to the output. when comparing oil and gas it is generally considered that - / gal. of fuel oil will give heat equivalent to , cu. ft. of coal gas. the pressure of oil and air used varies with the system installed. the low-pressure system maintains a pressure of about oz. on the oil and draws in free air for combustion. others use a pressure of several pounds, while gas burners use an average of perhaps - / lb. of air to give best results. the weights and volumes of solid fuels are: anthracite coal, to lb. per cubic foot or to cubic feet per ton; bituminous coal, to lb. per cubic foot or to cubic feet per ton; coke, lb. per cubic foot or cubic feet per ton--the ton being calculated as , lb. in each case. a novel carburizing furnace that is being used by a number of people, is built after the plan of a fireless cooker. the walls of the furnace are extra heavy, and the ports and flues are so arranged that when the load in the furnace and the furnace is thoroughly heated, the burners are shut off and all openings are tightly sealed. the carburization then goes on for several hours before the furnace is cooled below the effective carburizing range, securing an ideal diffusion of carbon between the case and the core of the steel being carburized. this is particularly adaptable where simple steel is used. protective screens for furnaces workmen needlessly exposed to the flames, heat and glare from furnaces where high temperatures are maintained suffer in health as well as in bodily discomfort. this shows several types of shields designed for the maximum protection of the furnace worker. bad conditions are not necessary; in almost every case means of relief can be found by one earnestly seeking them. the larger forge shops have adopted flame shields for the majority of their furnaces. years ago the industrial furnaces (particularly of the oil-burning variety) were without shields, but the later models are all shield-equipped. these shields are adapted to all of the more modern, heat-treating furnaces, as well as to those furnaces in use for working forges; and attention should be paid to their use on the former type since the heat-treating furnaces are constantly becoming more numerous as manufacturers find need of them in the many phases of munitions making or similar work. the heat that the worker about these furnaces must face may be divided in general into two classes: there is first that heat due to the flame and hot gases that the blast in the furnaces forces out onto a man's body and face. in the majority of furnaces this is by far the most discomforting, and care must be taken to fend it and turn it behind a suitable shield. the second class is the radiant heat, discharged as light from the glowing interior of the furnace. this is the lesser of the two evils so far as general forging furnaces are concerned, but it becomes the predominating feature in furnaces of large door area such as in the usual case-hardening furnaces. here the amount of heat discharged is often almost unbearable even for a moment. this heat can be taken care of by interposing suitable, opaque shields that will temporarily absorb it without being destroyed by it, or becoming incandescent. should such shields be so constructed as to close off all of the heat, it might be impossible to work around the furnace for the removal of its contents, but they can be made movable, and in such a manner as to shield the major portion of the worker's body. first taking up the question of flame shields, the illustration, fig. , is a typical installation that shows the main features for application to a forging machine or drop-hammer, oil-burning furnace, or for an arched-over, coal furnace where the flame blows out the front. this shield consists of a frame covered with sheet metal and held by brackets about in. in front of the furnace. it will be noted that slotted holes make this frame adjustable for height, and it should be lowered as far as possible when in use, so that the work may just pass under it and into the furnace openings. immediately below the furnace openings, and close to the furnace frame will be noted a blast pipe carrying air from the forge-shop fan. this has a row of small holes drilled in its upper side for the entire length, and these direct a curtain of cold air vertically across the furnace openings, forcing all of the flame, or a greater portion of it, to rise behind the shield. since the shield extends above the furnace top there is no escape for this flame until it has passed high enough to be of no further discomfort to the workman. in this case fan-blast air is used for cooling, and this is cheaper and more satisfactory because a great volume may be used. however, where high-pressure air is used for atomizing the oil at the burner, and nothing else is available, this may be employed--though naturally a comparatively small pipe will be needed, in which minute holes are drilled, else the volume of air used will be too great for the compressor economically to supply. steam may also be employed for like service. [illustration: figs. to .--protective devices for furnace fronts.] the latest shields of this type are all made double, as illustrated, with an inner sheet of metal an inch or two inside of the front. in the illustration, _a_, fig. , this inner sheet is smaller, but some are now built the same size as the front and bolted to it with pipe spacers between. the advantage of the double sheet is that the inner one bears the brunt of the flame, and, if needs be, burns up before the outer; while, if due to a heavy fire it should be heated red at any point, the outer sheet will still be much cooler and act as an additional shield to the furnace man. heavy forging practice.--in heavy forging practice where the metal is being worked at a welding heat, the amount of flame that will issue from an open-front furnace is so great that a plain, sheet-steel front will neither afford sufficient protection nor stand up in service. for such a place a water-cooled front is often used. the general type of this front is illustrated in fig. , and appears to have found considerable favor, for numbers of its kind are scattered throughout the country. in this case the shield is placed at a slight angle from the vertical, and along the top edge is a water pipe with a row of small holes through which sprays of water are thrown against it. this water runs down in a thin sheet over the shield, cooling it, and is collected in a trough connected with a run-off pipe at the bottom. the lower blast-pipe arrangement is similar to the one first described. there are several serious objections to this form of shield that should lead to its replacement by a better type; the first is that with a very hot fire, portions in the center may become so rapidly heated that the steam generated will part the sheet of water and cause it to flow from that point in an inverted v, and that section will then quickly become red hot. another feature is that after the water and fire are shut down for the night the heat of the furnace can be great enough to cause serious warping of the surface of the shield so that the water will no longer cover it in a thin, uniform sheet. after rigging up a big furnace with a shield of this type several years ago, its most serious object was found in the increase of the water bill of the plant. this was already of large proportions, but it had suddenly jumped to the extent of several hundred dollars. investigation soon disclosed the fact that this water shield was one of the main causes of the added cost of water. a little estimating of the amount of water that can flow through a / -in. pipe under -lb. pressure, in the course of a day, will show that this amount at cts. per , gal., can count up rather rapidly. figure is a section through a portion of the furnace front and shield showing all of the principal parts. this shield consists essentially of a very thin tank, about - / in. between walls, and filled with water. like other shields it is fitted with an adjustment, that it may be raised and lowered as the work demands. the tank having an open top, the water as it absorbs heat from the flame will simply boil away in steam; and only a small amount will have to be added to make up for that which has evaporated. the water-feed pipe shown at _f_ ends a short distance above the top of the tank so that just how much water is running in may readily be seen. an overflow pipe is provided at _o_ which aids in maintaining the water at the proper height, as a sufficient quantity can always be permitted to run in, to avoid any possibility of the shield ever boiling dry; at the same time the small excess can run off without danger of an overflow. the shield illustrated in fig. has been in constant use for over two years, giving greater satisfaction than any other of which the writer has known. it might also be noted that this shield was made with riveted joints, the shop not having a gas-welding outfit. to flange over the edges and then weld them with an acetylene torch would be a far more economical procedure, and would also insure a tight and permanent joint. the water-cooled front shown in fig. is an absurd effort to accomplish the design of a furnace that will provide cool working conditions. this front was on a bolt-heating furnace using hard coal for fuel; and it may be seen that it takes the place of all of the brickwork that should be on that side. had this been nothing more than a very narrow water-cooled frame, with brickwork below and supporting bricks above, put in like the tuyeres in a foundry cupola, the case would have been somewhat different, for then it would have absorbed a smaller proportion of the heat. a blacksmith who knows how a piece of cold iron laid in a small welding furnace momentarily lowers the temperature, will appreciate the enormous amount of extra heat that must be maintained in the central portion of this furnace to make up for the constant chilling effect of the cold wall. moreover, since there would have been serious trouble had steam generated in this front, a steady stream of water had to be run through it constantly to insure against an approach to the boiling point. this is illustrated because of its absurdity, and as a warning of something to avoid. water-cooled, tuyere openings, as mentioned above, which support brick side-walls of the furnace, have proved successful for coal furnaces used for forging machine and drop-hammer heating, since they permit a great amount of work to be handled through their openings without wearing away as would a brick arch. great care should be exercised properly to design them so that a minimum amount of the cold tuyere will be in contact with the interior of the furnace, and all interior portions possible should be covered by the bricks. however, a discussion of these points will hardly come in the flame-shield class, although they can be made to do a great deal toward relieving the excessive heat to be borne by the furnace worker. flange shields for furnaces.--such portable flame shields as the one illustrated in fig. may prove serviceable before furnaces required for plate work, where the doors are often only opened for a moment at a time. this shield can be placed far enough in front of the furnace, that it will be possible to work under it or around it, in removing bulky work from the furnace, and yet it will afford the furnace tender some relief from the excessive glare that will come out the wide-opened door. to have this shield of light weight so that it may be readily pushed aside when not wanted, the frame may be made up of pipe and fittings, and a piece of thin sheet steel fastened in the panel by rings about the frame. about the most disagreeable task in a heat-treating shop is the removal of the pots from the case-hardening furnaces; these must be handled at a bright red heat in order that their contents may be dumped into the quenching tank with a minimum-time contact with the air, and before they have cooled sufficiently to require reheating. facing the heat before the large open doors of the majority of these furnaces, in a man-killing task even when the weather is moderately cool. the boxes soon become more or less distorted, and then even the best of lifting devices will not remove a hot pot without several minutes labor in front of the doors. in fig. is shown a method of arranging a shield on one type of charging and removing truck. this shield cannot afford more than a partial protection to the body of the furnace tender, because he must be able to see around it, and in some cases even push it partly through the door of the furnace, but even small as it is it may still afford some welcome protection. the great advantage in this case of having the shield on the truck instead of stationary in front of the furnace, is that it still affords protection as long as the hot pot is being handled through the shop on its way to the quenching tank. it might be interesting to many engaged in the heat-treating or case hardening of steel parts, to make a special note of the design of the truck that is illustrated in connection with the shield; the general form is shown although the actual details for the construction of such a truck are lacking; these being simple, may be readily worked out by anyone wishing to build one. this is considered to be one of the quickest and easiest operated devices for the removal of this class of work from the furnace. to be sure it may only be used where the floor of the furnace has been built level with the floor of the room, but many of the modern furnaces of this class are so designed. the pack-hardening pots are cast with legs, from two to three inches high, to permit the circulation of the hot gases, and so heat more quickly. between these legs and under the body of the pot, the two forward prongs of the truck are pushed, tilting the outer handle to make these prongs as low as possible. the handle is then lowered and, as it has a good leverage, the pot is easily raised from the floor, and the truck and its load rolled out. heating of manganese steel.--another form of heat-treating furnace is that which is used for the heating of manganese and other alloy steels, which after having been brought to the proper heat are drawn from the furnace into an immediate quenching tank. with manganese steel in particular, the parts are so fragile and easily damaged while hot that it is frequent practice to have a sloping platform immediately in front of the furnace door down which the castings may slide into a tank below the floor level. such a furnace with a quenching tank in front of its door is shown in fig. . these tanks are covered with plates while charging the furnace and the cold castings are placed in a moderately cool furnace. since some of these steels must not be charged into a furnace where the heat is extreme but should be brought up to their final heat gradually, there is little discomfort during the charging process. when quenching, however, from a temperature of , ° to , °, it is extremely unpleasant in front of the doors. the swinging shield is here adapted to give protection for this work. as will be noted it is hung a sufficient distance in front of the doors, that it may not interfere with the castings as they come from the furnace, and slide down into the tank. to facilitate the work, and avoid the necessity of working with the bars outside the edges of the shield, the slot-like hole is cut in the center of the shield, and through this the bars or rakes for dragging out the castings are easily inserted and manipulated. the advantage of such a swinging shield is that it may be readily moved from side to side, or forward and back as occasion requires. furnace data in order to give definite information concerning furnaces, fuels etc., the following data is quoted from a paper by seth a. moulton and w. h. lyman before the steel heat treaters society in september, . this considers a factory producing , lb. of automobile gears per hr. the transmission gears will be of high-carbon steel and the differential of low-carbon steel, carburized. the heat-treating equipment required is: . annealing furnaces , to , °f. . carburizing furnaces , to , °f. . hardening furnaces , to , °f. . drawing furnaces to °f. all of the forging blanks are annealed before machining, about three-quarters of the machined gears and parts are carburized, all the carburized gears are given a double treatment for core and case, all gears and parts are hardened and all parts are drawn. the possible sources of heat supply and their values are as follows:-- . oil , b.t.u. per gallon . natural gas , b.t.u. per cubic foot . city gas b.t.u. per cubic foot . water gas b.t.u. per cubic foot . producer gas b.t.u. per cubic foot . coal , b.t.u. per pound . electric current , b.t.u. per kilowatt-hour for the heat treatment specified only comparatively low temperatures are required. no difficulty will be experienced in attaining the desired maximum temperature of , °f. with any of the heating medium above enumerated; but it should be noted that the producer gas with a b.t.u. content of per cubic foot and the electric current would require _specially_ designed furnaces to obtain higher temperatures than °f. table .--comparattve operating costs assuming cost of oil- and gas-fired furnaces installed as $ . per square foot of hearth cost of coal-fired furnace installed as . per square foot of hearth cost of electric furnace kw. capacity installed as . per kilowatt cost of electric furnace kw. capacity installed as . per kilowatt output , lb. charge, hr. heat carburizing, hr. heating only. annual service , hr. fixed charges including interest, depreciation, taxes, insurance and maintenance per cent. extra operating labor for coal-fired furnace cts. per hour, one man four furnaces. cost of various types of furnaces ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- | class fuel | fuel per | unit fuel|installation|efficiency| fixed |cost per | | charge | cost | cost | per cent |charges| charge -|------------|------------|----------|------------|----------|-------|-------- | | | | | | | -|------------|------------|----------|------------|----------|-------|-------- carburizing -|------------|------------|----------|------------|----------|-------|-------- |oil | . gal. |$ . gal.| $ , . | . | $. | $ . |natural gas | . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |city gas | . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |water gas | . m | . | , . | . | . | . |producer gas| . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |coal | . lb. | . ton | , . | . | . | . |electricity | . kw-hr.| . kw.| , . | . | . | . -|------------|------------|----------|------------|----------|-------|-------- heating -|------------|------------|----------|------------|----------|-------|-------- |oil | . gal. | . gal.| , . | . | . | . |natural gas | . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |city gas | . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |water gas | . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |producer gas| . m | . m | , . | . | . | . |coal | . lb. | . ton | , . | . | . | . |electricity | . kw-hr.| . kw.| , . | . | . | . ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- this shows but two of the operations and for a single furnace. the total costs for all operations on the , lb. of gears per hr. is shown in table . table .--comparative annual production costs for , pounds output in hours ---------------------------------------------------------- no. | equipment | installation | | cost -----|-------------------------------------|-------------- | | | | i | oil | $ , . ii | oil and electric | , . iii | natural gas | , . iv | (a) natural gas containing furnaces | , . v | natural gas and electric | , . vi | city gas | , . vii | city gas and electric | , . viii| water gas | , . ix | water gas and electric | , . x | producer gas | , . xi | producer gas and electric | , . xii | coal and electric | , . xiii| electric | , . ---------------------------------------------------------- --------------------------------------------------------------------- | annual operating expenses | | cost no. |----------------------------------------| total | per lb. | fixed | heat | labor | | metal, | charges | | | | cents -----|------------|-------------|-------------|-------------|-------- | | | | | | | | | | i | $ , . | $ , . | $ , . | $ , . | $ . ii | , . | , . | , . | , . | . iii | , . | , . | , . | , . | . iv | , . | , . | , . | , . | . v | , . | , . | , . | , . | . vi | , . | , . | , . | , . | . vii | , . | , . | , . | , . | . viii| , . | , . | , . | , . | . ix | , . | , . | , . | , . | . x | , . | , . | , . | , . | . xi | , . | , . | , . | , . | . xii | , . | , . | , . | , . | . xiii| , . | , . | , . | , . | . --------------------------------------------------------------------- note.--producer plant fixed charges are included in the cost of gas and are charged as "heat" in column , so they are omitted from column . chapter xii pyrometry and pyrometers a knowledge of the fundamental principles of pyrometry, or the measurement of temperatures, is quite necessary for one engaged in the heat treatment of steel. it is only by careful measurement and control of the heating of steel that the full benefit of a heat-treating operation is secured. before the advent of the thermo-couple, methods of temperature measurement were very crude. the blacksmith depended on his eyes to tell him when the proper temperature was reached, and of course the "color" appeared different on light or dark days. "cherry" to one man was "orange" to another, and it was therefore almost impossible to formulate any treatment which could be applied by several men to secure the same results. one of the early methods of measuring temperatures was the "iron ball" method. in this method, an iron ball, to which a wire was attached, was placed in the furnace and when it had reached the temperature of the furnace, it was quickly removed by means of the wire, and suspended in a can containing a known quantity of water; the volume of water being such that the heat would not cause it to boil. the rise in temperature of the water was measured by a thermometer, and, knowing the heat capacity of the iron ball and that of the water, the temperature of the ball, and therefore the furnace, could be calculated. usually a set of tables was prepared to simplify the calculations. the iron ball, however, scaled, and changed in weight with repeated use, making the determinations less and less accurate. a copper ball was often used to decrease this change, but even that was subject to error. this method is still sometimes used, but for uniform results, a platinum ball, which will not scale or change in weight, is necessary, and the cost of this ball, together with the slowness of the method, have rendered the practice obsolete, especially in view of modern developments in accurate pyrometry. pyrometers armor plate makers sometimes use the copper ball or siemens' water pyrometer because they can place a number of the balls or weights on the plate in locations where it is difficult to use other pyrometers. one of these pyrometers is shown in section in fig. . siemens' water pyrometer.--it consists of a cylindrical copper vessel provided with a handle and containing a second smaller copper vessel with double walls. an air space _a_ separates the two vessels, and a layer of felt the two walls of the inner one, in order to retard the exchange of temperature with the surroundings. the capacity of the inner vessel is a little more than one pint. a mercury thermometer _b_ is fixed close to the wall of the inner vessel, its lower part being protected by a perforated brass tube, whilst the upper projects above the vessel and is divided as usual on the stem into degrees, fahrenheit or centigrade, as desired. at the side of the thermometer there is a small brass scale _c_, which slides up and down, and on which the high temperatures are marked in the same degrees as those in which the mercury thermometer is divided; on a level with the zero division of the brass scale a small pointer is fixed, which traverses the scale of the thermometer. [illustration: fig. .--siemens' copper-ball pyrometer.] short cylinders _d_, of either copper, iron or platinum, are supplied with the pyrometer, which are so adjusted that their heat capacity at ordinary temperature is equal to one-fiftieth of that of the copper vessel filled with one pint of water. as, however, the specific heat of metals increases with the temperature, allowance is made on the brass sliding scales, which are divided according to the metal used for the pyrometer cylinder _d_. it will therefore be understood that a different sliding scale is required for the particular kind of metal of which a cylinder is composed. in order to obtain accurate measurements, each sliding scale must be used only in conjunction with its own thermometer, and in case the latter breaks a new scale must be made and graduated for the new thermometer. the water pyrometer is used as follows: exactly one pint ( . liter) of clean water, perfectly distilled or rain water, is poured into the copper vessel, and the pyrometer is left for a few minutes to allow the thermometer to attain the temperature of the water. the brass scale _c_ is then set with its pointer opposite the temperature of the water as shown by the thermometer. meanwhile one of the metal cylinders has been exposed to the high temperature which is to be measured, and after allowing sufficient time for it to acquire that temperature, it is rapidly removed and dropped into the pyrometer vessel without splashing any of the water out. the temperature of the water will rise until, after a little while, the mercury of the thermometer has become stationary. when this is observed the degrees of the thermometer are read off, as well as those on the brass scale _c_ opposite the top of the mercury. the sum of these two values together gives the temperature of the flue, furnace or other heated space in which the metal cylinder had been placed. with cylinders of copper and iron, temperatures up to , °f. ( , °c.) can be measured, but with platinum cylinders the limit is , °f. ( , °c.). for ordinary furnace work either copper or wrought-iron cylinders may be used. iron cylinders possess a higher melting point and have less tendency to scale than those of copper, but the latter are much less affected by the corrosive action of the furnace gases; platinum is, of course, not subject to any of these disadvantages. the weight to which the different metal cylinders are adjusted is as follows: copper . grams wrought-iron . grams platinum . grams in course of time the cylinders lose weight by scaling; but tables are provided giving multipliers for the diminished weights, by which the reading on the brass scale should be multiplied. the thermo-couple with the application of the thermo-couple, the measurement of temperatures, between, say, and , °f., was made more simple and precise. the theory of the thermo-couple is simple; it is that if two bars, rods, or wires of different metals are joined together at their ends, when heated so that one junction is hotter than the other, an electromotive force is set up through the metals, which will increase with the increase of the _difference_ of temperature between the two junctions. this electromotive force, or voltage, may be measured, and, from a chart previously prepared, the temperature determined. in most pyrometers, of course, the temperatures are inscribed directly on the voltmeter, but the fact remains that it is the voltage of a small electric current, and not heat, that is actually measured. there are two common types of thermo-couples, the first making use of common, inexpensive metals, such as iron wire and nichrome wire. this is the so-called "base metal" couple. the other is composed of expensive metals such as platinum wire, and a wire of an alloy of platinum with per cent of rhodium or iridium. this is called the "rare metal" couple, and because its component metals are less affected by heat, it lasts longer, and varies less than the base metal couple. the cold junction of a thermo-couple may be connected by means of copper wires to the voltmeter, although in some installations of base metal couples, the wires forming the couple are themselves extended to the voltmeter, making copper connections unnecessary. from the foregoing, it may be seen that accurately to measure the temperature of the hot end of a thermo-couple, we _must know the temperature of the cold end_, as it is the _difference_ in the temperatures that determines the voltmeter readings. this is absolutely essential for precision, and its importance cannot be over-emphasized. when pyrometers are used in daily operation, they should be checked or calibrated two or three times a month, or even every week. where there are many in use, it is good practice to have a master pyrometer of a rare metal couple, which is used only for checking up the others. the master pyrometer, after calibrating against the melting points of various substances, will have a calibration chart which should be used in the checking operation. it is customary now to send a rare metal couple to the bureau of standards at washington, where it is very carefully calibrated for a nominal charge, and returned with the voltmeter readings of a series of temperatures covering practically the whole range of the couple. this couple is then used only for checking those in daily use. pyrometer couples are more or less expensive, and should be cared far when in use. the wires of the couple should be insulated from each other by fireclay leads or tubes, and it is well to encase them in a fireclay, porcelain, or quartz tube to keep out the furnace gases, which in time destroy the hot junction. this tube of fireclay, or porcelain, etc., should be protected against breakage by an iron or nichrome tube, plugged or welded at the hot end. these simple precautions will prolong the life of a couple and maintain its precision longer. sometimes erroneous temperatures are recorded because the "cold end" of the couple is too near the furnace and gets hot. this always causes a temperature reading lower than the actual, and should be guarded against. it is well to keep the cold end cool with water, a wet cloth, or by placing it where coal air will circulate around it. best of all, is to have the cold junction in a box, together with a thermometer, so that its temperature may definitely be known. if this temperature should rise °f. on a hot day, a correction of °f. should be added to the pyrometer reading, and so on. in the most up-to-date installations, this cold junction compensation is taken care of automatically, a fact which indicates its importance. optical pyrometers are often used where it is impracticable to use the thermo-couple, either because the temperature is so high that it would destroy the couple, or the heat to be measured is inaccessible to the couple of ordinary length. the temperatures of slag or metal in furnaces or running through tap-holes or troughs are often measured with optical pyrometers. in one type of optical pyrometer, the observer focuses it on the metal or slag and moves an adjustable dial or gage so as to get an exact comparison between the color of the heat measured with the calor of a lamp or screen in the pyrometer itself. this, of course, requires practice, and judgment, and brings in the personal equation. with care, however, very reliable temperature measurements may be made. the temperatures of rails, as they leave the finishing pass of a rolling mill, are measured in this way. another type of optical pyrometer is focused on the body, the temperature of which is to be measured. the rays converge in the telescope on metal cells, heating them, and thereby generating a small electric current, the voltage of which is read an a calibrated voltmeter similar to that used with the thermo-couple. the best precision is obtained when an optical pyrometer is used each time under similar conditions of light and the same observer. where it is impracticable to use either thermo-couples or optical pyrometers, "sentinels" may be used. there are small cones or cylinders made of salts or other substances of known melting points and covering a wide range of temperatures. if six of these "sentinels," melting respectively at , °, , °, , °, , °, , °, and , °f., were placed in a row in a furnace, together with a piece of steel to be treated, and the whole heated up uniformly, the sentinels would melt one by one and the observer, by watching them through an opening in the furnace, could tell when his furnace is at say , ° or between , ° and , °, and regulate the heat accordingly. a very accurate type of pyrometer, but one not so commonly used as those previously described, is the resistance pyrometer. in this type, the temperature is determined by measuring the resistance to an electric current of a wire which is at the heat to be measured. this wire is usually of platinum, wound around a quartz tube, the whole being placed in the furnace. when the wire is at the temperature of the furnace, it is connected by wires with a wheatstone bridge, a delicate device for measuring electrical resistance, and an electric current is passed through the wire. this current is balanced by switching in resistances in the wheatstone bridge, until a delicate electrical device shows that no current is flowing. the resistance of the platinum wire at the heat to be measured is thus determined on the "bridge," and the temperature read off on a calibration chart, which shows the resistance at various temperatures. these are the common methods used to-day for measuring temperatures, but whatever method is used, the observer should bear in mind that the greatest precision is obtained, and hence the highest efficiency, by keeping the apparatus in good working order, making sure that conditions are the same each time, and calibrating or checking against a standard at regular intervals. the pyrometer and its use in the heat treatment of steel, it has become absolutely necessary that a measuring instrument be used which will give the operator an exact reading of heat in furnace. there are a number of instruments and devices manufactured for this purpose but any instrument that will not give a direct reading without any guess work should have no place in the heat-treating department. a pyrometer installation is very simple and any of the leading makers will furnish diagrams for the correct wiring and give detailed information as to the proper care of, and how best to use their particular instrument. there are certain general principles, however, that must be observed by the operators and it cannot be too strongly impressed upon them that the human factor involved is always the deciding factor in the heat treatment of steel. a pyrometer is merely an aid in the performance of doing good work, and when carefully observed will help in giving a uniformity of product and act as a check on careless operators. the operator must bear in mind that although the reading on the pyrometer scale gives a measure of the temperature where the junction of the two metals is located, it will not give the temperature at the center of work in the furnace, unless by previous tests, the heat for penetrating a certain bulk of material has been decided on, and the time necessary for such penetration is known. each analysis of plain carbon or alloy steel is a problem in itself. its critical temperatures will be located at slightly different heats than for a steel which has a different proportion of alloying elements. furthermore, it takes time for metal to acquire the heat of the furnace. even the outer surface lags behind the temperature of the furnace somewhat, and the center of the piece of steel lags still further. it is apparent, therefore, that temperature, although important, does not tell the whole story in heat treatment. _time_ is also a factor. time at temperature is also of great importance because it takes time, after the temperature has been reached, for the various internal changes to take place. hence the necessity for "soaking," when annealing or normalizing. therefore, a clock is as necessary to the proper pyrometer equipment as the pyrometer itself. for the purpose of general work where a wide range of steels or a variable treatment is called for, it becomes necessary to have the pyrometer calibrated constantly, and when no master instrument is kept for this purpose the following method can be used to give the desired results: calibration of pyrometer with common salt an easy and convenient method for standardization and one which does not necessitate the use of an expensive laboratory equipment is that based upon determining the melting point of common table salt (sodium chloride). while theoretically salt that is chemically pure should be used (and this is neither expensive nor difficult to procure), commercial accuracy may be obtained by using common table salt such as is sold by every grocer. the salt is melted in a clean crucible of fireclay, iron or nickel, either in a furnace or over a forge-fire, and then further heated until a temperature of about , to , °f. is attained. it is essential that this crucible be clean because a slight admixture of a foreign substance might noticeably change the melting point. the thermo-couple to be calibrated is then removed from its protecting tube and its hot end is immersed in the salt bath. when this end has reached the temperature of the bath, the crucible is removed from the source of heat and allowed to cool, and cooling readings are then taken every sec. on the milli-voltmeter or pyrometer. a curve is then plotted by using time and temperature as coördinates, and the temperature of the freezing point of salt, as indicated by this particular thermocouple, is noted, _i.e._, at the point where the temperature of the bath remains temporarily constant while the salt is freezing. the length of time during which the temperature is stationary depends on the size of the bath and the rate of cooling, and is not a factor in the calibration. the melting point of salt is , °f., and the needed correction for the instrument under observation can be readily applied. it should not be understood from the above, however, that the salt-bath calibration cannot be made without plotting a curve; in actual practice at least a hundred tests are made without plotting any curve to one in which it is done. the observer, if awake, may reasonably be expected to have sufficient appreciation of the lapse of time definitely to observe the temperature at which the falling pointer of the instrument halts. the gradual dropping of the pointer before freezing, unless there is a large mass of salt, takes place rapidly enough for one to be sure that the temperature is constantly falling, and the long period of rest during freezing is quite definite. the procedure of detecting the solidification point of the salt by the hesitation of the pointer without plotting any curve is suggested because of its simplicity. complete calibration of pyrometers.--for the complete calibration of a thermo-couple of unknown electromotive force, the new couple may be checked against a standard instrument, placing the two bare couples side by side in a suitable tube and taking frequent readings over the range of temperatures desired. if only one instrument, such as a millivoltmeter, is available, and there is no standard couple at hand, the new couple may be calibrated over a wide range of temperatures by the use of the following standards: water, boiling point °f. tin, under charcoal, freezing point °f. lead, under charcoal, freezing point °f. zinc, under charcoal, freezing point °f. sulphur, boiling point °f. aluminum, under charcoal, freezing point , °f. sodium chloride (salt), freezing point , °f. potassium sulphate, freezing point , °f. a good practice is to make one pyrometer a standard; calibrate it frequently by the melting-point-of-salt method, and each morning check up every pyrometer in the works with the standard, making the necessary corrections to be used for the day's work. by pursuing this course systematically, the improved quality of the product will much more than compensate for the extra work. the purity of the substance affects its freezing or melting point. the melting point of common salt is given in one widely used handbook at , °f., although chemically pure sodium chloride melts at , °f. as shown above. a sufficient quantity for an extended period should be secured. test the melting point with a pyrometer of known accuracy. knowing this temperature it will be easy to calibrate other pyrometers. placing of pyrometers.--when installing a pyrometer, care should be taken that it reaches directly to the point desired to be measured, that the cold junction is kept cold, and that the wires leading to the recording instrument are kept in good shape. the length of these lead wires have an effect; the longer they are, the lower the apparent temperature. when pyrometers placed in a number of furnaces are connected up in series, and a multiple switch is used for control, it becomes apparent that pyrometers could not be interchanged between furnaces near and far from the instrument without affecting the uniformity of product from each furnace. calibration can best be done without disturbing the working pyrometer, by inserting the master instrument into each furnace separately, place it alongside the hot junction of the working pyrometer, and compare the reading given on the indicator connected with the multiple switch. protection tubes should be replaced when cracked, as it is important that no foreign substance is allowed to freeze in the tube, so that the enclosed junction becomes a part of a solid mass joined in electrical contact with the outside protecting tube. wires over the furnaces must be carefully inspected from time to time, as no true reading can be had on an instrument, if insulation is burned off and short circuits result. if the standard calibrating instrument used contains a dry battery, it should be examined from time to time to be sure it is in good condition. the leeds and northrup potentiometer system the potentiometer pyrometer system is both flexible and substantial in that it is not affected by the jar and vibration of the factory or the forge shop. large or small couples, long or short leads can be used without adjustment. the recording instrument may be placed where it is most convenient, without regard to the distance from the furnace. its fundamental principle.--the potentiometer is the electrical equivalent of the chemical balance, or balance arm scales. measurements are made with balance scales by varying known weights until they equal the unknown weight. when the two are equal the scales stand at zero, that is, in the position which they occupy when there is no weight on either pan; the scales are then said to be balanced. measurements are made with the potentiometer by varying a known electromotive force until it equals the unknown; when the two are equal the index of the potentiometer, the galvanometer needle, stands motionless as it is alternately connected and disconnected. the variable known weights are units separate from the scales, but the potentiometer provides its own variable known electromotive force. the potentiometer provides, first, a means of securing a known variable electromotive force and, second, suitable electrical connections for bringing that electromotive force to a point where it may be balanced against the unknown electromotive force of the couple. the two are connected with opposite polarity, or so that the two e.m.f.s oppose one another. so long as one is stronger than the other a current will flow through the couple; when the two are equal no current will flow. figure shows the wiring of the potentiometer in its simplest form. the thermo-couple is at _h_, with its polarity as shown by the symbols + and -. it is connected with the main circuit of the potentiometer at the fixed point _d_ and the point _g_. [illustration: fig. .--simple potentiometer.] a current from the dry cell _ba_ is constantly flowing through the main, or so-called potentiometer circuit, _abcdgef_. the section _dge_ of this circuit is a slide wire, uniform in resistance throughout its length. the scale is fixed on this slide wire. the current from the cell _ba_ as it flows through _dge_, undergoes a fall in potential, setting up a difference in voltage, that is, an electromotive force, between _d_ and _e_. there will also be electromotive force between _d_ and all other points on the slide wire. the polarity of this is in opposition to the polarity of the thermo-couple which connects into the potentiometer at _d_ and at _g_. by moving _g_ along the slide wire a point is found where the voltage between _d_ and _g_ in the slide wire is just equal to the voltage between _d_ and _g_ generated by the thermo-couple. a galvanometer in the thermo-couple circuit indicates when the balance point is reached, since at this point the galvanometer needle will stand motionless when its circuit is opened and closed. [illustration: fig. .--standard cell potentiometer.] the voltage in the slide wire will vary with the current flowing through it from the cell _ba_ and a means of standardizing this is provided. _sc_, fig. , is a cadmium cell whose voltage is constant. it is connected at two points _c_ and _d_ to the potentiometer circuit whenever the potentiometer current is to be standardized. at this time the galvanometer is thrown in series with _sc_. the variable rheostat _r_ is then adjusted until the current flowing is such that as it flows through the standard resistance _cd_, the fall in potential between _c_ and _d_ is just equal to the voltage of the standard cell _sc_. at this time the galvanometer will indicate a balance in the same way as when it was used with a thermo-couple. by this operation the current in the slide wire _dge_ has been standardized. [illustration: fig. .--hand adjusted cold-end compensator.] development of the wiring scheme of the cold-end compensator.--the net voltage generated by a thermo-couple depends upon the temperature of the hot end and the temperature of the cold end. therefore, any method adopted for reading temperature by means of thermo-couples must in some way provide a means of correcting for the temperature of the cold end. the potentiometer may have either of two very simple devices for this purpose. in one form the operator is required to set a small index to a point on a scale corresponding to the known cold junction temperature. in the other form an even more simple automatic compensator is employed. the principle of each is described in the succeeding paragraphs, in which the assumption is made that the reader already understands the potentiometer principle as described above. as previously explained the voltage of the thermo-couple is measured by balancing it against the voltage drop _dg_ in the potentiometer. as shown in fig. , the magnitude of the balancing voltage is controlled by the position of _g_. make _d_ movable as shown in fig. and the magnitude of the voltage _dg_ may be varied either from the point _d_ or the point _g_. this gives a means of compensating for cold end changes by setting the slider _d_. as the cold end temperature rises the net voltage generated by the couple decreases, assuming the hot end temperature to be constant. to balance this decreased voltage the slider _d_ is moved along its scale to a new point nearer _g_. in other words, the slider _d_ is moved along its scale until it corresponds to the known temperature of the cold end and then the potentiometer is balanced by moving the slider _g_. the readings of _g_ will then be direct. [illustration: fig. .--another type of compensator.] the same results will be obtained if a slide wire upon which _d_ bears is in parallel with the slide wire of _g_, as shown in fig. . automatic compensator.--it should be noted that the effect of moving the contact _d_, fig. , is to vary the ratio of the resistances on the two sides of the point _d_ in the secondary slide wire. in the recording pyrometers, an automatic compensator is employed. this automatic compensator varies the ratio on the two sides of the point _d_ in the following manner: the point _d_, fig. , is mechanically fixed; on one side of _d_ is the constant resistance coil _m_, on the other the nickel coil _n_. _n_ is placed at or near the cold end of the thermo-couple (or couples). nickel has a high temperature coefficient and the electrical proportions of _m_ and _n_ are such that the resistance change of _n_, as it varies with the temperature of the cold end, has the same effect upon the balancing voltage between _d_ and _g_ that the movement of the point _d_, fig. , has in the hand-operated compensator. instruments embodying these principles are shown in figs. to . the captions making their uses clear. [illustration: fig. .--automatic cold-end compensator.] placing the thermo-couples the following illustrations from the taylor instrument company show different applications of the thermo-couples to furnaces of various kinds. figure shows an oil-fired furnace with a simple vertical installation. figure shows a method of imbedding the thermo-couple in the floor of a furnace so as to require no space in the heating chamber. [illustration: fig. .--potentiometer ready for use.] various methods of applying a pyrometer to common heat-treatment furnaces are shown in figs. to . [illustration: fig. .--eight-point recording pyrometer-carpenter steel co.] leeds and northrup optical pyrometer the principles of this very popular method of measuring temperature are sketched in fig. . [illustration: fig. .--multiple-point thermocouple recorder--bethlehem steel co.] [illustration: fig. .--tycos pyrometer in oil-fired furnace.] the instrument is light and portable, and can be sighted as easily as an opera glass. the telescope, which is held in the hand, weighs only oz.; and the case containing the battery, rheostat and milliammeter, which is slung from the shoulder, only lb. [illustration: fig. .--thermocouple in floor of furnace.] [illustration: fig. .--pyrometer in gas furnace.] a large surface to sight at is not required. so long as the image formed by the objective is broader than the lamp filament, the temperature can be measured accurately. [illustration: fig. .--tycos multiple indicating pyrometer and recorder.] [illustration: fig. .--pyrometer in galvanizing tank.] distance does not matter, as the brightness of the image formed by the lens is practically constant, regardless of the distance of the instrument from the hot object. [illustration: fig. .--leeds & northrup optical pyrometer.] the manipulation is simple and rapid, consisting merely in the turning of a knurled knob. the setting is made with great precision, due to the rapid change in light intensity with change in temperature and to the sensitiveness of the eye to differences of light intensity. in the region of temperatures used for hardening steel, for example, different observers using the instrument will agree within °c. [illustration: fig. .--too low. fig. .--too high. fig. .--correct.] only brightness, not color, of light is matched, as light of only one color reaches the eye. color blindness, therefore, is no hindrance to the use of this method. the use of the instrument is shown in fig. . optical system and electrical circuit of the leeds & northrup optical pyrometer.--for extremely high temperature, the optical pyrometer is largely used. this is a comparative method. by means of the rheostat the current through the lamp is adjusted until the brightness of the filament is just equal to the brightness of the image produced by the lens _l_, fig. , whereupon the filament blends with or becomes indistinguishable in the background formed by the image of the hot object. this adjustment can be made with great accuracy and certainty, as the effect of radiation upon the eye varies some twenty times faster than does the temperature at , °f., and some fourteen times faster at , °f. when a balance has been obtained, the observer notes the reading of the milliammeter. the temperature corresponding to the current is then read from a calibration curve supplied with the instrument. [illustration: fig. .--using the optical pyrometer.] as the intensity of the light emitted at the higher temperatures becomes dazzling, it is found desirable to introduce a piece of red glass in the eye piece at _r_. this also eliminates any question of matching colors, or of the observer's ability to distinguish colors. it is further of value in dealing with bodies which do not radiate light of the same composition as that emitted by a black body, since nevertheless the intensity of radiation of any one color from such bodies increases progressively in a definite manner as the temperature rises. the intensity of this one color can therefore be used as a measure of temperature for the body in question. figures to show the way it is read. correction for cold-junction errors the voltage generated by a thermo-couple of an electric pyrometer is dependent on the difference in temperature between its hot junction, inside the furnace, and the cold junction, or opposite end of the thermo-couple to which the copper wires are connected. if the temperature or this cold junction rises and falls, the indications of the instrument will vary, although the hot junction in the furnace may be at a constant temperature. a cold-junction temperature of °f., or °c., is usually adopted in commercial pyrometers, and the pointer on the pyrometer should stand at this point on the scale when the hot junction is not heated. if the cold-junction temperature rises about °f., where base metal thermo-couples are used, the pyrometer will read approximately ° low for every ° rise in temperature above °f. for example, if the instrument is adjusted for a cold-junction temperature of °, and the actual cold-junction temperature is °f., the pyrometer will read ° low. if, however, the cold-junction temperature falls below °f., the pyrometer will read high instead of low, approximately ° for every ° drop in temperature below °f. with platinum thermo-couples, the error is approximately / ° for ° change in temperature. correction by zero adjustment.--many pyrometers are supplied with a zero adjuster, by means of which the pointer can be set to any actual cold-junction temperature. if the cold junction of the thermo-couple is in a temperature of °f., the pointer can be set to this point on the scale, and the readings of the instrument will be correct. compensating leads.--by the use of compensating leads, formed of the same material as the thermo-couple, the cold junction can be removed from the head of the thermo-couple to a point , or ft. distant from the furnace, where the temperature is reasonably constant. where greater accuracy is desired, a common method is to drive a -in. pipe, with a pointed closed end, some to ft. into the ground, as shown in fig. . the compensating leads are joined to the copper leads, and the junction forced down to the bottom of the pipe. the cold junction is now in the ground, beneath the building, at a depth at which the temperature is very constant, about °f., throughout the year. this method will usually control the cold-junction temperature within °f. where the greatest accuracy is desired a compensating box will overcome cold-junction errors entirely. it consists of a case enclosing a lamp and thermostat, which can be adjusted to maintain any desired temperature, from to °f. the compensating leads enter the box and copper leads run from the compensating box to the instrument, so that the cold junction is within the box. figure shows a brown compensating box. [illustration: fig. .--correcting cold-junction error.] if it is desired to maintain the cold junction at °: the thermostat is set at this point, and the lamp, being wired to the - or -volt lighting circuit, will light and heat the box until ° is reached, when the thermostat will open the circuit and the light is extinguished. the box will now cool down to °, when the circuit is again closed, the lamp lights, the box heats up, and the operation is repeated. [illustration: fig. .--compensating box.] brown automatic signaling pyrometer in large heat-treating plants it has been customary to maintain an operator at a central pyrometer, and by colored electric lights at the furnaces, signal whether the temperatures are correct or not. it is common practice to locate three lights above each furnace-red, white and green. the red light burns when the temperature is too low, the white light when the temperature is within certain limits--for example, °f. of the correct temperature--and the green light when the temperature is too high. [illustration: fig. .--brown automatic signaling pyrometer.] instruments to operate the lights automatically have been devised and one made by brown is shown in fig. . the same form of instrument is used for this purpose to automatically control furnace temperatures, and the pointer is depressed at intervals of every sec. on contacts corresponding to the red, white and green lights. [illustration: fig. .--automatic temperature control.] an automatic temperature control pyrometer automatic temperature control instruments are similar to the brown indicating high resistance pyrometer with the exception that the pointer is depressed at intervals of every sec. upon contact-making devices. no current passes through the pointer which simply depresses the upper contact device tipped with platinum, which in turn comes in contact with the lower contact device, platinum-tipped, and the circuit is completed through these two contacts. the current is very small, about / amp., as it is only necessary to operate the relay which in turn operates the switch or valve. a small motor is used to depress the pointer at regular intervals. the contact-making device is adjustable throughout the scale range of the instrument, and an index pointer indicates the point on the instrument at which the temperature is being controlled. the space between the two contacts on the high and low side, separated by insulating material, is equivalent to per cent of the scale range. a control of temperature is therefore possible within per cent of the total scale range. figure shows this attached to a small furnace. [illustration: fig. .--portable thermocouple testing molten brass.] pyrometers for molten metal pyrometers for molten metal are connected to portable thermocouples as in fig. . usually the pyrometer is portable, as shown in this case, which is a brown. other methods of mounting for this kind of work arc shown in figs. and . the bent mountings are designed for molten metal, such as brass or copper and are supplied with either clay, graphite or carborundum tubes. fifteen feet of connecting wire is usually supplied. the angle mountings, fig. , are recommended for baths such as lead or cyanide. the horizontal arm is usually about in. long, and the whole mounting is easily taken apart making replacements very easy. details of the thermo-couple shown in fig. are given in fig. . this is a straight rod with a protector for the hand of the operator. the lag in such couples is less than one minute. these are englehard mountings. protectors for thermo-couples thermo-couples must be protected from the danger of mechanical injury. for this purpose tubes of various refractory materials are made to act as protectors. these in turn are usually protected by outside metal tubes. pure wrought iron is largely used for this purpose as it scales and oxidizes very slowly. these tubes are usually made from to in. shorter than the inner tubes. in lead baths the iron tubes often have one end welded closed and are used in connection with an angle form of mounting. [illustration: fig. .--bent handle thermocouple with protector.] where it is necessary for protecting tubes to project a considerable distance into the furnace a tube made of nichrome is frequently used. this is a comparatively new alloy which stands high temperatures without bending. it is more costly than iron but also much more durable. when used in portable work and for high temperatures, pure nickel tubes are sometimes used. there is also a special metal tube made for use in cyanide. this metal withstands the intense penetrating characteristics of cyanide. it lasts from six to ten months as against a few days for the iron tube. the inner tubes of refractory materials, also vary according to the purposes for which they are to be used. they are as follows: marquardt mass tubes for temperatures up to , °f., but they will not stand sudden changes in temperature, such as in contact with intermittent flames, without an extra outer covering of chamotte, fireclay or carborundum. [illustration: fig. .--other styles of bent mounting.] fused silica tubes for continuous temperatures up to , °f. and intermittently up to , °f. the expansion at various temperatures is very small, which makes them of value for portable work. they also resist most acids. chamotte tubes are useful up to , °f. and are mechanically strong. they have a small expansion and resist temperature changes well, which makes them good as outside protectors for more fragile tubes. they cannot be used in molten metals, or baths of any kind nor in gases of an alkaline nature. they are used mainly to protect a marquardt mass or silica tube. carborundum tubes are also used as outside protection to other tubes. they stand sudden changes of temperature well and resist all gases except chlorine, above , °f. especially useful in protecting other tubes against molten aluminum, brass, copper and similar metals. clay tubes are sometimes used in large annealing furnaces where they are cemented into place, forming a sort of well for the insertion of the thermo-couple. they are also used with portable thermo-couples for obtaining the temperatures of molten iron and steel in ladles. used in this way they are naturally short-lived, but seem the best for this purpose. [illustration: fig. .--straight thermocouple and guard.] corundite tubes are used as an outer protection for both the marquardt mass and the silica tubes for kilns and for glass furnaces. graphite tubes are also used in some cases for outer protections. calorized tubes are wrought-iron pipe treated with aluminum vapor which often doubles or even triples the life of the tube at high temperature. these tubes come in different sizes and lengths depending on the uses for which they are intended. heavy protecting outer tubes may be only in. in inside diameter and as much as in. outside diameter, while the inner tubes, such as the marquardt mass and silica tubes are usually about / in. outside and / in. inside diameter. the length varies from to in. in most cases. special terminal heads are provided, with brass binding posts for electrical connections, and with provisions for water cooling when necessary. appendix table .--temperature conversion tables. table .--comparison between degrees centigrade and degrees fahrenheit. table .--weight of round, octagon and square carbon tool steel per foot. table .--weight of round carbon tool steel in. in diameter and larger, per foot. table .--decimal equivalents of a foot. temperature conversion tables by albert sauveur -------------------------------------------------------------------------- - . to | to | to -----------------|------------------------------|------------------------- c. f. | c. f. | c. f. | c. f.| c. f. -----------------|---------------|--------------|-----------|------------- - - . |- . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - |- . . | . . | | - - | - . . | . . | | - - | - . . | . . | | - - | - . . | . . | | - - | - . . | . . | | - - - . | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | - . . | . . | | - - - | . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - - | . . | . . | | - . - | . . | . . | | - . - | . . | . . | | - . | . . | . . | | | . . | . . | | | . . | . . | | | | . . | | -------------------------------------------------------------------------- ---------------------------------------------------------------- to | to -------------------------------|-------------------------------- c. f. | c. f. | c. f. | c. f. --------------|----------------|----------------|--------------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------- note.--the numbers in bold face type refer to the temperature either in degrees centigrade or fahrenheit which it is desired to convert into the other scale. if converting from fahrenheit degrees to centigrade degrees the equivalent temperature will be found in the left column, while if converting from degrees centigrade to degrees fahrenheit, the answer will be found in the column on the right. these tables are a revision of those by sauveur & boylston, metallurgical engineers, cambridge, mass. copyright, . interpolation factors c. f. c. f. . . | . . . . | . . . . | . . . . | . . . . | . . those using pyrometers will find this and the preceding conversion table of great convenience: table .--comparison between degrees centigrade and degrees fahrenheit ------------------------------------------------------------------------- degrees | degrees | degrees | degrees | degrees | degrees | degrees ---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|---------|------------- f.| c. | f.| c. | f.| c. | f.| c. | f.| c. | f.| c. | f.| c. ---|-----|---|-----|---|-----|---|-----|---|-----|---|-----|-----|------- - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . - |- . | | - . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | + . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | , . - |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | , . |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | , . + |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | , . |- . | | . | | . | | . | | . | | . | , | , . ------------------------------------------------------------------------- x degrees c. degrees fahrenheit = -------------- + x (degrees f. - ) degrees centigrade = --------------------- three other useful tables are also given on the following pages. table .--weight of round, octagon and square carbon tool steel per foot ------------------------------------------------------------------------ size | | | | size | | | in | round |octagon | square | in | round | octagon | square inches | | | | inches | | | --------|--------|--------|--------|--------|--------|---------|-------- / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | - / | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . - / | . | . | . | | . | . | . ------------------------------------------------------------------------ high-speed steel, being more dense than carbon steel, weighs from to per cent more than carbon steel. this should be added to figures given in the table. table .--weight of round, carbon tool steel in. in diameter and larger, per foot -------------------------------------------------------------------- diameter, | weight | diameter, | weight | diameter, | weight inches | per foot | inches | per foot | inches | per foot -----------|----------|-----------|----------|-----------|---------- | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | . | | , . - / | . | - / | . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | , . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | , . | - / | , . - / | . | - / | , . | | , . -------------------------------------------------------------------- to find the weight of discs made of carbon steel, in diameters up to and including in., without any allowance for finishing multiply the per foot weight of round bar steel, shown herewith by the decimal equivalent of a foot given in the following table: table .--decimal equivalents of a foot --------------------------------------------------------------------- in. | | / | / | / | / | / | / | / -----|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|-------|------- | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . --------------------------------------------------------------------- example.--if the weight of a carbon steel disc in. diameter, - / in. thick is desired, turn to page , where the per foot weight of in. round is given as . lb. multiply this by the decimal equivalent of - / in., or . , as shown in the above table, and the product will be the net weight of the disc. . lb. = the weight of ft. of in. round. . = the per foot decimal equivalent of - / in: ------------ ------------ . lb. = weight of disc in. diam. - / in. thick without any allowance for finishing. authorites quoted a addis, w h. american machinists' handbook american steel trearers' society american gear mfrs. asso. automatic and electric furnaces ltd. arnold, prof. j. o. b burleigh, r. w. borden, b. boker, herman & co. brown instrument co. brown-lipe-chaplin co. c campbell, h. h. carhart, h. a. clayton, c. y. curtis airplane co. e englehard, charles ensaw, howard f firth-sterling steel co. firth, thomas & sons fowler, henry g gilbert & barker h haywahd, c. r. howe, dr. h. m. hoover steel ball co. heathcote, h. l. harris, matthew hunter, j. v. j janitzky, e. j. johnston, a. b. juthe, k. a. l latrobe steel co. ludlum steel co. leeds & northrup co. lyman, w. h. m mansfield, c. a. midvale steel co. mckenna, roy c. moulton, seth a. n niles, bement, pond p parker, s. w. poole, c. r. r rawdon, h. s. s s. a. e. (society automotive engineers) sauveur, albert springfield armory sellack, t. g. smith, a. j. shirley, alfred j. t taylor instrument co. thum, e. e. tiemann, h. p. u u. s. ball bearing co. united steel co. underwood, charles n. v van de venter, john h. w walp, h. o. wood, harold f. wheelock, lovejoy & co. index a abc of iron and steel absorption of carbon, rate of air hardening steels analysis of high speed steel allotropic modifications alloy steel, annealing properties of alloys and their effect in high speed steel in steel, value of upon steel alpha iron annealing care in furnace high-chromium steel high speed tools in bone methods proper rifle components rust-proof steel steels temperature arrests austentite automotive industry, application of liberty engine materials to temperature control axles, heat treatment of b balls, making steel barium chloride process baths for tempering bessemer converter beta iron blending compounds blister steel blue brittleness bone, annealing in boxes for case hardening or carburizing breaking test gears brinell hardness broach hardening furnace brown automatic pyrometer burning c calorized tubes carbon content at various temperatures content of case hardened work in cast iron, ix in tool steel introduction of penetration of steel steel forgings, liberty engine steel tools steels, s. a. e. steels, temper colors strengthens iron tool steel, forging carbonizing, _see_ carburizing carborundum tubes carburization, preventing carburizing by gas boxes compounds gas consumption by local material nickel steel or case hardening pots for carburizing, process of short method sleeves with charcoal _see_ case hardening car door type of furnace case, depth of case hardening boxes cast iron local or surface carburizing treatments for various steels _see_ carburizing cast iron, carbon in case hardening cementite center column furnace centigrade table chamotte tubes chart of carbon penetration heat treatment shape chrome steel chrome-nickel steel steel, forging chrome-vanadium steel chromium steels, s. a. e. chromium-cobalt steel chromium-vanadium steel, s. a. e. classification of steel clay tubes cold end compensator junction errors shortness worked steel color in tempering colors on carbon steels combination tank comparison of fuels compensating leads compensator for cold ends automatic composition of steel compound, blending separating from work compounds for carburizing connecting rods, liberty motor continuous heating furnace converter, bessemer cooling curves cooling quenching oil, roof system rate of, for gear-forgings copper, effect of, in medium carbon steel copper-plating to prevent carburizing corrosion of high-chromium steel of rust-proof steel corundite tubes cost of operating furnaces cracks in hardening, preventing crankshaft, liberty motor critical point crucible or tool steel cutting off high speed steel cyanide bath for tool steel d decarbonizing of outer surface preventing depth of case detrimental elements in steel dies, drop forging quenching soft spots in tempering round drawing ends of gear teeth drop forging dies ductility e effect of alloys of different carburizing material of size of piece of copper in medium carbon steel elastic limit electric process of steel making electrode elements, chemical elongation endurance limit energizer, enlarging steel equipment for heat treating eutectoid f fahrenheit temperature table fatigue test ferrite file test flame shields flange shields for furnaces forging furnace high speed tools improper of steel practice, heavy rifle barrels forgings, carbon steel liberty engine formed tools, high speed fractures, examining by furnace, continuous heating crucible data electric heroult open hearth records furnaces annealing broach hardening car door type center column cost of operating data on forging, heavy fuels for gas fired high speed steel lead pot manganese steel muffle oil fired operating costs screens for tool furnaces, water cooled fronts fuels, comparison of for furnaces g gages, changes due to quenching tempering gamma iron gas, carburizing by consumption for carburizing fired furnace illuminating, for carburizing gear blanks, heat treatment of forgings, rate of cooling for liberty engine hardening machine steel, transmission teeth, drawing ends of gears, liberty engine gleason tempering machine grade of steel grain, refining size graphitic carbon grinding high speed steel h hair lines in forgings hardening carbon steel for tools cracks, preventing dies gears high speed steel high speed tools of high-chromium steel of rust-proof steel room, modern hardness tests heating, effect of size for forging heat, judging by color treating departments equipment forgings inspection of liberty motor heat treating, of axles of chisels of gears of high speed steel of steel s. a. e. heat treatment heroult furnace high-chromium steel annealing of corrosion of hardening of highly stressed parts of liberty engine high speed steel, analysis of annealing cutting off forging furnace hardening heat treatment of instructions for manufacture pack hardening structure of hints for steel users i illuminating gas for carburizing impact test improper forging influence of size on heating inspection of heat treatment internal stresses, relieving introduction of carbon j jewelers' tools judging heat of steel by color l latent heat lathe and planer tools tools, high speed latrobe temper list lead bath pot furnace leeds & northrup potentiometer optical pyrometer liberty engine, highly stressed parts of liberty engine materials, application to automotive industry motor connecting rods motor, crankshaft motor piston pin local case hardening luting mixture m machineability of steel machinery steel, annealing magnet test making steel in electric furnace manganese steel furnace manufacture of high speed steel marquardt mass tubes martensite medium carbon steel, effect of copper on metallography microphotographs microscopic examination milling cutters, high speed mixture for luting modern hardening room molten metal pyrometers molybdenum muffle furnace n nickel nickel-chromium steel steels, s. a. e. nickel, influence of, on steel steel affinity for carbon steels, s. a. e. non-homogeneous melting non-shrinking steels normalizing o oil bath for tempering cooling on roof fired furnace hardening steel, forging steels temperature of quenching open hearth furnace operating costs of furnaces outer surface decarbonizer over-heated steel, restoring overheating dies p pack-hardening high speed steel packing work for carburizing paste for hardening dies pearlite penetration of carbon carbon, chart of in case hardening phosphorus pickling liberty motor forgings pig iron piston pin, liberty motor placing pyrometers planer tools, high speed "points" of carbon in steel potentiometer, leeds & northrup pots for carburizing press for testing gears preventing carburization cracks in hardening properties of alloy steels of alloy steels, table of steel protective screens for furnaces puddled iron punches and chisels, steels for pyrometers calibration copper ball indicating inspection iron ball molten metal optical placing recording siemens testing water q quality and structure of high speed steel of steel quenching, after carburizing dies in tank obsolete method oil, temperature of tank tool steel r rate of absorption of carbon recording temperatures red shortness refining the grain regenerative open hearth furnace restoring overheated steel rifle barrels, forging components, annealing roof system of cooling oil rust-proof steel annealing of corrosion of hardening of s s. a. e. carbon steels chromium steels chromium-vanadium heat treatments nickel-chromium steels nickel steels screw stock silico-manganese steel standard steels salt bath for tempering scleroscope test scratch hardness screens for furnaces screw stock, s. a. e. sensible heat sentinels, melting of separating work from compound shields for furnace doors shore scleroscope short method of carburizing shrinking steel silica tubes silico-manganese steels, s. a. e. silicon silversmiths' tools size of piece, effect of slags sleeves, carburizing hardening and shrinking shrinking solid solution sorbite specimens, test standard s. a. e. steels steel, balls, stock for bolts, making composition of deoxidation for chisels and punches forging of give it a chance heat treatment of high speed making bessemer process crucible process electric furnace process open hearth tools, carbon, in users' hints structure of high speed steel sulphur t tables, air, oil and water hardened steel alloy steels, properties of carbon content carbon steels case hardening changes due to quenching chromium steels chromium-vanadium steels colors and temperature composition of steels cost of furnaces effect of size fuels, comparison of high-chromium steel nickel-chromium steels nickel steels operating cost of furnaces production cost of furnaces s. a. e. steels screw stock silico-manganese steels stock for balls temperature conversion tempering temperatures weight of steel tank for quenching dies taylor instruments temper, colors of list, latrobe of steel temperature recorders tables temperatures for tempering tempering colors on carbon steels gages high speed tools machine, gleason round dies temperatures theory of tempers of carbon steel tensile test testing heat treatment tests of steel test specimens theory of tempering thermocouple base metal cold end placing protectors rare metal time for hardening tool furnace, small tool or crucible steel, annealing tool steel, cyanide bath for quenching tools, carbon in different carbon steel of high speed steel sulphur in tempers of various transformation points transmission gear steel treatments for various steels troosite tubes, calorized carborundum chamotte clay marquardt mass silica tungsten steel u ultimate strength users of steel, hints for v vanadium steel w water annealing cooled furnace fronts weight of steel bars working instructions for high speed steel wrought iron, ix y yield point how to make rugs [illustration: loom warped for weaving] how to make rugs _by_ candace wheeler author of "principles of home decoration," etc. illustrated [illustration] new york doubleday, page & company copyright, by candace wheeler copyright, by doubleday, page & co. published october, contents foreword: home industries and domestic manufactures. chapter i. rug weaving. ii. the pattern. iii. dyeing. iv. ingrain carpet rugs. v. woven rag portieres. vi. woolen rugs. vii. cotton rugs. viii. linsey woolsey. neighbourhood industries: after word. list of illustrations loom warped for weaving _frontispiece_ facing page weaving the onteora rug the lois rug sewed fringe for woven portiere knotted warp fringe for woven table-cover isle la motte rug greek border in red and black braided and knotted fringe diamond border in red and black the lucy rug foreword. home industries and domestic manufactures. the subject of home industries is beginning to attract the attention of those who are interested in political economy and the general welfare of the country, and thoughtful people are asking themselves why, in all the length and breadth of america, there are no well-established and prosperous domestic manufactures. we have no articles of use or luxury made in _homes_ which are objects of commercial interchange or sources of family profit. to this general statement there are but few exceptions, and curiously enough these are, for the most part, in the work of our native indians. a stranger in america, wishing--after the manner of travelers--to carry back something characteristic of the country, generally buys what we call "indian curiosities"--moccasins, baskets, feather-work, and the one admirable and well-established product of indian manufacture, the navajo blanket. but these hardly represent the mass of our people. we may add to the list of indian industries, lace making, which is being successfully taught at some of the reservations, but as it is not as yet even a self-supporting industry, the above-named "curiosities" and the navajo blanket stand alone as characteristic hand-work produced by native races; while from our own, or that of the co-existent afro-american, we have nothing to show in the way of true domestic manufactures. when we contrast this want of production with the immense home product of europe, asia, parts of africa, and south america--and even certain islands of the southern seas--we cannot help feeling a sort of dismay at the contrast; and it is only by a careful study of the conditions which have made the difference that we become reassured. it is, in fact, our very prosperity, the exceptionally favourable circumstances which are a part of farming life in this country, which has hitherto diverted efforts into other channels. these conditions did not exist during the early days of america, and we know that while there was little commercial exchange of home commodities, many of the arts which are used to such profitable purpose abroad existed in this country and served greatly to modify home expenses and increase home comforts. to account for the cessation of these household industries, it is only necessary to notice the drift of certain periods in the short history of america's settlement and development. we shall see that the decline of domestic manufactures in new england and the middle states was coincident with two rapidly increasing movements, one of which was the opening and settlement of the great west, and the other the establishment of cotton and woolen mills throughout the country. in short, the abundant acreage of western lands, fertile beyond the dreams of new england or old world tillers, threw the entire business of production or family support upon the man. the profit of his easily acquired farm land was so great and certain that it became almost a reproach to him to have his womenkind busy themselves with other than necessary household duties. the cotton and woolen mills stood ready to supply the needed material for clothing, and it was positive economy to push the spinning-wheel out of sight under the garret eaves and chop up the bulky loom for firewood. the wife and daughters might reputably cook and clean for the men whose business it was to cover the black acres with golden wheat, but spinning and weaving were decidedly unfashionable occupations. even the emigrants from countries where the spinning and weaving habit was an inheritance as well as a necessity, were governed by the custom of the country, and devoted the entire energy of the family to the raising of crops. it is, in fact, owing to fortunate circumstances that, if we except the mountain regions of the south, there are no longer farmhouse or domestic manufactures in america. this, as i have said, only goes to prove the hitherto unexampled prosperity of the country. in fact, the absence of these very industries means that there are greater sources of profit within the reach of farming households. this being so, it is natural to ask, why the re-establishment of farmhouse manufactures, or the encouragement and development of them, is a desirable movement. there are exceedingly good individual and personal reasons; and there are also commercial and national ones, which should not be ignored. all farmers are not successful. there are many poor as well as rich ones; and the wife of a poor farmer has less pecuniary independence, less money to spend, and fewer ways of gaining it, than any other woman of equal education and character in america. a poor farmer is often obliged to pay out for labour, fencing, stock, insurance and taxes every dollar gained by the sale of his crops, and if by good luck or good management there should be a small excess, he is apt to hoard it against unlooked-for emergencies. this, at first enforced economy, grows to be the habit of his life, so that even if he becomes well-to-do, or even rich, he distrusts exceedingly the wisdom of any expenditure save his own. a mechanic, or a man in any small line of business, must trust his wife with the disbursement of a certain part of the family income. it passes through her hands in the way of housekeeping, and the management of it exercises and develops her faculties; but the wife of the farmer has no such interest. the farm is expected to supply the family living, and this blessed fact becomes almost a curse when it deprives the wife of the mental stimulus incident to the management of resources. added to this there is often, at least through the winter, partial or complete isolation from neighbourly or public interests. the great crops of the country are produced under circumstances which necessitate distance from even the most limited social centres, and that the farmer's wife suffers from this we know, not only from observation, but from the statistics of insane asylums. and here i am tempted to quote from a letter of a close student of farmhouse life in the west. she writes: "that the farmer himself, as isolated and hard worked, makes no such record, i believe due to the mental tonic, the broadening influence that comes from a sense of responsibility in life's larger affairs. the woman works like a machine, irresponsible as to final results; the man like a thinking, planning, responsible, independent human being." this seems to me a very fair statement of the case. the woman, who misses social companionship, and who has not the saving influence of administration and responsibility even in her own household, is narrowed to a very small point in life's affairs, and it is inevitable that she should suffer from it. the variety of her work also has dwindled. cooking and house-cleaning follow each other in monotonous routine, with too much of it at planting and harvest seasons and too little at others. she has not even the pleasure of comparison and emulation in her daily work; it neither exercises her faculties nor stimulates her thought. during the winter months she has abundant leisure for a harvest of her own, in some interesting manufacture adapted to her education and circumstances, and in the prosecution of these she would be brought into a bond of common interest with other women. so far i have spoken only of the individual and personal reasons for which certain domestic and artistic industries well might be encouraged; but the public and economic reasons are easy to find. in looking at the variety and bulk of our national imports, we may be surprised to see how large a proportion of them are of domestic origin. in fact, nearly everything which comes under the head of artistic products is the result of domestic industry. the beauty and simplicity of many of these things is surprising, and yet they have required neither unusual talent or careful training. they are simply the result of the _habit_ of production, and their value is in the personal expression we find in them. they have always this advantage over mechanical manufacture, and can be safely relied upon to find a market in the face of close mechanical imitation. among these domestic products we shall find the laces of all countries, ireland, belgium, france, italy, sweden and russia contributing this beautiful manufacture, from finest to coarsest quality. it is as common a process as knitting in the homes of many countries, and the fact of it being successfully taught in the indian cabins of the far west proves that it is not a difficult accomplishment. embroideries, in all countries but our own, are common and profitable home productions; and when we come to hand-weavings the variety is infinite. in practical england, the value of hand-weavings in linens has led to the introduction of small "parlour looms" from sweden; and damasks of special designs are woven for special customers who appreciate their charm and worth. of all hand processes, weaving is the most generally or widely applicable, and the range of beautiful production possible to the simplest weaving is almost beyond calculation. many of the costly eastern rugs are as simply woven as a navajo blanket, or even a rag carpet. the process is in many cases almost identical, the variation being only in closeness or fineness of warp and arrangement of colour. i have been much interested of late in an application of art to a local industry in new hampshire. it is one which seems to prevail to a greater or less degree all through new england, and the product is called "pulled rugs." the process consists of drawing finely cut rags through some loose, strong cloth, mainly bagging or burlap. i have seen these rugs at bar harbor and along the massachusetts coast for many years, and while they possessed the merit of durability, they were, for the most part, so ugly and unattractive that only the most sympathetic personal interest in the maker would induce one to purchase them. the change that has been wrought in this manufacture by an intelligent application of art is really marvelous. the product came under the attention of a woman trained in that valuable school, "the institute of artist artisans." she tried the experiment of using new material carefully dyed to follow certain oriental designs, and the result is a smooth, velvety, thick-piled rug, which cannot be distinguished from a fine oriental rug of the same pattern. the cost of this manufacture is necessarily considerable, since the process is slow and the material costly. but in spite of these disadvantages, the drawn rugs have met with deserved favour, and are a source of profitable labour to the community. it is undoubtedly the beginning of an important industry, which owes its success entirely to the art education of one woman. there is an improvement somewhat akin to this in the weaving of rag-carpet rugs, and this is not confined to one locality. it consists in the use of _new_ rags, carefully selected as to colour both of rags and warp, and the result is surprisingly good. one might say that we have in this country peculiar advantages for positive artistic excellence as well as volume of production. we grow our own wool and cotton. we have a great and growing population, with such application of mechanical invention to routine and necessary work as greatly to reduce household labour. added to this, there has been during the last ten years so much and such general art study as to have created a sort of diffused love of art manufactures, so that many of the people who would naturally adopt the work would have an instructive judgment regarding it. i should not be afraid to predict great and even peculiar excellence in any domestic manufacture which became the habit of any given locality. _the subject of our domestic industries is one which should fall naturally within the objects of women's clubs._ if every woman's club in the country chose from its members those who by artistic instinct or education, and the possession of practical ability, were fitted to lead in the work, and made of them a committee on home industries, the reports from it would soon become a matter of absorbing interest to the club, and the productions made under the protection, so to speak, of the club, would have an advantage that any commercial business would consider invaluable. neither would the advantage be limited by the interest of a single club. that great social engine, "the federation of women's clubs," can wield an almost magical power in the creation of interests or encouragement of effort, and the federation of organizations, each one exchanging experiences as well as products, would be an ideal means of growth and extension. the machinery for the work exists in almost every county of every state of the union, and with the threefold interest of the promotion of practical art, that of increased manufacture, and the extension of that sisterhood which is one of the most christian-like and desirable aims of women's clubs, it would seem a natural and congenial effort. the best results of this general awakening will probably be in the south. certainly no conditions could be more favourable than those existing in the cumberland mountains, where wool and cotton grown upon the rough farms are habitually spun and woven and dyed in the home cabin. the dyes are often made from walnut bark, pokeberry, and certain nuts and roots which have been found capable of "fast" stain and are easily procured. unfortunately, the facility with which aniline dyes can be used is not unknown. the "linsey woolsey," which is not only a common manufacture in the farmhouses, but the common wear of both men and women, is an interesting and good manufacture, capable of much wider use than it enjoys at present. and linsey woolsey is not the only home weaving done in the cumberland mountains. the showing of cotton homespun towel weaving at the atlanta exposition was a feature of the exposition, and the homespun blankets of the various kinds which one finds in common use are only a step removed from the process of the admirable navajo blanket. we see from these different possibilities and indications, that although we are still a people without true home productions, there is every reason to believe that this condition will not be a lasting one, and that before many years we shall find the special advantages and general cultivation of the country have not only produced but given character to a large domestic manufacture. chapter i. rug weaving. rag carpets have been made and used in farmhouses for many generations, but it is only of late that there has been a general demand in all country houses for home-made piazza rugs, bedroom rugs, and rugs for general use. it has been found that the best and most durable rugs for these purposes, and for bath-rooms for town and city houses, can be made of cotton or woolen rags sewed and woven in the regular old-fashioned rag-carpet way, the difference being--and it is rather a large difference--that the rags must be new instead of old, and that the colors must be good and carefully chosen instead of being used indiscriminately, and in addition to this it must be woven in two-yard lengths, with a border and fringe at either end. this being done, good, attractive and salable rugs can be made of almost any color, and suitable for many purposes. it is an industry perfectly adapted to farmhouse conditions, and if well followed out would make a regular income for the women of the family. the cumbrous old wooden loom is still doing a certain amount of work in nearly every country neighbourhood, and it is capable of a greatly enlarged and much more profitable practice. i find very little if any difference in the rugs woven upon these and the modern steel loom. it is true that the work is lighter and weaving goes faster upon the latter, and where a person or family makes an occupation of weaving it is probably better to have the latest improvements; but it is possible to begin and to make a success of rag rug weaving upon an old-fashioned loom, and as a rule old-fashioned weavers have little to learn in new methods. this small book is intended as a help in adapting their work to modern demands, as well as to open a new field to the farmer's family during the winter months, when their time is not necessarily occupied with growing and securing crops. [illustration: weaving] it does not undertake to teach any one who buys or has inherited a loom to begin weaving without any further preparation. the warping or threading of it must be _seen_ to be understood, but when that is once learned, all of the rest is a matter of practice and experiment, and is really no more difficult than any other domestic art. one would not expect to spin without being shown how to pull the wool and turn the wheel at the same time, or even to sew or knit without some sort of instruction, and the same is true of weaving. there are many old looms still to be found in the garrets of farmhouses, and where one has been inherited it is best to begin learning to weave upon it instead of substituting a new one, since the same knowledge answers for both. probably some older member of the family, or at least some old neighbour, will be able to teach the new beginner how to set up the loom and to proceed from that to actual weaving. after this is learned it rests with one's self to become a good weaver, a practical dyer, and to put colors together which are both harmonious and effective. what i have chiefly tried to show is how to get proper materials and how to use them to the best advantage. i think it is safe to say that no domestic art is capable of such important results from a pecuniary point of view, or so important an extension in the direction of practical art. where it is used as an art-process and an interesting occupation, by women of leisure, it is capable of the finest results, and there is no reason why these results should not become a matter of business profit. rag carpets have generally been woven of rags cut from any old garments cast aside by the household--coats and trousers too old for patching, sheets and pillow-cases too tender to use, calico, serge, bits of woolen stuffs old and new, went into the carpet basket, to be cut or torn into strips, sewed indiscriminately together, and rolled into balls until there should be enough of them for the work of the loom. when this time came the loom would be warped with white cotton or purple yarn, dyed with "sugar paper" or logwood, and the carpet woven. even with this entire carelessness as to any other result than that of a useful floor covering, the rag carpet, with its "hit or miss" mixture, was not a bad thing; and a very small degree of attention has served to give it a respectable place in domestic manufactures. but it is capable of being carried much farther; in fact, i know of no process which can so easily be made to produce really good and beautiful results as rag carpet weaving. the first material needed is what are called carpet warps, and these can be purchased in different weights and sizes and more or less reliable colours in every country store, this fact alone showing the prevalence of home weaving, since the yarns are not--at least to my knowledge--used for any other purpose. the cost of warp, dyed or undyed, depends upon the quantity required, or, in other words, upon its being purchased at wholesale or retail. at retail it costs twenty cents per pound, and at wholesale sixteen. to buy of a wholesale dealer one must be able to order at least a hundred pounds, and as this would weave but a hundred and fifty rugs it would not be too large a quantity to have on hand for even a moderate amount of weaving. these prices refer only to ordinary cotton warps, and not to fine "silk finish," to linen, or even to silk ones, each of which has its special use and price. in all of them fast colour is a most desirable quality, and, indeed, for truly good work a necessity. i have found but two of the colours which are upon ordinary sale to be reasonably fast, and those are a very deep red and the ordinary orange. the latter will run when dipped in water; in fact, it will give out dye to such good purpose that i have sometimes used the water in which it has been steeped to dye cotton rags, as it gives a very good and quite fast lemon yellow. it follows, then, that in weaving rugs (which must be washable) with orange warp, the warp must be steeped in warm water before using. it can be used in that state, or it can be _set_ with alum, or it can be dipped in a thin indigo dye and made into a good and fast green. the only recourse of the domestic weaver who wishes to establish her rugs as of the very best make is to dye her own warps; and this is not only an easy but a most interesting process; so much so, in fact, that i am tempted to enlarge upon it as a practical study for the young people of the family. it is necessary at the very beginning to put much stress upon the value of fast colour in the warping yarn, since a faded warp will entirely neutralize the colour of the rags, and spoil the beauty of the most successful rug. the most necessary and widely applicable colour needed in warps, or, indeed, in rags, is a perfectly fast blue in different depths, and this can only be secured by indigo. aniline blue in cotton is never sun-fast and rarely will stand washing, but a good indigo blue will neither run or fade, and is therefore precisely what is needed for domestic manufacture. fortunately, the dye-tub has been, in the past at least, a close companion of the loom, and most old-fashioned farmers' wives know how to use it. with this one can command reliable blue warps of all shades; and when we come to directions for making washable rugs its importance will be seen. as i have said, by dipping orange warp in medium indigo blue a fast and vivid green can be secured, and these two tints, together with orange and red, give as many colours as one needs for rug weaving; they give, in fact, a choice of five colours--orange, red, blue, green and white. orange and red are both colours which can be relied upon when prepared from the ordinary "magic" dyes of commerce. turkey red especially is safe to last, even when applied to cotton. in the general disapproval of mineral dyes, this one may certainly be excepted, as well as the crimson red known as "cardinal," which is both durable and beautiful, in silk or woolen fibre or texture. after good warps are secured, the second material needed is _filling_; and here the subject of old and new rags is to be considered. of course, cloth which has served other purposes, as in sheets, pillow-cases, curtains, dress skirts, etc., is still capable of prolonged wear when the thin parts are removed and those which are fairly strong are folded and bunched into carpet filling; and for family use, or limited sale, such rags--dyed in some colour--are really desirable. good varieties of washable rugs can be made of half-worn cotton without dyeing (although they will not be as durable as if made from unworn muslin) by using blue warps to white fillings. the colour effects and methods of weaving will be the same whether old or new rags are used; but in making a study of rag rug weaving from the point of view of building up an important industry, it is necessary to consider only the use of new rags and how to procure the best of them at the cheapest rates. there is a certain amount of what is called waste in all cloth mills, either cotton, wool or silk, and also in the manufacture of every kind of clothing. the waste from cotton mills, consisting for the most part of "piece ends," imperfect beginnings or endings, which must be torn off when the piece is made up, are exactly suitable for carpet weaving; and, in fact, if made for the purpose could hardly be better. these can be bought for from ten to twelve cents per pound. the same price holds for ginghams and for coloured cottons of various sorts. cutting from shirt-making and clothing establishments are not as good. in shirt cuttings the cloth varies a good deal in thickness, and, in addition to this disadvantage, cannot be torn into strips, many of the pieces being bias, and therefore having to be cut. it is true that while this entails additional use of time in preparation, bias rags are a more elastic filling than straight ones, and if uniformly and carefully cut and sewed a rug made from them is worth more and will probably sell for more than one made of straight rags. shirt cuttings sell for about three cents per pound, and while a proportion of them are too small for use and would have to be re-sold for paper rags, the cost of material for cotton rugs would still be very trifling. suitable woolen rags from the mills sell for twenty-five cents per pound. tailors' and dressmakers' cuttings are much cheaper, and very advantageous arrangements can be made with large establishments if one is prepared to take all they have to offer. one difficulty with woolen rags from tailoring establishments is in the sombreness of the colours; but much can be done by judicious sorting and sewing of the rags, for it is astonishing how bits of every conceivable colour will melt together when brought into a mixed mass; also if they are woven upon a red warp the effect is brightened. having secured materials of different kinds, the next step is in the cutting and sewing, and here also new methods must step in. the old-fashioned way of sewing carpet rags--that is, simply _tacking_ them together with a large needle and coarse thread--will not answer at all in this new development of rug making. the filling must be smooth, without lumps or rag ends, and the joinings absolutely fast and fairly inconspicuous. some of the new rags from cotton or woolen mills come in pieces from a quarter to a half-yard in length and the usual width of the cloth. these can be sewed together on the sewing machine, lapping and basting them before sewing. they should lap from a quarter to a half inch and have two sewings, one at either edge of the lap. if sewed in this way they can afterward be torn into strips, using the scissors to cut across seams. it can be performed very speedily when one is accustomed to it, and is absolutely secure, so that no rag ends can ever be seen in the finished weaving. if the cloth pieces which are to be used for rags are not wide enough to sew on the sewing machine, they should be lapped and sewed by hand in the same way, unless they happen to have selvedge ends, in which case they should by all means be strongly overhanded. this makes the best possible joining, as it is no thicker than the rest of the rag filling, and consequently gives an even surface. good sewing is the first step toward making good and workmanlike rugs. whenever the rags can be torn instead of cut, it is preferable, as it secures uniform width. the width, of course, must vary according to the quality of cloth and weight desired in the rug. a certain weight is necessary to make it lie smoothly, as a light rug will not stay in place on the floor. in ordinary cotton cloth an inch wide strip is not too heavy and will pinch into the required space. if, however, a door-hanging or lounge-cover is being woven, the rags may be made half that width. chapter ii. the pattern. when proper warp and filling are secured, experimental weaving may begin. if the loom is an old-fashioned wooden one, it will weave only in yard widths, and this yard width takes four hundred and fifty threads of warp. warping the loom is really the only difficult or troublesome part of plain weaving, and therefore it is best to put in as long a warp as one is likely to use in one colour. one and a half pounds of cotton rags will make one yard of weaving. the simplest trial will be the weaving of white filling, either old or new, with a warp of medium indigo blue. of course each warp must be long enough to weave several rugs; and the first one, to make the experiment as simple as possible, should be of white rags alone upon a blue warp. there must be an allowance of five inches of warp for fringe before the weaving is begun, and ten inches at the end of the rug to make a fringe for both first and second rugs. sometimes the warp is set in groups of three, with a corresponding interval between, and this--if the tension is firm and the rags soft--gives a sort of honeycomb effect which is very good. the grouping of the warp is especially desirable in one-coloured rugs, as it gives a variation of surface which is really attractive. when woven, the rug should measure three feet by six, without the fringe. this is to be knotted, allowing six threads to a knot. this kind of bath-rug--which is the simplest thing possible in weaving--will be found to be truly valuable, both for use and effect. if the filling is sufficiently heavy, and especially if it is made of half-worn rags, it will be soft to the feet, and can be as easily washed as a white counterpane; in fact, it can be thrown on the grass in a heavy shower and allowed to wash and bleach itself. several variations can be made upon this blue warp in the way of borders and color-splashes by using any indigo-dyed material mixed with the white rags. cheap blue ginghams, "domestics" or half-worn and somewhat faded blue denims will be of the right depth of color, but as a rule new denim is of too dark a blue to introduce with pure white filling. the illustration called "the onteora rug" is made by using a proportion of a half-pound of blue rags to the two and a half of white required to make up the three pounds of cotton filling required in a six-foot rug. this half-pound of blue should be distributed through the rug in three portions, and the two and a half pounds of white also into three, so as to insure an equal share of blue to every third of the rug. after this division is made it is quite immaterial how it goes together. the blue rags may be long, short or medium, and the effect is almost certain to be equally good. the side border in "the lois rug," which is made upon the same blue warp, is separately woven, and afterward added to the plain white rug with blue ends, but an irregular side border can easily be made by sewing the rags in lengths of a half-yard, alternating the blue and white, and keeping the white rags in the centre of the rug while weaving. these three or four variations of style in what we may call washable rugs are almost equally good where red warp is used, substituting turkey red rags with the white filling instead of blue. an orange warp can be used for an orange and white rug, mixing the white filling with ordinary orange cotton cloth. the effect may be reversed by using a white warp with a red, blue or yellow filling, making the borders and splashes with white. one of the best experiments in plain weaving i have seen is a red rug of the "lois" style, using white warp and mixed white and green gingham rags for the borders, while the body of the rug is in shaded red rags. this, however, brings us to the question of color in fillings, which must be treated separately. [illustration: the onteora rug] of course, variations of all kinds can be made in washable rugs. light and dark blue rags can be used in large proportion with white ones to make a "hit or miss," and where a darker rug is considered better for household use it can be made entirely of dark and light blue on a white warp; the same thing can be done in reds, yellows and greens. brown can be used with good effect mixed with orange, using orange warp; or orange, green and brown will make a good combination on a white warp. in almost every variety of rug except where blue warp is used a red stripe in the border will be found an improvement. a very close, evenly distributed red warp, with white filling, will make a pink rug good enough and pretty enough for the daintiest bedroom. if it is begun and finished with a half-inch of the same warp used as filling, it makes a sort of border; and this, with the red fringe, completes what every one will acknowledge is an exceptionally good piece of floor furnishing. in using woolen rags, which are apt to be much darker in colour than cotton, a white, red or yellow warp is more apt to be effective than either a green or a blue; in fact, it is quite safe to say that light filling should go with dark warp and dark filling with light or white. there is an extremely good style of rag rug made at isle lamotte, in vermont, where very dark blue or green woolen rags are woven upon a white warp, with a design of arrows in white at regular intervals at the sides. this design is made by turning back the filling at a given point and introducing a piece of white filling, which in turn is turned back when the length needed for the design is woven and another dark one introduced, each one to be turned back at the necessary place and taken up in the next row. of course, while the design is in progress one must use several pieces of filling in each row of weaving. the black border can only be made by introducing a large number of short pieces of the contrasting colour which is to be used in the design and tacking them in place as the weaving proceeds. of course, in this case thin cloth should be used for the colour-blocks, as otherwise the doubling of texture would make an uneven surface. if the rug is a woolen one, not liable to be washed, this variation of color in pattern can be cleverly made by brushing the applied color pieces lightly with _glue_. of course, in this case the design will show only on the upper side of the rug. in fact, the only way to make the design show equally on both sides is by turning back the warp, as in the arrow design, or by actually cutting out and sewing in pieces of colour. by following out the device of using glue for fastening the bits of colour which make border designs many new and very interesting effects can be obtained, as most block and angle forms can be produced by lines made in weaving. it is only where the rug must be constantly subject to washing that they are not desirable. it must be remembered that the warp threads bind them into place, after they are glue-fastened. large rugs for centres of rooms can be made of woolen rags by weaving a separate narrow border for the two sides. if the first piece is three feet wide by eight in length, and a foot-wide border is added at the sides, it will make a rug five feet wide by eight feet long; or if two eight-foot lengths are sewn together, with a foot-wide border, it will make an eight-by-eight centre rug. the border should be of black or very dark coloured filling. in making a bordered rug, two dark ends must be woven on the central length of the rug--that is, one foot of black or dark rags can be woven on each end and six feet of the "hit or miss" effect in the middle. this gives a strip of eight feet long, including two dark ends. the separate narrow width, one foot wide and sixteen feet in length, must be added to this, eight feet on either side. the border must be very strongly sewn in order to give the same strength as in the rest of the rug. the same plan can be carried out in larger rugs, by sewing breadths together and adding a border, but they are not easily lifted, and are apt to pull apart by their own weight. still, the fact remains that very excellent and handsome rugs can be made from rags, in any size required to cover the floor of a room, by sewing the breadths and adding borders, and if care and taste are used in the combinations as good an effect can be secured as in a much more costly flooring. the ultimate success of all these different methods of weaving rag rugs depends upon the amount of beauty that can be put into them. they possess all the necessary qualities of durability, usefulness and inexpensiveness, but if they cannot be made beautiful other estimable qualities will not secure the wide popularity they deserve. durable and beautiful colour will always make them salable, and good colour is easily attainable if the value of it is understood. there are two ways of compassing this necessity. one is to buy, if possible, in piece ends and mill waste, such materials as turkey red, blue and green ginghams, and blue domestics and denims, as well as all the dark colours which come in tailors' cuttings. the other and better alternative is to buy the waste of white cotton mills and dye it. for the best class of rugs--those which include beauty as well as usefulness, and which will consequently bring a much larger price if sold--it is quite worth while to buy cheap muslins and calicoes; and as quality--that is, coarseness or fineness--is perfectly immaterial, it is possible to buy them at from four to five cents per yard. these goods can be torn lengthwise, which saves nearly the whole labor of sewing them, and from eight to ten yards, according to their fineness, will make a yard of weaving. the best textile for this is undoubtedly unbleached muslin, even approaching the quality called "cheesecloth." this can easily be dyed if one wishes dark instead of light colours, and it makes a light, strong, elastic rug which is very satisfactory. in rag carpet weaving in homesteads and farmhouses--and it is so truly a domestic art that it is to be hoped this kind of weaving will be confined principally to them--some one of the household should be skilled in simple dyeing. this is very important, as better and cheaper rugs can be made if the weaver can get what she wants in colour by having it dyed in the house, rather than by the chance of finding it among the rags she buys. chapter iii. dyeing. in the early years of the past century a dye-tub was as much a necessity in every house as a spinning wheel, and the re-establishment of it in houses where weaving is practised is almost a necessity; in fact, it would be of far greater use at present than in the days when it was only used to dye the wool needed for the family knitting and weaving. all shades of blue, from sky-blue to blue-black, can be dyed in the indigo-tub; and it has the merit of being a cheap as well as an almost perfectly fast dye. it could be used for dyeing warps as well as fillings, and i have before spoken of the difficulty, indeed almost impossibility, of procuring indigo-dyed carpet yarn. blue is perhaps more universally useful than any other colour in rag rug making, since it is safe for both cotton and wool, and covers a range from the white rug with blue warp, the blue rug with white warp, through all varieties of shade to the dark blue, or clouded blue, or green rug, upon white warp. it can also be used in connection with yellow or orange, or with copperas or walnut dye, in different shades of green; and, in short, unless one has exceptional advantages in buying rags from woolen mills, i can hardly imagine a profitable industry of rag-weaving established in any farmhouse without the existence of an indigo dyeing-tub. red. the next important color is red. red warps can be bought, but the lighter shades are not even reasonably fast; and indeed, the only sure way of securing absolutely fast colour in cotton warp is to dye it. prepared dyes are somewhat expensive on account of the quantity required, but there are two colours, turkey red and cardinal red, which are extremely good for the purpose. these can be brought at wholesale from dealers in chemicals and dye-stuffs at much cheaper rates than by the small paper from the druggist. copperas. the ordinary copperas, which can be bought at any country store, gives a fast nankeen-coloured dye, and this is very useful in making a dull green by an after-dip in the indigo-tub. walnut. there are some valuable domestic dyes which are within the reach of every country dweller, the best and cheapest of which is walnut or butternut stain. this is made by steeping the bark of the tree or the shell of the nut until the water is dark with colour. it will give various shades of yellow, brown, dark brown and green brown, according to the strength of the decoction or the state of the bark or nut when used. if the bark of the nut is used when green, the result will be a yellow brown; and this stain is also valuable in making a green tint when an after-dip of blue is added. leaves and tree-bark will give a brown with a very green tint, and these different shades used in different rags woven together give a very agreeably clouded effect. walnut stain will itself set or fasten some others; for instance, pokeberry stain, which is a lovely crimson, can be made reasonably fast by setting it with walnut juice. rust-colour. iron rust is the most indelible of all stains besides being a most agreeable yellow, and it is not hard to obtain, as bits of old iron left standing in water will soon manufacture it. it would be a good use for old tin saucepans and various other house utensils which have come to a state of mischievousness instead of usefulness. gray. ink gives various shades of gray according to its strength, but it would be cheaper to purchase it in the form of logwood than as ink. logwood chips. logwood chips boiled in water give a good yellow brown--deep in proportion to the strength of the decoction. yellow from fustic. yellow from fustic requires to be set with alum, and this is more effectively done if the material to be dyed is soaked in alum water and dried previous to dyeing. seven ounces of alum to two quarts of water is the proper proportion. the fustic chips should be well soaked, and afterward boiled for a half-hour to extract the dye, which will be a strong and fast yellow. orange. orange is generally the product of annato, which must be dissolved with water to which a lump of washing soda has been added. the material must be soaked in a solution of tin crystals before dipping, if a pure orange is desired, as without this the color will be a pink buff--or "nankeen" color. what i have written on the subject of home dyeing is intended more in the way of suggestion than direction, as it is simply giving some results of my own experiments, based upon early familiarity with natural growths rather than scientific knowledge. i have found the experiments most interesting, and more than fairly successful, and i can imagine nothing more fascinating than a persistent search for natural and permanent dyes. the irish homespun friezes, which are so dependable in colour for out-of-door wear, are invariably dyed with natural stains, procured from heather roots, mosses, and bog plants of like nature. it must be remembered that any permanent or indelible stain is a dye, and if boys and girls who live in the country were set to look for plants possessing the colour-quality, many new ones might be discovered. i am told by a kentucky mountain woman, used to the production of reliable colour in her excellent weaving, that the ordinary roadside smartweed gives one of the best of yellows. indeed, she showed me a blanket with a yellow border which had been in use for twenty years, and still held a beautiful lemon yellow. in preparing this, the plant is steeped in water, and the tint set with alum. combining this with indigo, or by an after-dip in indigo-water, one could procure various shades of fast blue-green, a colour which is hard to get, because most yellows, which should be one of its preparatory tints, are buff instead of lemon yellow. an unlimited supply and large variety of cheap and reliable colour in rag filling, and a few strong and brilliant colours in warps, are conditions for success in rag rug weaving, but these colours must be studiously and carefully combined to produce the best results. i have said that, as a rule, light warps must go with dark filling and dark warps with light, and i will add a few general rules which i have found advantageous in my weaving. in the first place, in rugs which are largely of one colour, as blue, or green, or red, or yellow, no effort should be made to secure _even_ dyeing; in fact, the more uneven the colour is the better will be the rug. dark and light and spotted colour work into a shaded effect which is very attractive. the most successful of the simple rugs i possess is of a cardinal red woven upon a white warp. it was chiefly made of white rags treated with cardinal red diamond dye, and was purposely made as uneven as possible. the border consists of two four-inch strips of "hit or miss" green, white and red mixed rags, placed four inches from either end, with an inch stripe of red between, and the whole finished with a white knotted fringe. a safe and general rule is that the border stripes should be of the same colour as the warp--as, for instance, with a red warp a red striped border--while the centre and ends of the rug might be mixed rags of all descriptions. it is also safe to say that in using pure white or pure black in mixed rags, these two colours, and particularly the white, should appear in short pieces, as otherwise they give a striped instead of a mottled effect, and this is objectionable. white is valuable for strong effects or lines in design; indeed, it is hard to make design prominent or effective except in white or red. [illustration: the lois rug] these few general rules as to colour, together with the particular ones given in other chapters, produce agreeable combinations in very simple and easy fashion. i have not, perhaps, laid as much stress upon warp grouping and treatment as is desirable, since quite distinct effects are produced by these things. throwing the warp into groups of three or four threads, leaving small spaces between, produces a sort of basket-work style; while simply doubling the warp and holding it with firm tension gives the honeycomb effect of which i have previously spoken. if the filling is wide and soft, and well pushed back between each throw of the shuttle, it will bunch up between the warp threads like a string of beads, and in a dark warp and light filling a rim of coloured shadow seems to show around each little prominence. such rugs are more elastic to the tread than an even-threaded one, and on the whole may be considered a very desirable variation. it is well for the weaver to remember that every successful experiment puts the manufacture on a higher plane of development and makes it more valuable as a family industry. chapter iv. ingrain carpet rugs. undoubtedly the most useful--and from a utilitarian point of view the most perfect--rag rug is made from worn ingrain carpet, especially if it is of the honest all-wool kind, and not the modern mixture of cotton and wool. there are places in the textile world where a mixture of cotton and wool is highly advantageous, but in ingrain carpeting, where the sympathetic fibre of the wool holds fast to its adopted colour, and the less tenacious cotton allows it to drift easily away, the result is a rusty grayness of colour which shames the whole fabric. this grayness of aspect cannot be overcome in the carpet except by re-dyeing, and even then the improvement may be transitory, so an experienced maker of rugs lets the half-cotton ingrain drift to its end without hope of resurrection. the cutting of old ingrain into strips for weaving is not so serious a task as it would seem. where there is an out-of-doors to work in, the breadths can easily be torn apart without inconvenience from dust. after this they should be placed, one at a time, in an old-fashioned "pounding-barrel" and invited to part with every particle of dust which they have accumulated from the foot of man. for those who do not know the virtues and functions of the "pounding-barrel," i must explain that it is an ordinary, tight, hard-wood barrel; the virtue lying in the pounder, which may be a broom-handle, or, what is still better, the smooth old oak or ash handle of a discarded rake or hoe. at the end of it is a firmly fixed block of wood, which can be brought down with vigour upon rough and soiled textiles. it is an effective separator of dust and fibre, and is, in fact, a new england improvement upon the stone-pounding process which one sees along the shores of streams and lakes in nearly all countries but england and america. if the pounding-barrel is lacking, the next best thing is--after a vigorous shaking--to leave the breadths spread upon the grass, subject to the visitations of wind and rain. after a few days of such exposure they will be quite ready to handle without offense. then comes the process of cutting. the selvages must be sheared as narrowly as possible, since every inch of the carpet is valuable. when the selvages are removed, the breadths are to be cut into long strips of nearly an inch in width and rolled into balls for the loom. if the pieces are four or five yards in length, only two or three need to be sewn together until the weaving is actually begun, as the balls would otherwise become too heavy to handle. as the work proceeds, however, the joinings must be well lapped and strongly sewn, the rising of one of the ends in the woven piece being a very apparent blemish. rugs made of carpeting require a much stronger warp than do ordinary cotton or woolen rugs, and therefore a twine made of flax or hemp, if it be of fast colour, will be found very serviceable. some weavers fringe the rags by pulling out side threads, and this gives an effect of _nap_ to the woven rug which is very effective, for as the rag is doubled in weaving the raveled ends of threads stand up on the surface, making quite a furry appearance. i have a rug treated in this way made from old green carpeting, woven with a red warp, which presents so rich an appearance that it might easily be mistaken for a far more costly one. it has, however, the weak point of having been woven with the ordinary light-red warp of commerce, and is therefore sure to lose colour. if the warp had been re-dyed by the weaver, with "turkey red," it would probably have held colour as long as it held together. this cutting of ingrain rags would seem to be a serious task, but where weaving is a business instead of an amusement it is quite worth while to buy a "cutting table" upon which the carpet is stretched and cut with a knife. this table, with its machinery, can be bought wherever looms and loom supplies are kept, at a cost of from seven to eight dollars. if the strips are raveled at all, it should be at least for a third of an inch, as otherwise the rug would possess simply a rough and not a napped surface. if the strips are cut an inch in width and raveled rather more than a third on each side, it still leaves enough cloth to hold firmly in the weaving, but i have known one industrious soul who raveled the strips until only a narrow third was left down the middle of the strip, and this she found it necessary to stitch with the sewing machine to prevent further raveling. i have also known of the experiment of cutting the strips on the bias, stitching along the centre and pulling the two edges until they were completely ruffled. although this is a painstaking process, it has very tangible merits, as, in the first place, absolutely nothing of the carpet is wasted--no threads are pulled out and thrown away as in the other method--and in the next the sewings together are overhand instead of lapped. the raveled waste can often be used as filling for the ends of rugs if it is wound as it is pulled from the carpet rags. indeed, one can hardly afford to waste such good material. it will be seen that there are great possibilities in the carpet rug. even the unravelled ones are desirable floor covering on account of their weight and firmness. they lie where they are placed, with no turned-up ends, and this is a great virtue in rugs. of course much of the beauty of the ingrain carpet rug depends upon the original colour of the carpet. most of those which are without design will work well into rugs if a strongly contrasting colour is used in the warp. if, for instance, the carpet colour is plain blue, the warp should be white; if yellow, either an orange warp, which will make a very bright rug, or a green warp, which will give a soft yellowish green, or a blue, which will give a general effect of green changing to yellow. if the carpet should be a figured one, a red warp will be found more effective than any other in bringing all the colours together. if it should happen to be faded or colourless, the breadths can be dipped in a tub of strong dye of some colour which will act well upon the previous tint. if, for instance, it should be a faded blue, it may be dipped in an indigo dye for renewal of colour, or into yellow, which will change it into green. a poor yellow will take a brilliant red dye, and a faded brown or fawn will be changed into a good claret colour by treating it with red dye. faded brown or fawn colours will take a good dark green, as will also a weak blue. blue can also be treated with yellow or a fresher blue. of course, in speaking of this kind of dyeing, the renewal of old tints, it is with reference to the common prepared dyes which are for sale--with directions--by every druggist, and with a little knowledge of how these colours act upon each other one can produce very good effects. it is quite a different thing from the dyeing of fibre which is to be woven into cloth. in the latter case it is far wiser to use vegetable dyes, but in the freshening of old material the prepared mineral dyes are more convenient and sufficiently effective. chapter v. woven rag portieres. rag weaving is not necessarily confined to rugs, for very beautiful portieres and table and lounge covers may be woven from carefully chosen and prepared rags. the process is practically the same, the difference being like that between coarse and fine needlework, where finer material and closer and more painstaking handiwork is bestowed. the result is like a homespun cloth. both warp and woof must be finer than in ordinary carpet weaving. instead of coarse cotton yarn, warp must be fine "mercerized" cotton, or of linen or silk thread, and the warp threads are set much closer in the loom. in place of ten or twelve threads to the inch, there should be from fifteen to twenty. the woof or filling may be old or new, and either of fine cotton, merino, serge, or other wool material, or of silk. the ordinary "silk-rag portiere" is not a very attractive hanging, being somewhat akin to the crazy quilt, and made, as is that bewildering production, from a collection of ribbons and silk pieces of all colours and qualities, cut and sewed together in a haphazard way, without any arrangement of colour or thought of effect, and sent to the weaver with a vague idea of getting something of worth from valueless material. this is quite a different thing from a silk portiere made from some beautiful old silk garment, which is too much worn for further use, where warp and woof colour are selected for fitness and harmony, and the weaver uses her rags, as the painter does his colours, with a purpose of artistic effect. if the work is done from that point of view, the last state of the once beautiful old garment may truly be said to be better than the first. if a light cloth is used for this kind of manufacture, it may be torn into strips so narrow as to simulate yarn--and make what appears to be yarn weaving. this cannot well be done with old or worn cloth, because there is not strength in the very narrow strip to bear the strain of tearing; but new muslin, almost as light as that which is known as "cheesecloth," treated in this way makes a beautiful canvas-like weaving which, if well coloured, is very attractive for portieres or table covers. if one has breadths of silk of a quality which can be torn without raveling, and is sufficiently strong to bear the process, it is delightful material to work with. if it is of ordinary thickness, a half-inch in width is quite wide enough, and this will roll or double into the size of ordinary yarn. if the silk is not strong enough to tear, it is better to cut the strips upon the bias than straight, and the same is true of fine woolens, like merinos, cashmeres, or any worsted goods. there is much more elasticity in them when cut in this way, and they are more readily crushed together by the warp. i know a beautiful hanging of crimson silk, or rather of crimson and garnet--the crimson having been originally a light silk dress dyed to shade into the garnet. the two coloured rags were sewn together "hit or miss" fashion and woven upon a bright cardinal-coloured warp. there was no attempt at border: it was simply a length of vari-coloured coarse silk weaving, absolutely precious for colour and quality. treated in this way, an old silk gown takes on quite a new value and becomes invested with absorbing interest. spots and tarnish disappear in the metempsychosis, or serve for scattered variation, and if the weaver chooses to still further embellish it with a monogram or design in cross stitch embroidery, she has acquired a piece of drapery which might be a valuable inheritance to her children. merino or cashmere which has been worn and washed, and is coupled with other material of harmonizing colour, like pieces of silk or velvet, is almost as valuable for the making of portieres and table covers as if it were silk. indeed, for the latter purpose it is preferable, being generally washable. cotton hangings made in this way are often very desirable. "summer muslins" which have served their time as dresses, and are of beautiful colour and quite strong enough to go into the loom, can be woven with a warp of gray linen thread into really beautiful hangings, especially the strong, plain tints--the blues and greens and reds which have been so much worn of late years. they have the advantage of being easily washable, and are particularly suitable for country-house hangings. even worn sheets and pillow-cases can be dyed to suit the furnishing of different rooms, and woven with a silk warp of stronger colour. they should be torn into strips not more than a third of an inch wide, so that it may crush into a roll not larger than an ordinary yarn. this will weave into a light, strong cloth, always interesting because it differs from anything which can be purchased through ordinary channels. to reappear in the shape of a beautiful and valuable rag-weaving is the final resurrection of good textiles, when they have performed their duty in the world and been worn out in its service. these home-woven portieres are better without borders, the whole surface being plain or simply clouded by mixing two tints of the same colour together. they can be elaborated by adding a hand-made fringe of folds of cloth sewn into a lattice and finished with tassels. this is quite a decorative feature, and particularly suitable to the weaving. it can easily be understood that a large share of the beauty of making these household furnishings lies in the colour. if that is good the rug or portiere or table-cover is beautiful. if it is either dull or glaring, the pleasure one might have in it is lacking, and it is quite within one's power to have the article always beautiful. it must also be remembered, if weaving is taken up as a source of profit, that _few things which do not please the eye will sell_. therefore, if for no other reason, it is well worth while for the weaver to first study the choice, production and combination of beautiful colours rather than the fabric of the rug. i have said, and will reiterate, that for this particular kind of manufacture--the restoration and adaptation of old goods, and the strengthening of tints in carpet warps--the yellows and reds of the magic or diamond dyes of commerce are effective and reliable. indeed, for new goods cardinal dye is all that could be asked, but when it comes to the use of dyes for the weaving of textiles and artistic fabrics, one must resort to dye woods and plants. [illustration: knotted warp fringe for woven table-cover] [illustration: sewed rag fringe for woven portiere] fringes. nothing is more important than the proper _finish_ of the rug, and this generally consists in a careful going over of the work after it has come from the loom--the cutting of stray ravelings and sewing of loose ends, and the knotting of the long warp ends. it is only a very careless or inexperienced weaver who leaves the warp ends in the state in which they come from the loom; and indeed they can be made one of the most effective features of the rug. simple knotting of every six threads will make them safe from raveling, and sometimes the shortness of the warp ends allows no more than this. it is well worth while, however, to leave six or eight inches to work into decorative fringes, and these can be made in various ways, of which illustrations are given. in the case of decorative fringes there can be double or triple knotting--straight, or worked into points; braided fringes which have the merit of both strength and beauty, and are free from the tangle-trouble of long fringes, and the very effective rag-lattice finish for portieres and table-covers. indeed, half the beauty of the rug may lie in the fringing and finish. profits. the pecuniary gain from rag rug weaving may easily be calculated. first of all comes the cost of the loom, which will be about seventy dollars. the interest upon this, with necessary repairs, may be reckoned at about five dollars per year. to every six-foot rug goes two-thirds of a pound of warp, and this would amount to from ten-and-a-half to fourteen cents, according to the rate of purchase. to every such rug must go three pounds of cotton or two pounds of woolen rags, costing for cotton thirty and for woolen fifty cents. to the cotton rugs must be added the possible cost of dye-stuffs, which, again, might cost twenty cents, making cost of material in either cotton or woolen rugs from sixty to sixty-four cents. as far as profit is concerned, if rag rugs are well made they will sell for two dollars each, if successful in colour, from two dollars and a half to three and a half, and if beautiful and exceptional in colour and finish from four to six dollars. but it must be remembered that this latter price will be for rugs which have artistic value. probably the average weaver can safely reckon upon one dollar and eighty-five cents to two dollars regular profit for the labor of sewing and filling and weaving and knotting the rugs. it is fair to accept this as a basis for regular profit, the amount of which must depend upon facility of production and the ability to produce unexceptionable things. but it is not alone pecuniary gain which should be considered. ability to produce or create a good thing is in itself a happiness, and the value of happiness cannot easily be reckoned. the knowledge necessary to such production is a personal gain. everything we can do which people generally cannot or do not do, or which we can do better than others, helps us to a certain value of ourselves which makes life valuable. for this reason, then, as well as for the gain of it, a loom in the house and a knowledge of weaving is an advantage, not only for the elders, but to the children. if the boys and girls in every farmhouse were taught to create more things, they would not only be abler as human beings, but they would not be so ready to run out into the world in search of interesting occupations. a loom, a turning-lathe, a work-bench, and a chest of tools, a house-organ or melodeon, and a neighbourhood library, would keep boys and girls at home, and make them more valuable citizens when independent living became a necessity. everything which broadens the life, which must by reason of narrow means and fixed occupation be stationary, gives something of the advantage of travel and contact with the world, and the adding of profitable outside industries to farmhouse life is an important step in this direction. chapter vi. woolen rugs. there are two conditions which will make home weaving valuable. the first is that the material, whether it be of cotton or wool, should be grown upon the farm, and that it could not be sold in the raw state at a price which would make the growing of it profitable. in wool crops there are certain odds and ends of ragged, stained and torn locks, which would injure the appearance of the fleece, and are therefore thrown aside, and this waste is perfectly suitable for rug weaving. in cotton there is not the amount of waste, but the fibre itself is not as valuable, and a portion of it could be reserved for home weaving, even though it should not be turned to more profitable account. the next condition is that the time used in weaving is also waste or left-over time. if housekeeping requires only a quarter or half of a woman's time, weaving is more restful and interesting, as well as more profitable, than idleness; and in almost every family there are members to whom partial employment would be a boon. there is no marketable value for spare time or for individual taste, so that the women of the family possessing these can start a weaving enterprise, counting only the cost of material at growers' prices. if they can card, spin, dye and weave as well as the women of two generations did before them, they have a most profitable industry in their own hands in the shape of weaving. if materials must be purchased the profit is smaller, and the question arises whether spare time and personal taste and skill can be made profitable. this depends entirely upon circumstances and character. when circumstances are or can be made favourable, and there is industry and ambition behind them, domestic weaving is a beautiful and profitable occupation. there are many neighbourhoods where the conditions are exactly suitable to the prosecution of important domestic industries--localities where sheep are raised and wool is a regular product, or where cotton is grown and the weaving habit is not extinct. this is true of many new england neighbourhoods and of the whole cumberland mountain region, and it is in response to a demand for direction of unapplied advantages that this book is written. i am convinced that the weaving of domestic wool or cotton rugs might be so developed in the mountain regions of the south as to greatly decrease the importation of eastern ones of the same grade. an endless variety might be made in these localities, the difference of climate, material and habits of thought adding interest as well as variety, and it is safe to say that the home market is waiting for them. housekeepers have learned by experience that a rug which can be easily lifted and frequently shaken is not only far more cleanly, and consequently safer, from a sanitary point of view, than a carpet, but that it has other merits which are of economic as well as esthetic importance. a rug is more durable than a carpet of equal weight and texture because it can be constantly shifted from points of wear to those which are less exposed. it can be moved from room to room, or even from house to house, without the trouble of shaping or fitting; and last but not least, it brings a concentration of colour exactly where it is needed for effect, and this is possible to no other piece of house furnishing. in short, there seems to be no bar to its general acceptance, excepting the bad floors of our immediate predecessors in building. it only needs that cost, quality and general effect of the home-woven rugs should be shaped into perfect adaptation to our wants, to make them as necessary a part of ordinary house-furnishing as chairs and tables. these three requirements are within the reach of any home-weaving farmer's wife who will give to the work the same thought for economical conditions, the same ambition for thorough work and the same intelligent study which her husband bestows upon his successful farming. as there is already one american rug which fulfills most of these conditions, it is well to consider it as a starting point for progress. this is the heavy indian rug known as the navajo blanket. originally fashioned to withstand the cold and exposure of outdoor life, it has combined thickness, durability and softness with excellent colour and weaving and perfectly characteristic design. in the best examples, where the wool is not bought from traders, but carded, spun and dyed by the weaver, the navajo blanket is a perfect production of its kind, and i cannot help wondering that the manufacture of these rug-like blankets--some of which are of great intrinsic value--should have been so long confined to a primitive race, living at our very doors. the whole process of spinning, dyeing and weaving could be carried on in any farmhouse, using the coarsest and least valuable wool, and by reliable and well-chosen colour, good weight and careful weaving bringing the manufacture into a prominent place among the home productions of our people. one can hardly imagine simpler machinery than is used by the indians. it is scarcely more than a parallelogram of sticks, supported by a back brace, and yet upon these simple looms an indian woman will weave a fabric that will actually hold water. the clumsy, old-fashioned loom which is still in use in many farmhouses is fully equal to all demands of this variety of weaving, but there are already in the market steel-frame looms with fly shuttles which take up much less room and are more easily worked. i was about to say they were capable of better work, but nothing could be better in method than the indian rug, woven on its three upright sticks; and after all it is well to remember that _quality is in the weaver_, and not in the loom. the results obtained from the simplest machinery can be made to cover ground which is truly artistic. as an example of what may be done to make this kind of weaving available, we will suppose that some one having an ordinary loom, and in the habit of weaving rag carpet, wishes to experiment toward the production of a good yarn rug. the first thing required would, of course, be material for both warp and woof. the warp can be made of strong cotton yarn which is manufactured for this very purpose and can be bought for about seventeen cents a pound. this is probably cheaper than it could be carded and spun at home even on a cotton-growing farm. the wool filling should be coarse and slack-twisted, and on wool-growing farms or in wool-growing districts is easily produced. if it is of home manufacture, it may be spun as loosely or slackly as possible, dyed and woven without doubling, which will be seen to be an economy of labor. the single thread, slackly twisted, gives a very desirable elasticity to the fabric, because the wool fibre is not too closely bound or packed. on the other hand, if the wool as well as the warp must be bought, it is best to get it from the spinning machine in its first state of the single thread, and do the doubling and twisting at home. in this case it can be doubled as many or as few times as it is thought best, and twisted as little as possible. the next and most important thing is colour, and it is a great advantage if the dyeing can be done at home. there is a strong and well-founded preference among art producers in favor of vegetable dyes, and yet it is possible to use certain of the aniline colours, especially in combination, in safe and satisfactory ways. every one who undertakes domestic weaving must know how to dye one or two good colours--black, of course, and the half-black or gray which a good colourist of my acquaintance calls _light black_; indigo blue equally, of course, in three shades of very dark, medium and light; and red in two shades of dark and light. here are seven shades from the three dyes, and when we add white we see that the weaver is already very well equipped with a variety of colour. the eight shades can be still further enlarged by clouding and mixing. the mixing can be done in two ways, either by carding two tints together before spinning, or by twisting them together when spun. carding together gives a very much better effect in wool, while twisting together is preferable in cotton. dark blue and white or medium blue and white wool carded together will give two blue-grays, which cannot be obtained by dyeing, and are most valuable. white and red carded together give a lovely pink, and any shade of gray can be made by carding different proportions of black and white or half-black and white. a valuable gray is made by carding black and white wool together (and by black wool i mean the natural black or brownish wool of black sheep). mixing of deeply dyed and white wool together in carding is, artistically considered, a very valuable process, as it gives a softness of colour which it is impossible to get in any other way. clouding--which is almost an indispensable process for rug centres--can be done by winding certain portions of the skeins or hanks of yarn very tightly and closely with twine before they are thrown into the dye-pot. the winding must be close enough to prevent the dye penetrating to the yarn. this means, of course, when the clouding is to be of white and another colour. if it is to be of two shades of one colour, as a light and medium blue, the skein is first dyed a light blue, and after drying is wound as i have described, and thrown again into the dye-pot, until the unwound portions become the darker blue which we call medium. in a neighbourhood where weaving is a general industry, it is an advantage if some one person who has a general aptitude for dyeing and experiments in colours undertakes it as a business. this is on the principle that a person who does only one thing does it with more facility and better than one who works in various lines. yet even when there is a neighbourhood dyer, it is, as i have said, almost indispensable that the weaver should know how to dye one or two colours and to do it well. supposing that the material, in the shape of coarse cotton warp, black, red or white, has been secured, or that a wool filling in the colours and shades i have described has been prepared for weaving; the loom is then to be warped, at the rate of fifteen or less threads to the inch, according to the coarseness or fineness of the filling. it is well to weave a half-inch of the cotton warp for filling, as this binds the ends more firmly than wool. next to this, a border of black and gray in alternate half-inch stripes can be woven, and following that, the body of the rug in dark red, clouded with white. after five feet of the red is woven, a border end of the black and gray is added, and the rug may be cut from the loom, leaving about four inches of the warp at either end as a fringe. if the filling yarn is of good colour, and has been well packed in the weaving, _so as to entirely cover the warp_, the result will be a good, attractive and durable woolen rug, woven after the navajo method. in this one example i have given the bare and simple outline by following which a weaver whose previous work has been only rag carpet weaving can manufacture a good and valuable wool rug. the difference will be simply that of close warping and a substitution of wool for rags. its value will be considerably increased or lessened by the choice of material both in quality and colour and the closeness and perfection of weaving. the example given calls for a rug six feet long by three feet in width. to make this very rug a much more important one, it needs only to vary the size of the border. for a larger rug the length must be increased two feet, and the border, which in this case must be of plain or mixed black--that is, it must not be alternated with stripes of gray--must measure one foot at either end. when this is complete, two narrow strips one foot in width, woven with mixed black filling, must be sewed on either side, making a rug eight feet long and five in width. it is not a disadvantage to have this border strip sewn, instead of being woven as a part of the centre. many of the cheaper oriental weavings are put together in this way, and as many of the older house-looms will only weave a three-foot width, it is well to know that that need not prevent the production of rugs of considerable size. endless variations of this very simple yarn rug can be made with variation in size as well as in colour. two breadths and two borders, the breadths three feet in width and the borders one foot and six inches, will give a breadth of nine feet, which with a corresponding length will give a rug which will sufficiently cover the floor of an ordinary room. if the centre is skilfully mottled and shaded, it will make a floor spread of beautiful colour, and one which could hardly be found in shops. [illustration: isle la motte rug] the border can be made brighter, as well as firmer and stiffer, by using two filling threads together--a red and a black; or an alternate use of red and black, using two shuttles, will give a lighter and better effect than when black is used exclusively. after size and weight--or, to speak comprehensively, _quality_--is secured in this kind of simple weaving, the next most important thing is colour. of course the colour must be absolutely fast, but i have shown how much variety can be made by shading and mixing of three fast colours, and much more subtle and artistic effects can be produced by weaving alternate threads of different colours. indeed, the effects obtained by using alternate threads can be varied to almost any extent; as, for instance, a blue and yellow thread--provided the blue is no deeper than the yellow--will give the effect of green to the eye. if the blue is stronger or deeper, as it will almost necessarily be, it will be modified and softened into a greenish blue. red and white woven in alternate threads upon a white warp will give an effect of pink, and with this colour for a centre the border should be a good gray. of course, alternate throwing of different coloured yarns makes the weaving go more slowly than when one alone is used, and something of the same colour effect can be produced by doubling, instead of alternating. it is, of course, not quite the same, as one colour may show either under or over the other, and the effect is apt to be mottled instead of one of uniform stripes. the end in view in all these mixtures is _variation_ and liveliness of colour, not an effect of stripes or spots; indeed, these are very objectionable, especially when in contrasted or different colors. a deepening or lightening of the same colour in irregular patches, as will occur in clouded yarns, gives interest, whereas if these cloudings were in strongly contrasted colours they would be crude and unrestful. for this reason, if for no other, it is well to work in few tints, and use contrasting colours only for borders. to show how much variety is possible in weaving with the few dyes i have named, i will give a number of combinations which will produce good results and be apt to harmonize with ordinary furnishing. by adding orange yellow, which is also one of the simplest and safest of dyes, we secure by mixture with blue a mottled green, and this completes a range of colour which really leaves nothing to be desired. no. . _colours black and red._ border, alternate stripes of black and dark red, as follows: first stripe of black, one and a half inches; second stripe of red, one inch; third stripe of black, one inch; fourth stripe of red, one-half inch; fifth stripe of black, three-quarters inch; sixth stripe of red, one-half inch; seventh stripe of black, half-inch; centre of light red clouded with dark red; reversed border. no. . _colours black and red._ border one foot in depth, of black and red threads woven alternately. centre dark red, clouded with light red. woven six feet, with one-foot border at sides as well as ends. no. . _colours red and white._ border seven inches of plain red. centre of red and white woven alternately. no. . _colours red and black._ border black and red, threads woven alternately, one foot in depth; centre of alternate stripes, two inches in width, of dark red and light red; eight feet in length, with foot-wide side borders, woven with alternate threads of red and black. no. . _colours red and black._ border eighteen inches in depth, of alternate red and black, half-inch stripes. centre of dark red, clouded with light. no. . _colours gray, red and white_, to be woven of doubled, slightly twisted threads. border one foot in depth at ends and sides, woven of red and gray yarn twisted together. centre of red and white yarn in twisted threads. no. . _colours red and white._ border of plain red, twenty inches in depth. centre in alternate half-inch stripes of red and white. no. . _colours blue, red and black._ border four inches deep of black, two inches of plain red, one inch of black. centre of clouded blue. no. . _colour blue._ border eight inches of darkest blue. centre of clouded medium and light blue. no. . _colours blue and white._ border of very dark and medium blue woven together. centre of blue and white yarn woven together. no. . _colours blue and white._ border of medium plain blue. centre of blue, clouded with white. no. . _colours blue and white._ border of medium blue. centre of alternate stripes of one inch width blue, and half-inch white stripes. no. . _colours blue and white._ border twelve inches deep of dark blue, clouded with medium. centre of alternate threads of medium blue and white. no. . _colours blue, black and orange yellow._ border eight inches deep of black, one inch of orange, two of black. centre, alternate threads of blue and orange. no. . border of doubled threads of dark blue and orange. centre of alternate stripes of inch wide light blue and orange woven together, one-half inch stripes of clear orange and white woven together. in the examples i have given, wherever doubled threads of different colours woven together are used, it must be understood that they are to be slightly twisted, and that the warping for double-filling rugs need not be as close as for single filling. twelve threads to the inch would be better than fifteen, and perhaps ten or eleven would be still better. doubled yarn of different colours produces a mottled or broken effect, and this can often be done where the colours of the yarns do not quite satisfy the weaver. if they are too dull, twisting them slackly with a very brilliant tint will give a better shade than if the original tint was satisfactory, but in the same way yarns which are too brilliant can often be made soft and effective by twisting them together with a paler tint. minute particles of colour brought together in this way are brilliant without crudeness. it is, in fact, the very principle upon which impressionist painters work, giving pure colour instead of mixed, but in such minute and broken bits that the eye confounds them with surrounding colour, getting at the same time the double impression of softness and vivacity. these examples of fifteen different rugs which can be woven from the three tints of blue, red and orange, together with black and white, do not by any means exhaust the possibilities of variety which can be obtained from three tints. each rug will give a suggestion for the next, and each may be an improvement upon its predecessor. chapter vii. cotton rugs. the warp-covered weaving which i have described in a previous chapter as being the simplest and best method for woolen rugs, is equally applicable to cotton weaving. it is, in fact, the one used in making the cotton rugs woven in prisons in india, and which in consequence are known as "prison rugs." they are generally woven in stripes of dark and light shades of indigo blue and measure about four by eight feet. they are greatly used by english residents in india, being much better adapted to life in a hot climate than the more costly indian and persian rugs, which supply the world-demand for floor coverings. in our own summer climate and chintz-furnished summer cottages they would be an extremely appropriate and economical covering for floors. the warp is like that of the navajo blanket, a heavy cotton cord, the filling or woof of many doubled fine cotton threads, which quite cover the heavy warp, and give the ridged effect of a coarse _rep_. as i have said, they are woven almost invariably in horizontal stripes of two blues, or blue and white, with darker ends and a warp fringe. simple as they are and indeed must be, as they are the result of unskilled labour, they are pleasant to look at, and have many virtues not dependent upon looks. they are warm and pleasant to unshod feet, and therefore suitable for bedroom use. they are soft to shoe tread, and give colour and comfort to a summer piazza. they can be hung as portieres in draughty places with a certainty of shelter, and can be lifted and thrown upon the grass to be washed by the downpour of a thunder shower, and left to dry in the sun without detriment to colour or quality. surely this is a goodly list of virtues, and the sum of them is by no means exhausted. their durability is surprising; and they can be sewn together and stretched upon large floors with excellent colour effect. they can be turned or moved from room to room and place to place with a facility which makes them more than useful. the manufacture is so simple that a child might weave them, while at the same time, by a skilful use of colour and good arrangement of border, they can be made to fit the needs of the most luxurious as well as the simplest summer cottage. in short, they are capable of infinite variation and improvement, without departure from the simple method of the "prison rug." of course the variation must be in colour and the arrangement of colour; and in studying this possible improvement it must be remembered that cotton will neither take nor hold dyes as readily as wool or silk, and that certain dyes which are very tenacious in their hold upon animal fibre cannot be depended upon when applied to vegetable fibre. there are, however, certain dyes upon which we can safely rely. indigo blue, and the red used in dyeing what is called turkey red, are reliable in application to both wool and cotton, and are water and sun proof as well. walnut and butternut stains will give fast shades of brown and yellow, and in addition there is also the buff or nankeen-coloured cotton, the natural tint of which combines well with brown and blue. in giving directions for rug colourings in cottons, i shall confine myself to the use of black, white, blue and red, because these colours are easily procurable, and also because rugs manufactured from them will fit the style of furnishing which demands cotton rugs. the examples i shall give call for graduated dyeing, especially in the two tints of red and blue. any one expecting to succeed in rug weaving must be able to procure or produce from two to three planes of colour, as well as two mixtures in each. these would be as follows: in blue:-- st, dark blue; d, medium blue; d, light blue. after these three tints are secure, three variations of blue can be made by knotting the skeins more or less closely and throwing medium, light blue and white together into the dye-tub. here they must remain until the white skeins show an outside of light blue; the light blue skeins are apparently changed to medium, and the medium to dark. when they are untied and dried they will show three clouded mixtures: st, the medium blue clouded with dark; d, light blue clouded with medium blue; d, white, clouded with light blue. here we have six variations of the one tint. red can be treated in the same way, except that a rather light and a very dark red are all that can be counted upon safely as plain tints. a very light red will not hold. therefore we have in reds:-- st, dark red; d, light red; d, light red, clouded with dark; th, white, clouded with light red. this gives ten shades in these two tints, and when we add the variations which seem to come of themselves in dyeing, variations which are by no means subject to rule, we shall see that with these two, and black and white, we are very well equipped. the more irregular the clouding, the better the results. the yarn may be made into large double knots, or small single ones, or into more or less tightly wound balls or bundles, and each will have its own special and peculiar effect. perhaps it is well to say that in clouding upon white the colours should be kept as light as is consistent with the tenacity of tint. after clouding, still another process in cotton mixtures is possible, and this is in "doubling and twisting," which has the effect of darkening or lightening any tint at will, as well as of giving a mottled instead of a plain surface. having secured variety by these various expedients, the next step is to make harmonious and well-balanced combinations, and this is quite as important, or even more so, as mere variety. there is one very simple and useful rule in colour arrangements, and this is to make one tint largely predominant. if it is to be a blue rug, or a pink, or a white one, use other colours only to _emphasize_ the predominant one, as, for instance, a blue rug may be emphasized by a border of red and black; or a red rug by a border of black and white, or black and yellow. the border should always be stronger--that is darker or deeper in colour--than the centre, even when the same colour is used throughout, as in a light red rug, with dark, almost claret-red ends, or a medium blue rug with very dark blue ends. white, however, can often be used in borders of rather dark rugs in alternation with black or any dark colour, because its total absence of tint makes it strong and distinct, and gives it _force_ in marking a limit. one successful combination of colours will suggest others, and the weaver who has taken pains to provide herself with a variety of shades, and will follow the rules of proportion, will be at no loss in laying out the plan of her weavings. the examples for fifteen weavings given in the paper on wool rugs are equally available in cotton. i will, however, add a few variations especially adapted for cotton rugs: no. . _colours blue and white._ border six inches of plain dark blue. six inches of alternate half-inch stripes of dark blue and white. four to five feet of clouded blue, border repeated, with four inches of warp fringe as a finish. no. . _colours blue and white._ border eight inches wide of plain medium blue. centre, six feet of light blue, clouded with medium. two side borders eight inches wide; finish of white warp fringe. no. . _colours black, white and red._ border twelve inches of alternate half-inch stripes of black and white. centre, four feet of light red, clouded with dark. repeat border, and finish with warp fringe. no. . _colours red and white._ border, twelve inches of dark and light red, in twisted double thread. centre, light red and white twisted double thread. repeat border and finish with four-inch fringe. no. . _colours butternut-brown, walnut-yellow, red, and white._ border of six inches of brown and yellow, twisted together. centre, five feet of light red and white, twisted together. repeat border, and finish with fringe. no. . _colours brown, blue, and clouded-white._ border, half-inch stripes of medium blue and brown alternated for six inches. centre, five feet of light blue, clouded with medium. repeat border and finish with warp fringe. these six examples may be varied to any extent by the use of clouded, plain or mixed centres. borders, as a rule, should be woven of unclouded colours. a natural development of the cotton rug would be the weaving of coarse cotton yarns into piece lengths which could be cut and sewn like ingrain carpet, or like the fine cotton-warped mattings which have been so popular of late years. they would have the advantage over grass-weavings in durability, ease of handling and liveliness of effect. indeed, the latter consideration is of great importance, as cotton carpets can be woven to harmonize with the chintzes and cottons which are so much used in summer furnishings. this is especially true of indigo-blue floor covering, since so few things are absolutely perfect as an adjunct to the blue chambrays, striped awning-cloths, denims, and india prints so constantly and effectively used in draperies. indeed, such excellent art in design has been devoted to blue prints, both foreign and domestic, that one can safely reckon upon their prolonged use, and this being taken for granted, it is well to extend the weaving of mixtures of white and blue indefinitely. although the warp-covered method described for woolen and cotton rug weaving can very well be used for carpets, the still simpler one of the alternate thread, or basket-weaving, when warp and filling are of equal weight and size, can be made to answer the purpose quite as well. in fact, there is a certain advantage in the latter method, since it makes the warp a factor in the arrangement of colour. it is necessary in this style of weaving that the filling should be a hand-twisted thread of the same weight and size as the warp, and of a lighter or darker shade of the same colour. if the warp is dark, the filling may be light, or the reverse. it should be warped at the rate of about twenty-four threads to the inch. in this kind of weaving the colours must be plain--that is, unclouded--as the variation is obtained by the different shades of warp and filling. still another variation is made by using a closer warp of thirty threads to the inch and a large soft vari-colour filling which will show between the warp threads with a peculiar watered or vibratory effect. a light red warp, with a very loosely twisted filling of black and white, or a medium blue warp with a black and orange filling, will give extremely good results. [illustration: greek border in red or black] [illustration: braided fringe] [illustration: diamond border in red or black] what i have said thus far as to the weaving of woolen and cotton rugs, and of cotton carpets, gives practical directions for artistic results to women who understand the use of the loom in very simple weaving. of course, more difficult things can be done even with ordinary looms, as any one who has examined the elaborate blue-and-white spreads our grandmothers wove upon the cumbrous house-loom of that period can testify. in fact, the degree of skill required in the weaving of these precious heirlooms would be quite sufficient for the production of rugs adapted to very exacting purchasers. perhaps it is as well to add that the directions given in this and the preceding chapter for rug weaving are designed not only or exclusively for weavers, but also for club women who are so situated as to have access to and influence in farming or weaving neighbourhoods. home manufactures, guided by women of culture and means, would have the advantage not only of refinement of taste, but of a certainty of aim. women know what women like, and as they are the final purchasers of all household furnishings, they are not apt to encourage the making of things for which there is no demand. i am often asked the question, how are all of these homespun and home-woven things to be disposed of? to this i answer that the first effort of the promoters or originators must be--_to fit them for an existing demand_. there is no doubt of the genuineness of a demand for special domestic weavings. any neighbourhood or combination of women known to be able to furnish such articles to the public would find the want far in excess of the supply, simply because undirected or commercial manufactures cannot fit personal wants as perfectly as special things can do. it must be remembered, also, that the interchange of news between bodies of women interested in industrial art will be a very potent factor in the creation of a market for any domestic specialty. in fact, it is in response to a demand that these articles upon home-weavings have been prepared, and a demand for technical instruction presupposes an interest in the result. chapter viii. linsey woolsey. it has often been given as a reason for the discontinuance of home weaving, that no product of the hand loom can be as exact or as cheap as that of the power loom. the statement as to cost and quality is true, but so far from being a discouraging one, it gives actual reasons for the continuance of domestic weavings. the very fact that homespun textiles are not exact--in the sense of absolute sameness--and not cheap, in the sense of first cost, is apt to be a reason for buying them. hand-weaving, like handwriting, is individual, and this is a virtue instead of a defect, since it gives the variety which satisfies some mystery of human liking, a preference for inequality rather than monotonous excellence. every hand-woven web differs from every other one in certain characteristics which are stamped upon it by the weaver, and we value these differences. in fact, this very trace of human individuality is the initial charm belonging to all art industries, and even if we discount this advantage, and reckon only money cost and money value, durability must certainly count for something. a thing which costs more and lasts longer is as cheap as one which costs less and goes to pieces before its proper time. in a long and intimate acquaintance with what are called "art textiles"--that is, textiles which satisfy the eye and the imagination and fulfill more or less competently the function of use, i have learned that certain very desirable qualities are more often found in home-woven than in machine-woven goods. something is wanting in each of the excellent and wonderful variety of commercial manufactures which would fit it for the various decorative and art processes which modern life demands. to perfectly satisfy this demand, we should have a weaving which is not only in itself an artistic manufacture, but which easily absorbs any additional application of art. in my own mind i call the thing which might and does not exist, the missing textile. to make it entirely appropriate to our esthetic and practical needs, the missing textile must be strong enough for every-day wear and use; it must be capable of soft, round folds in hanging; and have the quality of elasticity which will prevent creasing; and above all, it must have beautiful and lasting colour. if it can add to these qualities an adaptability to various household uses, it will achieve success and deserve it. these different qualities, and especially the one of a natural affinity for such art-processes as colour and embroidery, exist in none of our domestic weavings, excepting only linsey woolsey. after much study of this virtuous product of the mountain regions of our southern states i find it capable of great development. it has two qualities which are not often co-existent, and these are strength and flexibility; and this is owing not only to its being hand-woven, but also to its being a wool-filled textile--that is, it is woven upon a cotton warp, with a single twisted wool-filling. this peculiarity of texture makes it very suitable for embroidery, since it offers little resistance to the needle, and yet is firm enough to prevent stitches sinking into its substance--a frequent fault with soft or loosely woven textiles. the warp is generally made of what the weavers call mill yarns, cotton yarns spun and often dyed in cotton mills; and when the cloth is woven for women's wear it is apt to carry a striped warp of red and blue, with a mixed filling made from spinning the wool of black sheep with a small proportion of white. in searching for art textiles, one would not find much encouragement in this particular variety of linsey woolsey, but the unbleached, uncoloured material which is woven for all kinds of household use, or piece-dyed for men's wear, is quite a different thing. in its undyed state it is of a warm ivory tint, which makes a beautiful ground for printing, and in my first acquaintance with it, which was made through the women commissioners from kentucky, tennessee and georgia during the columbian exposition, i made some most interesting experiments in block printing upon this natural background. one can hardly expect that linsey woolsey will come into frequent or common use as a printed textile, since the two processes of hand-weaving and block-printing are not natural neighbours, but this capacity for taking and holding stains is of great value in embroidery, since it enables an artistic embroiderer to produce excellent effects with comparatively little labour. a clever needlewoman, working upon a fabric which takes kindly to stains, can apply colour in many large spaces and inter-spaces in her design which would otherwise have to be covered with stitchery, and in this way--which is a perfectly accepted and legitimate one--she gains an effect which would otherwise be costly and laborious. from the composite nature of this domestic fabric, its cross-weaving of animal and vegetable fibre, it takes colour irregularly. every cross-thread of wool is deeper in tone than the cotton thread it crosses, and this gives the quality which artists call vivacity or vibration. linsey woolsey even when "piece-dyed" has something of this effect, and judicious and artistic colour treatment would complete its claims to be considered an art textile. it is not to be supposed that the weavers themselves can work out this problem. it will need the direction and encouragement of educated and artistic women. taking the fabric just as it exists, it is ready for the finer domestic processes learned by the women of the south during the hard years of the civil war. the clever expedients of stitchery, the ways in which they varied their simple home-manufactures, and above all the knowledge gained of domestic "colouring," will be of inestimable value in the direction of artistic industries. in truth, southern women have ways of staining and dyeing and producing beautiful colour quite unknown to other american women. they know how to get different grays and purples and black from logwood, and golden and dark brown from walnut bark, and all the shades of blue possible to indigo; and yellow-reds from madder, and rose-red and crimson from pokeberry, and one yellow from pumpkin and another from goldenrod; and they are clever enough to find mordants for all these dyes and stains, and make them indelible. it needs exactly the conjunction which we find in the south, of facile home-weaving, knowledge and practice of experimental dyeing, and love of practical art, to develop true art fabrics. to show what linsey woolsey is capable of, i will instance a material woven in india in thin woolen strips of about twelve inches in width. it is what we should call a _sleazy_ material to begin with. the strips of different colours are sewn, and very badly sewn, together, and they are also badly woven. too flimsy for actual wear, they are simply admirable vehicles for colour, and to this quality alone they owe their popularity and importance. after being sewn together, the strips are generally embroidered in a rough way, with a constantly repeating figure on each breadth. the colour is certainly beautiful, a contrast of soft blues, and a selection of unapproachable browns--yellow-browns, red-browns, green-browns and gold-browns, with yellows of all shades, and whites of all tints, and this colour-beauty gives them a place as portieres and curtains where they do not belong by intrinsic or constitutional worth. if one was intent only upon producing an imitation of the bagdad curtains in linsey woolsey, it would be easy to weave narrow lengths of various colours, and by choosing those which were good contrasts or harmonies, and embroidering them together with buttonhole-stitch, or cat-stitch, or any ornamental stitch, to get something very like them in effect and far better in quality. but it should be the aim of domestic manufacture to do something which is _distinctive_, and therefore it would be better to start with the intention of producing the effect in one's own way. this could be done by weaving the cloth in full width (which should, if possible, be four feet), depending entirely upon the warp threads for colour. this, it may be remembered, is already one of the means of variation applied to linsey woolsey in weaving homespun dress goods; but in this case it must be carefully chosen art-effort, using colours which are in themselves beautiful. in depending upon the warp alone for colour the fact must be kept in mind that it will be much obscured by the over-weaving of the wool filling. it will be necessary, therefore, to use far stronger colours than if they were to stand unmixed or unobscured. vivid blue, strong orange, flaming red and gold-brown could be used in the warp in stripes of about ten inches in width, with two inches of dead black on the sides and between each colour. the filling must be of one pale tint, either an ivory white or lemon yellow, or a very pale spring green woven over all. this would modify the violence of colour, giving an effect like hoar frost over autumn leaves. as a simple weaving this would have a beautiful effect, but when a coarse orange-coloured silk embroidery, consisting of a waved stem and alternate leaves, is carried down the centre of each black stripe, the simple length of linsey woolsey is transformed into what would be called a very eastern-looking and valuable embroidery. this is just one of its possible and easily possible adaptations for portieres and hangings. quite another and perhaps equally popular one would be cross-colour upon a tinted warp. in this case the warp might be ivory white, yellow, light green, or even for darker effects, claret red, dark blue, dark green, or black. if an ivory white or light warp colour should be chosen, the cross-colours must be selected with special reference to the warp tint. a beautiful effect for a light room would be made on an ivory-coloured warp by weaving at the top and also below the middle a series of narrow stripes like a roman scarf. there should be a finger's depth of rose colour at the top, and this would be obtained by a filling of light red, woven upon the ivory white warp. then should come an inch stripe of pale blue, an inch of gold, another inch of blue; three inches of orange, then the inch of blue, the gold, and the blue again, and after that the rose-red for two-thirds the length of the portiere, when the ribbon stripes should again occur, after which the remaining third should be woven with a deeper red or a pale green. such a portiere would not require embroidery to complete its effect, for if the tints were pure as well as delicate, it would be a lovely piece of colour in itself. this variety or style of hanging would have the advantage of throwing the burden of colour upon the wool, and as the animal fibre is apt to be more tenacious in its hold upon colour than vegetable, the question of fading would not have to be considered. these two varieties of artistic homespun can by experiment be made to cover a great deal that is beautiful and artistic in manufacture, and yet it leaves untouched the extensive field of plain piece-dyed or yarn-dyed weavings. yarn-dyed material always has the advantage of the possible use of two colours, one in the warp and one in the filling, but in certain places, as in upholstery, a solid colour produced by piece-dyeing would be preferable. linsey woolsey dyed in fast and attractive colour would undoubtedly be a good material for upholstery of simple furniture, because of its strength and durability, but it seems to me its chief mission and probable future is to supply an exceptional art textile; one which has the firmness and flexibility belonging to hand-woven stuffs, and can be at the same time beautiful in colour, capable of hard wear and reasonably inexpensive. i am tempted to modify the last qualification, because no hand-woven goods ought to be or can be inexpensive, in comparison with those manufactured under every condition of competitive economy. and in truth, domestic weavings are sure of their market at paying prices, simply because they are what they are, _hand products_. i have shown in a limited way some of the possibilities of artistic hand-weaving without touching upon cotton or flax diapers and damasks, since these cannot readily compete with power-weavings, but i have not spoken of the difference it would make in the lives of the mountain weavers of the south if their horizon could be widened by the introduction of art industries. only those who know the joy and compensation of producing things of beauty can realize the change it might work in lives which have been for generations narrowed to merely physical wants; but there are many gifted southern women who do fully realize it, and we may safely leave to them the introduction and encouragement of art in domestic manufactures. neighbourhood industries after-word i am often asked by women who are interested in domestic manufactures, how one should go to work to build up a profitable neighbourhood industry. to do this one must know the place and people, for anxious as most country women are to earn something outside of farm profits, they are both timid and cautious, and will not follow advice from unpractical people or from strangers. in every farming community there will be one or two ingenious or ambitious women who do something which is not general, and which they would gladly turn to account. one woman may be a skilled knitter of tidies, or laces, or rag mats; another may pull rags through burlap, and so construct a thick and rather luxurious-looking door-mat; another may have an old-fashioned loom and weave carpets for all the neighbourhood; and each one of these simple arts is a foundation upon which an industry may be built, important to the neighbourhood, and in the aggregate to the country. the city woman or club woman who wishes to become a link between these things and a purchaser must begin by improving or adapting them. she must show the knitter of tidies an imported golf stocking with all of the latest stitches and stripes and fads, and if the yarn can be had, undoubtedly the tidy-knitter can make exactly such another. when a good pair has been produced, the city friend will not have to look far among her town acquaintances for a "golf fiend," even if she herself is not one, and to him or her she must show the stocking and expatiate upon its merits: that it is not machine-made, but hand-knit; that it is thicker, softer, made of better material than woven ones, and above all, not to be found in any shop, but must be ordered from a particular woman who is a phenomenal knitter. all of which will be true, and equally so when the demand has increased and it has become a neighbourhood industry. [illustration: the lucy rug] a golf player hardly need be told how to create a demand for hand-knit stockings, or how to assist the knitter by advice, both in the improvement and disposal of her wares; but it should be a veritable golf player and not a philanthropic amateur. it is the same with other industries. the adviser must study them, improve them, adapt them, and find the first market, after which they will sell upon their own merits. as far as i know, nothing has been done in the way of improvement of knitted mats or rugs, although a very beautiful manufacture has been founded upon the method of pulling rags through burlap. knitted rugs have much to recommend them. they can be made of all sorts of pieces, even the smallest; they wear well, and can easily be made beautiful. the building up of a rag carpet or rag rug industry is a much simpler matter, because the demand exists everywhere for cheap, durable and well-coloured floor covering. in my own experience i have found that the thing chiefly necessary is to teach the weavers that the colour must be pleasing and permanent, and to put them in communication with sources of supply of rags and warp. the rugs sell themselves, and probably will continue to do so. the thing to remember when one wishes to be of use to their own and other communities, is that they must be sure of a commercial basis for the products before they encourage more than one person to begin a manufacture, and that the demand must be in advance of a full supply. kindly and cultivated women who wish to be of real use to their summer neighbours will find this a true mission. their lives lie within the current of demand, while the country woman lives within that of supply, and it is much easier for the city woman to bridge the space between than for her working neighbour. all good and well-founded industries take care of themselves in time, but until the merchant finds them out, and interposes the wedge of personal profit between things and their market--inciting and encouraging both--it seems to be the business of women in every lot of life to help each other. transcriber's notes: some minor typographical errors have been corrected. the author's spelling has been retained. a treatise on staff making and pivoting containing complete directions for making and fitting new staffs from the raw material eugene e. hall with numerous illustrations chicago: hazlitt & walker, publishers contents. chapter i. the raw material. the gravers. the roughing out. the hardening and tempering chapter ii. kinds of pivots. their shape. capillarity. the requirements of a good pivot chapter iii. the proper measurements and how obtained chapter iv. the gauging of holes. the side shake. the position of the graver chapter v. the grinding and polishing. the reversal of the work. the wax chuck chapter vi. another wax chuck. the centering of the work chapter vii. the finishing of the staff. pivoting. making pivot drills. hardening drills. the drilling and fitting of new pivots staff making and pivoting. chapter i. to produce a good balance staff requires more skill than to produce any other turned portion of a watch, and your success will depend not alone on your knowledge of its proper shape and measurements, nor the tools at your command, but rather upon your skill with the graver and your success in hardening and tempering. there are many points worthy of consideration in the making of a balance staff that are too often neglected. i have seen staffs that were models as regards execution and finish, that were nearly worthless from a practical standpoint, simply because the maker had devoted all his time and energy to the execution of a beautiful piece of lathe work, and had given no thought or study to the form and size of the pivots. on the other hand, one often sees staffs whose pivots are faultless in shape, but the execution and finish so bungling as to offset all the good qualities as regards shape. to have good tools and the right ideas is one thing, and to use these tools properly and make a practical demonstration of your theory is another. i shall endeavor to take up every point in connection with the balance staff, from the steel to the jewels, and their relation to the pivots, and i believe this will then convey to the reader all the necessary points, not only as regards staffs, but pivots also, whether applied to a balance or a pinion staff. it may be argued, and we often do hear material dealers advance the theory, that to-day, with our interchangeable parts and the cheapness of all material, it is a waste of time to make a balance staff. to the reader who takes this view of the situation i simply want to say, kindly follow me to the end of this paragraph, and if you are still of the same opinion, then you are wasting your time in following me farther. for a material dealer to advance this theory i can find some excuse; he is an interested party, and the selling of material is his bread and butter; but the other fellow, well i never could understand him and possibly never shall. when we seriously consider the various styles and series in "old model" and "new model," of only one of the leading manufacturers of watches in this country, to say nothing of the legion of small and large concerns who are manufacturing or have manufactured in the past, and then think of carrying these staffs in stock, all ready for use, we then begin to realize how utterly absurd the idea is, to say nothing of how expensive! on the other hand, if you reside in a large city and propose to rely on the stock of your material dealer, you will find yourself in an embarrasing situation very often, for as likely as not the movement requiring a new staff was made by a company that went out of business back in the ' s, or it is a new movement, the material for which has not yet been placed on the market. this state of affairs leads to makeshifts, and they in turn lead to botch work. the watchmaker who does not possess the experience or necessary qualifications to make a new balance staff and make it in a neat and workmanlike manner, is never certain of having exactly what is needed, and cannot hope to long retain the confidence of his customers. in fact, he is not a watchmaker at all, but simply an apprentice or student, even though he be working for a salary or be his own master. there are undoubtedly many worthy members of the trade, who are not familiar with the making of a balance staff, who will take exceptions to this statement; but it is nevertheless true. they may be good workmen as far as they go; they may be painstaking; but they cannot be classed as watchmakers. this article is intended for the benefit of that large class whose opportunities for obtaining instruction are limited, and who are ready and willing to learn, and for that still larger class of practical workmen who can make a new staff in a creditable manner, but who are always glad to read others people's ideas on any subject connected with the trade and who are not yet too old to learn new tricks should they find any such. [illustration: _fig. ._] good tools, in good condition, are the most essential requisites in making a new staff. i would not advise any particular make of lathe, as the most expensive lathe in the world will not produce a true staff if the workman cannot center his work accurately and does not know how to handle his graver, while on the other hand fine work can be done on the simplest and cheapest lathe by a workman possessing the requisite skill. i will take it for granted that you use an american-made lathe of some kind, or a foreign-made lathe manufactured on american lines. it is advisable, though not absolutely necessary, to have three gravers similar to those illustrated in fig. , a being used for turning the staff down in the rough; b for the conical pivots and square shoulders and c for the under-cutting. the other tools and attachments needed will be described as i come to them in use. the balance staff should be made of the best steel, tempered to such a degree as to give the longest service and yet not so hard as to endanger the breakage of the pivots. select a piece of stubb's steel wire, say no. , or a little larger than the largest part of the finished staff is to be, and center it in a split chuck of your lathe. be careful in selecting your chuck that you pick one that fits the wire fairly close. the chuck holds the work truest that comes the nearest to fitting it. if you try to use a chuck that is too large or too small for the work, you will only ruin the chuck for truth. turn the wire to the form of a rough staff, as shown in fig. , leaving on a small part of the original wire, as shown at a. after the wire is roughed out to this general form, remove from the chuck and get ready to harden and temper it. the hardening and tempering may be effected in various ways, and i am scarcely prepared to say which method is the best, as there are several which give about the same general results. one method of hardening is to smear the blank with common yellow soap, heat it to a cherry red, and drop endwise into linseed oil. petroleum is preferred by some to linseed oil, but, to tell the truth, i can see no difference in the action of linseed, petroleum or olive oil. be sure and have enough oil to thoroughly cool the blank, and a deep vessel, such as a large-mouthed vial, is preferable to a saucer. the blank will now be found too hard to work easily with the graver, and we must therefore draw the temper down to that of fine spring steel. before doing this the blank should be brightened, in order that we may see to just what color we are drawing it. the main object in using the soap in hardening is that it may form a scale upon the blank, and if the heating is effected gradually the soap will melt and form a practically air-tight case around the blank. this scale, if the hardening is carefully and properly done, will generally chip and fall off when the blank is plunged in the oil, particularly if the oil is cool, and if it does not fall off of its own accord, it can easily be removed by rolling the blank upon the bench. if it does not come out clean, or if soap is not used, it may be brightened by again inserting in the lathe and bringing it in contact with a piece of fine emery paper or cloth. [illustration: _fig. ._] i draw the temper in the following manner: place some fine brass filings in a boiling-out cup or bluing pan and lay the blank upon these filings, holding the pan over the flame of an alcohol lamp until the blank assumes a dark purple color, which it will reach when the heat gets to about ° f. this i consider the right hardness for a balance staff, as it is not too hard to work well under the graver nor too soft for the pivots. at this degree of hardness steel will assume an exquisite polish if properly treated. another method of tempering is to place the staff on a piece of sheet iron or copper (say inch wide by long), having previously bent it into a small angle, for the reception of the staff, as shown in fig. . this piece of metal, when nicely fitted into a file handle, will answer all the purposes of the bluing pan and presents quite a neat appearance. having placed the blank in the angle, lay on it a piece of yellow wax about the size of a bean, and heat it over your lamp until the wax takes fire and burns. blow out the flame and allow the staff to cool, and it will be found to be of about the right hardness. [illustration: _fig. ._] we have now arrived at an important station in staff making, a junction, we may term it, where many lines branch off from the main road. at this particular spot is where authorities differ. i have no hesitation in saying that at this particular point the split chuck should be removed from the lathe head and carefully placed in the chuck box and the cement chuck put in its place. i believe that all of the remaining work upon a staff should be executed while it is held in a cement chuck. on the other hand i have seen good workmen who turned and finished all the lower part of a staff while in a split chuck, cut it off and turned and finished the upper part in a cement chuck. all i have got to say is that they had more confidence in the truth of their chucks than i have in mine. i have even read of watchmakers who made the entire staff in a split chuck, but i must confess i am somewhat curious to examine a staff made in that way, and must have the privilege of examining it before i will admit that a true staff can be so made. we will suppose that the workman has a moderately true chuck, and that he prefers to turn and finish all the lower portions in this way. of course the directions for using a cement chuck on the upper part of a staff are equally applicable to the lower. before going further i think it advisable to consider the requirements of a pivot, but will reserve this for another chapter. chapter ii. the chief requirements of a pivot are that it shall be round and well polished. avoid the burnish file at all hazards; it will not leave the pivot round, for the pressure is unequal at various points in the revolution. a pivot that was not perfectly round might act fairly well in a jewel hole that was round, but unfortunately the greater proportion of jewel holes are not as they should be, and we must therefore take every precaution to guard against untrue pivots. let us examine just what the effect will be if an imperfect pivot is fitted into an unround hole jewel, and to demonstrate its action more clearly let us exaggerate the defects. suppose we pick a perfectly round jewel and insert into the opening a three-cornered piece of steel wire, in shape somewhat resembling the taper of a triangular file. we find that this triangular piece of steel will turn in the jewel with the same ease that the most perfect cylindrical pivot will. now suppose we change the jewel for one that is out of round and repeat the experiment. we now find that the triangular steel soon finds the hollow spots in the jewel hole and comes to a stand-still as it is inserted in the hole. the action of a pivot that is not true, when in contact with a jewel whose hole is out of round, is very similar, though in a less marked degree. if the pivot inclines toward the elliptical and the jewel hole has a like failing, which is often the case, it is very evident that this want of truth in both the pivot and hole is very detrimental to the good going of a watch. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] there are two kinds of pivots, known respectively as straight and conical pivots, but for the balance staff there is but one kind and that is the conical, which is illustrated in fig. . the conical pivot has at least one advantage over the straight one, _i. e._, it can be made much smaller than a straight pivot, as it is much stronger in proportion, owing to its shape. all pivots have a tendency to draw the oil away from the jewels, and particularly the conically formed variety, which develops a strong capillary attraction. to prevent this capillary attraction of the oil, the back-slope is formed next to the shoulder, although many persons seem to think that this back-slope is merely added by way of ornament, to make the pivot more graceful in appearance. it is very essential, however, for if too much oil is applied the staff would certainly draw it away if its thickness were not reduced, by means of the back-slope. before leaving the subject of capillarity let us examine the enlarged jewel in fig. ; _c_ is an enlarged pivot, _b_ is the hole jewel and _a_ is the end stone. we observe that the hole jewel on the side towards the end stone is convex. it is so made that through capillarity the oil is retained at the end of the pivot where it is most wanted. it is, in my opinion, very necessary that the young watchmaker should have at least a fair understanding of capillarity, and should understand why the end stone is made convex and the pivot with a back slope. for this reason i will try and make clear this point before proceeding further. we all know that it is essential to apply oil to all surfaces coming in contact, in order to reduce the friction as much as possible, and if the application of oil is necessary to any part of the mechanism of a watch, that part is the pivot. saunier very aptly puts it thus: "a liquid is subject to the action of three forces: gravity, adhesion (the mutual attraction between the liquid and the substance of the vessel containing it), and cohesion (the attractive force existing among the molecules of the liquid and opposing the subdivision of the mass.)" we all know that if we place a small drop of oil upon a piece of flat glass or steel and then invert the same the oil will cling to the glass, owing to the adhesion of the particles; if we then add a little more to the drop and again invert, it will still cling, although the drop may be elongated to a certain degree. this is owing to the cohesion of the molecules of the oil, which refuse to be separated from one another. if, however, we again add to the drop of oil and invert the plate the drop will elongate and finally part, one portion dropping while the other portion clings to the main body of the liquid. the fall of the drop is occasioned by gravity overcoming the cohesion of the molecules. now take a perfectly clean and polished needle and place a drop of oil upon its point and we will see that the oil very rapidly ascends towards the thicker portion of the needle. now if we heat and hammer out the point of the needle into the form of a small drill and repeat the operation we find that the oil no longer ascends. it rises from the point to the extreme width of the drill portion, but refuses to go beyond. it clings to that portion of the needle which would correspond to the ridge just back of the slope in a conical pivot. water, oil, etc., when placed in a clean wine glass, do not exhibit a perfectly level surface, but raise at the edges as shown at _a_ in fig. . if a tube is now inserted, we find that the liquid not only rises around the outside of the tube and the edges of the vessel, but also rises in the tube far beyond its mean level, as shown at _b_. these various effects are caused by one of the forces above described, _i. e._, the adhesion, or mutual attraction existing between the liquid and the substance of the vessel and rod. the word capillarity is of latin derivation, and signifies hair-like slenderness. the smaller the tube, or the nearer the edges of a vessel are brought together, the higher in proportion will the liquid rise above the level. an ascent of a liquid, due to capillarity, also takes place, where the liquid is placed between two separate bodies, as oil placed between two pieces of flat glass. if the plates are parallel to one another and perpendicular to the surface of the liquid it will ascend to the same height between the plates, as shown at _c_ in fig. . if the plates were united at the back like a book and spread somewhat at the front, the oil would ascend the higher as the two sides approach one another, as shown at _d_, fig. . if a drop is placed somewhat away from the intersecting point, of the glasses, as shown at _m_ it will, if not too far away, gradually work its way to the junction, providing the glasses are level. if, however, the glasses are inclined to a certain extent, the drop will remain stationary, since it is drawn in one direction by gravity and in the other by capillarity. when a drop of oil is placed between two surfaces, both of which are convex, or one convex and the other plain, as shown at _g_, it will collect at the point _n_, at which the surfaces nearest approach one another. we now see very clearly why the hole jewel is made convex on the side towards the end-stone and concave on the side towards the pivot. [illustration: _fig. ._] particular pains should be taken to polish those portions of the pivots which actually enter the jewel hole and to see that all marks of the graver be thoroughly removed, because if any grooves, no matter how small, are left, they act as minute capillary tubes to convey the oil. if the hole jewel be of the proper shape, the end-stone not too far from the hole jewel and too much oil is not applied at one time, the oil will not spread nor run down the staff, but a small portion will be retained at the acting surface of pivot and jewel, and this supply will be gradually fed to these parts from the reservoir between the jewel and end-stone, by the action of capillarity. having examined into the requirements of the pivot and its jewel and having gained an insight into what their forms should be, we are the better able to perform that portion of the work in an intelligent manner. chapter iii. our wire has been roughed out into the form of a staff, has been hardened and the temper drawn down to the requisite hardness and we are now ready to proceed with our work. as i said before, we have now arrived at a point where many authorities differ, _i. e._, as to whether the finishing of the staff proper, should be performed while the work is held in the chuck, or whether a wax chuck be substituted. we will take it for granted that you have a true chuck and that you prefer to finish all the lower portion of the staff while held in the chuck. before we proceed with our work it will be necessary for us to make some accurate measurements, as we cannot afford to do any guess work by measuring by means of the old staff. i have used a number of different kinds of calipers and measuring instruments for determining the various measurements for a balance staff, but have met with more success with a very simple little tool which i made myself from drawings and description published some years ago in the american jeweler. this simple little tool is shown in fig. , and has been of great service to me. it consists of a brass sleeve a, with a projection at one end as shown at b. this sleeve is threaded, and into it is fitted the screw part c, which terminates in a pivot d, which is small enough to enter the smallest jewel. the sleeve i made from a solid piece of brass, turning it down in my lathe and finishing the projection by means of a file. the hole was then drilled and threaded with a standard thread. the screw part c, i made of steel and polished carefully. [illustration: _fig. ._] to ascertain the proper height for the roller, place it upon the tool, allowing it to rest upon the leg b, and set the pivot d in the foot jewel. now adjust, by means of the screw c until the roller is in its proper position in relation to the lever fork. this may be understood better by consulting fig. , where a is the gauge, c is the roller, e is the lever, f is the plate and g is the potance. [illustration: _fig. ._] now in order to locate the proper place to cut the seat for the roller, remove it from the foot of the gauge and apply the gauge to the work as shown in fig. . the foot of the gauge resting against the end of the pivot, the taper end of the gauge will locate accurately the position of the roller seat. in order to locate the proper position for the seat for the balance, proceed the same as for the roller, except that the foot of the gauge is lowered until it is brought sufficiently below the plate to allow of the proper clearance as indicated by the dotted lines at h. now apply the gauge to the new staff, as shown in fig. , and the taper end will locate the exact position for the balance seat. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] as previously stated, i have taken it for granted that you preferred to finish all the lower portion of the staff while the work was held in the chuck. i have assumed that you prefer to work in this way because i have noted the fact that nine watchmakers out of every ten start with, and first finish up, the lower portion of the staff. where this method of working originated i do not know, but it always has the appearance to me of "placing the cart before the horse." i do not pretend to say that a true staff cannot be made in this way, but it certainly is not the most convenient nor advisable. we all know that the heaviest part of the staff is from the roller seat to the end of the top pivot. now it seems to me that it is the most natural thing in the world for a mechanic to desire to turn the greater bulk of his work before reversing it. now if the workman has been educated to turn indifferently with right or left hand, it may make little difference, as far as the actual turning is concerned, whether he starts to work at the upper or lower end of the staff, but unfortunately there are few among us who are so skilled as to use the graver with equal facility with either hand, and it is therefore an advantage to start with the upper end, as you can thus finish a greater portion of the work more readily. you can readily see that when you come to reverse your staff and use the wax chuck, that by starting at the top of staff your wax has a much larger surface of metal to cling to, and again the shape of the balance seat is such as to secure the work firmly in the wax, while if the reverse method is employed, the larger portion of the balance seat is exposed and the staff is more liable to loosen from the motion of the lathe and pressure of the graver and polishers. chapter iv. by the aid of the pinion calipers and the old staff, the diameter of the roller seat and the balance and hair-spring collet seats may be readily taken, but it is perhaps better to gauge the holes, as the old staff may not have been perfect in this respect. a round broach will answer admirably for this purpose, and the size may be taken from the broach by means of the calipers. in fitting our pivots, we can not be too exact; and as yet no instrument has been placed upon the market for this purpose which is moderate in price and yet thoroughly reliable. the majority of watchmakers use what is termed the pivot-gauge, a neat little instrument which accompanies the jacot lathe, and which may be obtained from any material house. this tool, which is shown in fig. , is, however, open to one objection in the measurement of pivots, and that is that it may be pressed down at one time with greater force than at another, and consequently will show a variation in two measurements of the same pivot. some of my readers may think that i am over-particular on this point, and that the difference in measurement on two occasions is too trivial to be worthy of attention, but i do not think that too much care can be bestowed upon this part of the work, and neglect in this particular is, i think, the cause of poor performance in many otherwise good timepieces. the ordinarily accepted rule among watchmakers is that a pivot should be made / of an inch smaller than the hole in the jewel to allow for the proper lubrication. i am acquainted with watchmakers, and men who are termed good workmen, too, who invariably allow / of an inch side shake, no matter whether the pivot is / or / of an inch in diameter. now if / of an inch is the proper side shake for a pivot measuring / of an inch in diameter, it is certainly not sufficient for a pivot which is one-third larger. of course it is understood that side shakes do not increase in proportion according as the pivot increases in size, for if they did a six-inch shaft would require at this rate a side shake of / inch, or / inch on each side, which would be ridiculously out of all proportion, as the / of an inch would be ample under any circumstances. neither can we arrive at the proper end shake for a pivot by reducing in proportion from the end shake allowed on a six-inch shaft, because if we followed out the same course of reasoning we would arrive at a point where a pivot measuring / of an inch would require an end shake so infinitely small that it would require six figures to express the denominator of the fraction, and the most minute measuring instrument yet invented would be incapable of recording the measurement. we must leave sufficient side shake, however, on the smallest pivot and jewel for the globules of the oil to move freely, and experiments have shown conclusively that / of an inch or / on each side of the pivot, is as little space as it is desirable to leave for that purpose, as the globules of the best chronometer oil will refuse to enter spaces that are very much more minute. but to return to our pivot gauge. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] each division on the gauge represents / of an inch, which is all that we require. the diameter that the pivot should be, can be ascertained by inserting a round pivot broach into the jewel and taking the measurement with the pivot gauge, and then making the necessary deduction for side shake. slip the jewel on the broach as far as it will go, as shown in fig. , and then with the pivot gauge, take the size of the broach, as close up to the jewel as you can measure, and the taper of the broach will be about right for the side shake of the pivot. if, however, you prefer to make the measurement still more accurate, you can do so by dipping the broach into rouge before slipping on the jewel and then remove the jewel and the place which is occupied on the broach can be plainly discerned and the exact measurement taken and an allowance of / of an inch made for the side shake. another method, and one which is particularly applicable to swiss watches, where the jewel is burnished into the cock or plate, is to first slip on to the broach a small flat piece of cork and as the broach enters the jewel the cork is forced farther on to the broach, and when the jewel is removed it marks the place on the broach which its inner side occupied, and the measurement can then be taken with the gauge. if care is used in the selection of a broach, that it be as nearly perfect in round and taper as possible, by a little experiment you can soon ascertain just what part of the length of the broach corresponds to one degree on the gauge and by a repetition of the experiment the broach can then be divided accurately, by very minute rings turned with a fine-pointed graver, into sections, each representing one degree, or / of an inch, and the measurement will thus be simplified greatly. [illustration: _fig. ._] as before stated, much depends upon the condition of your gravers and the manner of using them. it is of the utmost importance that they be kept sharp, and as soon as they begin to show the slightest sign of losing their keenness, you should sharpen them. the proper shape for balance pivots was shown in fig. . now let us examine into the best positions for holding the gravers. in fig. two ways of holding the graver are shown, _a_ representing the right and _b_ representing the wrong way. if the graver is applied to the work as shown at _a_, it will cut a clean shaving, while if applied as shown at _b_ it will simply scrape the side of the pivot and ruin the point of the graver without materially forwarding the work. again, the holding of the graver as indicated at _a_ has its advantages, because the force of the cut is towards the hand holding it, and should it catch from any cause the jar of the obstruction will be conveyed immediately to the hand, and it will naturally give and no harm will be done. if, on the other hand, the graver should meet with an obstruction while held in the position indicated at _b_, the force of the cut will be in the direction of the arrow, downward and toward the rest, and the rest being unlike the hand, or rather being rigid, it cannot give, and the result is that the work, or graver, or both, are ruined. in fig. two other methods of holding the graver are shown. the general roughing out of a staff should be done with the graver held about as shown at _a_, fig. ; but in finishing, the graver should be held so that the cut is made diagonally, as indicated at _a_, fig. . it is rather dificult to explain in print just how the graver should be held, but a little experiment will suffice to teach the proper position. the best indication that a graver is doing its work properly, is the fact that the chips come away in long spiral coils. aim to see how light a cut you can make rather than how heavy. never use force in removing the material, but depend entirely upon the keenness of the cutting edges. never use the point of the graver, except where you are compelled to, but rather use the right or left hand cutting edges. by following out this rule you will find that your work, when left by the graver, requires little or no finishing up, except at the pivots. at _b_, fig. , is shown the correct manner of applying the graver when turning a pivot. hold the graver nearly on a line with the axis of the lathe and catching a chip at the extreme end of the pivot with the back edge of the graver, push slightly forward and at the same time roll the graver towards you and it will give the pivot the desired conical form. by keeping the graver on a line with the length of the pivot, all the force applied is simply exerted in the direction of the chuck, and does not tend to spring the pivot, as it would were the extreme point applied, as in fig. . when we come to such places as the shoulder of the back slope, the seat for the roller, balance, etc., we must necessarily use the point of the graver. [illustration: _fig. ._] chapter v. in chapter iv i called attention to the right and wrong way of holding the graver while using the extreme point, and also the correct manner of applying the graver in turning conical pivots. i also called attention to the fact that it was well to only use the point of the graver where positively necessary, as in the back slope of the pivot, etc. in turning the seat for the balance, as indicated at a, fig. , the graver a, fig. , or a similar one as shown at b, fig. , should be used. the slope at c should now be turned. in turning the pivot and seat for the roller, you should leave them slightly larger than required, to allow for the grinding and polishing which is to follow. no definite amount can be left for this purpose, because the amount left for polishing depends entirely on how smoothly your turning has been done. if it has been done indifferently, you may have to allow considerable for grinding and polishing before all the graver marks are removed, while, on the contrary, if the work has been performed with care, very little will have to be removed. avoid the use of the pivot file by performing your work properly to start with. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] for grinding, bell-metal or soft iron slips are desirable, and the grinding is effected by means of oil stone powder and oil. two slips of metal similar in shape to a and b, fig. , are easily made, and will be found very useful. a is for square pivots, etc., while b is used for conical pivots. these slips should be dressed with a dead smooth file, the filing to be done crosswise, to hold the oil stone powder and oil. during the operation of grinding, the lathe should be run at a high speed and the slips applied to the work lightly, squarely and carefully. the polishing is effected by means of diamantine and alcohol. after the work is brought to a smooth gray surface, slips of boxwood of the shape shown in fig. should be substituted for the metal slips. oil stone slips are sometimes used in lieu of metal ones, but they soon get out of shape and are troublesome to care for on this account. all things considered, there is nothing better for polishing than a slip or file made of agate, say one inch long, one-quarter inch wide and one-eighth inch thick. a slip of this kind can be obtained from any lapidary, and after grinding with emery and water until the surface has a very fine grain, it should be mounted by fastening with cement into a brass socket and this is then inserted into a small wooden handle, as shown in fig. . the agate slip should be ground to about the shape of b, fig. , so that one side can be used for square corners and the other for conical pivots. the final polish can soon be imparted by means of a small boxwood slip, or flattened peg-wood, and diamantine and alcohol. never try to bring out the final polish until you are satisfied that all graver marks have been ground out, otherwise you will simply have to go all over the work again. [illustration: _fig. ._] when the staff is finished from the lower pivot to the seat of the balance, the upper part should be roughed out nearly to size and then cut off preparatory to finishing the top part. attention was previously called to the fact that the majority of watchmakers prefer to finish all the lower portion of the staff first, notwithstanding the fact that there are numerous advantages to be gained by proceeding to first finish up the upper portion. we have now reached the point where the wax chuck must be used, and perhaps these advantages may be now more clearly defined. in order that the two procedures may be more distinctly shown, illustrations of both methods are here given. fig. shows the popular method, the lower portion of the staff being all completed and fastened by means of wax, in the wax chuck. fig. shows the opposite course of procedure. in both illustrations the lines indicate the amount of wax applied to hold the work. it will be noted that in fig. the hub of the staff is enclosed in the wax very much as a cork is fitted into a bottle, while in fig. the hub is reversed, just as a cork would appear were the larger portion within the bottle and the smaller portion protruding through the neck. a study of the diagram will readily show that in fig. the staff is held more rigidly in place and that a greater bulk of the work is enclosed in the wax than in fig. , although there is less wax used in the former than in the latter. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] before proceeding to set the staff in the wax, it is necessary to make some measurements to determine its full length. remove both cap jewels and screw the balance cock in place. examine the cock and see if it has at any time been bent up or down or punched to raise or lower it. if so, rectify the error by straightening it and then put it in place. now with a degree gauge, or calipers, proceed to take the distance between the outer surfaces of the hole jewels and shorten the staff to the required length. do not remove too much, but leave the staff a little long rather than cut it too short, as the length can be shortened later. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] a very handy tool for the purpose of making these length measurements can be constructed by adding a stop screw to the common double calipers as shown in fig. . the improvement consists in the fact that they can be opened to remove from the work and closed again at exactly the same place, so that an accurate measurement can be made. the all-important point in the use of wax chucks is to get a perfect center. if you are not careful you are liable to leave a small projection in the center as shown at a, fig. . the ordinary wax chuck cannot be unscrewed from the spindle and restored to its proper place again with anything like a certainty of its being exactly true, and if you insist on doing this there is no remedy left but finding a new center each time. it will be found more satisfactory and economical in the long run to have a permanent chuck for a wax chuck and you will then have no necessity for removing the brass chuck. the center, or cone for the reception of the pivot, should be turned out with the graver at an angle of about ° and such a graver as is shown at b, fig. , will answer admirably for this purpose. after you have carefully centered your wax chuck, place a small alcohol lamp under the chuck and heat it until the wax will just become fluid and yet not be hot enough to burn the wax. revolve the lathe slowly and insert the staff so that the pivot rests squarely and firmly in the center. now re-heat the chuck carefully in order that the wax may adhere firmly to the staff, keeping the lathe revolving meanwhile, but not so fast that the wax will be drawn from the center, and at the same time apply the forefinger to the end of the staff, as shown in figs. and , and gently press it squarely into place in the wax chuck. the lines in figs. and designate about the right amount of wax after the work is ready, but it is well to add a little more than is shown in those figures, and you should be careful to keep the wax of equal bulk all around, or when it cools it will have a tendency to draw the staff to one side. now remove the lamp and keep the lathe revolving until the wax is quite cool, when it should be removed, by means of a graver, down to the dimensions designated by the lines in figs. and . when this is accomplished re-heat a little, but only enough to make it soft, but not liquid, and placing a sharpened peg-wood on the tool rest proceed to the final truing up, by resting the pointed end against the hub. chapter vi. i have described above one of the methods in vogue for holding a staff by means of wax. it is the common method employed by most watch repairers, the popular method so to speak. the method which i am now about to describe may seem awkward at first to those who have not practiced it, but once you have fairly tried it, you will never be contented to work in any other way. the first requisite is a true taper chuck; and it is well to purchase an extra one to be used solely for this purpose, so that you will be prepared at all times for staff work. select a good steel taper, and having placed your chuck in the lathe, see if your taper fits well by inserting it in the chuck while running slowly. if it fits well, it will be marked almost throughout its length. insert again in the chuck, and with a few light taps of the hammer set it firmly in place, so that you know that there is no danger of its working loose. the taper will then project about three-quarters of an inch from the face of the chuck. by means of a sharp graver, make the face of the taper smooth and straight, and cut off the taper end. now mark a point on the taper about one-fourth of an inch from the end, and proceed to turn down the diameter from this point to the end, leaving that portion of the taper about two-thirds of its original diameter, and finish with a nice square shoulder. now with a long-pointed sharp graver proceed to cut a nice v-shaped center with an angle of about °. when you have proceeded thus far you will find that you have an implement resembling that shown in fig. . [illustration: _fig. ._] care must be taken that the center is quite true, and that no projection is left like that illustrated in fig. , no matter how minute it may be. now examine the center by the aid of a strong glass, and after you are satisfied with its appearance proceed to test it. take a large sized pin with a good point, and placing the point in the center, maintain it in position by pressing upon the head, and while revolving the lathe slowly proceed to examine by means of your glass. if the center is a good one there will be no perceptible vibration of the pin. now procure a piece of small brass tubing with an internal diameter a little less than that of the turned down portion of your taper. if the brass tubing cannot be procured readily, you can substitute a piece of brass wire a little larger than the taper, and by means of a drill a little smaller in diameter than the turned down portion you can readily make a small tube about one-half inch long. now by means of a broach proceed to open the tube to a point one-quarter inch from one end, and carefully fit it on the turned down portion of your taper. after fitting tightly to the shoulder of the taper, proceed to turn out the other end until it will take in the hub of your staff easily and leave a little room to spare. now turn your tube down in length until a little of the hub is exposed either way you put the staff in. turn the outside of the tube smooth and to correspond with the outline of the taper, so you will have a nice looking job when completed. just below where the hub will come drill a small hole in the tube and remove all burr, both inside and out, that may have been made in drilling, so that the shellac or wax will not adhere to it. this little hole acts as an outlet for the air in the tube; and as the hot shellac enters at the end of the tube the air is expelled through this vent. it also helps to hold the cement firmly in place. now try your staff in the tube again, and be sure that it is quite free, and that you will be able to work on the portions of it above and below the hub, according as one end or the other is inserted. you are now ready to insert your staff and proceed with your work. hold your shellac in the flame of your lamp a moment until it is quite liquid, and then smear both the inside and outside of the tube with it. heat the shell or tube gently by means of the lamp, keeping the lathe revolving slowly all the while, and taking the staff in your tweezers proceed to insert it carefully into the tube. press firmly back, making sure that it has reached the bottom of the v-shaped center. pack the cement well in around the staff, and while centering remove the lamp and allow the whole to cool, keeping the whole revolving until quite cool. now remove the superfluous cement by means of the graver, and heating the tube again slightly, proceed to center exactly by means of a pointed peg-wood, resting on your t rest to steady it. turn slowly in the lathe and examine with glass to see that it is quite true. your completed instrument will resemble fig. . [illustration: _fig. ._] the advantage of the device is that your center is always ready, and all you have to do is to insert your chuck in the lathe, warm it, and you are ready to insert your staff and proceed to work. as i said in the first place, it is well to employ a taper chuck exclusively for this work, and not attempt to use it for any other, for if you try to remove your taper and replace it again, you will surely find that your work is out of center, and you will be compelled to remove the brass shell and find a new center each time you use it. you can avoid all this trouble, however, by purchasing an extra chuck and devoting it exclusively to wax work. of course, the brass shell can be removed and placed in position again without in any way affecting the truth of the center, and any number, shape and size of shells can be made to fit the one taper, and these shells will be found very useful for holding a variety of work, aside from balance staffs. chapter vii. the two popular methods of holding a balance staff in wax have been described and illustrated; the reader may take his choice. the turning and finishing of the other end of the staff is performed as previously described. that portion on which the hair-spring collet goes should be turned to nearly the proper size, making due allowance for the grinding and polishing that is to come. the balance seat should be slightly undercut, so that the balance can be driven on tightly and all riveting dispensed with. the size for the pivot can be determined from its jewel, as previously described. finish the ends of the pivots flat and round the corners off slightly; and right here comes a point worthy of consideration in all watch work. leave no absolutely square corners in any of your work, but round them off very slightly. this may seem a very little thing, but it is one of the small things that go to make up first-class work. you can judge pretty accurately of a watchmaker by the corners he leaves on his work, as well as by the appearance of his gravers and screw-drivers. when your staff is completed and nicely polished, remove from the wax and boil in alcohol to clean, and when dried it is ready for the balance. great care must be exercised in removing the balance from the old staff, especially if it be a compensation balance, that you do not distort it any way. if the balance has been riveted on extra care will have to be exercised. the riveting may be cut by means of a graver, or a hollow drill made from stubb's steel wire. the recess in the drill should just fit over the shoulder left for the reception of the hair-spring collet. the edge of the hollow drill has small teeth formed upon it similar to a fine file, and will cut quite rapidly. after removing the balance, if it appears to be sprung in the arms, the result of removal or previous bad treatment, proceed to bend them straight, and then to true up the rim carefully, and stake on with a flat end punch. now put on your roller and drive it down to the hub and see that the roller is free from the fork. see that jewel pin reaches fork properly and that the guard pin also reaches the roller. see that your balance is free from the plate and the bridge. if the balance is true and all right, you are ready to put on your hair-spring. see that it is in beat. it is well to make a mark on the balance before taking off the old staff, showing positions of hair-spring stud and jewel pin. three-quarter plate english lever and swiss lever balance staffs differ only in detail, except that they are sprung under balances. the general operations for making, however, are similar to those described. i have not described the method of poising the balance for two reasons; first, the mere poising of a balance for a cheap movement is so simple that it needs no explanation; and second, to describe the poising of the balance of a fine watch is a lengthy task, and can hardly be included under the heading of staffing and pivoting. the ground has been thoroughly and conscientiously covered by mr. j. l. finn, in a little volume entitled poising the balance,[a] and i would advise all watchmakers, both young and old, to read what he has to say. good pivoting is an art in itself, and although there are many who undertake to do this work, there are but few who can pivot a staff in such a manner that it will bear close inspection under the glass. we often hear watchmakers brag of the secrets they possess for hardening pivot drills, but i fancy they would be somewhat surprised if they traveled around a little, to find how many watchmakers harden their drills in exactly the same way that they do. the great secret, so-called, of making good drills, is to first secure good steel, and then use care to see that you do not burn it in the subsequent operations. the fewer times the steel is heated the better. my experience teaches me that you can do no better than to select some nice pieces of stubb's steel for your pivot drills. many watchmakers make their drills from sewing needles, say no. or , sharps. the steel in these needles is usually of good quality, but the great drawback is that a drill made from a needle will not resist any great pressure, and is liable to break just at the time that you have arrived at the most important point. if your drill is made from a piece of stubb's steel wire, or an old french or swiss graver, you not only know that the material in it is first-class, but you can leave the base of the drill solid and substantial, with enough metal in it to resist considerable pressure. the part of the drill which actually enters the pivot is very short, and the end can be turned down to the desired diameter. turn or reduce your wire by means of a pivot file so as to be smooth and conical, as shown at _a_, fig. . the conical form is given to the drill for exactly the same reason that it is given to the balance pivots, because it gives additional strength. heat to a very pale red for about one-half inch from the end, and then spread the point, as shown at _b_, fig. , by a slight blow of the hammer. we are now ready to temper our drill, and we must exercise a little care that the steel is not burnt and that the drill is not bent or warped when hardening. the flame of the alcohol lamp should be reduced as small as possible, or otherwise the steel may become overheated and lose all its good qualities. if needles are used for making drills there is a great liability of their warping when hardening, but when a larger piece of wire is used there is not much danger, if care is exercised in introducing the drill that it goes into the compound straight and point foremost. if a needle is used, it is well to construct a shield for it, to be used when heating and hardening. this shield can be made from a small piece of metal tubing, broached out to fit loosely over the shank and point of the drill. the drill is introduced into this shield as shown in fig. , and a little soap may be introduced into the end _a_ before plunging. various hardening devices are used, but in my experience beeswax or sealing wax will be found as good as any. heat the drill (or if a needle, the drill and shield both), to a pale red and plunge straight into the wax. in the latter case, where the shield is used, the shield, on striking the wax, will run up the shank of the drill, allowing the point to pierce the wax. some watchmakers introduce the extreme point of the drill into mercury first and then plunge into the wax. this hardens the extreme point of the drill very hard, so hard, in fact, that it will penetrate the hardest steel, but care must be exercised with such a drill because the mercury makes it not only very hard but very brittle. _c_, fig. , shows a drill after it has been finished on the arkansas stone. this shape of drill will withstand the pressure necessary to drill into hard steel. many watchmakers reduce the temper of every staff before drilling. this, i think, is quite unnecessary. there are very few cases in which it is necessary to reduce the temper of the staff, and even then it should only be reduced as far as it is to be drilled, and then not in excess of a good spring temper. [illustration: _fig. ._] [illustration: _fig. ._] the centering of a staff in wax has been thoroughly described and in pivoting the proceeding is the same as in staffing. after accurately centering your work, make a small cut in the center for the reception of the drill and make this mark deep enough to take the entire cutting head of the drill. keep the drill firmly pressed into this center and kept wet constantly with turpentine. do not revolve the work all one way, but give the lathe an alternating motion. at first give but a third or a half revolution each way, until the drill begins to bite into the staff, when you can then safely give it a full revolution each way. care must be exercised, however, not to give the work too rapid a motion, for if you do the friction is apt to draw down the temper of your drill. many watchmakers find that their drills cut well for a certain distance and then refuse to work altogether, and one of the chief reasons is that they are in too great a hurry with their drilling. if you find it absolutely necessary to reduce the hardness of your staff before drilling, do so by drilling a hole in the end of a small piece of copper wire that will just fit over the part to be softened, and apply the heat to this copper wire, say one-fourth of an inch from the staff. the heat will run down the copper wire and heat the staff just where you wish to draw the temper. be careful and do not draw the temper too much, nor let it extend down the staff too far. the plug for the new pivot should be carefully made, perfectly round, with a very little taper, and should be draw-filed before being driven in. some workmen dip the plug in acid before driving in, as they declare that the pivot is less liable to be loosened while turning, if so treated. the acid simply rusts the pivot and the hole, but i cannot see that this will hold it any more firmly in place while finishing. if the taper is a gradual one and the pivot a good close fit, there will be little danger of it loosening while dressing to shape. if too great a taper is given to the plug, there is danger of splitting the end of the staff, and this involves the making of an entire new staff. the turning up of a new pivot does not differ in any way from the instructions given for turning pivots on a new staff. with a little care both in turning and finishing, a new pivot can be put in so nicely that only the initiated can tell it, and then only with the aid of a strong glass. in pivoting cylinders there is some danger of breaking them. to avoid this, select a piece of joint wire, the opening of which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cylinder at the lower end, and cut off a piece the length of the cylinder proper, leaving the pivot projecting. now fill the cylinder with lathe wax, and while the wax is warm, slip on the joint wire. you can now proceed to true up the pivot in the usual manner, and when the wax is quite cold, proceed to turn and polish the pivot before removing from the lathe. if the joint wire is properly cemented on the cylinder, it is almost impossible to break it. after all the work is done, the wax can be dissolved in alcohol. in pivoting pinions to cylinder escape-wheels and third wheels, it is not necessary to remove the wheels, but great care should be used in handling. in the latter case use plenty of wax. do all your centering by the outside of the pinion. perfect centering and sharp tools are requisite to good pivoting. do not try to rush your work, especially while drilling. proceed deliberately with your work and aim to restore the watch to the condition it was in originally, and you will find staffing and pivoting is not half as hard as some workmen would have you believe. [footnote a: poising the balance, by j. l. finn, geo. k. hazlitt & co., publishers, chicago.] the library of useful stories image: a cotton field in texas the story of the cotton plant by frederick wilkinson, f. g. s. director of the textile and engineering school, bolton and co-author of elements of cotton spinning _with thirty-eight illustrations_ new york and london d. appleton and company copyright, , , by d. appleton and company. printed in the united states of america preface. in collecting the facts which will be found in this story of the cotton plant, the author has of necessity had to consult many books. he is especially indebted to baines' "history of the cotton manufacture," french's "life and times of samuel crompton," lee's "vegetable lamb of tartary," report of the u. s. a. agricultural department on "the cotton plant," and the american cotton company's booklet on the cylindrical bale. mr. thornley, spinning master at the technical school, bolton, has from time to time offered very important suggestions during the progress of this little work. the author is also deeply indebted to the late mr. woods of the technical school, bolton, who was good enough to photograph most of the pictures which illustrate this book, and without which it would have been impossible to make the story clear. for permission to reproduce fig. , the thanks of the author are due to messrs. sampson low and co., for fig. , to messrs. longmans, green and co. for figs. , , , , and , to messrs. dobson and barlow, ltd., bolton. for fig. , viz., the longitudinal and transverse microphotographs of cotton fibre, the author is much indebted to mr. christie of mark lane, london, who generously photographed them especially for this work. for fig. , i am obliged to mr. a. perry, bolton. fred wilkinson. textile and engineering school, bolton. contents. chapter page i. origin, growth, and chief cultivated species of cotton plant ii. cotton-plant diseases and pests iii. cultivation of the cotton plant in different countries iv. the microscope and cotton fibre v. plantation life and early cleaning processes vi. manipulation of cotton in opening, scutching, carding, drawing, and fly-frame machines vii. early attempts at spinning, and early inventors viii. further developments--arkwright and crompton ix. the modern spinning mule x. other processes in cotton spinning xi. destination of the spun yarn index list of illustrations. figure page . a cotton field in texas _frontispiece_ . bobbins of cotton thread . the vegetable lamb of tartary . gossypium barbadense . an indian cotton field . microscope in position for drawing objects . transverse and longitudinal sections of cotton fibre . indian women with roller gin . self-acting macarthy cotton gin . bales from various cotton-growing countries . cylindrical rolls of cotton . bale breaker or puller . double opener with hopper feed . scutching machine with lap at the back . two views of the carding engine . lap, web, and sliver of cotton . drawing frame, showing eight slivers entering, and one leaving the machine . intermediate frame (bobbin and fly frame) . twist put in cotton by the hand . jersey spinning wheel . hargreaves' spinning jenny . arkwright's machine . "the hall ith wood" . crompton's spinning mule . portrait of samuel crompton . mule head showing quadrant . mules showing "stretch" of cotton yarn . mule showing action of faller wires . mule head showing copping rail . ring spinning frame . combing machine . sliver lap machine . ribbon lap machine . reeling machine . bundling machine . quick traverse winding frame . ring doubling machine . engine house, showing driving to various storeys the story of the cotton plant. chapter i. origin, growth, and chief cultivated species of cotton plant. in the frontispiece of this little work is a picture of a cotton field showing the plants bearing mature pods which contain ripe fibre and seed, and in fig. stands a number of bobbins or reels of cotton thread, in which there is one having no less than seventeen hundred and sixty yards of sewing cotton, or one english mile of thread, on it. as both pictures are compared there appears to be very little in common between them, the white fluffy feathery masses contained in the pods shown in the one picture, standing in strange contrast to the strong, beautifully regular and even threads wound on the bobbins pictured in the other. from cotton tree to cotton thread is undoubtedly a far cry, but it will be seen further on that the connection between the two is a very real and vital one. now it is the main purpose of this book to unfold the wonderful story of the plant, and to fill in the details of the gap from tree to thread, and to trace the many changes through which the beautiful downy cotton wool passes before it arrives in the prim looking state of thread ready alike for the sewing machine or the needle of a seamstress. image: fig. .--bobbins of cotton thread. remembering that the great majority of the readers of this little book must of necessity be quite unaccustomed to trade terms and technical expressions, the author has endeavoured to present to his readers in untechnical language a simple yet truthful account of the many operations and conditions through which cotton is made to pass before reaching the final stages. nature provides no lovelier sight than the newly opened capsules containing the pure white and creamy flocculent masses of the cotton fibre as they hang from almost every branch of the tree at the end of a favourable season. and how strange is the story of this plant as we look back through the centuries and listen to the myths and fables, almost legion, which early historians have handed down to us or imaginative travellers have conceived. there is, however, every reason to believe that in the far distant ages of antiquity this plant was cultivated, and yielded then, as it does now, a fibre from which the inhabitants of those far-off times produced material with which to clothe their bodies. it will not be considered out of place if some of the early beliefs which obtained among the peoples of western asia and europe for many years are related. like many other things the origin of the cotton plant is shrouded in mystery, and many writers are agreed that it originally came from the east, but it will be seen later on that equally strong claims can be presented from other countries in the western hemisphere. many of us have been amused at the curious ideas which people, say of a hundred years ago, had of the coral polyp. even to-day children may be heard singing in school, "far adown the silent ocean dwells the coral _insect_ small"! not a few of the early naturalists believed that the coral was a plant and while living in the sea water it was soft, and when dead it became hard! we smile at this, of course, but it was not until actual investigation on the spot, as to what the coral was, that the truth came out. it was then discovered to be an animal and not a plant, and that during life its hard limy skeleton was covered by soft muscular tissue, which, when decomposing, was readily washed away by the sea, leaving the hard interior exposed as coral. when the absurd beliefs are read which found credence among all classes of the people during the middle ages, and down even to the end of the seventeenth century, as to what the cotton boll or pod was, the reader is inclined to rub his eyes and think surely he must be reading "baron munchausen" over again, for a nearer approach to the wonderful statements of that former-fabled traveller it would be difficult to find than the simple crude conceptions which prevailed of the growth, habits, and physical characteristics of the cotton plant. the subject of the early myths and fables of the plant in question has been very fully treated by the late mr. henry lee, f. l. s., who was for a time at the brighton aquarium. his book, the "vegetable lamb of tartary," shows indefatigable research for a correct explanation of the myth, and after a strictly impartial inquiry he comes to the conclusion that all the various phases which these fabulous concoctions assumed, had their beginnings in nothing more or less than the simple mature pod of the cotton plant. it will not be necessary to consider here more than one or two of these very curious beliefs about cotton. by some it was supposed that in a country which went by the name "the tartars of the east," there grew a wonderful tree which yielded buds still more wonderful. these, when ripe, were said to burst and expose to view tiny lambs whose fleeces gave a pure white wool which the natives made into different garments. by and by, a delightfully curious change took place, and it is found that the fruit which was formerly said to have the little lamb within, was now changed into a live lamb attached to the top of the plant. mr. lee says: "the stem or stalk on which the lamb was suspended above the ground, was sufficiently flexible to allow the animal to bend downward, and browse on the herbage within its reach. when all the grass within the length of its tether had been consumed, the stem withered and the plant died. this plant lamb was reported to have bones, blood, and delicate flesh, and to be a favourite food of wolves, though no other carnivorous animal would attack it." image: fig. .--the vegetable lamb of tartary. in fig. is shown joannes zahn's idea of what this wonderful "barometz or tartarian lamb" was like. now, mainly through an imaginative englishman named sir john mandeville, who lived in the reign of edward iii., did this latter form of the story find its way into england. this illustrious traveller left his native country in , and for over thirty years traversed the principal countries of europe and asia. when he came home he commenced to write a history of his remarkable travels. in these are found references to the cotton plant, and so curious an account does he give of it, that it has been considered worth reproduction in his own words: "and there growethe a maner of fruyt, as though it weren gourdes: and whan ther been rype men kutten hem ato, and men fynden with inne a lyttle best, in flesche, in bon and blode, as though it were a lytylle lomb with outen wolle. and men eten both the frut and the best; and that is a great marveylle. of that frute i have eaten; alle thoughe it were wondirfulle, but that i knowe well that god is marveyllous in his werkes." no wonder that many accepted his account of the "vegetable lamb" without question. when a nobleman of the reputation of sir j. mandeville stated that he had actually eaten of the fruit of the cotton, was there any need for further doubt? it appears, however, that contemporary with mandeville was another traveller, an italian friar, named odoricus, who also had travelled in asia and heard of the plant which yielded cotton. he, too, fell a prey to the lamb theory. many other writers and travellers followed, all more or less believing in the plant animal theory. however, in , kircher of avignon in describing cotton declared it to be a plant. and so the story for years passed through many changes. first one would assert what he considered to be the right solution, and this was immediately challenged by the next investigator, so that assertion and contradiction followed each other in quick succession. in , however, a german doctor named breyn communicated with the royal society on the subject of the "vegetable lamb," emphatically stating the story to be nothing more or less than a fable. he very naïvely remarked that "the work and productions of nature should be discovered, not invented," and he threw doubts as to whether those who had written about the mythical lamb had ever seen one. when the writings and dissertations of mandeville, odoricus and others are carefully considered, these conclusions force themselves upon us: that direct personal observation must have played a very minor part in the attempt to get at the truth in connection with the origin and growth of the cotton plant. their statements stand in very sharp contrast with those of writers who lived before the christian era commenced. of these, mention must be made of herodotus, surnamed the _father of history_. this celebrated greek historian and philosopher was born, b.c. , in halicarnassus in greece. in his book of travels he speaks of the cotton plant. it appears, mainly owing to the tyrannical government of lygdamis, he left his native land and travelled in many countries in europe, asia, and africa. he appears to have at least determined, that he would only write of those things of which he had intimate knowledge, and would under no circumstances take for granted what he could not by personal observation verify for himself. in speaking of india and the cotton plant, he says: "the wild trees in that country bear for their fruit fleeces surpassing those of sheep in beauty and excellence, and the natives clothe themselves in cloths made therefrom." in another place he refers to a present which was sent by one of the kings of egypt, which was padded with cotton. he also describes a machine for separating the seed from the fibre or lint. compared with our modern gins, as they are called, this machine was exceedingly primitive and simple in construction. there is not the slightest doubt that the first reliable information of the physical characters of the fibre and its uses was conveyed into europe by the officers of the emperor alexander. one of his greatest admirals, named nearchus, observed the growth of cotton in india, and the use to which it was put, especially the making of sheets, shirts and turbans. perhaps one of the most careful observers that lived before the christian era commenced, was theophrastus, who wrote some strikingly correct things about the cotton plant of india three centuries before christ! in describing the tree he said it was useful in producing cotton which the indians wove into garments, that it was not unlike the dog rose, and that the leaves were somewhat like the leaves of the mulberry tree. the cultivation of the plant was also very correctly noted as to the rows in which the cotton seeds were placed, and as to the distances to which these rows were set. according to dr. royle, however, reference is made to cotton in the "sacred institutes of manu" so frequently that the conclusion is admitted that cotton must have been in frequent use in india at that time, which was b.c. as was to be expected, persia very early had cottons and calicoes imported from india. in the sixth verse of the first chapter of esther definite reference is made to the use to which cotton was put at the feasts which king ahasuerus gave about b.c. "white, green, and blue hangings" are said to have been used on this occasion, and from authorities who have specially investigated this subject, we are told that the hangings mentioned were simply white and blue striped cottons. this would also confirm the statement that dyeing is one of the oldest industries we have. it appears that the greeks and romans in good time learned to value goods made of cotton, and soon followed the oriental custom of erecting awnings or coverings for protection from the sun's rays. the emperor cæsar is said to have constructed a huge screen extending from his own residence along the sacred way to the top of the capitoline hill. the whole of the roman forum was also covered in by him in a similar way. coverings for tents, sail cloth made from cotton, and fancy coverlets were also in use among the people of these stirring times. and now comes the important question: was cotton indigenous to india in these very early times? and was it carried and afterwards planted in egypt, africa, and america? as an attempt is made to successfully answer this question, our minds are thrown back to the time when christopher columbus, a genoese, having heard of india, desired to find a new way to that country. comparatively poor himself, he was unable to equip an expedition, and laid his scheme before the council of genoa. they declined to have anything to do with it, and he is found next presenting his case to the king of portugal. here he alike failed, and he ultimately applied to the king and queen of spain, when he met with success. the rd of august, , found him fully equipped with two ships, and on his way west to find a new way to india. he first touched the bahamas thirty days after setting sail from europe, and to his astonishment he was met by the natives, who came out to meet him in canoes, bringing with them cotton yarn and thread for the purpose of barter. in cuba he was surprised to find hammocks made from cotton cord in very general use. what columbus observed in the west indies as to the growth and manufacture of cotton, was found afterwards to be by no means confined to these islands, but that in south and central america the natives were quite accustomed both to the growth and manufacture of cotton. indisputable evidence can be presented to prove that the ancient civilisations of mexico, peru, and central america, were well acquainted with cotton. when peru was subjugated in by pizarro, the manufacture of cotton was in a flourishing condition. similarly when mexico fell into the hands of cortez in , he too found that the use of cotton was very general. so delighted was he at what he saw of the quality and beauty of their manufactured goods, that he had no hesitation in dispatching to europe a present consisting of mantles, to the emperor charles v. five years after columbus started on his momentous voyage, another expedition under vasco da gama set out from the tagus to make the voyage to india by the way of the cape of good hope. immediately gama had safely reached india, there were others who quickly desired to follow, and in another adventurous spaniard on his way to india called at s. africa, and found the natives wearing garments made of cotton. there is therefore no reason to question the statement which has repeatedly been made, that at least three centres are known in which the cotton plant from very early times has been indigenous, and that the peoples of these countries were well acquainted with the property and uses of the cotton wool obtained from the plant. an average of more than , , bales, each weighing lbs., are exported from egypt every year, and the question has been raised whether the cultivation of the plant in egypt can be said to date far back. this is not so. the fibre almost exclusively used by the ancient egyptians was flax, and the nature of the garments covering the mummies of the ancient egyptians has been satisfactorily decided by the microscope. it is very probable that the cultivation of the plant at the beginning of the thirteenth century was carried on purely for the purpose of ornamental gardening, and even when the seventeenth century was fairly well advanced, the egyptians still imported cotton. the nineteenth century, however, has seen important developments in the cultivation of cotton in egypt, and now the position attained by this country is only outdistanced by the united states and india. =the botany of cotton.=--botanists tell us that the vegetable kingdom is primarily divided into three great classes--viz., ( ) dicotyledons; ( ) monocotyledons; and ( ) acotyledons. now these names solely refer to the nature and form of the seeds produced by the plants, and by the first it is understood that a single seed is divisible into two seed lobes in developing. in the case of the second, the seed is formed only of one lobe, and in the third the seed is wanting as a cotyledon, but the method of propagation is carried on by what are called spores. we have examples of the last-named class in the ferns, lycopods and horsetail plants. the first two of the above-named classes have been well called seed plants. these are again broken up into divisions, to which the name natural orders has been given. most of us know, as the following are examined, anemone, buttercup, marsh marigold, globe flower, and larkspur, that they have the same general structural arrangement, but in many particulars they differ. thus these natural orders are again subdivided into genera, and a still further subdivision into species is made. the cotton plant is put in the genus _gossypium_, which is one falling into the natural order _malvacæ_, and which is one of a very large number forming an important division of the dicotyledons where the stamens are found to be inserted below the pistil, and where the corolla is composed of free separate petals, and where the plant has a flower bearing both calyx and corolla. so far as numbers are concerned, the malvacæ cannot be said to be important, but few genera being known to fall into this order. three are familiar at least--viz., the marsh mallow, which was formerly used a great deal in making ointment; the musk mallow, and the tree mallow. the most important genus in this order is the gossypium. this name was given to the cotton plant by pliny, though the reasons for so doing are not clear. very many species are known to exist at the present time, and this is not to be wondered at, when the area in which the plant is cultivated is so vast, and coupled with the fact that the plant is susceptible to the slightest change and "sports" most readily. differences of soil, climate, position with regard to the sea board, and variations in the method of cultivation could only be expected to result in the species being exceedingly numerous. it is not surprising, therefore, to find that no two botanists agree as to the number of species comprising the gossypium family. a list, however, of the commoner varieties found in various cotton-growing areas of the globe will be given, but before doing so, it is deemed advisable to give a general botanical description of the plant. the gossypium is either herbaceous, shrubby, or treelike, varying in height from three to twenty feet. in some cases it is perennial; in most, as in the cultivated species, it is an annual or biennial. a few examples are noted for the vast number of hairs found everywhere on the plant, and on almost every part of the plant also, there may be observed black spots or glands. usually the stem is erect, and as a rule the cotton plant in form is not unlike the fir tree, that is, its lower branches are wider than those above, and this gradual tapering extends to the top of the tree. in consequence of this it is said to be _terete_. the leaves are alternate, veined and petiolated, that is, they have a leaf stalk connecting leaf and stem. in shape the leaves are cordate or heart-shaped, as well as sub-cordate, and the number of lobes found in the leaf varies from three to seven. the stipules or little appendages found on the petioles, resembling small leaves in appearance and texture, are generally found in pairs. the calyx is cup-shaped, and the petals of the flower are very conspicuous, and vary in colour according to the species, being brownish-red, purple, rose-coloured, and yellow. the petals, five in number, are often joined together at the base. the ovary is sessile, that is, it directly rests upon the main stem, and is usually three to five celled. the pod or capsule, which contains the seeds and cotton fibre, when ripe splits into valves, which vary in number from three to five. a characteristic feature of the pod is the sharp top point formed by the meeting of the pointed valves. the seeds are numerous and very seldom smooth, being usually thickly covered with fibrous matter known as raw cotton. as is well known, the wind performs a very important function in the dispersal of seeds. it is clear that when a seed is ready to be set free, and is provided by a tuft of hair, such as is seen on the cotton seed, dandelion and willow herb, it becomes a very easy matter for it to be carried ever so far, when a good breeze is blowing. most of us have blown, when children, at the crown of white feathery matter in the dandelion, and have been delighted to see the tiny parachutes carrying off its tiny seed to be afterward deposited, and ultimately take root and appear as a new plant. much in the same way, before it was cultivated, the cotton plant perpetuated its own species. it should be added that the root of the cotton plant is tap shaped, and penetrates deeply into the earth. it would be well nigh impossible to enumerate all the species which are now known in the cotton plant family, and it is not proposed here to describe more than the principal types of the gossypium. in a report prepared by mr. tracy of mississippi, u. s. a., no less than one hundred and thirty varieties of american cotton are given. he says: "the word 'variety' refers exclusively to the various forms and kinds which are called varieties by cotton planters, and is not restricted to the more marked and permanent types which are recognised by botanists. of botanical varieties there are but few, while of agricultural varieties there are an almost infinite number, and the names under which the agricultural varieties are known are many times greater than the recognisable forms." the cotton plant most readily responds to any changes of climate, methods of cultivation, change of soil or of fertilizers. so that it is easy to understand in a plant so susceptible and prone to vary as is the cotton, that new species may in a few years be brought into existence, and especially by means of proper selection of the seed, and careful cultivation. the chief commercial types of _gossypium_ are-- . _barbadense_; . _herbaceum_; . _hirsutum_; . _arboreum_; . _neglectum_; . _peruvianum_. _gossypium barbadense._--the fine long silky fibres of commerce are all derived from this species. it is indigenous to a group of the west indian islands named the lesser antilles. it gets its name from barbadoes, one of the west indies. at the present time it is cultivated throughout the southern states of north america which border on the sea, in most of the west indian islands, central america, western africa lying between the tropics, bourbon, egypt, australia, and the east indies. there is no doubt that the plant comes to its highest and most perfect state of cultivation when it is planted near the sea. dr. evans says: "it may be cultivated in any region adapted to the olive and near the sea, the principal requisite being a hot and humid atmosphere, but the results of acclimatisation indicate that the humid atmosphere is not entirely necessary if irrigation be employed, as this species is undoubtedly grown extensively in egypt." the height of this species varies from to feet if cultivated as an annual, and from to feet if allowed to grow as a perennial. when in full leaf and flower, it is a most graceful-looking plant. yarns having the finest counts, as they are called, are all spun from sea islands, which belongs to this class. when we are told that a single pound of this cotton is often spun into a thread about miles long we can see that it must be exceedingly good and strong cotton to do this. image: fig. .--the gossypium barbadense. _lint_ is the name given to the cotton which remains when separated from the seeds. every other american type of cotton gives a greater percentage of lint than the sea islands cotton, though it should be stated that the price per pound is greater than any other kind of cotton grown in the states. there are from six to nine seeds in each capsule and the prevailing colour is black. a cotton grown in egypt and known by the name _gallini_ is of the sea islands type and has been produced from seed of the g. barbadense. it should be added that the colour of the flower is yellow and that in india this plant is known by the name of bourbon cotton. _gossypium herbaceum_.--as indicated by the name, this type is herbaceous in character, especially the cultivated type. when lamarck classified this tree, he gave it the name indicum because he considered most of the indian types and some of the chinese belonged to this particular species. india, too, is considered by parlatore to have been the original home of the herbaceous type, and he specially fixes the coromandel coast as the first centre from which it sprang. there is much conflict of opinion in localising the primitive habitat of this type, and it is now thought that the present stock is probably the result of hybridisation of several species more or less related to each other. however, the areas in which this class of cotton grows are very numerous and extensive, for we find it growing in india, china, arabia, persia, asia minor, and africa. a very characteristic feature of this plant is that it quickly decays after podding, when cultivated as an annual. the _vine cotton_ grown in cuba belongs to the herbaceous type and is remarkable for its large pods, which contain an abnormal number of seeds. the so-called "nankeen" cottons are said to be "colour variations" of the herbaceous cotton plant. many varieties of egyptian cottons are produced from this particular class, as well as the surat cotton of india. a feature which distinguishes this type is that the seeds are covered with two kinds of fibre, a long and short, the latter being very dense. the process of taking the longer fibre from the seed must be very carefully watched, as it becomes a troublesome matter to remove the shorter fibre when once it has come away from the seed with the longer. hence great care should be taken in gathering this class of cotton. another point which should not be lost sight of is, that the herbaceous type of cotton plant readily hybridises with some other varieties and the result is a strain of much better quality. _gossypium hirsutum_.--this variety is so called because of the hairy nature of every part of the plant, leaves, stems, branches, pods and seeds--all having short hairs upon them. by dr. royle it is considered a sub-variety of the barbadense cotton, and by other american experts it is given as synonymous with g. herbaceum. however this may be, the plant has certain well-defined characteristics which possibly entitle it to be considered as a distinct type. it has been asserted by a competent authority that the original habitat of this particular cotton was mexico, and that from this country cultivators have imported it throughout the sub-tropical districts of the world. it is also stated that longstapled georgian uplands cotton belongs to the hirsutum variety. in fact most of the types cultivated in america fall into this class. parlatore also considers it to be indigenous to mexico, and states that all green seeded cotton which is so extensively cultivated has been obtained from this type originally. m. deschamps, in describing the hirsutum species, says it is divided into two varieties, one having green seeds, being of a hardier type, and the other having greyish seeds, being more delicate and growing in the more southern districts of the states. _gossypium arboreum_.--this plant attains treelike proportions, hence the name arboreum. in some cases it will grow as high as twenty feet. it is also known by the name g. religiosum, because the cotton spun from this plant was used only for making threads which were woven into cloth for making turbans for the priests of india. dr. royle on one occasion while in that country was informed by the head gardener of a botanical garden at saharunpore that this cotton was not used for making cloth for the lower garments at all, its use being restricted to turbans for their heads, as it was sacred to the gods. that is why it also received the name, "_deo cotton_." one or two interesting features of this type may be pointed out. the colour of the flowers is characteristic, being brownish and purply-red and having a dark spot purple in colour near the base of the corolla, this latter being bell-shaped. like the herbaceous type two kinds of fibre are found on the seed and great care is needed in the separation of them. also, it should be pointed out that the fibres, in this class are with difficulty removed from the seed, clinging very tenaciously to it. the arboreum type is indigenous to india and along the sea board washed by the indian ocean. the fibre from this species is much shorter in average length than any of the preceding varieties. _gossypium neglectum._--this too is an indian cotton, and according to royle the celebrated and beautiful dacca cotton which gives the famous muslins, as well as the long cloth of madras, are made from cotton obtained from the neglectum variety. an important feature of this plant is the small pod which bears the fibre and the small number of seeds contained in each septa of the capsule, being only from five to eight in number. like some preceding forms, the seeds carry cotton of two lengths, the shorter of the two being ashy green in colour. the longer fibre is harsh to the touch and white in colour. in many points it is very similar to the arboreum type and is considered by some botanists to be a cross between the arboreum species and some other. it does not attain any great height, being often in bush form under two feet. the country of five rivers or the punjaub, north west provinces and bengal, are the districts in india in which it is mostly cultivated as a field crop. it has a high commercial value, forming the main bulk of the cotton produced in the bengal presidency. this plant is indigenous to india. _gossypium peruvianum._--so called because peru was considered to be the habitat of this cotton. by some authorities this particular species is for all practical purposes synonymous with the first type described--viz., barbadense. by others it is said to be closely allied to the acuminatum variety, so named because of the pointed character of its capsules and leaves. perhaps the most striking feature of this plant is the colour of the seeds, which is black. another interesting point about the seeds is that they adhere closely to each other, and form a cone-like mass. brazil is the home of this particular species, though it is cultivated here in two forms, as "tree cotton" and as "herbaceous cotton." the former is also known by the name crioulo or maranhâo cotton or short mananams. it appears also that the tree cotton is one of the very few which does not suffer from the depredations of the cotton caterpillar. what is known as "kidney cotton" belongs to this species, which is sometimes named braziliense. the name kidney is given because of the peculiar manner in which the seeds are arranged in the capsule, adhering together in each cell in the form of a kidney. the most important countries in which it is grown are brazil and peru, though it is produced in other districts outside these countries, but not to any great extent. a very curious cotton which receives the name of "red peruvian" is also produced in south america. on account of its colour, it has only a very limited sale. this is owing to the difficulty there is in blending or mixing it with any other cotton of similar quality. cottons known generally as santos, cæra and pernams are not of this species--viz., gossypium peruvianum, but belong to the first and second of the types already described. =the strength of cotton fibres.=--mr. o'neill some years ago made many experiments with a view to obtaining the strengths of the different fibres, and the following table compiled by him, will be of interest to the general reader. sea islands . mean breaking strain in grains. queensland . " " egyptian . " " maranham . " " bengueld . " " pernambuco . " " new orleans . " " upland . " " surat (dhollerah) . " " surat (comptah) . " " from this table it is arguable that the strength of fibre varies according to the diameter, that is to say, the fibre with the thickest diameter carries the highest strain. the order, therefore, in which the fibres would fall, according to strength, would be, indian, american, australian, brazilian, egyptian, and sea islands last. =the chemistry of the cotton plant.=--messrs. m'bryde & beal, chemists in the experimental station in tennessee, say, "as a rule our staple agricultural plants have not received the thorough, systematic chemical investigation that their importance demands." it would appear that until recent times the above statement was only too true. now, however, the united states government and others have instituted experiments on a large scale, and everything is now being done in the direction of research, with a view to improving the quality of this important plant. a complete cotton plant consists of roots, stems, leaves, bolls, seed and lint. now if these six parts of the plant be weighed, they vary very much, proving that some of them are more exhaustive than others, so far as the fertilizing matters found in the soil are concerned. for example, if water be discarded in the calculation, though this takes up a fair percentage of the total weight, about , it is found that the roots take up by weight over per cent. of the whole plant, stems over per cent., leaves over , bolls over , seeds over , and lint only - / per cent. now this statement is interesting as showing one or two important features. the weight of the seed is seen to be nearly a quarter of the whole plant, while the stems and leaves together take up nearly one half. a very small proportion by weight of the plant is taken by the lint. a chemical analysis of the mature cotton plant yielded the following substances:-- water. potash. ash. lime. nitrogen. magnesia. phosphoric acid. sulphuric acid. insoluble matter. of ten analyses made with the cotton lint (which takes up about - / per cent. of the whole) m'bryde states that the average amount of water found was . , ash . , nitrogen . , phosphoric acid . , potash . , lime . , and magnesia . . he very pertinently remarks also "that if the lint were the only part of the plant removed from the land on which it is grown, cotton would be one of the least exhaustive of farm crops. the only other part which need be permanently lost to the soil is the oil, which also contains very small amounts of fertilising constituents." in connection with this he further says "that even when the seed is taken away along with the lint, cotton still removes smaller amounts of fertilising materials from the soil than either oats or corn." it should be borne in mind that the soil upon which cotton is cultivated lies fallow for a greater part of the year, and the fact of absence of cultivation, with consequent non-fertilising and non-enriching of land, must tend in the direction of soil exhaustion by the cotton plant. another useful and important fact in connection with the cotton plant is the medicinal use to which the roots are put. according to the _american journal of pharmacy_, the bark from the roots of the cotton plant contain an active ingredient which in its effects is very much like ergot. chemical investigations have conclusively proved that the ripe fibre of the cotton plant is composed of the following substances:-- carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and they tell us that when cotton is fully ripe it is almost pure cellulose. dr. bowman has pointed out that the percentage of water in cotton fibre "varies with different seasons from to per cent. in the new crop, and rather less as the season advances. above per cent. of moisture, however, seems to be an excessive quantity even in a new crop cotton, and when more than this is present it is either the result of a wet season and the cotton has been packed before drying, or else it has been artificially added." about one fifth of the whole plant by weight consists of the seed, and an analysis of this shows them to be composed of water, ash, nitrogen, phosphoric acid, potash, soda, lime, magnesia, sulphuric acid, ferric oxide, chlorine, and insoluble matter. as a commercial product seeds are exceedingly valuable, and yield the following substances:--oil, meal, hulls, and linters. when the hulls are ground they receive the name of cotton seed bran. the inside of the seed, when the hull has been removed, is often called the kernel and is sometimes also designated peeled seed, hulled seed, and meats. it is this kernel seed which, when properly treated, yields large supplies of oil and meal. chapter ii. cotton-plant diseases and pests. there are several classes of agents all of which act injuriously more or less on the cotton plant. . climatic changes, including hygrometric variations of the atmosphere, and extremes of heat and cold. . insect pests. . physiological diseases of the plant. . blights caused by fungi. it has been pointed out in the early pages of this story, how very sensible to changes of heat and cold, the cotton plant is, especially in the early growing period. when the plant has just risen above the ground, and is beginning to spread its roots, too great an amount of heat would be fatal to its further growth. instances could be given where very serious decreases in the production of cotton in the states especially have taken place, due entirely to unusually high temperatures which obtained during the early growing period of the cotton plant. extremes of frost are likewise fatal to the growth of the young plant. by the beginning of april, frosts have as a rule disappeared, and no further fear need be felt on that account, though if the end of winter has been abnormally warm, and the young plants have been making leaf too quickly, it will be readily seen how fatal a sharp frost or two must be to the young and tender plant. there are cases, however, when a frost is beneficial. then again, while rain is needed in fair quantity, too much of it is followed by rot and myriads of pests. if the planter desires anything at all when his crop is ripe, it is fine weather in which to gather his harvest. frequently large quantities of cotton are left on the plantations, because it is too wet to gather it. this happened a few years ago to an unusual extent, when a vast quantity of cotton had to be left upon the fields. of all the injurious agents most dreaded in the cotton-growing districts of the globe, none are so widely spread or so disastrous as "insect pests." they attack different parts of the plant during its growth, and when the bolls are formed they commit great havoc among these by boring through and completely ruining the immature fibre. then again, while the plant is young, they may attack the most tender portion of the plant, viz., the new and young leaves found at or near the top. this they soon clear and make their way as caterpillars down the plant, and they frequently clear it as though the leaves had been plucked off. so completely do they do their work that it has been calculated in certain years the loss on this account alone cannot have been far short in america of - / million pounds in one year. of the chief forms of insect pests, two specially stand out into prominence, both of which belong to the moth tribe of insects, viz., _alethia argillacea_ or cotton caterpillar, and the _heliothis armiger_ or cotton boll-caterpillar. the operations of the former are mostly confined to devastating the leaves and buds, while the latter confines its special attention to the bolls which, were they allowed to ripen, would burst with cotton. the eggs of the former, too, are laid on the under side of the upper leaves and vast numbers are deposited. the moth flies by night, and the eggs laid are extremely difficult to discover--indeed it takes an expert to quickly find them. usually, about midsummer, the eggs are hatched in three or four days and then comes the period for spoliation. all that is tender is assimilated, usually the under side of the young tender leaves found at the top of the plant. during this stage of its existence the caterpillar moults five times and the larva period varies somewhat according to the weather from one to three weeks. the chrysalis or pupa state covers from one week to four, and at last emerges as a beautiful olive gray moth with a purplish lustre. in about four days the female commences to lay eggs very rapidly and will lay sometimes as many as six hundred during its life. no wonder, then, with several generations during a season and vast numbers of moths, that untold damages can be wrought by these particular insects in a single season. a number of remedies has been successfully applied in the direction of spraying various chemical solutions, and in sowing plants which have had the direct effect of reducing the spread of this terrible pest. its method of working can be seen on referring to fig. . now the boll-caterpillar, though it lives much in the same way as the alethia, has a very different method of procedure so far as its destructive habits are concerned. and its fields and pastures, too, are by no means confined to one continent, or to one kind of plant, for it attacks both the tomato and corn plants. according to dr. howard, "it feeds upon peas, beans, tobacco, pumpkin, squash, okra, and a number of garden flowering plants, such as cultivated geranium, gladiolus, mignonette, as well as a number of wild plants." as the name indicates, the boll-caterpillar makes the boll its happy hunting-ground. the eggs are laid in the same way by the parent moth as the cotton caterpillar or alethia, and when hatched the young powerfully jawed caterpillar makes its way to the newly-formed boll, and applying itself vigorously, very soon gains an entrance. here it rests for a time, eating away at the best it can find. it ultimately emerges and is transformed into the pupa, taking up its quarters in the ground, until the next change takes place, when in a week or two's time it appears as a moth much the same in size as its cousin the alethia, but coloured ochre yellow to dull olive-green and being more varied in its markings. it will lay during one season about eggs. many remedies have been applied for the extirpation of this particular insect, but these only seem to have met with partial success. it will readily be seen how much more difficult this pest is to deal with than the preceding one. living as it does in the boll and in the ground for a great part of its existence, it will be exceedingly difficult to get at. in mexico what is known as the cotton-boll weevil (_anthonomus grundis_) appears to do great mischief to the cotton plant. it does most damage during the larvæ stage, eating up the tender portions of the boll while in residence here. when matured it is only a little under half an inch in length. many other insects act injuriously upon the cotton plant, but the following may be taken as the chief: cotton cutworm (_feltia malefida_); cotton lice (_aphis gossypii_). among the lepidoptera may be mentioned, _cocæcia rosaceana_, or "leaf-roller," so called from its habit of curiously rolling the leaves of the cotton plant and then feeding inside the roll. then grasshoppers and locusts occasionally do some damage, as well as a beetle named _ataxia crypta_, which is noted for attacking the stalks of the cotton plants, but it should be pointed out this beetle does not prey upon healthy and vigorous plants at all. scores of other insects could be mentioned as injurious, though some of them do but very slight damage indeed to the cotton plant. it does appear, however, from long years of experiment and observations, that little damage needs to be feared if the plants, while growing, and during the formation of the boll, can be carefully watched and guarded. the plants when matured are better able to withstand the onslaughts which these predaceous insects make upon them. then again, there are large numbers of physiological diseases of the cotton due to inherent weakness of the plant or failure of assimilative processes. and lastly, vast numbers of fungi, too numerous to mention here, work serious injury to leaf, flower and boll in certain seasons of the year. chapter iii. cultivation of the cotton plant in different countries. from what has already been said, it will be quite clear that the cotton plant will only successfully thrive in those regions on the earth's surface where there are suitable temperature and soil, and a proper and adequate supply of moisture both in the atmosphere and soil. when the th parallel of north latitude is reached, the plant ceases to grow except under glass or in exceptionally well favoured and temperate districts. below the equator the southern limit is the th parallel. with a model of the globe before him, the reader will see, if he mark the two lines already named, what a small belt the "cotton-growing zone" is, compared with the rest of the globe, and yet in it is estimated that no fewer than , , bales of lbs. net average each were produced in the united states alone, , came from the cotton fields of india, from egypt , , , an increase of , bales in ten years. this vast quantity does not include what was produced in other countries, which we know in the aggregate was very considerable. =american cultivation of the cotton plant.=--perhaps no country illustrates the fact so well as does the united states, that the variations in the quality of cotton are very largely--it may be said almost entirely--due to distance from sea board, height above sea level and difference of soil. the surface geology of the southern united states as a whole, is of a most diversified character, and the following states in which cotton is produced, in many cases show a similar variation. north carolina. tennessee. south carolina. alabama. georgia. mississippi. florida. louisiana. arkansas. texas. perhaps texas shows the greatest number of distinct soil areas, viz., eight. height above the sea level has also a considerable influence upon the plants cultivated, and only the hardier and more robust types are to be found on the more elevated lands. at the beginning of the nineteenth century south carolina produced more cotton than any other state. fifty years later, alabama was to the front. ten years later, mississippi led the way, and in texas occupied the premier position with , , bales, followed in order by georgia and mississippi. the following table from bulletin of the bureau of the census, department of commerce and labor, gives the acreage devoted to cultivation of cotton in as follows: alabama , , acres. arkansas , , " florida , " georgia , , " louisiana , , " mississippi , , " missouri , " north carolina , , " oklahoma , , " south carolina , , " tennessee , " texas , , " virginia , " ---------- , , " the figure for missouri includes other cotton-producing localities not named. before dealing with the actual cultivation of cotton, as carried on in the states, it will be well to briefly name the kind of soils which are met with in this cotton area. generally speaking, soils are divided into the following classes:-- clayey soils. clayey loam soils. loamy soils. sandy loam soils. sandy soils. this classification is determined by the relative percentage of sand and clay. in the states we have all these types, and in some districts they lie within easy reach of each other. it should be pointed out that sufficient and uniform heat and humidity are essential to the production of good cotton crops, and as the sandy soils are of an open character, it is plain that moisture will readily pass from these, while the heavy clays act just in the opposite direction, viz., prevent the uniform evaporation of the moisture within them; hence, as a rule, clayey lands are moist and damp, and it has been found from observation that on lands of this class, a good deal of wood and leaf are produced, and but little fruit relatively. a matter therefore which must not be lost sight of, is that a suitable texture should be found, or, in other words, the amount of sand and clay in the soils should be in the right proportion. of course, however suitable a soil may be, if the climatic conditions are adverse, only failure can result. given good land, properly drained and a suitable temperature, together with an uniform supply of moisture, heavy crops may be expected. sudden changes in the temperature, and variations in the amount of moisture, certainly act deleteriously upon the plant, especially during the period in which the young one is growing. there is a great difference between a wet soil and a moist one, and there is perhaps nothing so much dreaded by the planters as a sodden soil. up to the end of july the soil should be continuously and uniformly moist, and it would appear that, provided this condition is satisfied, there is every likelihood of a heavy crop resulting, if the temperature has been anything like suitable. looked at from every point of view, therefore, the best and safest soil in which to grow cotton is a deep loam where there is every probability of the necessary conditions being fulfilled. as compared with sixty years ago the present methods of cultivation show very great differences. most of us are acquainted with the conditions of labour which existed at that time. mrs. h. beecher stowe, in her pathetic and life-like story, "uncle tom's cabin," has given us such a glimpse into slave life that she has placed us all under lasting obligations to her. happily all that has gone and the slave, as such, is now known no more in america. three causes are said to have done more to change the methods of american cotton cultivation than anything else, viz.:-- the civil war. the abolition of slavery. introduction of artificial fertilisers. there are those who affirm to-day that the last-named has been the most potent factor of the three. in many cases, previous to the war, crop after crop was grown upon the same land without any thought of returning those elements, in the form of manure, to the earth, which it so much required. but immediately after the conclusion of the war, the conditions of labour were changed and it became a matter of absolute necessity to find something which would give life to the land, hence the introduction of fertilisers. it is stated on the authority of dr. white of georgia, that it would be "difficult to conceive how cotton culture could have been continued or sustained but for the use of such manures." in a work of this kind it is impossible to describe in detail the various methods of cultivation adopted in the several cotton states, but the following will give a fair idea of what actually takes place on a large cotton plantation, assuming that the land is well drained. it should be said here draining has not received that attention which it ought to have done, and many of the failures put down to other causes are now known to have been due entirely to bad drainage. as an alternative to proper drainage, the practice of raising the cotton plant beds and cultivating them to greater depth, has been followed. most of the planters are too poor to drain properly, and so adopt the banking method, though in the long run this is the more expensive of the two. let us assume that the cotton crop has all been gathered. we have an immense quantity of old cotton stalks which need removing. this is usually done before february. as a rule, the litter is gathered into heaps and burned. ploughing and harrowing next follow, and ridges are formed which in the elevated districts are not quite so far apart as in the low-lying areas. we can see that in the latter districts the plants will be much more prolific and grow to a better state of perfection, hence more room must be allowed for them. these ridges lie, in some cases, feet apart and in others and . especially when manures or fertilisers have been used, bedding up is generally adopted. as is to be expected in a country like america, the very best and most approved methods of cultivation are followed, hence the old system of sowing seed by hand is discarded, and seed-planting machines are now coming into general use. the distance apart which the seeds (about five or six in one hole) should be set, is still a moot question, but it is generally admitted to be unsafe to plant at greater distances than inches. when sown, a light covering is put over, and in a few days--about twelve generally--the tiny plants make their appearance. two or three days after, another leaf is seen, and it may be said that the real and anxious work of the cultivator now begins. in the carolina districts this will happen about the end of april. the planting in the more southern states will take place earlier. what has next to be done is very particular work, viz., cutting down and thinning the plants, which, if allowed to grow, would simply choke one another. here and there at suitable distances, groups of plants in the same row are selected as "stands" or groups of plants from which will be selected the best plant, which is allowed to go forward in its growth; all the rest being chopped out or weeded out. banking up or bedding up is the next process, and this is done running the plough in the spaces between the ridges or practically over the old cotton bed of the preceding season. this will improve the ventilating power of the bed considerably and prevent somewhat the logging of the soil, which is extremely undesirable. the plough is immediately followed by the field labourers, whose work is now to draw the loose soil round the cotton plants. this last process of "hauling" completes the labourers' work for a time, and is done for the purpose of keeping the plant erect and preventing it from falling down. this hauling process is repeated until july, when only one plant is left out of the five or six which were planted originally. after four haulings, which are completed as a rule by the end of july, the productive processes may be said to be completed. if the weather has been favourable and the soil kept fairly moist, a good crop may be fully anticipated. what the planters like to see during the growing period is a summer in which the sun shines every day, accompanied by those frequent and gentle showers which clean the plant and give the necessary humidity to the atmosphere and soil. two things are dreaded by the planter--excessive heats and abnormal showers. the bloom appears about the middle of june and a couple of months after this the plants are ready for picking. this operation usually is carried on from the beginning of september or end of august right on into november, sometimes through this month into december. here are given a few particulars which have been collected by shepperson bearing on this particular subject. +-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+ | | usual | | usual | | usual | | | date to |usual date| date to | usual date to | date to | | | begin | to begin | finish | begin picking. | finish | | states |preparing| planting.|planting.| | picking.| | | the | | | | | | | land. | | | | | +-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+ | n. carolina | feb. | april | may | sep. | dec. | | s. carolina | mar. | april | may | aug. to sep. | dec. | | georgia | feb. | april | may | aug. to | dec. | | florida | jan. | april | may | aug. | dec. | | alabama | feb. | april | may | aug. to | dec. | | mississippi | feb. | april | may | aug. to | dec. | | louisiana | feb. | april | may | aug. to | dec. | | texas | jan. | march | may | aug. | dec. | | arkansas | feb. | april | may | aug. to | jan. | | tennessee | mar. | april | may | sep. to | jan. | +-------------+---------+----------+---------+------------------+---------+ =other cotton-producing countries in america.=--in addition to the states, which have already been named, there are other cotton-producing countries in the western hemisphere, among which are the following:-- brazil. mexico. west indies. peru and the south sea islands. =cultivation of cotton in brazil.=--from a very remote period, cotton has been cultivated in brazil. early in the sixteenth century historians refer to the uses to which cotton was put at that time. seguro, in his work describing the customs of the ancient people who lived in the amazon valleys, says that the arrows used in connection with their blowguns were covered with cotton. it is probable that, before the dawn of the eighteenth century, the cultivation of cotton was practised more or less throughout the country. up to thirty years ago, it looked as though the cotton-growing industry in brazil was likely to be an increasing and profitable business. owing, however, to many causes, the trade has not grown as was to have been expected. among the chief of these causes are:-- . laxity of method in cultivating. . poor means of transmission. . severe competition by the united states. . disturbed condition of the country. all these have helped to keep down an industry which at one time bade fair to be a source of great income to the country. tree cotton and herbaceous cotton are both cultivated in brazil. the best kinds of sea islands have been tried, but have not succeeded. compared with the united states, the methods of cultivation pursued in brazil are exceedingly primitive and irregular. no such thing as ploughing or preparing of the soil is adopted. the only preparation seems to be to rid the land of cotton stumps, and this is done in a somewhat careless and indifferent manner. it would seem that as little labour as possible is expended upon the land in preparing it for the reception of seed. hilaire's aphorism--"nothing in this country is less expensive, or more productive, than cotton culture"--would seem, when the facts of the whole case are known, to be perfectly warranted so far as brazil is concerned. certainly, from a climatic point of view, this country is exceptionally well favoured, an equable and suitable temperature together with an adequate supply of earth and air, moisture and rich alluvial soils, a long dry season for picking extending over many weeks--all point to an ideal cotton-growing area. in fact, there is no reason why a crop of at least , , bales should not be obtained annually in brazil, if needed. at present, only about one three-hundredth part of this is grown. the cotton-growing centres are minas geraes, bahia, fernando de noronha, rio janeiro, sao paulo. =cotton cultivation in mexico.=--the cultivation of cotton has for many centuries been carried on in mexico. much the same drawbacks exist here as in brazil, viz., lack of labour, poor railway system, high rates for transmission, and indifferent methods employed in cultivating. mexico enjoys a splendid geographical position and would prove, if the business-like habits and methods obtained as in case of the states, one of the most serious competitors of its adjacent northern neighbour. the best cotton is produced in the state of guerrero on the eastern side, though the greater part--about one half--of the mexican crop is grown in laguna district, which lies in the coahuila country. there are three distinct areas of production in mexico, viz., along the eastern coast, along the western coast, and on the central tableland. in the western area irrigation is resorted to. in the year , , , pounds of cotton were grown, though all or nearly all of it was used at home. within the last twenty years many mills have been erected in this country, and this will account for the large quantity of cotton consumed at home. the poorest mexican cotton is produced in chiapas. acapulco, near the mouth of the grande del norte river, is the chief mexican cotton port on the eastern coast. =cotton-growing in peru.=--it would be a difficult matter to fix a time when cotton was first grown in peru. pizarro, who conquered this country early in the sixteenth century, found that the natives were fully engaged in the growing and spinning of cotton. dr. dabney, assistant secretary of the u.s.a. agricultural department, states that he has seen a cloth made of cotton recently taken from one of the peruvian mummies which must be many, many centuries old. there is not the slightest doubt that the cotton plant is indigenous to peru. thirty-five years ago liverpool received no less than , pounds weight of cotton from peru, and three years later over , , pounds. during the last decade of the century it exceeded , , pounds to england alone. two kinds of peruvian cotton are grown--smooth and rough. this latter is a rough, strong fibre, and is exceptionally well adapted for mixing with wool in the manufacture of hosiery, and a greater part of this cotton coming in england is used in the hosiery trade. the plant from which it is produced is a perennial, and for six or seven years is said to give two crops a year. owing to the peculiarly favourable climate of peru and the suitability of the soil, it is exceedingly improbable that any strong competitor will come to divert the peruvian trade, so that for some time yet we may look to this country supplying the hosiery trade with rough peruvian cotton. the importations of peruvian cotton into the united states for - were , bales; for - , , bales; for - , , bales. =the cultivation of cotton in india.=--there are other asiatic cotton fields besides those of india, viz., china, corea, japan, the levant, and russia in asia. the term "india" will be used in a somewhat restricted sense in this section, and will cover only that huge triangular-shaped peninsula lying to the south of thibet in asia. it is miles in width and nearly miles in length. the total area, not including assam and burmah, is about , , square miles, the native states alone covering , square miles. out of the ° of north latitude through which india stretches, no less than - / ° are in the tropics, the remainder being in the temperate zone. the climate, owing to a number of circumstances, such as different altitudes and uneven distribution of moisture, is exceedingly varied. during the months april to september the sun, during the day or some part of it, is overhead. consequently the heat received will be greater than over the ocean at the south, taking a similar area. a direct cause of this is the starting of winds which receive the name of monsoons. these blow from the s.w., and bring vast quantities of moisture with them. this moisture-laden wind is partially robbed of its load as it strikes the western ghats and consequently much moisture is deposited here, giving rise to many valuable rivers which water the deccan or central tableland of india. the mahanuddy, godavari, kristna, and kauvari are rivers fed by the s.w. monsoon. then, again, the low-lying lands near the mouth of the indus, the great desert of rajputana, the peninsula of gujerat and the district of malwa--all allow, by reason of their low-lying nature, the s.w. winds to pass over them laden as they are with vast quantities of moisture. they travel on till they meet the himalayas, where again they help to swell the volume of the waters in the rivers ganges and indus. when the n.e. monsoons blow they do not carry anything like the amount of moisture which the s.w. monsoons do, as their areas of collection are very much more limited. consequently this part of the year is usually a dry one (viz., from october to march). thus it will be seen that the great plain of southern india is much less watered than the more northerly portions and consequently is much less fertile. this fact must be borne in mind as the cotton-growing areas are described and indicated. india, which grows more cotton than any other country in the world (the states excepted), may be said to possess four distinct areas for the production of commercial cotton. they are-- . central tableland or deccan. . valley of the ganges. . western india. . southern india. and the above order shows them also according to their commercial importance. _central district._--this is a vast plateau bounded on the north by the vindhya mountains, on the east and west by the ghats of those names, and on the south by the river krishna. as is to be expected, the collecting and exporting of the cottons grown in this district are done at bombay. the finest cottons grown in india are produced in this region. four centres stand out prominently in the production of cotton, viz., dharwar, hyderabad, nagpore and berar. the soils generally in the deccan are very rich and capable of retaining moisture during the growing term of the plant's life. what are known as the black soils of india are to be found plentifully in this district, and these are exceedingly rich in mineral matter. nagpore should specially be named, as it is in this province that the finest cotton grown in all india is produced, viz.:-- "hingunghat cotton." "oomrawattee cotton" is the name given to a special kind which is produced in the province of berar. it is sometimes called "oomras." this district lies in the "nizam's dominions" and is watered by several tributaries of the tapti and godivari. it possesses a soil which for richness and fertility has no equal in india. with the exception of bengal, this district is more plentifully supplied with rivers than any other part of india. image: fig. .--an indian cotton field. the dharwar district is noted for its cottons, for two or three reasons. it was in this region that in new orleans cotton was planted with a view to its ultimately being cultivated here. as the climate and soil are very similar to some of the districts in the mississippi valley, it succeeded beyond anticipation. dharwar lies s. w. of the province of hyderabad near the sea, and almost touches ° n. latitude. _the valley of the ganges district_ cannot be said to grow very good cotton, though it was in this region, at dacca, that in former days the cotton which was afterward made into the celebrated dacca muslin was grown. by far the greater part of the fibre produced in this district comes from two centres: ( ) bundelkhand, which lies ° e. long., and ° n. latitude (this is very near to allahabad), and ( ) doab. as was pointed out in describing the monsoons, these two centres suffer by reason of droughts, owing mainly to their geographical position. they are subject also to severe floods, which are certainly against successful cultivation of cotton. the entire crop of the north west provinces may be said to come from the districts of doab and bundelkhand. _western india district._--the three centres for the production of cotton in the west, may be said to be peninsula of guzerat, the island of cutch and the delta district of the indus named sind. the whole of these provinces lies in what may be called a dry area, missing, as was shown, much of the s. w. monsoon, which ultimately finds its way across country to the himalayas. consequently there will be little rainfall in this area, sind and cutch not more than inches, some parts of guzerat having much more. this has a very serious effect upon the quality of the cotton produced. the surat, broach and sind cottons, all poor types, are all grown in this part of india. _southern india district._--this lies in the southern part of the residency of madras, and east of the province of travancore. the nilgiris and shevaroy hills are found here, as are also the cauvery and vaigai rivers. the cotton districts best known are coimbatore and tinnevelley, both of which are admirably situated and well watered. the calicut of fame which gave rise to the name calico is also in this district. tinnevelley lies almost at the extreme south of india on the gulf of manaar opposite to island of ceylon. its cotton is well known, but is of a poor type. as far back as , experiments carried out under the superintendence of dr. wright proved that this district was very suitable for the cultivation of american cotton. a fact interesting as well as instructive is given by him to the effect that in the southern part of india the crops universally failed where grown from the native seed, while those grown from american seed realised very fair amounts--better even than were obtained when good crops were got after using indian seed. the methods of preparing, planting, and cultivating the indian plants are exceedingly antiquated. in but few districts are anything like modern methods practised. advantage however is taken of the period just preceding the rain monsoon and this differs a little according to the district. thus in bengal, berar, and broach, may and june are usually taken for scantily preparing the land, and in madras and dharwar, august and september. this consists of turning over the soil and burying the old cotton plants of the previous season which have been allowed to rot. as no fertilisers are used, these roots and branches at best make a very poor substitute. ploughing, hoeing and other agricultural operations are of the rudest types and oxen are used for almost everything in the way of heavy labour. farm implements, gearing carts, etc., are all of a style and differ very little from those used centuries ago. the seeds are sown broadcast, and almost everything is done by hand. the plantations as a rule are much smaller than those in america, running from to acres. on the larger plantations the cotton is cultivated mainly by paid labourers. the following table, by shepperson, shows the acreage devoted to cotton of the different states in india:-- bombay and sind , , acres. punjaub , , " n. w. provinces , , " bengal , " rajputana , " central india , " berar , , " central provinces , " hyderabad (nizam's) , , " madras , , " mysore } assam } , " burmah (lower)} burmah (upper)} ajmere and meywara , " ---------- , , " bombay, kurrachee, calcutta, madras, tuticorin and cocanada are the chief indian cotton ports. =cotton-growing in russia in asia.=--lying immediately north of persia and afghanistan and south of khirghiz steppes lies an immense area much of which is now being cultivated and most of it very fit for the production of cotton. the sea of ural has running into it two very large rivers, amu daria and the syr daria, and it is in the neighbourhood of these two rivers where we find by far the greatest weight of cotton of turkestan produced. there are four important areas, viz., syr daria, the centre of which is tashkend; fergana, which lies between samarcand and bokhara; the district of samarcand itself; and merv, which stands on the overland railway. it appears that many attempts were made to introduce cottons of various types into this locality, but most of the delicate species failed. the upland of america, however, survived, and has continued to succeed, thanks to the valuable help which the government gave in the way of instruction and distribution of free seed. the first government cotton plantation was commenced at tashkend, one of the termini of the transcaspian railway. eight years ago there were upwards of a quarter of a million acres devoted to cotton cultivation. during the american war (that period which quickened all the cotton-growing centres of the eastern hemisphere) the production of fibre may be said to have commenced in earnest in turkestan, and so late ago as no less than forty-five and a half million pounds of good fibre were grown. tashkend, it would appear, promises to hold its own, as it is determined to practise the best and most scientific methods in the growth of cotton; in fact, in very few centres outside this district, old and out of date operations are followed. even in the districts of fergana and samarcand, the old wooden plough called a "sokha" is still in use. seed, as in the case of india, is mostly sown broadcast, and very little preparing of the land is done. yet, in spite of these deficiencies, good crops are raised in many districts, capital soil and a most equable climate making up for the shortcomings of the planter. the formation of the transcaspian railway cannot but have an important influence upon the cotton-growing industry in turkestan, running as it does through the very heart of the best land in the country. it should be noted that bohkara annually produces over , , pounds of cotton of the herbaceous type, and khiva, another district lying still further east of those already mentioned, over , , pounds. lying between the caspian sea and black sea, lies another district named transcaucasia, which yields large supplies of cotton. it has , acres devoted to cotton, giving over , , pounds per annum. north of kokan, on the river syr daria, is a rising cotton district named khojend, where annually , , pounds of cotton of the american type are raised. when we consider that the quantity of cotton carried by the transcaspian railway since has more than quadrupled, and that in ten years the quantity shipped has been increased from quarter of a million pounds to over , , pounds, we can quite appreciate the significance of the statement that before long russia will be able to grow all her own cotton for the medium and lower numbers of yarns. =cotton-growing in china, corea and japan.=--japan, the land of the chrysanthemum, for many years now has been developing cotton-growing as well as cotton manufacturing. from evidence which the cold type of the board of trade gives, japan bids fair to largely increase her trade with india to the disadvantage of the present suppliers. cotton-growing has been practised for some centuries in japan, but it was not until the seventeenth century that anything like progress could be reported. from that time to the present the growth has been gradually on the increase. japan proper consists of the islands of niphon, kiusiu, shikoku, yesso, and an immense number of smaller islands. cotton cultivation is carried on mainly on the first three islands named, and in the following districts:--san indo, wakayama, osaka, kuantoebene, hitachi and suo. taken as a whole, the cotton grown in the best areas is good, though much of an inferior kind is produced. the most southerly area of wakayama in niphon yields the best cotton of japan. the length of the fibre generally is much less than the herbaceous kind. about per cent. of the entire arable land is now under cultivation for cotton. as a rule, methods and processes are of a primitive kind. =cotton-growing in corea.=--lying directly to the west of japan, this vast peninsula has of late years been developing its cotton-growing. five centuries ago cotton was imported from china, and one sees on every hand the influence of the celestials. the cultivated plant is of the perennial type, though it is planted annually, the old plants being dug up and burned, the ash being used as a fertiliser. statistics at present are not to be relied upon, though it is supposed that something like three quarters of a million acres are now under cultivation, giving on the average about pounds of cotton lint. as in the case of japan very little of this is exported, all of it or nearly so being spun and woven at home on the most primitive of machines. the chief districts engaged in growing cotton, nearly all of which lie in the southern portion of the peninsula, are hwang-hi, kyeng-sang, chel-la, kyeng kwi, and chung cheog. =cotton-growing in china.=--owing to the great difficulty of obtaining any reliable statistical information, it is impossible to give anything approaching accuracy as to number of pounds of cotton produced annually, or number of acres devoted to the cultivation of the cotton plant. this much, however, is known, that for many centuries cotton cultivating has been followed and that there has been within recent years a great increase in the weight of the cotton crop as well as in the acreage. the type of plant most generally cultivated is the herbaceous, and the cotton resulting is only poor in quality. little or no preparation is made before sowing seed, which is generally done broadcast. as a result there is much overcrowding, and as is inevitable, there is produced a stubby plant with small bolls and much unripe cotton. on the terraces of the hillsides something approaching cultivation is pursued, with the result of a better crop. usually twenty weeks intervene between planting and picking, this latter operation being mostly the work of children and women. the old cotton stalks are afterward collected and dried for fuel. very few large plantations exist in china, most of them being only a few acres in extent. but little of the cotton grown at home is exported, most of it being spun and woven by women, though some of the fibre is sent to japan. =cultivation of cotton in egypt.=--it is now over thirty years since sir samuel baker, the great african traveller, wrote these words: "the nile might be so controlled that the enormous volume of water that now rushes uselessly into the mediterranean might be led through the deserts, to transform them into cotton fields that would render england independent of america." the crop for the season - was no less than , , bales of pounds each. ten years ago only , acres were devoted to cotton cultivation as against , , acres laid down to-day. everything, then, points to sir samuel baker's statement becoming an actual fact much sooner than the famous traveller himself anticipated. egypt enjoys many advantages over her competitors across the atlantic. in the first place, she can get almost twice as much cotton from the acre, so productive is the soil. labour is cheaper, and the plant itself when young is not subject to the devastating frosts so often met with in america. egypt is divided into three great areas:--lower egypt, which includes the whole of the delta of the nile; upper egypt; and nubia. it is in the first-named district where the whole of egyptian cotton is produced. at the present time immense sums are being spent on irrigation and drainage works, and as these are extended the areas devoted to cotton production will greatly increase. at the present time five distinct varieties of cotton are cultivated-- mitafifi. bamia. abbasi. gallini. ashmouni-hamouli. the latter variety was originally known by a different name, mako jumel. for a long time ashmouni cotton was the principal fibre exported, but mitafifi is now in the front of all the other egyptian cottons. a noteworthy fact in connection with ashmouni is, that its cultivation is on the decline. sea islands gallini--as it was sometimes called--has practically ceased to be cultivated. of mitafifi and bamia fibres, mr. handy, u. s. a., says: "the mitafifi was discovered by a greek merchant in the village of that name. the seed has a bluish tuft at the extremity, which attracted the merchant's attention, and on planting it he found that it possessed decided advantage over the old ashmouni. it is more hardy, and yields a greater proportion of lint to the seed. at first from pounds of seed cotton, pounds of lint was secured, and sometimes even more. it is now somewhat deteriorated, and rarely yields so much, averaging about pounds of lint to of seed cotton. the mitafifi is a richer and darker brown than the ashmouni. the fibre is long, very strong, and fine to the touch, and is in great demand. in fact, it controls the market. "next to mitafifi, bamia is perhaps the most extensively cultivated variety in lower egypt. it was discovered by a copt in . the plant is of large size and course growth. it is later and less hardy than mitafifi, and the fibre is poor as compared with that of mitafifi and abbasi, light and brown in colour, and not very strong. in general, it may be said that this variety is inferior to mitafifi in yield, hardiness and length and strength of fibre." =other places where cotton is grown.=--in africa, on the eastern and western coasts, large quantities of cotton are produced. the following countries are specially suitable to the growth of cotton: soudan, senegambia, congo river, free states, and liberia. possibly, when these districts are more opened up to outside trade, and european capital and labour are expended, abundant supplies of cotton fibre will be given. cotton is also grown in the east indies, at java, sumatra, and malay states. in the west indies formerly, large supplies were yielded, but owing to the cultivation of other crops that of cotton has steadily declined. greece and turkey both yield cotton which goes by the name of levant cotton. chapter iv. the microscope and cotton fibre. this story would be very incomplete if some reference were not made to the wonderful assistance which has been given to the study of cotton fibre by the microscope. as seen by its help, some striking peculiarities at once make themselves apparent. it is proposed, briefly, in this chapter, to do three things: . to describe the construction of a suitable instrument sufficient for a complete examination of fibres in general. . to indicate the chief microscopic features of cotton fibres. . to show how to exactly measure the lengths and diameters of fibres by means of micrometers. first, as to the instrument: a good substantial stand is desirable, one that will not readily vibrate. the microscope shown in fig. is a cheap and commendable form, and good work can be done by this instrument, which is made by ross, london. the stand carries the body-tube, and at the lower end is placed the objective, so called, because the image of the object (which rests upon the stage as shown) under examination is first focussed by it and conveyed along the body-tube. the top end of the said tube contains the eye-piece, so named because by its aid the eye is allowed to receive the image duly focussed and enlarged. as a rule, beginners work with one objective only, generally a one inch. image: fig. .--microscope in position for drawing objects. a much higher power than this is necessary if the fibre in question is to be seen at its best, and for the purpose of this chapter a quarter inch objective will be used. underneath the stage, which is pierced by a circular aperture, is a diaphragm. this regulates the quantity of light which is to be transmitted by means of the silvered reflector shown in the illustration. as a rule, two reflectors are fixed in the same holder; one a concave mirror, the other a plane one. the former brings the rays of light to a point or focus while the latter simply passes the beam of light along just as it received it, viz., as a parallel beam of light. in examining fibres the concave mirror will be of most use. an ordinary lamp is usually good enough for the light required, the one figured being very suitable and having a tube-like arrangement of wick. behind the body-tube are two forms of adjustment, coarse and fine. the latter is worked by means of the milled screw, conical in shape, which is found immediately behind the coarse adjustment. the operator is supposed to have had some slight experience in the manipulation of the microscope. the slide is now placed upon the stage. fine sea islands cotton is mounted in canada balsam and protected by a small circular cover glass. now rack down the body-tube by means of the coarse adjustment until within / of an inch of the cover-glass of the slide. now see that the light from the lamp is fully on the cotton strands. rack up or down, as the case may be, with the fine adjustment, and a wonderful sight meets the eye, for the cotton viewed through the microscope is altogether unlike what we should expect it to be. running completely across the field are a number of strands, varying in thickness, form and natural twist. what is meant by natural twist is very clearly shown in fig. . most people have seen india-rubber tubing or piping such as is used in the chemical laboratory or that often found attached to feeding bottles. take about a foot of this and hold one end firmly. abstract the air by means of the mouth, and it will be found that immediately the air is taken out the tube collapses. now if the rubber be variable in thickness, here and there along these lines of least resistance will be found certain twists, and it is the same kind of twists which can be so distinctly seen as the cotton fibre is viewed through the microscope. they are exceedingly irregular in number, on equal lengths of the same single fibre. when they run for some length, and are fairly regular, the edges appear like wavy lines or corrugations. it will now be seen by the reader why these twists are so invaluable in spinning: locking and intertwining with each other, they materially assist the spinner in building up a long and continuous thread. image: fig. .--transverse and longitudinal sections of cotton fibre. then, too, are to be seen lying close to the regularly twisted fibres a number of others which are very like ribbons, with here and there an apology for a twist, and further, a careful scrutiny will be rewarded by finding in what is reputedly the best cotton a number of filaments which do not display any twists whatever and are very much like the round tubing referred to a little while ago. others again are quite flat, without any distinguishing twists whatever. these are said to be the half-ripe and unripe fibres, and give much trouble later on (if worked up with good cotton) to the dyer and spinner. as the slide containing the cotton is moved laterally, it will be seen that this twisting of the fibre is continued for almost the whole length, and as many as twists have been counted on a single filament. in some, the fibre tapers slightly, becoming more and more cylindrical as the end most remote from the seed is approached, until it is quite solid. these stiff ends soon disappear after the cotton has been treated in the early processes of manufacture. thus there may be found in almost every sample of cotton what are called ripe, half-ripe and unripe cotton. the last-named kind result from-- . gathering the crop before the boll is properly ripened and matured. . bad seasons; too much moisture and too little heat. then again in the same boll all fibres do not ripen together just as all apples on the same tree do not ripen together. immature or unripe cotton cannot be dyed, and when small white specks are seen in any dyed fabric they are often due to the fact that unripe cotton has been used in the manufacture of the cloth. =measurement of the cotton fibre.=--this is not at all a difficult matter, and the ordinary student may, by means of very simple and inexpensive apparatus, obtain fairly satisfactory results in the measurement of fibres. there is a choice of one of three methods, viz.:-- . by having the mechanical stage so arranged that the slightest displacement either to the left or right can be measured, and having the eye-piece so marked (generally a hair stretched across it) that when an object is to be measured, one side of it is made to coincide with this central line and the stage rack is worked left or right until the opposite side of the object is brought coincident with the central line again; the amount of displacement can then be readily obtained on referring to the graduated stage. . by having a stage micrometer and camera lucida. . by having two micrometers, a stage micrometer and eye-piece micrometer. this latter method is certainly the least expensive, and for all practical purposes can be safely recommended. a stage micrometer consists of a slip of glass " × " on which are marked divisions of an inch, usually / ths and / ths. as a rule these markings are protected by means of a small cover-glass. eye-piece micrometers vary much in form, size and value, but the one which is here described is of the simplest type. it consists of two circular pieces of glass carefully cemented together. on one of the inner surfaces are marked usually the / ths divisions of an inch. in some / ths are marked. if the top lense of the eye-piece be unscrewed, a diaphragm will be found on which the eye-piece micrometer will easily rest. screw on the top lense again and, generally, the eye-piece will be ready for use. if the micrometer is not properly in focus after a few trials, it may easily be made right. in order, then, to measure the diameter of a single fibre of sea islands cotton, fit in the quarter inch objective and place the stage micrometer in position on the stage. first, focus the fine lines which are plainly to be seen, and remember the lines which are farthest apart are / th of an inch; the others / th of an inch. as a rule, these lines run from n. to s. of the field; in other words, from top to bottom across the circles of light. now look at the divisions in the eye-piece micrometer, which are / th of an inch apart. it will be found often that an exact number of these divisions fill up one of the / th divisions of the stage micrometer markings. if an exact number are not found, the draw-tube at the top end of the body-tube should be withdrawn until an exact number is found to lie within two lines of the lower micrometer. suppose twenty-two of the spaces on the eye-piece micrometer just cover one of the divisions ( / th of an inch) on the stage micrometer. then it is clear that each division of the former represents / × / of an inch, or / th of an inch. for every fresh objective used, a fresh estimation of eye-piece and stage micrometer ratio is necessary. having now got in the eye-piece micrometer a unit of measurement, it becomes a comparatively easy matter to measure the fibre. remove the stage-micrometer and put a slide of sea islands cotton in its place. focus the fibre and observe the number of divisions or parts of a division covered by any particular fibre, and its measurement is at once known. thus if a single filament covers two of the divisions then it is / th of an inch in diameter, or / th of an inch. exactly the same method is adopted if it is desired to measure the diameters of sections of the same fibres. the making of the drawing of a fibre, either transverse or horizontal section, is not at all a difficult matter. all that is needed is what is known as a camera lucida. this consists of a brass fixing for the eye-piece end of the body-tube and a small reflecting prism. this prism receives the image of the objective, and reflects it in this case at right angles downward on to a sheet of paper, which is placed beneath for the purpose of tracing the said image. focus the object, first having the microscope in a horizontal position. this will not be a difficult matter. now remove the cap which fits on the eye-piece, and fix on the camera lucida as shown in the illustration (see fig. ). adjust this until the image of the fibre is seen. usually one or two smoke-coloured glasses are fixed below the prism, and these are now brought into position so as to allow the image of the fibre to pass through them. place a sheet of drawing paper directly under the camera lucida, sitting as shown in the illustration. after a few trials it will not be a difficult matter to follow the outline of the image by means of a black lead on the paper as is shown in the figure. in this way many useful working drawings can be made, and a little careful calculation will give the amplification of the drawing after it is made. chapter v. plantation life and the early cleaning processes. after many months of anxious watching and waiting, towards the end of july or early in august, the planter may be seen to be constantly and wistfully looking for the appearance of the bursting bolls of cotton. daily in the early mornings he is to be seen casting his eyes down the pod-laden rows of cotton plants, to see if he can count a few ripe open bolls as he stands at the head of a row. if this be so, he knows that his harvest is close at hand, and his pickers must be ready at any moment to begin what is certainly the most tedious and difficult work of the plantation, namely, picking the raw cotton from the bursting bolls. while the planter has been on the lookout in the fields, necessary and important operations have been going on inside in the farm outbuildings. sacks and baskets which can most expeditiously aid in the removal of the picked cotton from the field to the ginning factory are being got ready. to suit the young and old, tall and small, weak and strong, different sized bags and baskets are required, and after the marking and branding of the same, they are ready for being put into use. now the picking of cotton is not at all an easy operation, long continuous bending, a hot sun (for it is a rule scarcely ever broken that cotton must not be plucked unless the sun is shining upon it), a constantly increasing weight round the neck or on the arm, monotonous picking of the cotton from the bolls without bringing away any of the husk or leaf--all tend to make the work of the picker very trying and tiresome. the plantation hands must be early at work, and while the day is very young they are to be seen wending their way, ready to begin when the sun makes its appearance. often the clothes of the workers are quite wet with the early morning dews. this is specially the case in september and october. by ten o'clock a hot blazing sun streams down upon the pickers as they diligently relieve the heavy-laden bushes of the white fleecy load of cotton. as each picker fills his or her bag, it is quickly emptied into a larger receptacle, and ultimately carried away to the gin house, where it is desirable the cotton should be housed before the night dews come on and consequently damage materially the cotton which the pickers have been careful to pick while the sun was on it. mr. lyman, in his book on the cotton culture in the states, says: "it seems like very easy work to gather a material which shows itself in such abundance as fairly to whiten the field, but let the sceptic or the grumbler take a bag on his shoulders and start in between a couple of rows. he will find upon taking hold of the first boll that the fibres are quite firmly attached to the interior lining of the pod, and if he makes a quick snatch, thinking to gather the entire lock, he will only tear it in two, or leave considerable adhering to the pod. and yet he may notice that an experienced picker will gather the cotton and lay his fingers into the middle of the open pod with a certain expertness which only practice gives, the effect of which is to clear the whole pod with one movement of the hand." knowing how intensely monotonous and dreary the work of cotton picking is, mr. lyman advises the planters to allow a very fair amount of liberty so far as merrymaking is concerned, and he says on this point that "though too much talking and singing must interfere with labour, it is earnestly recommended to every cotton grower to take care to secure cheerfulness if not hilarity in the field. remember that it is a very severe strain upon the patience and spirits of any one, to be urged to rapid labour of precisely the same description day by day, week by week, month by month. let there be refreshments at the baskets, a dish of hot coffee in a cool morning, or a pail of buttermilk in a hot afternoon, or a tub of sweetened water, or a basket of apples." as a rule the cotton gathered on one farm, which has, generally speaking, had something like uniformity in method of cultivation, will produce cotton varying very little in quality and weight. hence on large farms there will be something like uniform quality of cotton produced. it will, however, be clear to the general reader that on the small farms of india, say where sufficient cannot be gathered on one farm, or perhaps on a few farms, to make one bale, there will not be that uniformity which is desirable, hence indian cotton, especially of the poorer types, varies a great deal more than the american varieties. when the hands have gathered sufficient to fill the carts drawn in america usually by mules, and in india by oxen, the cotton is taken to houses in which the seeds are separated from the fibre. this process is called "ginning." it is astonishing to find how tenaciously the fibres cling to the seed when an attempt is made to separate them. at first much loss was occasioned because of the brutal methods employed, and now even with very much more perfect machinery a good deal of the cotton fibre is injured in the ginning process. image: fig. .--indian women with roller gin. at present, most of the cotton produced in various parts of the world is ginned by machinery, though in india and china foot gins and other primitive types are still employed. it should be stated that where a large production of cotton is desired the foot gin or even what is known as the "churka gin" (which consists of a couple of rollers turned by hand) is never employed. only a few pounds a day of cotton can be separated from the seeds when this method is adopted. the following extract from a lecture by the late sir benjamin dobson will be of interest here, as showing what is done at an american ginnery: "the farmer brings the cotton to the mill in a waggon, with mules or oxen attached; the cotton is weighed, and then thrown out of the waggon into a hopper alongside. from this hopper it is taken by an elevator, or lift, either pneumatic or mechanical, and raised to the third story of the ginning factory. there it is delivered into another part of the room until required. when the cotton is to be ginned it is brought by rakes along the floor to an open sort of hopper or trunk, and from here conveyed to the gins below by travelling lattices. "in the factory of which i am speaking there were six gins, all of them saw-gins. each gin was provided with a hopper of its own, and the attendant, when any hopper was full, could either divert the feed to some other gin, as he required, or stop it altogether. the gins produced from pounds to pounds per hour. the cotton is dropped from the condenser, in front of the gin, upon the floor close to the baling press, into which it is raked by the attendant and baled loosely, but only temporarily. the seed falls into a travelling lattice, and is conducted to a straight cylindrical tube, in which works a screw. this takes it some one hundred yards to the oil mill. there the seed is dropped into what are known as 'linting' machines, and as much as possible of the lint or fibre left upon the seed is removed. "these linting machines--practically another sort of gin--deliver the cotton or waste in a kind of roll, which is straightway put behind a carding engine. coming out of the carding engine it is made into wadding by pasting it on cardboard paper, for filling in quilts, petticoats, and for other purposes. when the seed has passed the linting machine, it is taken, still by a lattice, to a hulling machine. this machine will take off the outside shell, which is passed to one side, while the green kernel of the seed goes down a shoot. the seed fills certain receptacles placed in the oil press, and is submitted to a hydraulic press. the result is a clear and sweet oil, which i am credibly informed is sold in england and other countries under the name of 'olive oil.' the remains of the green kernel are then pressed into what are termed cattle cakes, or oil cakes, for feeding cattle." but the reader is probably asking, what is a gin like? the illustration seen in fig. is a gin which goes by the name of the "single-acting macarthy gin," so called because it has only one oscillating blade for removing the fibre from the seed. the back of the machine is shown in the figure. this process at the best is a brutal one, especially when certain gins are employed, but the one figured here is considered to do little damage to the fibre when extracting the seed. the gin shown in fig. is of simple construction, consisting of a large leather roller about inches in length and in diameter. "the roller is built up by means of solid washers, or in strips fastened on to wood, against which is pressed a doctor knife. "the cotton is thrown into a hopper, and, falling, is seized by the friction of the leather and drawn between the doctor knife and the leather surface. whilst this is taking place, there is a beater knife which is reciprocated at a considerable speed and which strikes the seed attached to the cotton drawn away by the leather roller. the detached seed will then fall through a grid provided for the purpose. a single-action gin should produce about pounds of cleaned cotton per hour." image: fig. .--single-acting macarthy gin. another gin which does considerable damage to fibre, especially if it be over-fed, is still in use in the states. this was the invention of an american named eli whitney, and has been named a "saw-gin." if the reader can imagine a number of circular saws (such as are to be seen in a wood-sawing mill) placed nearly together on a shaft to form an almost continuous roller, he will have a good idea of what the chief part of a saw-gin is like. as the cotton is fed to the machine, the saws seize it and strip the cotton from the seeds, which fall through grids placed below the saws. the cotton is afterward stripped from the saws themselves by means of a quickly revolving brush which turns in the opposite direction to the saws. this gin is best suited to short stapled cottons, especially such as are grown in the states. for the longer fibred cotton this gin is not well adapted, much injury resulting to the cotton treated by it. after the cotton is ginned, it is gathered into bundles and roughly baled. when a sufficient quantity has been so treated, it is carried to the "compressors," where the cotton undergoes great reduction in bulk as a result of the enormous pressure to which it is subjected. for the general reader it will scarcely be necessary or wise to describe a "cotton press" in detail. let it suffice to say that by means of a series of levers--in the morse press seven are used--tremendous pressure can be obtained. thus for every pound pressure of steam generated there will be seven times that pressure, if seven levers are used. when pounds pressure of steam is up, there will be pounds pressure per inch on the cotton. so great is the pressure exerted that a bundle of cotton coming to the press from the ginnery, feet in depth, is reduced to inches when drawn from the compressor. while in the press iron bands are put round the cotton, and readers will have frequently seen cotton on its way to the mills having these iron bands round it. the following table shows the number of bands which are found on bales coming to england from cotton-growing countries:-- no. of bands. weight in lbs. american bale or egyptian " indian " turkish " - american cylindrical bale -- - brazilian -- - within the last few years an entirely new industry has been started in some of the southern states of america. up to recently the bales sent to european countries from america were all of the same type as shown by the centre bale in fig. . image: fig. .--bales from various cotton-growing countries. now a vast quantity of cotton is being baled in the form as shown in fig. , and what are known as cylindrical bales are being exported in large numbers. in the "round bale" circular of the american cotton company, it is stated that from the st november, , to january nd, , no less than round bales were turned out of the factory at waco in texas. the total weight of these bales was , pounds, giving an average of pounds per bale. by means of a press the cotton is rolled into the form as shown in the illustration. the press makes a bale feet long and feet in diameter and weighs over pounds per cubic foot or per cent. denser than the bale made under the system as shown in fig. . image: fig. .--cylindrical rolls of cotton. it is claimed for this new system that the regularity of the size of the bale, x feet, makes it pack much closer than the irregular turtle-backed bales as usually made on the old system. under the new style the cotton is pressed gradually and not all at once. for this reason it is claimed that the fibre is not injured and the cotton arrives at the mill with the fibre in as good condition as when it left the gins. "bagging and ties are entirely dispensed with, as the air is pressed out of the cotton and it has no tendency to expand again, and the covering needed is only sufficient to keep the cotton clean." from a number of experiments it is proved that the "round bale" is both fireproof and water proof. from the illustration of the round bale shown in fig. , it will be seen how readily this new form of bale lends itself to greatly aiding the operatives in the opening processes in the mill. the roll which lies on the floor like a roll of carpet could be so fixed that the cotton could be fed to the opener by being unrolled as shown in the illustration. at present the round bale system is not popular and it remains to be seen whether it will commend itself to cotton spinners. chapter vi. manipulation of cotton in opening, scutching, carding, drawing, and fly-frame machines. before attempting to give the readers of this story an insight into the various operations through which cotton is made to pass, it may be advisable to briefly enumerate them first. on the field there are the operations of collecting and ginning, that is, separating the raw cotton from the seeds. to the stranger it is very astonishing that as many as to pounds of seed are got from every pounds of seed cotton gathered. then in or near the cotton field the process of baling is carried out. thus there are collecting, ginning and baling, as preliminary processes. when the cotton arrives in bales at the mill (see fig. ), in which it is to be cleaned, opened and spun, it is first weighed and a record kept. in the mill the first real operation is the taking of quantities of cotton from different bales of cotton from various countries, or different grades from the same country, and "mixing" so as to secure a greater uniformity in the quality of the yarn produced. in this process it is now the common practice to use a machine termed the "bale breaker," or "cotton puller." the second important process carried out in the mill is "opening." by this the matted masses of cotton fibres are to a great extent opened out, and a large percentage of the heavy impurities, such as sand, shell, and leaf, fall out by their own weight. it is now also usual at this stage to form the cotton into a large roll or sheet called the "lap." immediately following the "opening" comes "scutching," which is merely a continuation of the work performed by the "opener," but done in such a way that greater attention is bestowed upon the production of an even sheet or "lap" of cotton. the cotton at this stage is practically in the same condition as it was when first gathered from the tree in the plantation. =carding= comes next in order, and it should be observed that this is one of the most beautiful and instructive operations carried on in the mill. the process of opening out the cotton is continued in this operation to such an extent that the fibres are practically _individually separated_, and while in this condition very fine impurities are removed, and many of the short and unripe fibres which are always more or less present are removed. before leaving the machine the fibres are gathered together again in a most wonderful manner and converted into a "sliver," which for all the world looks like a rope of cotton, a little less than an inch in diameter. in most mills "drawing" succeeds "carding," this operation having for its object ( ) the doubling together of four to eight slivers from the card and attenuating them to the dimension of one so as to secure greater uniformity in diameter. ( ) the reduction of the crossed and entangled fibres from the card into parallel or side by side order. after "drawing," the cotton is brought to and sent through a series of machines termed "bobbin and fly frames." there are usually three of these machines for the cotton to pass through, to which are given the names of "slubbing," "intermediate," and "roving" frames. their duties are to carry on the operation of making the sliver of cotton finer or thinner until it is ready for the final process of spinning, and incidentally to add to the uniformity and cleanliness of the thread of cotton. the final process of spinning is chiefly performed on one of two machines, the "mule" and the "ring frame," either of which makes a thread largely used without further treatment in a spinning mill. sometimes, however, the thread is further treated by such operations as doubling, reeling, gassing, etc. it should be added that in the production of the finest and best yarns an important process is gone through, named "combing." this may be defined as a continuation of the carding process already named before to a much more perfect degree. the chief object is to extract all fibres below a certain required length, and reject them as waste. there is as much of this latter made at this stage of manufacture as that made by all the other machines put together, that is, about per cent. of course it will be readily seen that this is a costly operation and is limited entirely to the production of the very best and finest yarns. this process necessitates the employment of a machine called a "sliver lap" and sometimes a "ribbon lap machine" in order to put the slivers from the carding engine into a small lap suitable for the "creel" of the "combing machine." =cotton mixing and the bale breaker.=--as before stated, the first operation in the mill is the opening out of bales of raw material and making a "mixing." of course the weight of the bale is ascertained before it is opened. all varieties of cotton vary in their commercial properties, this variation being due to a number of causes. from a commercial value point of view, there is an enormous difference between the very best and the very worst cottons; so much so, indeed, that they are never blended together. between these two extremes there is a well-graded number of varieties and classifications of cotton, and some approximate so closely to others in quality, that they are often blended together in the "mixing." further than this, the same class of cotton often varies in spinning qualities from a number of circumstances that need not here be named. this is, however, an additional reason why cotton from various bales should be blended together in order to secure uniformity. a cotton "mixing" may be described as a kind of "stack," resembling somewhat the haystack of the farm yards. the method usually pursued in making this mixing is somewhat as follows:--a portion of cotton from a certain bale is taken off and spread over a given area of floor space. then a similar portion from another bale is placed over the first layer already lying on the floor. the same operation is followed with a third and fourth layer from different bales, and so on with as many bales as the management consider there are variations in quality, the larger the mixing the better for securing uniformity of yarn. when it is desired to use the cotton, it should be pulled down vertically from the face of the "mixing," so as to secure a fair portion from each bale composing the mixture. before spreading the cotton out it is usually pulled into pieces of moderate size by the hands of the operative. during recent years it has become the very general practice to use a small machine called the "bale breaker" or "cotton puller," and to have also working in conjunction with this machine long travelling "lattices" called "mixing lattices." these perform the operation of "pulling" and "mixing" the cotton much more quickly and effectively than by hand labour. the "cotton puller" or "bale breaker" (see fig. ) simply consists, in its most useful form, of four pairs of coarsely fluted or spiked rollers of about inches diameter with a feed apron or lattice such as is shown in the illustration. image: fig. .--bale breaker or puller. the method adopted with the "bale breaker" and "mixing lattices" in use is as follows:-- the various bales of cotton intended for "mixing" are placed very near to the feed apron of the bale breaker, and a layer from each bale in succession is placed on the apron. the latter feeds the cotton at a slow rate to the revolving rollers of the machine, and as each pair of top and bottom rollers that the cotton meets is revolving more rapidly than the preceding pair, the result is a pulling asunder of the cotton by the rollers, into much smaller pieces, quite suitable for the next machine. the bale breaker delivers the cotton upon long travelling aprons of lattice work, which carry the cotton away and deposit it upon any desired portion of the floor to form the "mixing." =opening.=--the name of the next process, viz., "opening," has been given it because its primary function is "to open" out the cotton to such an extent that the greater bulk of the seed, leaf, sand, and dust is readily extracted. the details of this machine and indeed practically of all machines used in cotton spinning, vary so much with different makers, that it would be utterly out of place to deal with them here, so that it may be said at once, that all such points are entirely omitted from this treatment of the subject. the essential and principal portions of the machines are practically identical for all makers, and it is with these only that it is proposed to deal, taking in all cases the best present-day practice. the opener, then, is a very powerful machine, being in fact the most powerful used in cotton spinning, and the most important feature of the machine is the employment of a strong beater, to which is fitted a large number of iron or steel knives or spikes. these beat down the cotton and open it at a terrific rate, the beater having a surface speed of perhaps feet a minute. various fans, rollers, and other parts are employed to feed the cotton to the beater, and to take it away again after treatment. it will perhaps best serve the purpose of our readers if the passage of the cotton be described through an opener of the most modern and approved construction, dealing with the subject in non-technical terms. with this object in view, take for example what is termed "the double cotton opener" with "hopper feed attachment." this machine is shown in fig. . image: fig. .--"double opener" with "hopper feed." the hopper feed is about the most recent improvement of any magnitude generally adopted in cotton spinning mills. it is an attachment to the initial or feed end of an opener with the object of feeding the cotton more cheaply and effectively than it can be done by hand. it may be said to consist of a large iron feed box, into which the cotton is passed in considerable quantities at one time. at the bottom of the feed box, or hopper, is a travelling apron which carries the cotton forward, so as to be brought within the action of steel pins in an inclined travelling apron or lattice. this latter carries the cotton upwards, and special mechanism is provided in the shape of what is termed an "evener roller," to prevent too much cotton going forward at once. the cotton that passes over the top of the inclined lattice or apron is stripped off by what is denominated the stripping roller, and is then deposited on the feed apron of the opener, where formerly it was placed by hand. it may be said that one man can feed two machines with hopper feeds as against one without them, and in the best makes the work is done more effectively. the feed lattice of the opener carries the cotton along to the feed rollers, which project it forward into the path of the large beater. it is here that the opening and cleaning actions are chiefly performed. the strong knives or spikes of the beater break the cotton into very small portions indeed, and dash it against "cleaning bars" or "grate bars" specially arranged and constructed. through the interstices of these bars much of the now loosened seed and dirt present in the cotton passes into a suitable receptacle, which is afterward cleaned out at regular intervals. the opened and cleaned cotton is taken away from the action of the beater by an air current produced by a powerful fan. this latter creates a partial vacuum in the beater chamber by blowing the air out of certain air exit trunks specially provided. to supply this partial vacuum afresh, air can only be obtained from the beater chamber, and the air current thus induced, takes the cotton along with it, and deposits it in the form of a sheet upon what are termed "cages" or "sieve cylinders." these are hollow cylinders of iron or zinc perforated with a very large number of small holes through which the air rushes, leaving the cotton, as it were, plastered on the outer surfaces of the cages. it is usual to have a pair of these cages, working one over the other like the pair of rollers in a wringing machine. the cotton now passes between two pairs of small guide rollers, and is fed by the second pair to a second beater, but of very different construction from the first one. this consists of two or three iron or steel blades extending the full width of the machine and carried by specially constructed arms from a strong central shaft. the edges of these beater blades are made somewhat sharp, and they strike down the cotton from the feed roller at the rate of or more blows per minute. this of course carries the opening work of the cotton of the first beater to a still further degree, and as in this case the cotton is also struck down upon "beater bars" or cleaning bars, a further quantity of loosened impurities passes through the bars. as before, another powerful fan creates an air current by which the cotton is carried away from the beater and placed upon a pair of "cages." from this point the cotton is conducted in the form of a sheet between four heavy calender or compression rollers, the rollers being superimposed over each other, and the cotton receiving three compressions in its passage. this makes a much more solid and tractable sheet of cotton, and it is now simply wound upon an iron roller in the form of a roll of cotton termed a "lap," being now ready for the subsequent process, as shown in the illustration (fig. ). image: fig. .--scutching machine with "lap" at the back. =scutching.=--this term obviously means beating, and the process itself is simply a repetition of the opening and cleaning properties of the opener, these objects being attained to a greater degree of perfection. for the best classes of cotton it is often deemed sufficient to pass it through the opener alone, and then to immediately transfer the lap to the process of carding. for some cottons it is the practice to pass the cotton through two scutchers in addition to the opener, while in other cases it is the practice to use one scutcher only in addition to the opener. in the scutcher it is the most common practice to take four laps from the opener and to place them in a specially constructed creel and resting on a travelling "lattice" or apron. by this they are slowly unwound and the four sheets are laid one upon another and passed in one combined sheet, through feed rollers, to a two or three bladed beater, exactly like the second one described when treating upon the double opener. also, exactly in the same manner, a lap is formed ready for the immediately succeeding process of carding. in the scutcher the doubling of four laps together tends to produce a sheet of cotton more uniform in thickness and weight than that from the opener. this object of equality of lap is also invariably aided by what are termed automatic feed regulators, which regulate the weight of cotton given to the beater to something like a continuous uniformity. the action is clearly seen in the illustration. =carding.=--by many persons this is deemed to be the most important operation in cotton spinning. its several duties may be stated as follows:-- . the removal of a large proportion of any impurities, such as broken leaf, seed and shell, that may have escaped the previous processes. it may usually be deemed to be the final process of cleansing. . to open out and disentangle the clusters of fibres into even greater individualisation than existed when first picked, and to leave them in such condition that the subsequent operations can easily draw them out, and reduce them to parallel order. . the extraction of a good proportion of the short, broken and unripe fibres, present more or less in all cottons grown, and practically worthless from a manufacturing point of view. . the reduction of the heavy sheet or lap of cotton from the scutcher, into a comparatively light and thin sliver. ordinarily, one yard of the lap put up behind the card weighs more than times as heavy as the sliver delivered at the front of the card. there are several varieties of carding engine, but in each case nearly all the essential features are practically the same in one card as in another. at the present time, the type of carding engine which has practically superseded all others is denominated the "revolving flat card." this card originated with mr. evan leigh, of manchester, and after being in close competition with several other types has almost driven them out of the market. of course it has been considerably improved by later inventors, and various machine makers have their own technical peculiarities. in the illustration seen in fig. there is conveyed an excellent idea of the appearance of the heavy lap of cotton as it is placed behind the carding engine, and of the manner in which the same cotton appears as a "sliver" or soft strand of cotton as it issues from the front of the same machine, and enters the cylindrical can into which it is passed, and coiled into compact layers, suitable for withdrawal at the immediately succeeding process. image: fig. .--two views of the carding engine: upper view, cotton entering; lower view, cotton leaving. in the main, the parts which operate upon the cotton fibres in their passage through this machine consist of a number of cylinders or rollers of various diameters, but practically equal in width. some of these rollers are merely to guide and conduct the cotton forward, but the more important are literally bristling all over with a vast number of closely set and finely drawn steel wire teeth, whose duty it is to open, and comb out, and clean the fibers as they pass along. to begin with, the "lap" or roll of cotton is placed behind the machine so as to rest on a roller of inches in diameter, which slowly unwinds the lap at the rate of about inches per minute, by frictional contact therewith. here, it may be said that the width of this and other chief rollers and cylindrical parts of the card may be about inches or inches wide, there being a tendency to make present-day carding engines rather narrower than formerly, in order to give greater strength to certain parts. from the lap roller the sheet of cotton is conducted for about inches over a smooth feed plate, and then it goes underneath a fluted roller of - / inches diameter, termed the feed roller, having practically the same surface speed as the lap roller, or possibly a small fraction more to keep the cotton lap tight. at this stage the actual work of the carding engine may be said to commence. while the feed roller and the feed plate hold the end of the sheet of cotton and project it forward at the slow rate of or inches per minute, this projecting end of the lap becomes subject to the action of a powerful roller or beater termed the taker-in or licker-in. the most recent and improved construction of this roller is termed the metallic taker-in, and it is covered all over with strong steel teeth shaped something like those of a saw. it is about inches in diameter, and its strong teeth strike the cotton down from the feed roller with a surface speed of nearly feet per minute. it is at this stage that the bulk of the heavier impurities still found in the cotton are removed, as these fall through certain grids below the taker-in immediately they are loosened from the retaining fibres by the powerful teeth of the taker-in. the great bulk of the cotton fibres, however, are retained by the teeth of the taker-in and carried round the under side to a point where they are exposed to the action of the central and most important part of every carding engine, viz., the main "cylinder." the licker-in contains about twenty-eight teeth per square inch, but the "cylinder" is the first of the parts that the cotton arrives at, previously referred to as being covered with a vast number of closely set steel wire teeth. just to convey an idea of this point to the uninitiated reader, it may be said that it is quite common to have on the "cylinder" as many as steel wire teeth in one square inch. for a cylinder inches wide and inches diameter, this works out to the vast number of over , , steel wire teeth on one cylinder, each tooth being about / inch long, and secured in a cloth or rubber foundation before the latter is wound round the cylinder. the steel teeth of the cylinder strip the fibres from the taker-in and carry them in an upward direction, the surface speed of the cylinder being over feet per minute. placed over the cylinder, and extending for nearly one-half of its circumference, are what are technically known as the "flats." these are narrow iron bars, each about - / inches wide; each being covered with steel wire teeth in the same manner as the cylinder; and each extending right across the width of the cylinder, and resting on a suitable bearing termed the "bend." they are formed into an endless chain containing about "flats," but only about of which are in actual work at one time; this endless chain of flats being given a slow movement of about inches per minute. here it may be said that the various working parts are set as close as possible to each other without being in actual contact, the usual distance being about / rd of an inch determined by a specially constructed gauge, in the hands of a skilled workman. the steel teeth of the flats, being set very close to those of the cylinder, catch hold of and retain a portion of the short warty fibres and fine impurities that may be on the points of the cylinder teeth, the amount of this reaching about per cent. of the cotton passed through the machine. in addition to this the teeth of the flats work against those of the cylinder so as to exercise a combing action on the cotton fibres. having passed the "flats," the cotton is deposited by the cylinder on what is termed the doffer. this is a cylindrical body, exactly similar to the main "cylinder" excepting that it is only about half the diameter, say inches. its steel wire teeth are set in the opposite way to those of the cylinder, and its surface speed is only about feet per minute. these two circumstances acting together enable it to take the cotton fibres from the main cylinder. the operations of carding may now be said to be practically performed, as the remaining operations have for their object the stripping, collecting, and guiding of the cotton into a form suitable for the next succeeding processes. the fleece of cotton is stripped from the doffer by the "doffer comb," which is a thin bar of steel, having a serrated under edge, and making about beats or strokes per minute. from this point cotton is collected into the form of a loose rope or "sliver," and passed first through a trumpet-shaped mouth, and then through a pair of calender rollers about six inches wide and four inches in diameter. image: fig. .--lap, web, and sliver of cotton. finally, the sliver of cotton is carried upward, as shown in the illustration (fig. ), and passed through special apparatus and deposited into the can, also shown. this latter is about inches in diameter and inches in length, and the whole arrangement for depositing the cotton suitably into the can is denominated the "coiler." in the next illustration (fig. ) are shown three forms in which the cotton is found before and after working by the carding engine. that to the left is the lap as it enters, the middle figure is part of the web as it comes from the doffer, and that to the right is part of a coil of cotton from the can. such is a brief description of the most important of the preparatory processes of cotton spinning. there are innumerable details involving technical knowledge which fall outside the province of this story. =drawing frames.=--it is a very common thing for a new beginner in the study of cotton spinning to ask--what is the use of the drawing frame? as a matter of fact, the unpractised eye cannot see any difference between the sliver or soft rope of cotton as it reaches, the drawing frame and as it leaves the frame. the experienced eye of the practical man can, however, detect a wonderful difference. it has been shown that the immediately preceding operation of carding--amongst other things--reduces the heavy lap into a comparatively thin light sliver; thus advancing with one great stride a long way toward the production of the long fine thread of yarn ready for the market. no such difference can be perceived in the sliver at the drawing frame. this machine is practically devoted to improving the thread finally made in two distinct and important ways. . the fibres of cotton in the sliver, as they leave the carding engine, are in a very crossed and entangled condition, not at all suited to the production of a strong yarn by the usual processes of cotton spinning. the first duty of the drawing frame may be said, therefore, to be the laying of the fibres in parallel order to one another, by the action of the drawing rollers. . the sliver of cotton, as it leaves the card, is by no means sufficiently uniform in weight per yard for the production of a uniform and strong finished thread. it will easily be conceived by the readers of this story of the cotton plant that the strength of any thread is only that of its weakest portions. take a rope intended to hold a heavy weight suspended at its lower end, and assume it to be made of the best material and stoutest substance, but to contain one very weak place in it; this rope would practically be useless, because the strength of the rope would only be that of the weakest part. the drawing machine in cotton spinning aims at removing the weak places in cotton thread, thus making the real strength of the thread vastly greater than it would otherwise be. the method by which these important objects are attained may be briefly explained as follows:-- from four to eight, but most usually six, cans of sliver from the previous machine are placed behind the frame, and the ends of the slivers conducted over special mechanism within the range of action of four pairs of drawing rollers. this passage of the cotton is shown very clearly in fig. . the top rollers are made of cast iron, covered with soft and highly finished leather made from sheepskins, the object of this being to cause the rollers to have a firm grip of the cotton fibres, without at the same time injuring them. the bottom rollers are of iron or steel, made with longitudinal flutes or grooves, in order to bite the cotton fibres firmly on the leathers of the top rollers. in order to assist the rollers in maintaining a firm grip of the fibres the top rollers are held down by somewhat heavy weights. the action of the drawing rollers will be adequately discussed later in this story, when dealing with the inventions of lewis paul and sir richard arkwright, and need not be enlarged upon at this stage. it will be sufficient, therefore, to say that, assuming that six slivers are put up together at the back of the frame, the "draft" or amount of drawing-out between the first and second pairs of rollers the cotton comes to, may be about . , between the second and third pairs . , and between the third and fourth pairs . . these three multiplied together give a total draft of slightly over . in other words, assuming that inch of cotton be passed through the first pair of rollers, the second pair will immediately draw it out into . inches; the third pair will draw out the same portion of cotton into . × . inches = . inches, and the fourth or last pair of rollers will draw out the same portion of cotton into . × . inches = . . image: fig. .--drawing frame showing eight slivers entering and one leaving the machine. the six slivers put up at the back are therefore drawn out or attenuated to the dimensions of one by the rollers, and then at the delivery side of the machine the six slivers are united into one sliver, and arranged in beautiful order inside a can exactly as described for the carding engine. now it is in the doubling together and again drawing-out of the slivers of cotton that the two objects of making the fibres parallel and the slivers uniform are effected. in the first place, even the uninitiated readers of this story may conceive that the combining of six slivers will naturally cause any extra thick or thin places in any of the individual slivers to become much reduced in extent by falling along with correct diameters of the other five slivers; and experience proves that such is the actual fact. in this way the slivers, or soft untwisted ropes of cotton, are made uniform. it is perhaps not so easy to see how it is that drawing rollers make the fibres of cotton parallel. as a matter of fact, it may be said that as each pair of rollers projects the fibres forward, the next pair of rollers takes hold of the fibres and draws their front extremities forward more rapidly than the other pair will let the back extremities of the same fibres pass forward. it is this action often repeated that draws the fibres straight, or in other words, reduces them to a condition in which they are parallel to each other. it is the usual practice to pass each portion of cotton through three separate frames in this manner, in immediate and rapid succession. the "slivers" or ropes of cotton made at the front of the first drawing frame, would be placed in their cans behind a second drawing frame and the exact process just described would be repeated. the same identical process would usually be performed yet a third time in order to secure the required objects with what is considered a sufficient degree of perfection. after this the cotton is usually deemed to be quite ready for the immediately succeeding process of "slubbing." =bobbin and fly frames.=--the series of machines now to be dealt with, are distinguished more for their complicated mechanism in putting twist into the attenuated cotton and in winding it upon bobbins in suitable form for the immediately succeeding process, than for the action of the parts upon the cotton so as to render it better fitted for the production of strong, fine yarn. the manner in which these machines perform a part in the actual production of a thread or yarn is practically a repetition of the work of the drawing frame, with the great difference that the strand or thin rope of cotton leaves each machine of the series in a thinner and longer condition than when it arrived. this attenuation of the cotton roving is indeed the chief desideratum that bobbin and fly frames aim at, although they assist in making the strand of cotton more uniform by carrying still further to a limited extent the doubling principle so extensively utilised at the drawing frames. the basis of the operations are again the drawing rollers, brought to such a state of perfection by richard arkwright, and here it may be useful to remind the readers of this story how superior in this respect of general adaption arkwright's method of spinning was to that of hargreaves'. it will be remembered that the latter named inventor utilised a travelling carriage, for drawing the cotton finer, while the former performed the same work by drawing rollers. although the travelling carriage principle was at one time somewhat largely utilised in preparing the rovings for the final process of spinning, it has long since entirely given way before the superior merits and adaptability of the drawing roller principle; and it is now this latter method which is universally employed. it usually takes three bobbin and fly frames to make up what may be called a "set," each portion of the cotton roving passing through the three machines in succession. for low classes of yarn only two of these machines may be used, while for the finest yarns there are sometimes four used to make up the "set." of course, all the readers of this story must understand that in an ordinary-sized cotton spinning mill there will be many sets of these machines, just as there will be a large number of "carding engines" and "drawing frames," and mules. bale brakers, openers and scutchers are so very productive that only a limited number is required as compared with the other machines already named. those of our readers who have studied the details of arkwright's spinning frame, described in another chapter in this book, and have understood those details, will have a clear comprehension of the action of the parts and leading mechanical principles concerned in the operations of a modern bobbin and fly frame. certainly there are some of the most difficult problems of cotton spinning involved in the mechanism of these machines, but these points are so highly technical that it is not intended to introduce them here. the "set" of machines just named are usually known by the names "slubber," "intermediate or second slubber," and "roving" frames. nearly all the operations and mechanisms involved in one are almost identical in the others, so that a description of one only in the set is necessary, merely explaining that the parts of each machine the cotton comes to in the latter two of the set are smaller and more finely set than the corresponding parts of the immediately preceding machine. taking the intermediate frame as a basis, the operation may be described as follows:--the bobbins formed at the slubbing frame are put in the creel of the intermediate, as shown in the photograph (fig. ), each bobbin resting on a wooden skewer or peg which will easily rotate. in order to increase the uniformity of the roving or strand of cotton, the ends from two of the slubbing rovings are conducted together through the rollers of the machine. there are three pairs of these rollers, acting on the cotton in every way just as described for the drawing frame. although two rovings are put together behind the rollers, yet the "draft" or drawing-out power of the rollers is such, that the roving that issues from the front of the rollers is about three times as thin as each individual roving put up behind the rollers. this drawing-out action of the rollers need not be further dilated upon at this stage. the points which demand some little attention at our hands, are the methods and mechanism involved in twisting the attenuated roving, and winding it upon bobbins or spools in suitable form for the next process. image: fig. .--intermediate frame (bobbin and fly frame). as regards twisting of the roving it must be distinctly understood that when the attenuated strand of cotton issues from the rollers of the first bobbin and fly frame, it has become so thin and weak that it can no longer withstand the requisite handling without being seriously damaged. hence the introduction of "twist," which is by far the most important strength-producing factor or principle entering into the composition of cotton roving and yarn. without twist there would be no cotton factories, no cotton goods; none of the splendid and gigantic buildings of one description or another which are found so plentifully intermingled with the dwellings and factories of large cotton manufacturing towns! in a sense it is to this all-powerful factor of "twist" that all these buildings owe their existence, since it would be practically impossible to make a thread from cotton fibres without the assistance of "twist" to make the fibres adhere to each other. hence there could be none of that wealth which has caused the erection of these buildings. this is true in a double sense, since we have both the natural twist of the cotton fibres and the artificial twist introduced at the latter processes of cotton spinning, in order to make individual fibres and aggregations of fibres adhere to each other. what is termed the natural twist of the fibres may average in good cottons upwards of twists per inch, while the twists per inch put into the finished threads of yarn from those fibres may vary, say, between and twists per inch. in all the fly frames, therefore, this artificial twist is invariably and necessarily put into the roving. as the cotton leaves the front or delivery rollers, each strand descends to a bobbin of from to inches long, upon which it is wound by special mechanism. as in arkwright's frame, this bobbin is placed loosely upon a vertical "spindle," and upon the latter is fitted a "flyer," whose duty it is to guide the cotton upon the bobbin. the primary duty of the spindle is to insert the "twist" which has been shown to be so necessary to give sufficient strength to the roving. let any reader of this story hold a piece of soft stuff in one hand while with the other hand he rotates or twists the roving and he will have an idea of the method and effect of twisting (see fig. ). without going into minute details we may say that the practical effect is that, while the roving is held firmly by the rollers, it is twisted by means of its connection at the other end to the rotating bobbin, spindle and flyer. the twist runs right from the spindle along the to inches of cotton that may extend from the spindle top to the "nip" of the rollers, thus imparting the requisite strength to the roving as it issues from the rollers. the mechanism for revolving the spindles is by no means difficult to understand, simply consisting of a number of shafts and wheels revolved at a constant, definite and regulated speed per minute. not only is it necessary to provide special apparatus for twisting the cotton at the bobbin and fly frames, but also very complicated and highly ingenious mechanism for winding the attenuated cotton in suitable form upon the bobbins. indeed it is with this very mechanism that some of the most difficult problems of cotton spinning machinery are associated. although the cotton at this stage is strengthened by twist, yet it is extremely inadvisable and practically inadmissible to insert more than from to about twists per inch at any of these machines, so that at the best the rovings are still very weak. if too much twist were inserted at any stage, the drawing rollers of the immediately succeeding machine could not carry on the attenuating process satisfactorily. this winding problem was so difficult that it absolutely baffled the ingenuity of arkwright and his contemporaries and immediate successors, and it was not until about that the difficulties were solved by the invention of the differential winding motion by mr. holdsworth, a well-known manchester spinner, whose successors are still eminent master cotton spinners. this winding motion is still more extensively used than any other, although it may be said that quite recently several new motions have been more or less adopted, whose design is to displace holdsworth's motion by performing the same work in a rather more satisfactory manner. in these pages no attempt whatever will be made to give a technical explanation of the mechanism of the winding motion. it may be said that it was a special application of the sun and planet motion originally utilised by watt in his steam engine, for obtaining a rotary motion of his fly-wheel. sufficient be it to say that this "differential motion," acting in conjunction with what are termed "cone drums," imparts a varying motion to the bobbins upon which the cotton is wound, in such a manner that the rate of winding is kept practically constant throughout the formation of the bobbins of roving, although the diameters of the latter are constantly increasing. the spindles and bobbins always rotate in the same direction, but while the revolutions per minute of the spindles are constant, so as to keep the twist uniform, those of the bobbins are always varying, in order to compensate for their increasing diameters or thicknesses of the bobbins. the delivery of cotton from the rollers is also constant and the mechanism required to operate them is exceedingly simple. a vast number of details could easily be added respecting the operations performed by the bobbin and fly frames, but further treatment is deemed unnecessary in this story. chapter vii. early attempts at spinning, and early inventors. there can be no better illustration of the truth of the old saying, that "necessity is the mother of invention," than to read the early history of the cotton manufacture, and the difficulties under which the pioneers of england's greatest industry laboured. the middle years of the eighteenth century act as the watershed between the old and the new in cotton manufacture, for up to the same type of machinery was found in england which had existed in india for centuries. but a change was coming, and as a greater demand arose for cotton goods, it became absolutely necessary to discover some better way of manipulating cotton, in order to get off a greater production. "when inventors fail in their projects, no one pities them; when they succeed, persecution, envy, and jealousy are their reward." so says baines, and it would appear, from reference to the history of the cotton industry, to be only too true. certain it is, that the early inventors of the machinery for improving cotton spinning did not reap the advantages which their labours and inventions entitled them to. they ploughed and sowed, but others reaped. among the most celebrated of the early inventors, the following stand out in great prominence--john kay, lewis paul, john wyatt, richard arkwright, thomas highs, james hargreaves, and samuel crompton. when and how spinning originated no one can say, though it can be traced back through many, many centuries. several nations claim to have been the first to discover the art, but when asked for proof the initial stages are greatly obscured by impenetrable clouds of mystery. for example, the egyptians credit the goddess isis with the discovery, the greeks minerva, the chinese the emperor yao. it is related of hercules, that, when in love with omphale, he debased himself by taking the spindle and spinning a thread at her feet. this form of work was considered to belong only to women, and by spinning for her in this position he was thought to have greatly humiliated himself. if hercules were back again, and could stand between two modern mules and see the men and boys engaged in spinning hundreds of threads _at once_, no doubt he would wonder, just as we do to-day at his fabled feats. it is not difficult to imagine that very early on in the world's history the twisting together of strands of wool and cotton would force itself upon the attention of the ancients. if the reader will take a little cotton wool in the left hand and by means of the first finger and thumb of the right take a few cotton fibres and gently twist them together and at the same time draw the thread formed outwards, it will be seen how very easy it is (from the nature of the cotton) to form a continuous thread. what would very soon suggest itself would be something to which the thread, when twisted, could be fastened and, according to mr. marsden (who supposes the first spinner to have been a shepherd boy), a twig which was close at hand would be the very thing to which he could attach his twisted fibres. he also supposes that, having spun a short length, the twig by accident was allowed to dangle and immediately to untwist by spinning round in the reverse way, and ultimately fall to the ground. he further adds, the boy would argue to himself "that if this revolving twig could take the twist out by a reversion of its movements, it could be made to put it in." this would be the first spinning spindle. the explanation is probably not very far wide of the mark. a weighted twig or spindle would next be used, and as each length of spun thread was finished, it would be wound on to the spindle and fastened. as it would be extremely awkward to work the fibre up without a proper supply, a bundle of this was fastened to the end of a stick and carried most probably under the left arm, leaving the right hand free, or in the belt, much in the same way as is done in some country districts in the north of europe to-day. the modern name for this stick is _distaff_, a word which is derived from the low german--_diesse_, the bunch of flax on a distaff, and _staff_. originally it would be the staff on which the tow or flax was fastened, and from which the thread was drawn. the modern representative of the spindle with the twisted thread wound on it is the "_cop_," and the intermittent actions of first putting _twist_ in the thread and then _winding_ on the spindle, have their exact counterparts on the latest of the self-acting mules of to-day. image: fig. .--twist put in cotton by the hand. it may be interesting to note that st. distaff's day is january th, the day after the epiphany, a church festival celebrated in commemoration of the visit of the wise men of the east to bethlehem. as this marks the end of the christmas festival, work with the distaff was commenced, hence the name, st. distaff's day. it is also called "rock day," rock being another name for distaff. "rocking day" in scotland was a feasting day when friends and neighbours met together in the early days of the new year, to celebrate the end of the christmastide festival. the reign of henry vii. is said to have witnessed the introduction into england of the spindle and distaff. in process of time, the suspended spindle was superseded by one which was driven by mechanical means. over and over again, the spindle, as it lay upon the floor, must have suggested that it could be made to work in that position, viz., horizontal. and so comes now a contrivance for holding the spindle in this position. mr. baines, in his history of the cotton manufacture, gives a figure of an old hindoo spinning wheel, and it is extremely likely that this very form of machine was the forerunner of the type which later on found its way into europe. at the beginning of the sixteenth century what was known as the jersey wheel came into common use. this machine is shown in fig. . lying to the left hand of the woman in the illustration is a hand card. this consisted of square board with a handle, and was covered by fine wire driven in, so as to make what was really a wire brush. by means of this, the spinner was enabled to prepare her cotton, and she did with it (though not nearly so well) what is done by the carding engine of to-day, viz., fully opened out the fibres of cotton ready for spinning. having taken the cotton from the hand cards, she produced at first a very thick thread which was called a _roving_. this she wound on a spindle, which was afterwards treated again on the wheel a second time, and drawn out still more, and then having the twist put in, it was made much thinner into so-called yarn. only one thread could by this method be dealt with at a time by one person, but the main operations carried out on the old spinning wheel have their exact reproductions on the mule of to-day, viz.:--drawing, twisting and winding. image: fig. .--jersey spinning wheel (after baines). but still the process of evolution went on, and following quickly on the heels of the jersey wheel is the saxony or leipsic wheel. here for the first time is seen the combination of spindle, flyer and bobbin. this machine was so arranged that by means of two grooved wheels of different diameters, but both driven by the large wheel similar to the one in the jersey wheel, and which was operated by the spinner, two speeds were obtained. the bobbin was attached to the smaller, and the spindle, to which was fastened the flyer or "twister," was driven by the larger of two wheels. in this form of spinning machine, then, there were the following operations performed:-- by the spindle and flyer both revolving at the same velocity, the thread was attenuated and twisted as it was carried to the bobbin. this latter was, as already named, driven by the smaller of the two wheels and had a motion all its own, though much quicker than that of the spindle. in this way a bobbin of yarn was built up, and the saxony wheel no doubt gave many fruitful ideas to the inventors who appeared later on, and who, by reason of their research and experiment, evolved the fly frames of to-day; this was notably so in the case of arkwright. there had been very great opposition to the introduction of cotton goods into england by manufacturers and others interested in the wool and fustian trade, and matters even got so bad that the british parliament was foolish enough to actually pass an act in , prohibiting "the use or wear in great britain, in any garment or apparel whatsoever, of any printed, painted, stained, or dyed _calico_, under the penalty of forfeiting to the informer the sum of £ ." just as though this was not sufficiently severe, it was also enacted that persons using printed or dyed calico "in or about any bed, chair, cushion, window-curtain, or any other sort of household stuff or furniture," would be fined £ , and a like amount was to be paid by those who sold the stuff. there can be no doubt whatever, that this act was designed to strike a death-blow at the cotton industry, which at this time was beginning to make itself felt in the commerce of the country. a curious exception should be mentioned here. calico, which was all blue, was exempted from the provisions of this act, as were also muslins, fustians and neck-ties. however, in this iniquitous piece of legislation was somewhat relaxed, and parliament was good enough to decree in the year just named that it would be lawful for anyone to wear "any sort of stuff made of linen yarn and cotton wool manufactured and printed or painted with any colour or colours within the kingdom of great britain, provided that the warp thereof be entirely linen yarn." now as half a loaf is better than none, the cotton manufacturers received a direct impulse by the partial removal of the obnoxious restriction, and very soon the supply was far ahead of the demand. manufacturers were crying out constantly for more weight and better stuff, but how by the mechanical means at the disposal of the spinners were they to get it? lancashire historians say that it was no uncommon thing for weavers to travel miles in search of weft, and then many of them returned to their looms with only a quarter of the amount they required. another cause which acted in the direction of increasing the demand for yarns and weft was the invention of the _flying shuttle_ by john kay about . previous to his time, the heavy shuttles containing the wefts were sent across the looms by two persons. now, by his new shuttle he dispensed with the services of one of these artisans, and by means of his arrangement for quickly sending the shuttle along the lathe of the loom, much more cloth was produced. poor kay suffered much by the cruel persecution of his countrymen, who ignorantly supposed that in bringing his new shuttle to such perfection, they would be deprived _permanently_ of their occupations, with nothing but starvation looking them in the face. of course, nothing could be wider of the truth than this, but kay had to flee his country, and died in poverty and obscurity in a foreign land. still the shuttle continued to be used, for the makers of cloth had learned that increased production meant more work, and possibly greater profit, and though kay disappeared, his works remained behind. the demand for weft grew more and more. it has been said that it is the occasion which makes the man, and not man the occasion. it was so in this case, for here was a cry for some mechanical means to be discovered for satisfying the ever-increasing demand for cotton weft. hitherto single threads only had been dealt with on the spinning machines, but the same year witnessed the introduction of an invention which in a few years completely revolutionized the spinning industry, and which enabled one worker to spin hundreds of threads at once. the year , which witnessed the birth of kay's invention, also saw that of lewis paul, an artisan of birmingham. this was a new method of spinning by means of _rollers_. it should be remembered that this was thirty years before arkwright attempted to obtain letters patent for his system of spinning by rollers. most of the readers of this little book will have seen what is known in _domestic parlance_ as a clothes-wringer. here the wooden or rubber rollers, by means of weights or screws, are made to squeeze out most of the moisture which remains after the garment has left the washing-tub. now if two sets of such rollers could be put together, so that in section the four centres would coincide with the four angular points of a square, and the back pair could be made to have a greater surface velocity than the front pair, this arrangement would give something like the idea which paul had in his mind at that time. why make the back pair revolve at a greater rate? for this reason, that as the cotton was supplied to the front pair, and passed on to the second, remembering that these are going at a greater rate, it follows that the cotton _would be drawn out_ in passing from the first to the second pair. had the rollers been both going at the same speeds, the cotton would pass out as it went in, unaffected. now it was this idea which paul practically set out in his machine. from some reason or other, paul's right to this patent has been often called into question, and up to it was popularly supposed to have been the sole invention of john wyatt of birmingham. in the year named, mr. cole, in a paper read before the british association, proved that paul was the real patentee, and established the validity of his claim without doubt. the two distinguishing features of paul's spinning machine were: ( ) by means of the rollers and flyers he performed the operations of drawing-out and twisting, which had hitherto been done by the fingers and thumbs of the spinners; and ( ) he changed the position of the spindle itself from the horizontal to the vertical. a glance at the transactions of the society for the encouragement of arts, manufactures and commerce, shows that this period ( - ) was most prolific of inventions specially relating to the various sections of the cotton industry. there were "improved spinning wheels," "a horizontal spinning wheel," and three other forms of "spinning machines" submitted to the above society between and , in the hope of obtaining money grants in the shape of premiums, which had been offered to the best inventions for improving spinning machinery in general. the above list does not however contain any reference to one improvement by james hargreaves of blackburn, lancashire, to which in this story special mention must be made. it appears that in or this individual had completed a machine for spinning eleven threads _simultaneously_; and five years later he had developed the machine to so perfect a state that he took out a patent for it, from which time it became known to the industrial world as a _spinning jenny_. his right to the patent has over and over again been challenged, and it has been alleged that thomas highs of leigh, also in lancashire, was the real inventor. baines, in his "history of the cotton manufacture," is inclined to the view that hargreaves was the first to perfect the machine known as the "jenny" (see fig. ). from whatever point of view hargreaves' machine is looked at, it must be acknowledged to be a decided step forward in the direction of spinning machinery improvement. the jenny was so unlike arkwright's frame or paul's, and preceded that of the former by some years, that its claim to originality can not be questioned. how the inventor came to produce his machine can not be stated, but it is reported that on one occasion he saw a single thread spinning wheel which had been accidentally knocked over, lying with the wheel and spindle free and both revolving. if the reader will think for a minute it will be apparent that the horizontal position of the spindle would be changed to a vertical one, and hargreaves argued if one spindle could revolve in that way, why should not eight or any number of spindles be made to work at the same time. how far he successfully worked out that idea will be seen if reference be made to the illustration of the jenny which is shown in fig. . after what has been said under the head of carding, drawing, and roving, it will easily be understood when it is said that, unlike arkwright's machine, hargreaves' jenny could only deal with the cotton when in the state of _roving_, and it was the roving which this machine attenuated and twisted or spun into yarn. if the reader will imagine he or she is standing in front of the jenny, the following description will be made much clearer:-- image: fig. .--hargreaves' spinning jenny (after baines). the rovings, which have previously been prepared, are each passed from the bobbins seen on the lower creel, through a number of grooves on one of the bars which run across the frame, as seen in the illustration. these rovings are next passed on to the spindles standing at the back of the frame and secured to them. a second bar in front of the one over which the rovings pass, acts as a brake and prevents, when in its proper position, any more roving being delivered, thus securing all between the spindles and the said bar. the wheel which is seen on the right of the jenny communicates with a cylinder by means of a strap or rope, and this cylinder in turning gives circular motion to the spindles which are connected with the cylinder by endless bands. on the spindle is the wharf, specially formed to allow the band to run without slipping. the operations for a complete spinning of one delivery is described by baines as follows:-- "a certain portion of roving being extended from the spindles to the wooden clasp, the clasp was closed, and was then drawn along the horizontal frame to a considerable distance from the spindles, by which the threads were lengthened out, and reduced to the proper tenuity; this was done with the spinner's left hand, and his right hand at the same time turned a wheel which caused the spindles to revolve rapidly, and thus the roving was spun into yarn. by returning the clasp to its first situation, and letting down a presser wire, the yarn was wound on the spindle." hatred and jealousy were immediately born when hargreaves' splendid improvement became known, and, like poor kay before him, he had to leave his native soil and get to some more secluded spot. he ultimately arrived in nottingham, set at once to accommodate himself to his new environment, and soon entered into partnership with a mr. james, and in took out a patent for his jenny. in conjunction with his new partner, a mill was built, said to be one of the first, if not the first, spinning mill so called in this country. though it is stated by arkwright that hargreaves died in comparative obscurity and poverty, others say that this is not so; though he was not wealthy the evidence is sufficiently good to believe that he died in moderate circumstances. the register of st. mary's parish, nottingham, contains the following entry:--" , april , james hargraves." chapter viii. further developments--arkwright and crompton. whatever may be said in favour of other spinning machinery inventors, it is quite certain that when we put the whole of them together, two stand out in greater prominence than any of the rest, viz., arkwright and crompton. probably the former did more than any other englishman to establish what is known as the modern factory system. he was not what one might call a brilliant man or great inventor, but he had the happy knack of appreciating and seizing upon what he knew was a good thing, and set about instantly to get all out of it that he could, and there are those who strongly affirm that he often got much more than he was entitled to. however that may be, it can not be denied that he possessed eminent business qualifications, and these, coupled with other of his qualities, helped to make him exceedingly successful. he first saw the light of day on december rd, , in preston, lancashire, twenty-one years before his great rival and contemporary, samuel crompton. his parents could not possibly afford to give him any schooling, he being the youngest of thirteen. apprenticed to the trade of barber, he became in time a first-rate man in that business. in , when twenty-eight years of age, he left preston and settled down in bolton in lancashire, setting up the business of barber and peruke-maker. the youthful samuel crompton would no doubt pay him many visits when in churchgate, and little did he dream that the head he so often would undoubtedly use his skill upon was the one which would evolve by and by a machine which would amaze the then commercial world; but it was so. another part of arkwright's business, that of travelling up and down the country buying and selling human hair for wig-making, would put him _au fait_ with almost every new invention and idea. richard's business card proves that he believed in advertising himself even as a barber. just about this time there was much excitement, especially in lancashire, about the marvellous invention of hargreaves, the particulars of which had now become known to the public. one of the first to appreciate the significance of this invention was arkwright himself, so that it may reasonably be supposed that he would in good time know all there was to be known of the mechanism used by hargreaves in his new method of spinning. later on, arkwright became acquainted with a man named highs of leigh, another experimenter in spinning. the circle of his acquaintanceship also included kay, a clockmaker of warrington, who had assisted highs on several occasions in his investigations. at this time arkwright's all-absorbing hobby was mechanics, and first one experiment and then another was made in rapid succession. needless to say, his business of barbering suffered in the meanwhile. from the first he turned his attention to an improvement of spinning cotton by drawing rollers. his efforts were crowned with success, and he ultimately blossomed into a knight, and was elected high sheriff of derbyshire. it is rather singular that he should be about the only one of the cotton-machinery inventors of this age who amassed a fortune; most of the others being but slightly removed from want in their last days. there were many who claimed that they were the real and original inventors of this method of spinning by rollers, but there can be no doubt that to arkwright alone belongs the credit for bringing these improvements to a higher state of perfection than they ever attained before. at the present time, roller drawing is the great basis of the operations of modern spinning, wherever performed. not only is this the case in the final stages of production, but it is especially true of most of the preparatory processes, whether used for the production of coarse, medium or fine yarns. as is well known, the great principle of drawing rollers is, that the cotton is passed through three or four pairs of rollers in quick succession, and attenuated by each pair in turn, each pair being made to revolve more quickly than the preceding pair. this identical process is repeated in machine after machine, until finally the bulk of cotton is reduced to a fine thread, of which, in some cases, it takes two or three hundred miles to weigh _one pound_. even in what are termed medium numbers or counts of cotton yarn, there are from fifteen to twenty-five miles of thread in a pound avoirdupois, and more than _a thousand million pounds_ of such yarns are spun annually. the year found arkwright entirely absorbed in his ideas of roller drawing, and he got the clockmaker kay to journey with him to nottingham, possibly thinking that what had been meted out to other inventors in lancashire should not be repeated in his case. he here collected about him a number of friends, moneyed and otherwise, who helped in his evolution of spinning machinery. a man named john smalley of preston found him the wherewithal to carry on his experiments first at preston and later on at nottingham. certainly what he put up at nottingham gave such promise of practical utility, that two experienced business men were led to join him in partnership, and the three of them, need, strutt, and arkwright, very soon had mills built in nottingham, cromford and matlock. the first-named mill was worked by horses, the two latter by water, hence the common name of _water frame_, given to the machines of arkwright. the gentlemen taken into partnership were able and qualified to give good sound advice and help to arkwright, and about the middle of the year he took out a patent for his "_water frame_." to use his own words, in his specification he "had, by great study and long application, invented a new piece of machinery, never before found out, practised or used, for the making of weft or yarn from cotton, flax, and wool; which would be of great utility to a great many manufacturers, as well as to his majesty's subjects in general, by employing a great many poor people in working the said machinery, and by making the said weft or yarn much superior in quality to any heretofore manufactured or made." no useful purpose could be served by reproducing arkwright's description of the machine in question, but a picture of the actual machine is shown in fig. . image: fig. .--arkwright's machine (after baines). the most important feature of the invention, of course, was the drawing out or attenuating of the cotton by rollers revolving at different speeds. but it was also essential that proper mechanism should be provided by which twist would be put into the yarn to make it sufficiently strong; and furthermore, it was necessary to arrange for the attenuated and twisted cotton to be automatically guided and coiled up or wound up into a convenient form. as we have seen, the drawing out of the cotton finer he accomplished by the drawing rollers originally invented by lewis paul, while for the latter purpose he successfully adapted the principle already existing in the saxony wheel, used in the linen manufacture, with which he probably became acquainted during his residence at preston. it should not be forgotten that hargreaves had introduced into the commercial world his jenny, a few years anterior to arkwright's water frame becoming so successful. these two machines were more or less in rivalry, but not perhaps to that extent which many would suppose. from the very first it was found that the frame of arkwright's was much more suitable for warp or twist yarns, _i.e._, the longitudinal threads of a cloth, whereas hargreaves' machine was more adapted for the production of weft yarns, _i.e._, the transverse threads of a cloth. now it cannot be too strongly remarked that, at the present time, after the lapse of a century, the same state of things practically obtain in the improved machines of to-day; hargreaves' machine being represented by the system of intermittent spinning upon the improved self-actor mule, while arkwright's water frame is represented by the system of continuous spinning upon the modern ring spinning frame. while weft yarn is now almost entirely produced on the mule, warp yarns are in many cases now obtained from the ring frames, this latter system at the present time being greatly on the increase and daily becoming more popular. the carding engine was greatly improved by arkwright's many useful improvements, especially that of the doffer comb, being entirely his own. the effect of this comb is fully described in the chapter dealing with manipulation of the cotton by the carding engine. paul was probably the first, in , to invent the carding machine. his inventions seemed to hang fire until introduced into lancashire, when they were adopted by a mr. peel, arkwright and others. the chief defects, perhaps, of this machine was the absence of proper means for putting the cotton on the revolving cylinder and having it stripped when sufficiently carded. hence the great value of arkwright's stripping comb. some old carding engines which were used at this time are still in existence, though only used for museum purposes. as will have been gathered in a former chapter dealing with the manipulation of the cotton in the mill, between the carding engine and the final process of spinning there are other and important stages of preparation, and in these it is seen how in one respect arkwright's method of drawing out cotton by revolving rollers was immeasurably superior to the travelling carriage of hargreaves. the strength of a rope is represented by its weakest parts, and the same may be said of yarn. there can be no doubt that one of arkwright's greatest difficulties was to give an uniform yarn, and though he successfully launched his new machines he felt there was still much to be done in the direction of remedying yarn which was irregular in thickness and strength. in order to do this, he finally adapted his drawing rollers to what is now the modern drawing frame--a machine quite as largely used, and quite as necessary in present-day spinning, as it was a hundred years ago. it was sought to make this machine do two things. ( ) several slivers of cotton from the card were put up together at the back, and by means of four pairs of drawing rollers, were reduced to the thickness of one sliver (see the description in chapter vi.). it will be sufficient to say here that this method of doubling and drawing equalises the sliver of cotton by the combination of the thick places with the thin. doubling is now the reason of the uniformity of the yarns that are produced in such large quantities. ( ) the carding engine did not by any means lay the fibres of cotton sufficiently parallel to each other, and this process of parallelisation was fully accomplished by the front ends of the fibres being drawn forward more rapidly than their back ends by the drawing rollers revolving at different velocities. mr. baines says it was common to perform this operation until the finished sliver contained portions from _several thousand_ carding slivers, but we think he would have been nearer the mark if he had said several hundred; although the higher number may be occasionally reached. yet again, in order to obtain a thread or yarn of sufficient fineness, it was found necessary to perform some of the attenuation of the cotton sliver as it left the drawing frame and before it reached the final spinning process. to this end, arkwright adopted the roving frame, in which the leading feature was again the celebrated drawing rollers. this machine made a soft and moderately twisted strand or roving, and if much twist had been put in, it would have refused to draw out finer at the spinning machine. hence the means provided by arkwright for the twisting and winding-on of the attenuated cotton on his spinning frame were utterly inadequate to cope with the soft loose roving, and as a matter of fact arkwright never did see this problem satisfactorily solved. he allowed, in his machine, the roving to fall into a rapidly revolving can which stood upright; the revolution imparting twist to the cotton. when this can was filled, it was carried to a winding frame, by which the roving was wound upon bobbins suitable for the spinning frame. that arkwright was unscrupulous in some of his dealings will soon be gathered if the various trials which he instituted to defend his so-called patents be carefully read, though it must be admitted that he possessed a most wonderful business capacity, and that he worked early and late, in pushing his ideas with the most tireless energy and determined perseverance. a glimpse of the nature of his early struggles is obtained when it is recorded that on one occasion his wife broke some of his first rude models, under the impression that he would starve his family by neglect of his legitimate business of barber. so incensed at her for this was he, that he ceased to live with her. such were the defects of his early education and such his determination to learn, that at fifty he did not think he was too old to begin english grammar, writing and arithmetic. that he succeeded in getting together a large fortune is now history. he died at the age of sixty on the rd august, , at cromford in derbyshire. =samuel crompton.=--perhaps the greatest of the cotton-spinning machinery inventors was samuel crompton, who was born a few miles away from bolton in a delightfully secluded and sylvan spot, "firwood fold," on the rd december, . no story of the cotton plant would be complete without mention of this individual, for wherever fine spinning machinery is practised there is a monument to the ingenuity, the skill and brilliant genius of samuel crompton. at a very early age he, along with his parents, removed into a much larger house still in existence and known as "the hall ith wood." this ancient mansion stands on a piece of high rocky ground and is distant from bolton about - / miles. it was in this house that he invented his celebrated machine which he called "a mule." at the present time one looks in vain for the wood, but in the early days of crompton's tenancy it was surrounded by a great number of very fine trees, hence the name "the hall in the wood" or "hall ith wood." for some reason the hall is being allowed to fall into decay, and at the present time is in great danger of collapsing. several attempts have been made to buy the place and reclaim as much of it as possible and convert it into a museum, but as yet nothing has been done. it was built at two different periods: one portion of it, that of the "post and plaster work," being built probably in the th century, while the newer or later portion of stone was erected about , for that date is inscribed on the porch. the inside does not appear to have received much care or improvement. originally the windows were much larger than at present. pitt's window tax, long since repealed, was the direct cause for the reducing of the windows from their former proportions. the illustration gives an excellent idea of its present-day appearance. the building is always an object of extreme interest to visitors to the locality, presenting even now a very picturesque appearance. image: fig. .--the hall ith wood, where the spinning mule was invented. very soon after the removal of the family to the hall ith wood, samuel's father died. his mother, however, one of the best of women, filled the duties of head of the house with much success, and followed the laborious occupation of farming, and in her leisure moments, did what many housewives of her class did--carded, spun, and wove, in order to provide her family and herself with a decent livelihood. she managed to give what might be termed under the circumstances a most excellent and practical education to her son samuel; and it may be here remarked, that in many respects he was the exact opposite of his predecessor arkwright. the latter was certainly a bustling, pushing man of business, while crompton was a born inventor and recluse, and be it said also, as big a failure, as a business man, as could be well conceived. of course arkwright, as is well known, was the opposite of this. the early youth of crompton was identified with the great progress in the cotton industry of england, and, at fifteen or sixteen years of age, he was to be found assisting his mother during the daytime, while in the evenings he attended night-classes in bolton, where he made great progress in mathematics. he was so good at the latter subject that he was called "a witch at figures." it may be taken as perfectly natural that a man of the character, training and early associations of crompton should turn to invention in connection with the cotton industry, especially since the beginning of his association with the trade there had always been a scarcity of weft for the loom which he and his mother operated. the continual efforts of english weavers of that period to produce fine cotton goods to compete with those at that time largely imported from india, led to a great demand for fine yarns, and these the comparatively clumsy fingers of english spinners could not produce in a manner at all equal to the delicate filaments produced by the hindoos. kay's invention of the fly shuttle, and the introduction by his son of the drop-box in the loom, had vastly increased the output of the loom, thus increasing the demand for weft and warp to feed it. the inventions of arkwright, paul and others had certainly done much toward supplying this demand, but in crompton's youth and early manhood the need of suitable weft was greater than ever. mrs. crompton was not long in hearing about the jenny of hargreaves, and determined she would get one for her son to work upon. this she did, and crompton very soon became familiar with it and produced upon it sufficient weft for their own use. this he continued to do for seven or eight years, although he constantly had the truth forced upon him, that the yarn he was producing was neither as suitable for warps as that from arkwright's water frame, nor at all adapted for the fine muslins then very much in requisition for ladies' dresses. the manufacture of these muslins and of cotton quiltings was commenced in bolton, lancashire, by joseph shaw, when crompton was about ten years of age; and from that time up to the present, no town in the world enjoys the same reputation for this class of goods as does bolton. with so contemplative and reflective a mind as crompton's, and the many years of constant and, to a great extent, solitary occupation on hargreaves' jenny, it is not to be wondered at that crompton's ingenious brain led him to devise some mechanism for improving the jenny on which he worked. in , therefore, he began those experiments which, after five years labour, resulted in the invention of the "new wheel," or "muslin wheel," or "hall ith wood wheel," as it was variously designated. the term "mule" was of later application, owing to its comprising the essential features of both arkwright's and hargreaves' inventions. because it was a cross or combination of the two it received the name of mule, by which it is known to-day. at the very time crompton perfected his machine sufficiently to give it a practical test, the blackburn spinners and weavers were going riotously about, smashing to pieces every jenny with more than twenty spindles, that could be found for miles around the locality, so that crompton took elaborate pains to conceal the various parts of his new machine in the ceiling of his work-room at the hall ith wood in order to prevent their destruction. crompton's hopes and prospects were very bright at this time, as he had a watch costing five guineas expressly made for him, and just after the completion of his invention, he married one mary pimlott, at bolton parish church, th february . he was then but twenty-seven years of age, and his great invention, destined to revolutionise the cotton trade, was already an accomplished fact although practically a secret to the world at large. when married, he and his wife set themselves assiduously to produce the finest strong yarn which his machine was so eminently adapted to spin. it did not take long for the good news to travel that fine yarn suitable for the production of muslins was being made at the hall ith wood. hundreds of manufacturers visited samuel to purchase, but many more came out of curiosity, if by any means they could see this wonderful machine. one individual is said to have hidden himself five days in the cockloft and, having bored a hole through the ceiling, feasted one eye at least by a sight of the marvellous mechanism which crompton had invented. ballantyne records that as much as s. per pound was obtained for 's yarn; s. for 's, and for a small quantity of 's, s. per lb. at the time of writing the market prices for these are respectively, - / d., - / d., and s. d. per lb. crompton, however, was not permitted to enjoy his prosperity and monopoly very long, and here again may be noted the difference between him and arkwright. while the latter extorted the full business profit from his inventions, the former suffered his ingenious machine to get out of his hands by promises not worth the paper on which they were written. his invention was not at all adequately protected by patent rights, and a number of manufacturers were allowed to use the mule on their simple written promise to give him some remuneration. long afterwards he wrote: "at last i consented, in hope of a generous and liberal subscription. the consequence was, that from many subscribers, who would not pay the sums they had set opposite their names, when i applied to them for it, i got nothing but abusive language given to me to drive me from them, which was easily done, for i never till then could think it possible that any man (in such situation and circumstances) could pretend one thing and act the direct opposite. i then found it was possible, having had proof positive." another side of crompton's character may be seen when it is stated he was an enthusiastic musician, and earned s. d. a night by playing the violin at the bolton theatre. four or five years after the invention was known, he removed to the township of sharples, where he occupied a farm-house called "the oldhams," being probably induced to take this step in order to secure greater privacy. a few words may very profitably be expended at this point in describing the main features of the machine shown in fig. . image: fig. .--crompton's spinning mule. it has been remarked that arkwright had already attained great success in the production of yarn by the extensive application of the principle of pulling out the cotton by drawing rollers. hargreaves had also shown how to produce a thread by attenuating the cotton by means of a travelling carriage. crompton, however, laid the foundation of the present system of mule spinning by combining the essential features of the two machines and blending them into one. he applied the principle of roller drawing in order to first attenuate the cotton, and he utilised the travelling carriage as a reserve power with which to improve the quality of the thread and draw it out finer. it must not be supposed that his travelling carriage was identical with that of hargreaves. on the contrary, it was a vast improvement upon it. crompton put the twisting spindles into the travelling carriage and the roving bobbins he transferred to a fixed creel, and these conditions are invariably to be found in the self-actor spinning mule of to-day. in hargreaves' machine the rovings were placed on the travelling carriage, and the twisting spindles in the fixed frame behind, a position which has never been acceptable since that time for cotton-spinning mules. here, however, a word may be said in favour of hargreaves' disposition of the parts mentioned. the jenny did not contain any heavy drawing rollers and roller beams, and it was probably best in his machine to have his crude roving creel to traverse and the twisting spindles to be in a fixed frame. this disposition of the parts is even now to be found in most twiner mules, that is, mules used to double two or more single threads together without any process of drawing being applied to the cotton. when crompton applied the principle of drawing rollers, his ingenious mind saw that it would be best to let the rollers, roller beam, and roving creel be in a fixed framework on account of their combined weight and size, making it very difficult to move them about. crompton's great idea seems to have been to produce a better thread by his machine than could be given by other machines, and in this he admirably succeeded. the mule being set in motion, the rollers first attenuated and then delivered the cotton to the spindle carriage. the latter, by the action of the hand and knee, was made to recede from the rollers just about as fast as the cotton was delivered to the spindles, or possibly at a rather quicker rate. then, while the thread was still in a soft state, the rollers could be stopped and the threads pulled still finer by the continued recession of the spindle carriage from the rollers. afterwards, when that length of thread was fully made, it wound on the spindles, and the carriage at the same time returned to the roller beam. thus each portion of thread was first subjected to the action of drawing rollers, as in arkwright's machine, and then drawn still finer by the withdrawal of the travelling carriage, as in hargreaves' jenny. shortly after crompton's invention was given to the public, it began to be improved in various ways. henry stones, a mechanic of horwich, near bolton, substituted metal drawing rollers for crompton's crude wooden rollers, doubtless copying the idea from arkwright's water frame. all the mules employed at first were necessarily short; by that is meant they contained but few spindles, often or spindles. the biggest mule in bolton in was said to contain spindles. the preparation of the rovings for the mule about this time occupied the attention of crompton, and he invented a carding engine which, however, did not attain very much success. indeed it is said that one day so incensed was crompton at the way he had been treated on account of his mule, that he took an axe and smashed his engine to pieces. in crompton established a small manufactory in king street, off deansgate, in bolton. in a subscription, promoted mainly by manchester gentlemen, resulted in £ being handed over to crompton, one of the contributors for thirty guineas being the son of sir r. arkwright. with this money he was enabled to enlarge his business somewhat--one of his new mules containing upwards of spindles and another spindles. the mules were worked for many years, in fact, up to the sixties, when they passed into the hands of messrs. dobson & barlow, the eminent cotton machinists of bolton. one of the mules made by crompton is shown in fig. . in the early part of an agitation for a government grant in recognition of crompton's work made great progress. mr. perceval, the then prime minister, was proceeding to the house of commons to move that a grant of £ , be made to crompton, when he was shot by an assassin named bellingham. there is no doubt, had this disastrous affair never happened and perceval made his proposal, a grant much larger than was actually voted (£ ) would have been made. there is no doubt that this grant was altogether inadequate, seeing that larger sums had been voted to other investigators and inventors about this time. owing to his lack of business ability, and to ill fortune combined, poor crompton did not get out of this money what he might have done. several ventures turned out altogether very differently than he expected. he became poorer and poorer, and was only protected from absolute want by subscriptions and assistance provided by his true friends in the trade, notably mr. kennedy, a manchester manufacturer. image: fig. .--portrait of samuel crompton. (_by the kind permission of w. agnew & son, manchester._) at the age of he died, th june, . he was interred in bolton parish churchyard, where a plain granite tomb sets forth the following:--"samuel crompton of hall ith wood, inventor of the mule, born rd december, , died th june, ." a noble monument of him is to be found standing on nelson square, bolton, in front of the general post office. chapter ix. the modern spinning mule. =the self-actor mule.=--in the preceding chapter there has been detailed the particulars of the invention of the "mule" by samuel crompton. since that event the mule has been the object of over a century of constant and uninterrupted improvement and development, especially in the details of greater or less importance. the self-actor mule of to-day represents and embodies the inventions of hundreds of the most intelligent men ever connected with any industry in the world's history. it is universally acknowledged to be one of the most wonderful and useful machines ever used. the actual operations of making a thread are however practically as left by samuel crompton over a hundred years ago. it is only in details of mechanism involved in making the various operations more perfectly automatic, and of greater size and productiveness, that the long line of inventors since crompton's first mule was made, has been engaged. to-day, such is the great size and wonderfully perfect automatic action of these machines, that they are found feet long, while in width, over all, they may be or feet. such a mule of this length would contain over spindles, each spinning and winding inches of thread in about seconds, and one man with two youths would be sufficient to give all the attention such a machine required. independently of a vast number of inventors of smaller importance, there are several names which stand out in greater prominence in the history of the developments of the mule. among these names must certainly be placed, ahead of any others that might be named, that of richard roberts of manchester, who succeeded in , after about five years' application, in making the mule self-acting. a good number of ingenious individuals had contributed more or less to this result between the dates of crompton's and roberts' inventions, and doubtless the results of the labours of these would be of great service to roberts in his great task. indeed, several inventors had previously brought out what might be termed self-action mules, but it remained for roberts to endow it with that constant and automatic motion which obtains to-day in practically the same form as left by him. the special portion of mechanism with which his name is more especially identified, is what is denominated the "quadrant." this is practically the fourth part of a large wheel, which is so arranged and connected that it performs almost exactly the same functions on a mule that holdsworth's differential motion performs on the bobbin and fly frames. to look at it, one would imagine it to be--what it really is--one of the simplest pieces of mechanism possible, yet the actions performed by it are complex and beautiful in the extreme. later on, these actions of the quadrant will be carefully examined. image: fig. .--mule head showing quadrant. the self-actor mule is an intermittent spinning machine, _i.e._, it is not continuous in action, as are most machines used in the making of thread or yarn from the fibrous product of the cotton plant. take for instance the carding engine, and the bobbin and fly frames, as previously described. so long as these machines are working, practically all of the acting parts of the mechanism have a continuous forward motion. this is by no means the case with the machine now under consideration, as many of the more important and principal parts move alternately in opposite directions, while other of the less important may revolve at one time, and be stationary at another. what are called the medium counts of yarn contain say from to hanks in one pound avoirdupois; a cotton hank being equal to yards, so that one pound of 's yarn will contain no less than × yards or , . for such yarns as these, a modern self-actor mule would probably go through its cycle of movements four times per minute. for coarser or thicker yarns this speed might be increased, while for finer and better qualities of yarn the speed would be diminished. now as each succeeding "stretch" marks a complete cycle of movements and is a repetition of others, it will probably suffice if a brief non-technical description of one of these "stretches" or "draws," as they are termed in mill parlance, be given. as in the bobbin and fly frames, the bobbins containing the rovings of cotton to be operated upon, are placed behind the mules on skewers fitted in a suitable framework of wood and iron called "creels," so as to allow the cotton to be easily pulled off and unwound without breaking. these rovings are guided to and drawn through three pairs of drawing rollers (see fig. ), which shows this very fully. the chief difference between these rollers and those of the previously described machines being in the lessened diameters of the mule rollers, and consequently attenuating the cotton to a much greater extent. it is a truism well understood by those in the trade, that the finer the rovings are the better the raw cotton must be, and the more drawing-out they will stand in any one machine. one inch of roving put up behind the rollers of a mule spinning medium numbers would probably be drawn out into inches. image: fig. .--mules showing "stretch" of cotton yarn. nothing more need be said here about the action of the drawing rollers. as the attenuated rovings leave the roller at the front, each one is conducted down to a spindle revolving at a high rate of speed; so quickly indeed, that there is no other body used in spinning which approaches it for speed. it is quite a usual practice to have them making about revolutions per minute, and sometimes a speed of , is attained by them. assuming that a "cop" of yarn (see fig. ), showing the cops on the spindles, has been partly made upon each spindle, the roving or thread from the rollers would extend down to the cop and be coiled round the spindle upwards up to the apex. the spindle would probably twist the thread for 's counts twenty-three or twenty-four times for each inch that issued from the rollers, there being a well-recognised scale of "twists per inch" for various sorts and degrees of fineness of yarn. unlike the bobbin and fly frames, the roving or yarn is not wound on its cop or spindle as it is delivered, but a certain definite and regulated length of cotton is given out to each spindle, and fully twisted and attenuated before it is wound into a suitable shape for transit and for subsequent treatment. to keep each thread in tension, therefore, as it is delivered from the rollers, the carriage containing the twisting spindles is made to recede quickly away from the rollers, a common distance for such movement being inches. all the time the spindles are quickly revolving and putting twist into the rovings, thus imparting strength to them to a far greater degree than at any previous stage. often the carriage is made to recede from the rollers a little quicker than the latter, the difference in the surface speeds between the two being technically known as "_gain_." the object of this carriage "gain" is to improve the "evenness" of the yarn by drawing out any thick soft places there may be in the length of thread between each spindle and the roller, a distance of inches. it is a property of the twist that it will run much more readily into the thinner portions of thread than the thicker, thus leaving the latter capable of stretching out without breaking. arrived at the limit of inches stretch (see fig. ), certain rods, levers, wheels and springs are so actuated that the parts which draw out the carriage and cause the rollers to revolve are disconnected, so that both are brought to a standstill for the moment. in many cases the spindles at this stage are kept on revolving in order to put in any twist that may be lacking in any portion of the stretch. twisting being finished, the important operation of "backing off" commences. it maybe at once explained that "backing off" means the reversing of the spindles; the uncoiling of a portion of the yarn from the spindles; and generally putting all the requisite apparatus into position ready for winding or coiling the attenuated and twisted rovings upon the spindles. here come now into action those most beautiful and ingenious applications of mechanical principles, the working out of which entailed so many years of arduous effort, and which rendered the mule practically self-acting and automatic. by a most wonderful, intricate and clever combination of levers, wheels, pulleys and springs, aided by what is called a "friction clutch," the instant the spindles have ceased twisting the yarn, they are reversed in direction of revolution. this reversal only occupies two or three seconds, and as the motion imparted to the spindles is very slow at this stage, the practical effect is, that a small portion of yarn is "_uncoiled_" from each spindle, sufficient to allow of two "guide wires" to assume proper and necessary positions for winding the attenuated threads upon the spindles. these two wires are termed "faller wires," and while one is controlled by the cop-shaping mechanism and termed the "winding faller wire" the other simply keeps the threads in the requisite state of tension during "winding on" and is termed the "counter" or "tension faller wire." both these wires can be seen in fig. . during backing off, the "winding faller wire" has a descending motion, while the "counter faller" has an ascending motion, these being necessary for them to attain their proper positions for "winding on." image: fig. .--mule showing action of faller wires. the movement of these faller wires into proper position, and the uncoiling of a small portion of yarn from each spindle, are both brought about by the "backing off" motion, which formed an important part of roberts' mule. it may be remarked, however, that certain of the predecessors of roberts had made great efforts in this direction, thus making the way much easier for his applications, which were entirely successful. when "backing off" is completed, all the necessary parts are in position for winding the inches of thread just given out upon each spindle. this practically involves three primary and most important operations. ( ) the drawing-in of the carriage back to its original position. ( ) the revolution of the spindles at a speed suitable for winding the threads upon the spindles as the carriage moves inwards. ( ) the guiding of the threads upon the spindles in such a manner that a cop of yarn will eventually be formed upon each spindle, of such dimensions and shape as to be quite suitable for any subsequent processes or handling. taking these three important divisions in the order given, it may be said that the drawing-in of the carriage is effected through the medium of the "scroll" bands, which are attached to the carriage at one end, and to certain spiral scrolls or fusees at the other end. the scrolls being revolved, wind the cords or bands round them, so pulling in the carriage. there are usually two back scroll bands and one front band, the latter being a sort of check band upon the action of the other two. what is termed the "rim band" revolves the spindles during the outward traverse of the carriage. the drawing-in of the carriage in a sense causes the other two operations to be performed. with respect to the second of these, viz., revolving the spindles and thus winding the threads upon them, it may be said this action causes what is termed the "winding chain" to pull off a small drum of six inches diameter, thus rotating the latter and thereby the spindles. here, however, comes in now the action of the very beautiful and effective piece of mechanism, "roberts' quadrant" (see fig. ). the winding chain just mentioned is attached to one extremity to the arm of the quadrant, and the peculiar manner in which the quadrant moves in relation to the winding drum gives the variable motion to the spindles that is required. when commencing a new set of cops it may take about eighty revolutions of the spindles to wind on the inches of thread to each spindle, representing one stretch. the bare spindle may be about a quarter of an inch in diameter, but it may finally attain a diameter of an inch and a quarter (_i.e._, the cop upon the spindle). this cop will only require about twenty revolutions to wind on the inches, which are only one-fourth of the revolutions necessary for the empty spindles. it is the action of the quadrant which gives this variation in speed to the spindles during winding-on. but as has been pointed out previously, the quadrant imparts a "differential winding" motion to the spindles in two distinct and different ways, and the second motion is even more important than the first. it is necessary for practical purposes that the cop of yarn should be built up of a conical shape in the upper part, as shown in the illustration. now it must be obvious to the least technical of the readers of this story, that to wind a given portion of yarn upon the thin apex of a cone, will require a greater number of revolutions than would be necessary to wind the same length of yarn upon the base of the same cop. all the way between the apex and the base of the cone are also other varying diameters, and during each return movement of the mule carriage the thread is wound upon all the varying diameters of the cone in succession. this implies the necessity for the revolutions of the spindles to a varying quantity all the time of the return or inward movement of the spindle carriage. the quadrant gives this varying speed in a manner which is all but mathematically correct, any slight deviation from any such mathematical correctness being easily compensated for in other ways. for the specific manner in which this quadrant works, the reader is referred to any of the recent text-books on cotton spinning. the third primary and important operation, which takes place during each return movement of the carriage, is the guiding of the thread upon the spindles in a correct manner. this operation is closely associated, however, with the action of the quadrant. that portion of a "self-actor mule" which guides the faller wires is termed the "shaper" or "copping motion." it consists of an inclined iron rail upon the upper smooth surface of which slides the "copping bowl," this being a portion of the mechanism which connects the rail with the faller wires. the rail rests upon suitable inclines termed "copping plates," whose duty it is to regulate the movement of the rail so as to allow for the ever-increasing dimensions of the cop during the building process. when the carriage again reaches its initial position, suitable mechanism causes all the parts to return in the position required for spinning. such is the complete cycle of movements of the "mule," each succeeding cycle being simply a repetition of the preceding. it will probably take such a mule as the one described about six hours to make a "set of cops," _i.e._, one on each spindle, each cop being - / inches in diameter and - / inches long. every fifteen seconds, while the mule is making a cycle of its movements, may be divided up approximately as follows: nine seconds for the drawing-out and twisting; two seconds for backing-off; four seconds for winding-on and resuming initial position. a multitude of minor motions and details might be easily expanded into several chapters; in fact, more can be said about the mule than about any other spinning machine, but such detailed description would be out of place in this story. all the motions just named are centred in what is termed the "head stock," this being placed midway in the length of the mule. this head stock receives all the power to drive the various motions, from the shafting and gearing, and distributes it in a suitable manner to various parts of the machine. it will have been observed by this time, that, as in the case of the bobbin and fly frames, the intricate and wonderful mechanism of the self-actor mule is not devoted to the formation of threads, but to the effective and economical placing of the threads of yarn, in the form of cops, after it has been spun. image: fig. .--mule head showing "copping rail." the spinning processes take place during the outward traverse of the mule carriage, the mechanism involved in this motion being comparatively simple. the really complicated and difficult motions being "backing-off," revolving the spindles "during winding-on," and the guiding of the spun threads upon the spindles during the winding-on process. it was the addition of these three motions by the later inventors which gave the mule the title of "self-acting." chapter x. other processes in cotton spinning. =the ring spinning machine.=--in a former chapter it was shown how within the space of two decades the three rival spinning machines of hargreaves, arkwright and crompton were introduced, also it was pointed out, that crompton's machines contained the best points of both of his predecessors. the mule did not immediately become the sole spinning machine. from the outset there was a close contest between the continuous spinning machine of arkwright and the intermittent spinning machine of crompton. it was not long, however, before the mule asserted its superiority over the water frame for fine muslin yarns, and for weft yarns. eventually the water frame was relegated to the production of strong warp yarns, and later still it has come to be largely utilised as a doubling machine. as a matter of fact, it is contended by experts of the present day, that no machine ever made a rounder and more solid thread than the water frame, or flyer-throstle, as it has been called in its improved form. image: fig. .--ring spinning frame. during the last thirty years, a revolution practically in cotton spinning has been gradually brought about, and even to-day active developments are to be seen. the continuous system of spinning, which for a time had to take a second place, now appears to be again forging ahead, and looks as though it would supersede its more ponderous rival. especially in countries outside england is this the case, for it is found that the method of ring spinning preponderates, and even in england the number of spindles devoted to continuous spinning is constantly increasing. this change has chiefly been brought about by what may be termed a revolution in the winding and twisting mechanism of the continuous spinning machine itself. arkwright's flyer and spindle, after improvement by subsequent inventors, could not be revolved at anything like the speed of the spindle of the mule, and, in addition to this, the yarn had to be wound always upon the bobbin, very much after the style of the bobbin and fly frames previously described. experiments, however, were repeatedly made in the direction of dispensing with the flyer altogether, and some thirty years ago these unique spinning frames had attained very general adoption in the united states of america, where the comparative dearth of skilled mule spinners had furnished an impetus to improvement of the simple machine of arkwright. about this time, the attention of certain english makers being directed to the success of the new spinning frames in america, led to their introduction into england. but little time elapsed before they received a fair amount of adoption, but for many years they had a restricted use, viz., for doubling, that is, the twisting of two or more spun threads together, to form a stronger finished thread. in this way, they were, strictly speaking, rivals of the throstle doubling frame more than the spinning mule. by and by, however, the time came when the new frames began to be adopted as spinning machines, and to-day there are many english and foreign mills containing nothing else in spinning machines on the continuous system except these. in not a few mills in different countries, both types are found running. a careful glance at the picture of this rival of the mule, will help in the following description of it:-- the flyer which is to be seen on the old saxony wheel, and which was perpetuated in the celebrated machine of arkwright, is entirely dispensed with, and all its functions efficiently performed by apparatus, simple in itself; it is yet capable of high speed and heavy production. first of all, there is a vastly improved and cleverly constructed form of spindle, by which, in the latest and best makes, any speed can be attained which is likely to be required for spinning purposes. perhaps the apparatus which plays the most important part in performing the duties of the displaced flyer, is a tiny "traveller" revolving round a specially made steel ring about inches in diameter. the use of these two latter gives the distinctive names of "ring-spinning" to the new system and "ring frame" to the machine itself. in describing this system of spinning the creel of rovings to be operated upon, and the drawing rollers being practically identical with machines already described, little here is required to be said of them, but there is, however, a modification in the arrangement of the rollers which is referred to later on. after leaving the rollers, a thread of yarn is conducted downwards and passed through the "travellers," which may be seen in the illustration, and then attached to the bobbin. the "traveller" is a tiny ring made of finely tempered steel. it is sprung upon the edge of the ring shown in the frame, and which is specially shaped to receive the tiny ring or traveller referred to. the bobbin in this case is practically fast to the spindle--unlike any other case in cotton-spinning machinery--and it is therefore carried round by the spindle at the same rate of speed. as the spindle and bobbin revolve, they pull the traveller round by the yarn which passes through it, being connected at one end to the bobbin and the rollers above forming another point of attachment. if the reader will look carefully at the illustration he will see how twist is put in the yarn. the joint action, then, of bobbin, traveller and fixed ring, is to put the necessary twist in the yarn which gives it its proper degree of strength. if no fresh roving from the rollers were issuing for the moment, the small portion of thread reaching from the rollers to the bobbins would simply be twisted without any "winding-on" taking place. as a matter of fact, the roving always is issuing from the rollers, and "winding-on" of the twisted roving is performed by the traveller lagging behind the bobbin in speed, to a degree equal to the delivery of roving by the rollers. it will be remembered that in the old flyer-throstle "winding-on" was performed by the bobbin lagging behind the spindle, a procedure which is impossible on the ring frame. there is also an arrangement of the mechanism for guiding and shaping the yarn upon the bobbins in suitable form, the action being as nearly as possible an imitation of the mule. for a number of years after the introduction of these frames, it was found that the threads often broke down owing to the twist not extending through the roving to the point where it issued from the rollers. this was eventually remedied by placing the drawing rollers in a different position, thus causing the thread running from the rollers to the traveller to approach more to the vertical; this constituting the modification which has just been referred to previously. another difficulty was experienced in the fact that during spinning the threads would sometimes fly outwards to such an extent that adjacent threads came in contact with each other, causing excessive breakage. this was technically termed "ballooning," and has been very satisfactorily restricted by the invention of special apparatus. at the present time, therefore, a contest between the two rival systems of continuous spinning which were in bitter antagonism over a century ago, is waging a more fiercely contested fight than at any previous time. as the case stands to-day, the mule is retained for nearly all the best and finest yarns as yet found; the most suitable for them, just as it was when crompton got s. per pound for spinning fine muslin yarns on his first mule. in many cases, also, yarn is specially required to be spun upon the bare spindle as on a mule, as for instance when used as weft and put into the shuttle of a loom. it is probably the very greatest defect of the ring frame that it can only, with great difficulty, be made to form a good cop of yarn on the bare spindle, although thousands of pounds have been spent on experimenting in that direction. how soon it may be accomplished with commercial success cannot be known, as a great number of individuals are constantly working in that direction. if it does come about, there can be no doubt that the ring frame will receive a still further impetus. even now, for medium counts of yarn it is much more productive than the mule, owing to its being a continuous spinner. another vast advantage that it possesses is the extreme simplicity of its parts and work as compared with the mule. because of this, women and girls are invariably employed on the ring frames, whereas it requires skilled and well-paid workmen for the mules. =the combing machine.=--as compared with the scutcher, the carding engine and mule, the comber is a much more modern machine. combing may be defined as being the most highly perfected application of the carding principle. the chief objects aimed at by the comber are:--to extract all fibres below a certain length; to make the fibres parallel; and to extract any fine impurities that may have escaped the scutching and carding processes. it is worthy of note that although nearly all the great inventions relating to cotton-spinning have been brought out by englishmen, the combing machine is a notable exception. it was invented a few years prior to by joshua heilman, who was born at mulhouse, the principal seat of the alsace cotton manufacture, in . like samuel crompton--the inventor of the mule--joshua heilman appears to have possessed the inventive faculty in a high degree, and he received an excellent training in mathematics, mechanical drawing, practical mechanics, and other subjects calculated to assist him in his career as an inventor. heilman was the inventor of several useful improvements in connection with spinning and weaving machinery, but the invention of the comber was undoubtedly his greatest achievement. he was brought up in comparatively easy circumstances, and married a wife possessing a considerable amount of money; but all that both of them possessed was swallowed up by heilman's expenses in connection with his inventions, and he himself was only raised from poverty again by the success of the comber shortly before his death, his wife having died in the midst of their poverty many years previously. after heilman became possessed of the idea of inventing a combing machine, he laboured incessantly at the project for several years, first in his native country and subsequently in england. the firm of sharpe & roberts, formerly so famous in connection with the self-actor mule, made him a model, which, however, did not perform what heilman required. afterwards he returned again to his native alsace still possessed with the idea, and finally it is said that the successful inspiration came to him whilst watching his daughters comb out their long hair. the ultimate result was that he invented a machine which was shown at the great exhibition of london in and immediately attracted the attention of the textile manufacturers of lancashire and yorkshire. large sums of money were paid him by certain of the lancashire cotton spinners for its exclusive use in the cotton trade. certain of the woollen masters of yorkshire did the same, for its exclusive application to their trade, and it was also adopted for other textiles, although heilman himself only lived a short time after his great success. it must be understood that the comber is only used by a comparatively small proportion of the cotton spinners of the world. for all ordinary purposes a sufficiently good quality of yarn can be made without the comber, and no other machine in cotton spinning adds half as much as the comber to the expense of producing cotton yarn from the raw material. to show this point with greater force, it may be mentioned that the comber may make about per cent. of waste, which is approximately as much as all the other machines in the mill put together would make. its use, however, is indispensable in the production of the finest yarns, since no other machine can extract short fibre like the comber. it is seldom used for counts of yarn below 's and often as fine yarns as 's or more are made without the comber. in england its use is chiefly centred in the localities of bolton, manchester, and bollington, although there is a little combing in preston, ashton under lyne, and other places. perhaps its greatest value consists in the fact that its use enables fine yarns to be made out of cotton otherwise much too poor in quality for the work; this being rendered possible chiefly by the special virtue possessed by the comber of extracting all fibres of cotton below a certain length. this of course has led to the increased production and consequently reduced price of the better qualities of yarn. reverting now to the heilman comber as it stands to-day, an excellent idea of the machine as a whole will be gathered from the photograph in fig. . there are usually six small laps being operated upon simultaneously in one comber. each small lap being from - / inches to - / inches wide, being placed on fluted wooden rollers behind the machine, is slowly unwound by frictional contact therewith, and the sheet of cotton thus unwound is passed down a highly polished convex guide-plate to a pair of small fluted steel rollers. both the wooden and the steel rollers have an intermittent motion, as indeed have also all the chief parts of the machine concerned in the actual combing of the cotton. the rollers, during each intermittent movement, may project forward about / of an inch length of thin cotton lap. by this forward movement the cotton fibres are passed between a pair of nippers which has been for the instant opened on purpose to allow of this action. immediately the cotton has passed between the nippers, the feed rollers stop for an instant and the jaws of the nippers shut and hold the longer of the cotton fibres in a very firm manner. image: fig. .--combing machine. the shorter fibres, however, are not held so firmly, and are now combed away from the main body of the fibres by fine needles being passed through them. the needles are fixed in a revolving cylinder and are graduated in fineness and in closeness of setting, so that while the first rows of needles may be about to the inch, the last rows may contain as many as to the inch, there being from to rows of needles in an ordinary comber. the short fibres being combed out by the needles are stripped therefrom, and passed by suitable mechanism to the back of the machine to be afterwards used in the production of lower counts of yarn. the needles of the revolving cylinder having passed through the fibres, the nippers open again and at the same time another row of comb teeth or needles, termed the top comb, descends into the fibres. the fibres now being liberated, certain detaching and attaching mechanism; as it is termed, is brought into action, and the long fibres are taken forward, being pulled through the top comb during this operation. thus the front ends of the fibres are first combed and immediately afterwards the back ends of the same fibres are combed. during the actual operation of combing each small portion of cotton, the latter is quite separated from the portion previously combed, and it is part of the work of the detaching and attaching mechanism to lay the newly combed portion upon that previously combed. from a mechanical point of view, the detaching and attaching mechanism is more difficult to understand than any other portion of the comber, and it is no part of the purpose of this "story of the cotton plant" to enter into a description of this intricate mechanism. sufficient be it to say that the combed cotton leaves the detaching rollers in a thin silky-looking fleece which is at once gathered up into a round sliver or strand and conducted down a long guide-plate towards the end of the machine. this guide-plate is clearly shown in the photograph of the comber, where also it will be seen that the slivers from the six laps which have been operated upon simultaneously are now laid side by side. in this form the cotton passes through the "draw-box" at the end of the comber, and being here reduced practically to the dimensions of one sliver it passes through a narrow funnel and is placed in a can in convenient form for the next process. when the combing is adopted, it precedes the drawing frame, which has previously been described, and the cans of sliver from the comber are taken directly to the draw-frame. for intricacy and multiplicity of parts of mechanism, the comber is second only in cotton-spinning machinery to the self-acting mule, and is probably less understood, since its use is confined to a section of the trade. the latest development is the duplex comber, which makes the extraordinarily large number of one hundred and twenty nips per minute, as compared with about eighty-five nips per minute for the modern single nip comber. all this is the result of improvement in detail, as the principle of heilman's comber remains the same as he left it. it ought to be added that other types of comber have been adopted on the continent with some show of success. image: fig. .--sliver lap machine. =sliver lap machine.=--combing succeeds carding and is practically a continuation of the carding principle to a much finer degree than is possible on the card. the carding engine, however, makes slivers or strands of cotton, while the comber requires the cotton to be presented to it in the form of thin sheets. it therefore becomes requisite to employ apparatus for converting a number of the card slivers into a narrow lap for the comber. the machine universally employed is termed "the sliver lap machine," or, in some cases, "the derby doubler," and a modern machine is shown in the photograph forming fig. . in this case, eighteen cans are placed behind the machines, and the sliver from each can is conducted through an aperture in the back guide-plate designed to prevent entanglements of sliver from passing forward. next each sliver passes over a spoon lever forming part of a motion for automatically stopping the machine when an end breaks. the eighteen slivers now pass side by side through three pairs of drawing rollers with a slight draft, and between calender rollers to a wooden "core" or roller. upon this roller the slivers are wound in the form of a lap, being assimilated to one another by the action of the drawing and calender rollers. =special drawing frame.=--in order to have the fibres of cotton in the best possible condition for obtaining the maximum efficiency out of the combing action, it is the common practice to employ a special drawing frame between the card and the sliver lap machine. as described elsewhere in this little story, the use of the drawing frame is to make the fibres of cotton more parallel to each other by the drawing action of the rollers, and to produce uniformity in the slivers of cotton by doubling about six of them together and reducing the six down to the dimensions of one. in the case under discussion the slivers from the card are taken to the special drawing frame and treated by it, and then passed along to the sliver lap machine as just described. image: fig. .--ribbon lap machine. =ribbon machine.=--quite recently a machine has come slightly into use designed to supersede this special drawing frame. this new machine is termed the "ribbon lap machine," and it may be described as a variation of the principle of the machine it is designed to supersede. the difference is this, that, whereas the drawing frame doubles and attenuates slivers of cotton, the ribbon machine operates upon small laps formed of ribbons or narrow sheets of cotton. by this treatment, the evening and parallelising benefits of the drawing frame are secured, with the addition of a third advantage, which may be briefly explained. the slivers, which in the sliver lap machine are laid side by side so as to form a lap, have a tendency to show an individuality so as to present a more or less thick and thin sheet to the action of the nippers of the comber. the latter, therefore, hold the cotton somewhat feebly at the thin places, thus allowing the needles of the revolving cylinder to comb out a portion of good cotton. when the ribbon lap machine is employed, the slivers from the card are taken directly to the sliver lap machine and the laps made by this machine are passed through the ribbon machine. six laps being operated upon simultaneously by the rollers, are laid one upon another at the front so that thick and thin places amalgamate to produce a sheet of uniform thickness. the use of the ribbon machine is limited at present owing to its possessing certain disadvantages. chapter xi. destination of the spun yarn. having initiated our readers into all the processes incidental to the production of the long fine threads of yarn from the ponderous and weighty bales of cotton as received at the mill, it remains for us to briefly indicate the more common uses to which the spun yarn is applied. a very large quantity of yarn is consumed in the weaving mills for the production of grey cloth without further treatment in the spinning mill, except that the cops of yarn are packed in ships, boxes, or casks, in convenient form for transit purposes. if for weft, the cops are forthwith taken to the loom, ready for the shuttle. if for warp, then the yarn passes through a number of processes necessary for its conversion, from the mule cop or ring bobbin form, into the sheet form, consisting of many hundreds of threads, which are then wound on a beam. briefly enumerated, these processes are as follows:-- (_a_) the winding frame, in which the threads from the cops or spools are wound upon flanged wooden bobbins, suitable for the creel of the next machine. (_b_) the beam warping frame, in which perhaps threads are pulled from the bobbins made at the winding frame, and wound side by side upon a large wooden beam. (_c_) the "slasher sizing frame," in which the threads from perhaps five of the beams made at the warping machine are unwound and laid upon one another, so as to form a much denser warp of perhaps threads, and wrapped on a beam in a suitable form for fitting in the loom as the warp or "woof" of the woven fabric. in addition to this, the sizing machine contains mechanism by which the threads are made to pass through a mixing of "size" or paste, which strengthens the threads. in some cases this "size" is laid on the yarn very thickly, in order to make the cloth weigh heavier. (_d_) after sizing comes the subsidiary process of "drawing in" or "twisting in," by which all the threads are passed in a suitable manner through "healds" and "reeds," so as to allow of their proper manipulation by the mechanism of the loom, to which they are immediately afterwards transferred. in the production of cloths of a more or less "fancy" description, it is often required that the spun yarns shall be bleached and dyed before using, and to perform one or both of these operations efficiently, it is usual to reduce the yarn into proper condition by the processes of "reeling" and "bundling," although in comparatively few instances yarn is dyed in the cop form, while in a few other cases the raw cotton is dyed before being subjected to the processes of cotton spinning. "reeling" and "bundling" are operations which are frequently necessary for other purposes besides those above alluded to, and may therefore be more fully described, as they often form part of the equipment of a spinning mill, and yarn is frequently sent away from the spinning mill in bundle form. =reeling.=--this is a simple but very extensively adopted process, in which yarn is wound from cops, bobbins or spools into hanks. it may be explained here that a cotton hank consists of yards, and is made up of leas of yards each, while on a reel each lea is made up of threads, a thread being inches and equalling the circumference of the reel. perhaps the most common size of reel contains at one time spindles, and is capable therefore of winding hanks of yarn simultaneously. the photograph in fig. shows a number of reels fitted for winding hanks from cops formed upon the mule. the cops being put on the skewers, the end of yarn from each is attached to the reel or "swift" ready for starting. these reels may be arranged so as to be operated from shafting by mechanical power, or by the hand of the attendants. image: fig. .--reeling machine. reeling is performed by women, and in our photo the attendant is seen in the actual operation of reeling. a hank of yarn having been taken from each cop, the reel is stopped and closed up so as to allow of the ready withdrawal of the hanks. =bundling machine.=--the bundling press is solely intended to assist in the making up of the hanks of yarn into a form suitable for ready and convenient transit. in order to exercise a sufficient pressure upon the yarn to make a compact bundle, it is necessary for the framing to be of a very strong character, as will be especially noticed in fig. . image: fig. .--bundling machine. the bundles of yarn made up on the bundling machine are usually to pounds weight, the latter being by far the more common size. the bundle shown in the yarn-box of our illustration is pounds in weight and is practically ready for removal. before placing the yarn in the machine, several hanks are twisted together to form a knot, and these "knots" comprise the individual members of the bundle shown in the illustration. in the sides of the yarn-box there are four divisions, through which are threaded as many strings, upon which may be placed cardboard backs. then the knots of yarn are neatly placed upon the strings, and the cardboard and the strong top bars of the press securely fastened down. certain cams and levers are then set in motion, by which the yarn table is slowly and powerfully raised so as to press the yarn with great force against the top bars. a sufficient pressure having been exerted, the bundle is tied up and withdrawn from the press, only requiring to be neatly wrapped in stout paper to be quite ready for transit purposes. =sewing thread.=--a very large quantity of spun yarn is subsequently made into sewing thread. it is a fact well known to practical men that we have no means in cotton spinning by which a thread can be spun directly of sufficient strength to be used as sewing thread. for instance, suppose we wanted a 's sewing thread, _i.e._, a thread containing hanks in one pound of yarn; it would be practically impossible to spin a thread sufficiently good to meet the requirements of the case. the method generally adopted is to spin a much finer yarn and to make the finished thread by doubling several of the fine spun yarns together in order to form the thicker final thread. for instance, to produce a 's thread it is probable that threads of single 's would be doubled together, or say threads of 's, to allow for the slight contraction of the yarn brought about by twisting the single threads round one another. in order to perform this doubling operation in an efficient manner for the production of thread, it is usual to employ two machines. the first of these is shown in the illustration, and is termed the quick traverse winding machine. here the cops from the mule, or the bobbins from the ring frame, are fitted in a suitable creel, as shown clearly at the front and lower part of our illustration. each thread of yarn is conducted over a flannel-covered board which cleans the yarn and keeps it tight. then each thread passes through the eye of a small detector wire which is held up by the thread and forms part of an automatic stop motion which stops the rotation of any particular bobbin or "cheese" when an end or thread belonging to that "cheese" fails or breaks, leaving the needles or detector wires. all the threads--from two to six in number--belonging to one "cheese" are combined to form one loose rope or thicker thread. image: fig. .--quick traverse winding frame. it ought to be explained that the term cheese is applied to the kind of bobbin of yarn which is formed upon this particular machine, one or two being placed as shown on the frame work. =doubling machine.=--the machine just described does not put any twist into the thread, although twisting is a process which is absolutely indispensable for the proper combination of the several single threads so as to produce a strong doubled thread. the twisting operation is therefore performed on the machine illustrated in fig. , and termed the "ring doubling machine." in the creel of this machine are placed the cheeses formed on the winding machine, and the threads are conducted downward and usually under a glass rod in trough containing water, as the addition of water helps to solidify the single threads better into one doubled thread. from the water trough the threads are conducted between a pair of revolving brass rollers which draw the threads from the cheeses and pass them forward to the front of the machine. here each doubled thread extends downwards and passes through a "traveller" upon the bobbin. this machine is a modification of the ring spinning frame previously described and therefore does not call for detailed treatment at our hands. the two machines are practically identical in principle, the chief difference being that in the doubler there are no drawing rollers, as the cotton is not attenuated in any degree at this stage. other differences consist in having larger "travellers" and "rings" and "spindles," and in a different kind of bobbin being formed. image: fig. .--ring doubling machine. at the doubling mill these threads are submitted to finishing processes, by which they may be polished and cleared and finally wound upon small bobbins or spools ready for the market, as seen in fig. . a fair proportion of the very best yarns are utilised in the manufacture of lace and to imitate silk. such yarns are usually passed through what is termed a "gassing" machine. in this process each thread is passed rapidly several times through a gas flame usually emanating from a burner of the bunsen type. the passage of the thread through the flame is too rapid to allow of the burning down of the threads, but is not too quickly to prevent the loose oozy fibres, present more or less on the surface of all cotton yarns, to be burned away. this process is somewhat expensive, as it burns away perhaps pounds weight of yarn in every pounds. this, however, is obtained back again by the increased price of the yarn. it is a property of the cotton fibre that it can be made to imitate more or less either woollen, linen or silk goods, and since cotton is the cheapest fibre of the lot it follows that a considerable amount of cotton yarn is used in combination with these other fibres, in order to produce cheaper fabrics. embroidery, crocheting and knitting cottons, and the hosiery trade absorb a large amount of the spun cotton yarn; the latter being doubled in most cases in order to fit it for the special work it is designed to do. in a modern spinning mill the ground floor usually contains the openers, scutchers, drawing frames, carding engines and bobbin and fly-frames. the upper floors are usually covered by mules and other spinning frames. image: fig. .--engine house, showing driving to various storeys. in the last illustration (fig. ) is shown one of the latest engines built for special work such as is required in a cotton mill. the huge drum, on which rest the ropes and which can be clearly seen in the picture, is divided into grooves. a certain number of these is set apart for the special rooms. the strength of the rope is known and its transmitting power is also known. when the power required to drive say the first storey or second storey is calculated, it becomes an easy matter to distribute the ropes on the drum as required. this engine is now at work in the bee-hive spinning mill, bolton. index. a. abbasi cotton, . _alethia argillacea_, . _anthonomus grundis_, . _aphis gossypia_, . arkwright, richard, , , , , , , . ashmouni cotton, . _ataxia crypta_, . b. backing off, . bale breaker, , . bales, cylindrical, ; varieties of, . baling, , . ballooning, . bamia cotton, . bedding of cotton plants, . bobbin and fly frames, , . bobbins, . botany of cotton, . bourbon cotton, . bran, cotton seed, . brazil, cultivation of cotton in, . breyn, . broach cotton, . bundling, , . c. cæra cotton, . carding, , , , , , , . central america, cultivation of cotton in, . chemistry of cotton plant, . china, cultivation of cotton in, . civil war, american, effect on production, , . climate, . _cocæcia rosaceana_, . columbus, voyages of, . combing, , . cone drums, . congo river as a cotton district, . cop, , . copping motion, . coral polyp, . corea, cultivation of cotton in, . cortes, hernando, . cotton boll-caterpillar, , . cotton-boll weevil, . cotton caterpillar, . cotton cutworm, . cotton lice, . cotton puller, , . crioulo cotton, . crompton, samuel, , , , . cultivation in various countries, . d. dacca cotton, , . da gama, vasco, . deo cotton, . differential motion, , . differential winding, . diseases of cotton plant, , . distaff, . doffer and comb, , . doubling machines, , . draining, . drawing, , , , , . drop-box, . dyeing, , . e. egypt, production of cotton in, , , . f. faller wires, . _feltia malefida_, . fertilisers, value of artificial, . fibres, strength of, . flyer, . flying shuttle, , . friction clutch, . fungi affecting cotton plant, . g. gallini cotton, , . gassing, . ginning, . gin, macarthy, ; saw, . _gossypium_, ; _acuminatum_, ; _arboreum_, ; _barbadense_, , ; _herbaceum_, ; _hirsutum_, ; _neglectum_, ; _peruvianum_, ; _religiosum_, . greece, cultivation of cotton in, . h. hall ith wood, . hargreaves, james, , , , , . hauling, . heilman, joshua, . _heliothis armiger_, , . herodotus, description of cotton, . highs, thomas, , , . hingunghat cotton, . history, cotton plant in, . holdsworth, , . i. india, cultivation of cotton in, , , , . insects, injurious, . j. japan, cultivation of cotton in, . java, cultivation of cotton in, . k. kay, john, , , . kidney cotton, . kircher of avignon, . l. lap, the, , , , , . leaf-roller, . lee, henry, "vegetable lamb of tartary," . levant cotton, . liberia, cultivation of cotton in, . lint, . linting machines, . m. macarthy gin, . mako jumel cotton, . mallow, . mananams cotton, . mandeville, sir john, . maranhâo cotton, . meal, cotton seed, . measurement of fibres, . mexico, cultivation of cotton in, , . microscopic examination of fibre, . mitafifi cotton, . mixing, , . monsoons, . mule, the, ; crompton's, ; self-actor, , . myths about cotton plant, . n. nankeen cotton, . nearchus, . o. odoricus, . oil, cotton seed, . oomrawattee cotton, . opening, , . p. paul lewis, , , , . pernan cotton, . peru, cultivation of cotton in, , . picking cotton, . pizarro, , . plantation life, . press, cotton, . production, brazil, ; china, ; corea, ; egypt, , , ; india, , ; japan, ; mexico, ; peru, ; russia in asia, ; united states, , . q. quadrant, mule, , . r. red peruvian cotton, . reeling, . ribbon lap machine, , . ring spinning frame, , , . roberts, richard, . "rocking day," . rollers, drawing, , . roots of cotton plant, ; medicinal use, . roving frames, . rovings, , . russia in asia, cotton production in, . s. st. distaff's day, . santos cotton, . saw gin, . scutching, , , . seeds, cotton, , , , . seguro, . senegambia, . shuttle, flying, , . sind cotton, . sizing, . slavery, abolition of, effect on production, . sliver lap machine, , . sliver, the, , , . slubbers, . soil, . soils, american cotton, . soudan, cotton production in, . south africa, cotton production in, , . species, . spindle, the, , , . spinning, early attempts, . spinning jenny, , . spinning wheels, . strength of fibres, . sumatra, cotton production in, . surat cotton, , . t. theophrastus, description of cotton, . thread, sewing, , . turkestan, cotton production in, . turkey, cotton production in, . twist in fibre, ; in rovings, . u. united states, cotton production of the, , . unripe cotton, , . v. "vegetable lamb of tartary," . vine cotton, . w. wadding, cotton, . warping machine, . water frame, , . west indies, cotton production in, , . whitney, eli. . winding, . winding chain, . winding frame, . wyatt, john, , . z. zahn, johannes, . the end. transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. passages in bold are indicated by =bold=. the following misprints have been corrected: "a" added (page ; orignial text reads: "...thread ready alike for the sewing machine or the needle of seamstress." "aecording" corrected to "according" (page ) "produed" corrected to "produced" (page ) "qnantities" corrected to "quantities" (page ) "reamains" corrected to "remains" (page ) "rapily" corrected to "rapidly" (page ) "to to" corrected to "to" (page ) "correet" corrected to "correct" (page ) additional spacing is intentional to indicate both the end of a quotation and the beginning of a new paragraph or to represent a section break as presented in the original text. the chemistry of hat manufacturing lectures delivered before the hat manufacturers' association by watson smith, f.c.s., f.i.c. then lecturer in chemical technology in the owens college, manchester and lecturer of the victoria university revised and edited by albert shonk with sixteen illustrations london scott, greenwood & son "the hatters' gazette" offices broadway, ludgate hill, e.c. canada: the copp clark co. ltd., toronto united states: d. van nostrand co., new york [_all rights remain with scott, greenwood & son_] transcriber's note: underscores around words indicates italics while an underscore and curly brackets in an equation indicates a subscript. preface the subject-matter in this little book is the substance of a series of lectures delivered before the hat manufacturers' association in the years and . about this period, owing to the increasing difficulties of competition with the products of the german hat manufacturers, a deputation of hat manufacturers in and around manchester consulted sir henry e. roscoe, f.r.s., then the professor of chemistry in the owens college, manchester, and he advised the formation of an association, and the appointment of a lecturer, who was to make a practical investigation of the art of hat manufacturing, and then to deliver a series of lectures on the applications of science to this industry. sir henry roscoe recommended the writer, then the lecturer on chemical technology in the owens college, as lecturer, and he was accordingly appointed. the lectures were delivered with copious experimental illustrations through two sessions, and during the course a patent by one of the younger members became due, which proved to contain the solution of the chief difficulty of the british felt-hat manufacturer (see pages - ). this remarkable coincidence served to give especial stress to the wisdom of the counsel of sir henry roscoe, whose response to the appeal of the members of the deputation of was at once to point them to scientific light and training as their only resource. in a letter recently received from sir henry ( ), he writes: "i agree with you that this is a good instance of the _direct money value_ of scientific training, and in these days of 'protection' and similar subterfuges, it is not amiss to emphasise the fact." it is thus gratifying to the writer to think that the lectures have had some influence on the remarkable progress which the british hat industry has made in the twenty years that have elapsed since their delivery. these lectures were in part printed and published in the _hatters' gazette_, and in part in newspapers of manchester and stockport, and they have here been compiled and edited, and the necessary illustrations added, etc., by mr. albert shonk, to whom i would express my best thanks. watson smith. london, _april_ . contents lecture page i. textile fibres, principally wool, fur, and hair ii. textile fibres, principally wool, fur, and hair--_continued_ iii. water: its chemistry and properties; impurities and their action; tests of purity iv. water: its chemistry and properties; impurities and their action; tests of purity--_continued_ v. acids and alkalis vi. boric acid, borax, soap vii. shellac, wood spirit, and the stiffening and proofing process viii. mordants: their nature and use ix. dyestuffs and colours x. dyestuffs and colors--_continued_ xi. dyeing of wool and fur; and optical properties of colours index the chemistry of hat manufacturing lecture i textile fibres, principally wool, fur, and hair _vegetable fibres._--textile fibres may be broadly distinguished as vegetable and animal fibres. it is absolutely necessary, in order to obtain a useful knowledge of the peculiarities and properties of animal fibres generally, or even specially, that we should be, at least to some extent, familiar with those of the vegetable fibres. i shall therefore have, in the first place, something to tell you of certain principal vegetable fibres before we commence the more special study of the animal fibres most interesting to you as hat manufacturers, namely, wool, fur, and hair. what cotton is as a vegetable product i shall not in detail describe, but i will refer you to the interesting and complete work of dr. bowman, _on the structure of the cotton fibre_. suffice it to say that in certain plants and trees the seeds or fruit are surrounded, in the pods in which they develop, with a downy substance, and that the cotton shrub belongs to this class of plants. a fibre picked out from the mass of the downy substance referred to, and examined under the microscope, is found to be a spirally twisted band; or better, an irregular, more or less flattened and twisted tube (see fig. ). we know it is a tube, because on taking a thin, narrow slice across a fibre and examining the slice under the microscope, we can see the hole or perforation up the centre, forming the axis of the tube (see fig. ). mr. h. de mosenthal, in an extremely interesting and valuable paper (see _j.s.c.i._,[ ] , vol. xxiii. p. ), has recently shown that the cuticle of the cotton fibre is extremely porous, having, in addition to pores, what appear to be minute stomata, the latter being frequently arranged in oblique rows, as if they led into oblique lateral channels. a cotton fibre varies from · to centimetres in length, and in breadth from · to · millimetre. the characteristics mentioned make it very easy to distinguish cotton from other vegetable or animal fibres. for example, another vegetable fibre is flax, or linen, and this has a very different appearance under the microscope (_see_ fig. ). it has a bamboo-like, or jointed appearance; its tubes are not flattened, nor are they twisted. flax belongs to a class called the bast fibres, a name given to certain fibres obtained from the inner bark of different plants. jute also is a bast fibre. the finer qualities of it look like flax, but, as we shall see, it is not chemically identical with cotton, as linen or flax is. another vegetable fibre, termed "cotton-silk," from its beautiful, lustrous, silky appearance, has excited some attention, because it grows freely in the german colony called the camaroons, and also on the gold coast. this fibre, under the microscope, differs entirely in appearance from both cotton and flax fibres. its fibres resemble straight and thin, smooth, transparent, almost glassy tubes, with large axial bores; in fact, if wetted in water you can see the water and air bubbles in the tubes under the microscope. a more detailed account of "cotton-silk" appears in a paper read by me before the society of chemical industry in (see _j.s.c.i._, , vol. v. p. ). now the substance of the cotton, linen or flax, as well as that of the cotton-silk fibres, is termed, chemically, cellulose. raw cotton consists of cellulose with about per cent. of impurities. this cellulose is a chemical compound of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and, according to the relative proportions of these constituents, it has had the chemical formula c_{ }h_{ }o_{ } assigned to it. each letter stands for an atom of each constituent named, and the numerals tell us the number of the constituent atoms in the whole compound atom of cellulose. this cellulose is closely allied in composition to starch, dextrin, and a form of sugar called glucose. it is possible to convert cotton rags into this form of sugar--glucose--by treating first with strong vitriol or sulphuric acid, and then boiling with dilute acid for a long time. before we leave these vegetable or cellulose fibres, i will give you a means of testing them, so as to enable you to distinguish them broadly from the animal fibres, amongst which are silk, wool, fur, and hair. a good general test to distinguish a vegetable and an animal fibre is the following, which is known as molisch's test: to a very small quantity, about · gram, of the well-washed cotton fibre, c.c. of water is added, then two to three drops of a to per cent. solution of alpha-naphthol in alcohol, and finally an excess of concentrated sulphuric acid; on agitating, a deep violet colour is developed. by using thymol in place of the alpha-naphthol, a red or scarlet colour is produced. if the fibre were one of an animal nature, merely a yellow or greenish-yellow coloured solution would result. i told you, however, that jute is not chemically identical with cotton and linen. the substance of its fibre has been termed "bastose" by cross and bevan, who have investigated it. it is not identical with ordinary cellulose, for if we take a little of the jute, soak it in dilute acid, then in chloride of lime or hypochlorite of soda, and finally pass it through a bath of sulphite of soda, a beautiful crimson colour develops upon it, not developed in the case of cellulose (cotton, linen, etc.). it is certain that it is a kind of cellulose, but still not identical with true cellulose. all animal fibres, when burnt, emit a peculiar empyreumatic odour resembling that from burnt feathers, an odour which no vegetable fibre under like circumstances emits. hence a good test is to burn a piece of the fibre in a lamp flame, and notice the odour. all vegetable fibres are easily tendered, or rendered rotten, by the action of even dilute mineral acids; with the additional action of steam, the effect is much more rapid, as also if the fibre is allowed to dry with the acid upon or in it. animal fibres are not nearly so sensitive under these conditions. but whereas caustic alkalis have not much effect on vegetable fibres, if kept out of contact with the air, the animal fibres are very quickly attacked. superheated steam alone has but little effect on cotton or vegetable fibres, but it would fuse or melt wool. based on these differences, methods have been devised and patented for treating mixed woollen and cotton tissues--( ) with hydrochloric acid gas, or moistening with dilute hydrochloric acid and steaming, to remove all the cotton fibre; or ( ) with a jet of superheated steam, under a pressure of atmospheres ( lb. per square inch), when the woollen fibre is simply melted out of the tissue, and sinks to the bottom of the vessel, a vegetable tissue remaining (heddebault). if we write on paper with dilute sulphuric acid, and dry and then heat the place written upon, the cellulose is destroyed and charred, and we get black writing produced. the principle involved is the same as in the separation of cotton from mixed woollen and cotton goods by means of sulphuric acid or vitriol. the fabric containing cotton, or let us say cellulose particles, is treated with dilute vitriol, pressed or squeezed, and then roughly dried. that cellulose then becomes mere dust, and is simply beaten out of the intact woollen texture. the cellulose is, in a pure state, a white powder, of specific gravity · , _i.e._ one and a half times as heavy as water, and is quite insoluble in such solvents as water, alcohol, ether; but it does dissolve in a solution of hydrated oxide of copper in ammonia. on adding acids to the cupric-ammonium solution, the cellulose is reprecipitated in the form of a gelatinous mass. cotton and linen are scarcely dissolved at all by a solution of basic zinc chloride. [footnote : _j.s.c.i. = journal of the society of chemical industry._] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] _silk._--we now pass on to the animal fibres, and of these we must first consider silk. this is one of the most perfect substances for use in the textile arts. a silk fibre may be considered as a kind of rod of solidified flexible gum, secreted in and exuded from glands placed on the side of the body of the silk-worm. in fig. are shown the forms of the silk fibre, in which there are no central cavities or axial bores as in cotton and flax, and no signs of any cellular structure or external markings, but a comparatively smooth, glassy surface. there is, however, a longitudinal groove of more or less depth. the fibre is semi-transparent, the beautiful pearly lustre being due to the smoothness of the outer layer and its reflection of the light. in the silk fibre there are two distinct parts: first, the central portion, or, as we may regard it, the true fibre, chemically termed _fibroïn_; and secondly, an envelope composed of a substance or substances, chemically termed _sericin_, and often "silk-glue" or "silk-gum." both the latter and _fibroïn_ are composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. here there is thus one element more than in the vegetable fibres previously referred to, namely, nitrogen; and this nitrogen is contained in all the animal fibres. the outer envelope of silk-glue or sericin can be dissolved off the inner fibroïn fibre by means of hot water, or warm water with a little soap. warm dilute (that is, weak) acids, such as sulphuric acid, etc., also dissolve this silk-glue, and can be used like soap solutions for ungumming silk. dilute nitric acid only slightly attacks silk, and colours it yellow; it would not so colour vegetable fibres, and this forms a good test to distinguish silk from a vegetable fibre. cold strong acetic acid, so-called glacial acetic acid, removes the yellowish colouring matter from raw silk without dissolving the sericin or silk-gum. by heating under pressure with acetic acid, however, silk is completely dissolved. silk is also dissolved by strong sulphuric acid, forming a brown thick liquid. if we add water to this thick liquid, a clear solution is obtained, and then on adding tannic acid the fibroïn is precipitated. strong caustic potash or soda dissolves silk; more easily if warm. dilute caustic alkalis, if sufficiently dilute, will dissolve off the sericin and leave the inner fibre of fibroïn; but they are not so good for ungumming silk as soap solutions are, as the fibre after treatment with them is deficient in whiteness and brilliancy. silk dissolves completely in hot basic zinc chloride solution, and also in an alkaline solution of copper and glycerin, which solutions do not dissolve vegetable fibres or wool. chlorine and bleaching-powder solutions soon attack and destroy silk, and so another and milder agent, namely, sulphurous acid, is used to bleach this fibre. silk is easily dyed by the aniline and coal-tar colours, and with beautiful effect, but it has little attraction for the mineral colours. _wool_.--next to silk as an animal fibre we come to wool and different varieties of fur and hair covering certain classes of animals, such as sheep, goats, rabbits, and hares. generally, and without going at all deeply into the subject, we may say that wool differs from fur and hair, of which we may regard it as a variety, by being usually more elastic, flexible, and curly, and because it possesses certain features of surface structure which confer upon it the property of being more easily matted together than fur and hair are. we must first shortly consider the manner of growth of hair without spending too much time on this part of the subject. the accompanying figure (see fig. ) shows a section of the skin with a hair or wool fibre rooted in it. here we may see that the ground work, if we may so term it, is four-fold in structure. proceeding downwards, we have--(first) the outer skin, scarf-skin or cuticle; (second) a second layer or skin called the _rete mucosum_, forming the epidermis; (third) papillary layer; (fourth) the corium layer, forming the dermis. the peculiar, globular, cellular masses below in the corium are called adipose cells, and these throw off perspiration or moisture, which is carried away to the surface by the glands shown (called sudoriparous glands), which, as is seen, pass independently off to the surface. other glands terminate under the skin in the hair follicles, which follicles or hair sockets contain or enclose the hair roots. these glands terminating in the hair follicles secrete an oily substance, which bathes and lubricates as well as nourishes the hair. with respect to the origin of the hair or wool fibre, this is formed inside the follicle by the exuding therefrom of a plastic liquid or lymph; this latter gradually becomes granular, and is then formed into cells, which, as the growth proceeds, are elongated into fibres, which form the central portion of the hair. just as with the trunk of a tree, we have an outer dense portion, the bark, an inner less dense and more cellular layer, and an inmost portion which is most cellular and porous; so with a hair, the central portion is loose and porous, the outer more and more dense. on glancing at the figure (fig. ) of the longitudinal section of a human hair, we see first the outer portion, like the bark of a tree, consisting of a dense sheath of flattened scales, then comes an inner lining of closely-packed fibrous cells, and frequently an inner well-marked central bundle of larger and rounder cells, forming a medullary axis. the transverse section (fig. ) shows this exceedingly well. the end of a hair is generally pointed, sometimes filamentous. the lower extremity is larger than the shaft, and terminates in a conical bulb, or mass of cells, which forms the root of the hair. in the next figure (fig. ) we are supposed to have separated these cells, and above, (a), we see some of the cells from the central pith or medulla, and fat globules; between, (b), some of the intermediate elongated or angular cells; and below, (c), two flattened, compressed, structureless, and horny scales from the outer portion of the hair. now these latter flattened scales are of great importance. their character and mode of connection with the stratum, or cortical substance, below, not only make all the difference between wool and hair, but also determine the extent and degree of that peculiar property of interlocking of the hairs known as felting. let us now again look at a human hair. the light was reflected from this hair as it lay under the microscope, and now we see the reason of the saw-like edge in the longitudinal section, for just as the tiles lie on the roof of a house, or the scales on the back of a fish, so the whole surface of the hair is externally coated with a firmly adhering layer of flat overlying scales, with not very even upper edges, as you see. the upper or free edges of these scales are all directed towards the end of the hair, and away from the root. but when you look at a hair in its natural state you cannot see these scales, so flat do they lie on the hair-shaft. what you see are only irregular transverse lines across it. now i come to a matter of great importance, as will later on appear in connection with means for promoting felting properties. if a hair such as described, with the scales lying flat on the shaft, be treated with certain substances or reagents which act upon and dissolve, or decompose or disintegrate its parts, then the free edges of these scales rise up, they "set their backs up," so to say. they, in fact, stand off like the scales of a fir-cone, and at length act like the fir-cone in ripening, at last becoming entirely loose. as regards wool and fur, these scales are of the utmost importance, for very marked differences exist even in the wool of a single sheep, or the fur of a single hare. it is the duty of the wool-sorter to distinguish and separate the various qualities in each fleece, and of the furrier to do the same in the case of each fur. in short, upon the nature and arrangement and conformation of the scales on the hair-shafts, especially as regards those free upper edges, depends the distinction of the value of many classes of wool and fur. these scales vary both as to nature and arrangement in the case of the hairs of different animals, so that by the aid of the microscope we have often a means of determining from what kind of animal the hair has been derived. it is on the nature of this outside scaly covering of the shaft, and in the manner of attachment of these scaly plates, that the true distinction between wool and hair rests. the principal epidermal characteristic of a true wool is the capacity of its fibres to felt or mat together. this arises from the greater looseness of the scaly covering of the hair, so that when opposing hairs come into contact, the scales interlock (see fig. ), and thus the fibres are held together. just as with hair, the scales of which have their free edges pointing upwards away from the root, and towards the extremity of the hair, so with wool. when the wool is on the back of the sheep, the scales of the woolly hair all point in the same direction, so that while maintained in that attitude the individual hairs slide over one another, and do not tend to felt or mat; if they did, woe betide the animal. the fact of the peculiar serrated, scaly structure of hair and wool is easily proved by working a hair between the fingers. if, for instance, a human hair be placed between finger and thumb, and gently rubbed by the alternate motion of finger and thumb together, it will then invariably move in the direction of the root, quite independently of the will of the person performing the test. a glance at the form of the typical wool fibres shown (see fig. ), will show the considerable difference between a wool and a hair fibre. you will observe that the scales of the wool fibre are rather pointed than rounded at their free edges, and that at intervals we have a kind of composite and jagged-edged funnels, fitting into each other, and thus making up the covering of the cylindrical portion of the fibre. the sharpened, jagged edges enable these scales more easily to get under the opposing scales, and to penetrate inwards and downwards according to the pressure exerted. the free edges of the scales of wool are much longer and deeper than in the case of hair. in hair the overlapping scales are attached to the under layer up to the edges of those scales, and at this extremity can only be detached by the use of certain reagents. but this is not so with wool, for here the ends of the scales are, for nearly two-thirds of their length, free, and are, moreover, partially turned outwards. one of the fibres shown in fig. is that of the merino sheep, and is one of the most valuable and beautiful wools grown. there you have the type of a fibre best suited for textile purposes, and the more closely different hairs approach this, the more suitable and valuable they become for those purposes, and _vice versâ_. with regard to the curly structure of wool, which increases the matting tendency, though the true cause of this curl is not known, there appears to be a close relationship between the tendency to curl, the fineness of the fibre, and the number of scales per linear inch upon the surface. with regard to hair and fur, i have already shown that serrated fibres are not specially peculiar to sheep, but are much more widely diffused. most of the higher members of the mammalia family possess a hairy covering of some sort, and in by far the larger number is found a tendency to produce an undergrowth of fine woolly fibre, especially in the winter time. the differences of human hair and hairs generally, from the higher to the lower forms of mammalia, consist only in variations of size and arrangement as regards the cells composing the different parts of the fibre, as well as in a greater or less development of the scales on the covering or external hair surface. thus, under the microscope, the wool and hairs of various animals, as also even hairs from different parts of the same animal, show a great variety of structure, development, and appearance. [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: finest merino wool fibre. typical wool fibre. fibre of wool from chinese sheep. fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] we have already observed that hair, if needed for felting, is all the better--provided, of course, no injury is done to the fibre itself--for some treatment, by which the scales otherwise lying flatter on the hair-shafts than in the case of the hairs of wool, are made to stand up somewhat, extending outwards their free edges. this brings me to the consideration of a practice pursued by furriers for this purpose, and known as the _sécretage_ or "carrotting" process; it consists in a treatment with a solution of mercuric nitrate in nitric acid, in order to improve the felting qualities of the fur. this acid mixture is brushed on to the fur, which is cut from the skin by a suitable sharp cutting or shearing machine. a manchester furrier, who gave me specimens of some fur untreated by the process, and also some of the same fur that had been treated, informed me that others of his line of business use more mercury than he does, _i.e._ leave less free nitric acid in their mixture; but he prefers his own method, and thinks it answers best for the promotion of felting. the treated fur he gave me was turned yellow with the nitric acid, in parts brown, and here and there the hairs were slightly matted with the acid. in my opinion the fur must suffer from such unequal treatment with such strong acid, and in the final process of finishing i should not be surprised if difficulty were found in getting a high degree of lustre and finish upon hairs thus roughened or partially disintegrated. figs. and respectively illustrate fur fibres from different parts of the same hare before and after the treatment. in examining one of these fibres from the side of a hare, you see what the cause of this roughness is, and what is also the cause of the difficulty in giving a polish or finish. the free edges are partially disintegrated, etched as it were, besides being caused to stand out. a weaker acid ought to be used, or more mercury and less acid. as we shall afterwards see, another dangerous agent, if not carefully used, is bichrome (bichromate of potassium), which is also liable to roughen and injure the fibre, and thus interfere with the final production of a good finish. lecture ii textile fibres, principally wool, fur, and hair--_continued_ with regard to the preparation of fur by acid mixtures for felting, mentioned in the last lecture, i will tell you what i think i should recommend. in all wool and fur there is a certain amount of grease, and this may vary in different parts of the material. where there is most, however, the acid, nitric acid, or nitric acid solution of nitrate of mercury, will wet, and so act on the fur, least. but the action ought to be uniform, and i feel sure it cannot be until the grease is removed. i should therefore first wash the felts on the fur side with a weak alkaline solution, one of carbonate of soda, free from any caustic, to remove all grease, then with water to remove alkali; and my belief is that a weaker and less acid solution of nitric acid and nitrate of mercury, and a smaller quantity of it, would then do the work required, and do it more uniformly. a question frequently asked is: "why will dead wool not felt?" answer: if the animal become weak and diseased, the wool suffers degradation; also, with improvement in health follows _pari passu_, improvement in the wool structure, which means increase both in number and vigour of the scales on the wool fibres, increase of the serrated ends of these, and of their regularity. in weakness and disease the number of scales in a given hair-shaft diminishes, and these become finer and less pronounced. the fibres themselves also become attenuated. hence when disease becomes death, we have considerably degraded fibres. this is seen clearly in the subjoined figures (see fig. ), which are of wool fibres from animals that have died of disease. the fibres are attenuated and irregular, the scale markings and edges have almost disappeared in some places, and are generally scanty and meagre in development. it is no wonder that such "dead wool" will be badly adapted for felting. "dead wool" is nearly as bad as "kempy" wool, in which malformation of fibre has occurred. in such "kemps," as dr. bowman has shown, scales have disappeared, and the fibre has become, in part or whole, a dense, non-cellular structure, resisting dye-penetration and felting (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] one of the physical properties of wool is its hygroscopicity or power of absorbing moisture. as the very structure of wool and fur fibre would lead us to suppose, these substances are able to absorb a very considerable amount of water without appearing damp. if exposed freely to the air in warm and dry weather, wool retains from to per cent., and if in a damp place for some time, it may absorb as much as from to per cent. of water: wool, fur, or hair that has been washed, absorbs the most moisture; indeed, the amount of water taken up varies inversely with the fatty or oily matter present. hence the less fat the more moisture. in the washed wool, those fibres in which the cells are more loosely arranged have the greatest absorbing power for water. no doubt the moisture finds its way in between the cells of the wool fibre from which the oil or fat has been removed. but i need hardly remind you that if wool and fur are capable, according to the circumstances under which they are placed, of absorbing so much moisture as that indicated, it becomes (especially in times of pressure and competition) very important to inquire if it be not worth while to cease paying wool and fur prices for mere water. this question was answered long ago in the negative by our continental neighbours, and in germany, france, and switzerland official conditioning establishments have been founded by the governments of those countries for the purpose of testing lots of purchased wool and silk, etc., for moisture, in order that this moisture may be deducted from the invoices, and cash paid for real dry wool, etc. i would point out that if you, as hat manufacturers, desire to enter the lists with germany, you must not let her have any advantage you have not, and it is an advantage to pay for what you know exactly the composition of, rather than for an article that may contain per cent. or, for aught you know, per cent. or per cent. of water. there is, so far as i know, no testing for water in wools and furs in this country, and certainly no "conditioning establishments" ( ), and, i suppose, if a german or french wool merchant or furrier could be imagined as selling wool, etc., in part to a german or french firm, and in part to an english one, the latter would take the material without a murmur, though it might contain per cent., or, peradventure, per cent. of water, and no doubt the foreign, just as the english merchant or dealer, would get the best price he could, and regard the possible per cent. or per cent. of water present with certainly the more equanimity the more of that very cheap element there were present. but look at the other side. the german or french firm samples its lot as delivered, takes the sample to be tested, and that or per cent. of water is deducted, and only the dry wool is paid for. a few little mistakes of this kind, i need hardly say, will altogether form a kind of _vade mecum_ for the foreign competitor. we will now see what the effect of water is in the felting operation. especially hot water assists that operation, and the effect is a curious one. when acid is added as well, the felting is still further increased, and shrinking also takes place. as already shown you, the free ends of the scales, themselves softened by the warm dilute acid, are extended and project more, and stand out from the shafts of the hairs. on the whole, were i a hat manufacturer, i should prefer to buy my fur untreated by that nitric acid and mercury process previously referred to, and promote its felting properties myself by the less severe and more rational course of proceeding, such, for example, as treatment with warm dilute acid. we have referred to two enemies standing in the way to the obtainment of a final lustre and finish on felted wool or fur, now let us expose a third. in the black dyeing of the hat-forms a boiling process is used. let us hear what dr. bowman, in his work on the wool fibre, says with regard to boiling with water. "wool which looked quite bright when well washed with tepid water, was decidedly duller when kept for some time in water at a temperature of ° f., and the same wool, when subjected to boiling water at ° f., became quite dull and lustreless. when tested for strength, the same fibres which carried on the average grains without breaking before boiling, after boiling would not bear more than grains." hence this third enemy is a boiling process, especially a long-continued one if only with water itself. if we could use coal-tar colours and dye in only a warm weak acid bath, not boil, we could get better lustre and finish. we will now turn our attention to the chemical composition of wool and fur fibres. on chemical analysis still another element is found over and above those mentioned as the constituents of silk fibre. in silk, you will recollect, we observed the presence of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. in wool, fur, etc., we must add a fifth constituent, namely, sulphur. here is an analysis of pure german wool--carbon, · per cent.; hydrogen, · ; oxygen, · ; nitrogen, · ; sulphur, · --total, · . if you heat either wool, fur, or hair to ° c., it begins to decompose, and to give off ammonia; if still further heated to from ° to ° c., vapours containing sulphur are evolved. if some wool be placed in a dry glass tube, and heated strongly so as to cause destructive distillation, products containing much carbonate of ammonium are given off. the ammonia is easily detected by its smell of hartshorn and the blue colour produced on a piece of reddened litmus paper, the latter being a general test to distinguish alkalis, like ammonia, soda, and potash, from acids. no vegetable fibres will, under any circumstances, give off ammonia. it may be asked, "but what does the production of ammonia prove?" i reply, the "backbone," chemically speaking, of ammonia is nitrogen. ammonia is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen, and is formulated nh_{ }, and hence to discover ammonia in the products as mentioned is to prove the prior existence of its nitrogen in the wool, fur, and hair fibres. _action of acids on wool, etc._--dilute solutions of vitriol (sulphuric acid) or hydrochloric acid (muriatic acid, spirits of salt) have little effect on wool, whether warm or cold, except to open out the scales and confer roughness on the fibre. used in the concentrated state, however, the wool or fur would soon be disintegrated and ruined. but under all circumstances the action is far less than on cotton, which is destroyed at once and completely. nitric acid acts like sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, but it gives a yellow colour to the fibre. you see this clearly enough in the fur that comes from your furriers after the treatment they subject it to with nitric acid and nitrate of mercury. there is a process known called the stripping of wool, and it consists in destroying the colour of wool and woollen goods already dyed, in order that they may be re-dyed. listen, however, to the important precautions followed: a nitric acid not stronger than from ° to ° twaddell is used, and care is taken not to prolong the action more than three or four minutes. _action of alkalis._--alkalis have a very considerable action on fur and wool, but the effects vary a good deal according to the kind of alkali used, the strength and the temperature of the solution, as also, of course, the length of period of contact. the caustic alkalis, potash and soda, under all conditions affect wool and fur injuriously. in fact, we have a method of recovering indigo from indigo-dyed woollen rags, based on the solubility of the wool in hot caustic soda. the wool dissolves, and the indigo, being insoluble, remains, and can be recovered. alkaline carbonates and soap in solution have little or no injurious action if not too strong, and if the temperature be not over ° c. ( ° f.). soap and carbonate of ammonium have the least injurious action. every washer or scourer of wool, when he uses soaps, should first ascertain if they are free from excess of alkali, _i.e._ that they contain no free alkali; and when he uses soda ash (sodium carbonate), that it contains no caustic alkali. lime, in water or otherwise, acts injuriously, rendering the fibre brittle. _reactions and tests proving chemical differences and illustrating modes of discriminating and separating vegetable fibres, silk and wool, fur, etc._--you will remember i stated that the vegetable fibre differs chemically from those of silk, and silk from wool, fur, and hair, in that with the first we have as constituents only carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; in silk we have carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen; whilst in wool, fur, and hair we have carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sulphur. i have already shown you that if we can liberate by any means ammonia from a substance, we have practically proved the presence of nitrogen in that substance, for ammonia is a nitrogen compound. as regards sulphur and its compounds, that ill-smelling gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, which occurs in rotten eggs, in organic effluvia from cesspools and the like, and which in the case of bad eggs, and to some extent with good eggs, turns the silver spoons black, and in the case of white lead paints turns these brown or black, i can show you some still more convincing proofs that sulphur is contained in wool, fur, and hair, and not in silk nor in vegetable fibres. first, i will heat strongly some cotton with a little soda-lime in a tube, and hold a piece of moistened red litmus paper over the mouth of the tube. if nitrogen is present it will take up hydrogen in the decomposition ensuing, and escape as ammonia, which will turn the red litmus paper blue. with the cotton, however, no ammonia escapes, no turning of the piece of red litmus paper blue is observed, and so no nitrogen can be present in the cotton fibre. secondly, i will similarly treat some silk. ammonia escapes, turns the red litmus paper blue, possesses the smell like hartshorn, and produces, with hydrochloric acid on the stopper of a bottle, dense white fumes of sal-ammoniac (ammonium chloride). hence silk contains nitrogen. thirdly, i will heat some fur with soda-lime. ammonia escapes, giving all the reactions described under silk. hence fur, wool, etc., contain nitrogen. as regards proofs of all three of these classes of fibres containing carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, the char they all leave behind on heating in a closed vessel is the carbon itself present. for the hydrogen and oxygen, a perfectly dry sample of any of these fabrics is taken, of course in quantity, and heated strongly in a closed vessel furnished with a condensing worm like a still. you will find all give you water as a condensate--the vegetable fibre, acid water; the animal fibres, alkaline water from the ammonia. the presence of water proves both hydrogen and oxygen, since water is a compound of these elements. if you put a piece of potassium in contact with the water, the latter will at once decompose, the potassium absorbing the oxygen, and setting free the hydrogen as gas, which you could collect and ignite with a match, when you would find it would burn. that hydrogen was the hydrogen forming part of your cotton, silk, or wool, as the case might be. we must now attack the question of sulphur. first, we prepare a little alkaline lead solution (sodium plumbate) by adding caustic soda to a solution of lead acetate or sugar of lead, until the white precipitate first formed is just dissolved. that is one of our reagents; the other is a solution of a red-coloured salt called nitroprusside of sodium, made by the action of nitric acid on sodium ferrocyanide (yellow prussiate). the first-named is very sensitive to sulphur, and turns black directly. to show this, we take a quantity of flowers of sulphur, dissolve in caustic soda, and add to the lead solution. it turns black at once, because the sulphur unites with the lead to form black sulphide of lead. the nitroprusside, however, gives a beautiful crimson-purple coloration. now on taking a little cotton and heating with the caustic alkaline lead solution, if sulphur were present in that cotton, the fibre would turn black or brown, for the lead would at once absorb such sulphur, and form in the fibre soaked with it, black sulphide of lead. no such coloration is formed, so cotton does not contain sulphur. secondly, we must test silk. silk contains nitrogen, like wool, but does it contain sulphur? the answer furnished by our tests is--no! since the fibre is not coloured brown or black on heating with the alkaline lead solution. thirdly, we try some white berlin wool, so that we can easily see the change of colour if it takes place. in the hot lead solution the wool turns black, lead sulphide being formed. on adding the nitroprusside solution to a fresh portion of wool boiled with caustic soda, to dissolve out the sulphur, a splendid purple coloration is produced. fur and hair would, of course, do the same thing. lead solutions have been used for dyeing the hair black; not caustic alkaline solutions like this, however. they would do something more than turn the hair black--probably give rise to some vigorous exercise of muscular power! still it has been found that even the lead solutions employed have, through gradual absorption into the system, whilst dyeing the hair black, also caused colics and contractions of the limbs. having now found means for proving the presence of the various elements composing cotton, silk, and wool, fur or hair, we come to methods that have been proposed for distinguishing these fibres more generally, and for quantitatively determining them in mixtures. one of the best of the reagents for this purpose is the basic zinc chloride already referred to. this is made as follows: parts of fused zinc chloride, parts of water, and parts of zinc oxide are boiled together until a clear solution is obtained. this solution dissolves silk slowly in the cold, quickly if hot, and forms a thick gummy liquid. wool, fur, and vegetable fibres are not affected by it. hence if we had a mixture, and treated with this solution, we could strain off the liquid containing the dissolved silk, and would get cotton and wool left. on weighing before and after such treatment, the difference in weights would give us the silk present. the residue boiled with caustic soda would lose all its wool, which is soluble in hot strong caustic alkali. again straining off, we should get only the cotton or other vegetable fibre left, and thus our problem would be solved. of course there are certain additional niceties and modifications still needed, and i must refer you for the method in full to the _journal of the society of chemical industry_, , page ; also , page . i will now conclude with some tests with alkaline and acid reagents, taken in order, and first the acids. these will also impress upon our minds the effects of acids and alkalis on the different kinds of fibres. i. in three flasks three similar portions of cotton lamp-wick, woollen yarn, and silk are placed, after previously moistening them in water and wringing them out. to each is now added similar quantities of concentrated sulphuric acid. the cotton is quickly broken up and dissolved, especially if assisted by gentle warming, and at last a brown, probably a black-brown, solution is obtained. the woollen is a little broken up, but not much to the naked eye, and the vitriol is not coloured. the silk is at once dissolved, even in the cold acid. we now add excess of water to the contents of each flask. a brownish, though clear, solution is produced in the case of cotton; the woollen floats not much injured in the acid, whilst a clear limpid solution is obtained with the silk. on adding tannic acid solution to all three, only the silk yields a precipitate, a rather curdy one consisting of fibroïn. ii. three specimens of cotton, wool, and silk, respectively, are touched with nitric acid. cotton is not coloured, but wool and silk are stained yellow; they are practically dyed. iii. three specimens, of cotton, wool, and silk, respectively, are placed in three flasks, and caustic soda solution of specific gravity · ( ° twaddell) is added. on boiling, the wool and silk dissolve, whilst the cellulose fibre, cotton, remains undestroyed. iv. if, instead of caustic soda as in iii., a solution of oxide of copper in ammonia be used, cotton and silk are dissolved, but wool remains unchanged, _i.e._ undissolved. if sugar or gum solutions be added to the solutions of cotton and silk, the cotton cellulose is precipitated, whilst the silk is not, but remains in solution. v. another alkaline solvent for silk, which, however, leaves undissolved cotton and wool, is prepared as follows: grains of copper sulphate ("blue vitriol," "bluestone") are dissolved in c.c. of water, and then grains of glycerin are added. to this mixture a solution of caustic soda is added until the precipitate first formed is just re-dissolved, so as not to leave an excess of caustic soda present. lecture iii water: its chemistry and properties; impurities and their action; tests of purity i have already had occasion to refer, in my last lecture, to water as a chemical substance, as a compound containing and consisting of hydrogen and oxygen. what are these water constituents, hydrogen and oxygen? each of them is a gas, but each a gas having totally different properties. on decomposing water and collecting the one of these two gases, the hydrogen gas, in one vessel, and the other, the oxygen gas, in another vessel, twice as large a volume of hydrogen gas is given off by the decomposing water as of oxygen. you may now notice a certain meaning in the formula assigned to water, h_{ }o: two volumes of hydrogen combined with one of oxygen; and it may be added that when such combination takes place, not three volumes of resulting water vapour (steam), but two volumes are produced. this combination of the two gases, when mixed together, is determined by heating to a high temperature, or by passing an electric spark; it then takes place with the consequent sudden condensation of three volumes of mixture to two of compound, so as to cause an explosion. i may also mention that as regards the weights of these bodies, oxygen and hydrogen, the first is sixteen times as heavy as the second; and since we adopt hydrogen as the unit, we may consider h to stand for hydrogen, and also to signify --the unit; whilst o means oxygen, and also . hence the compound atom or molecule of water, h_{ }o, weighs . i must now show you that these two gases are possessed of totally different properties. some gases will extinguish a flame; some will cause the flame to burn brilliantly, but will not burn themselves; and some will take fire and burn themselves, though extinguishing the flame which has ignited them. we say the first are non-combustible, and will not support combustion; the second are supporters of combustion, the third are combustible gases. of course these are, as the lawyers say, only _ex parte_ statements of the truth; still they are usually accepted. oxygen gas will ignite a red-hot match, but hydrogen will extinguish an inflamed one, though it will itself burn. you generally think of water as the great antithesis of, the universal antidote for, fire. the truth is here again only of an _ex parte_ character, as i will show you. if i can, by means of a substance having a more intense affinity for oxygen than hydrogen has, rob water of its oxygen, i necessarily set the hydrogen that was combined with that oxygen free. if the heat caused by the chemical struggle, so to say, is great, that hydrogen will be inflamed and burn. thus we are destroying that antithesis, we are causing the water to yield us fire. i will do this by putting potassium on water, and even in the cold this potassium will seize upon the oxygen of the water, and the hydrogen will take fire. _specific gravity._--we must now hasten to other considerations of importance. water is generally taken as the unit in specific gravities assigned to liquids and solids. this simply means that when we desire to express how heavy a thing is, we are compelled to say it is so many times heavier or lighter than something. that something is generally water, which is regarded, consequently, as unit or figure . a body of specific gravity · , or - / , means that that body is - / or · times as heavy as water. as hat manufacturers, you will have mostly to do with the specific gravities of liquids, aqueous solutions, and you will hear more of twaddell degrees. the twaddell hydrometer, or instrument for measuring the specific gravities of liquids, is so constructed that when it stands in water, the water is just level with its zero or ° mark. well, since in your reading of methods and new processes, you will often meet with specific gravity numbers and desire to convert these into twaddell degrees, i will give you a simple means of doing this. add cyphers so as to make into a number of four figures, then strike out the unit and decimal point farthest to the left, and divide the residue by , and you get the corresponding twaddell degrees. if you have twaddell degrees, simply multiply by , and add to the result, and you get the specific gravity as usually taken, with water as the unit, or in this case as . an instrument much used on the continent is the beaumé hydrometer. the degrees (_n_) indicated by this instrument can be converted into specific gravity (_d_) by the formula: _d_ = · /( · - n) _ebullition or boiling of water, steam._--the atmosphere around us is composed of a mixture of nitrogen and oxygen gases; not a compound of these gases, as water is of hydrogen and oxygen, but a mixture more like sand and water or smoke and air. this mass of gases has weight, and presses upon objects at the surface of the earth to the extent of lb. on the square inch. now some liquids, such as water, were it not for this atmospheric pressure, would not remain liquids at all, but would become gases. the pressure thus tends to squeeze gases together and convert them into liquids. any force that causes gases to contract will do the same thing, of course--for example, cold; and _ceteris paribus_ removal of pressure and expansion by heat will act so as to gasify liquids. when in the expansion of liquids a certain stage or degree is reached, different for different liquids, gas begins to escape so quickly from the liquid that bubbles of vapour are continually formed and escape. this is called ebullition or boiling. a certain removal of pressure, or expansion by heat, is necessary to produce this, _i.e._ to reach the boiling-point of the liquid. as regards the heat necessary for the boiling of water at the surface of the earth, _i.e._ under the atmospheric pressure of lb. on the square inch, this is shown on the thermometer of fahrenheit as °, and on the simpler centigrade one, as °, water freezing at ° c. but if what i have said is true, when we remove some of the atmospheric pressure, the water should boil with a less heat than will cause the mercury in the thermometer to rise to ° c., and if we take off all the pressure, the water ought to boil and freeze at the same time. this actually happens in the carré ice-making machine. the question now arises, "why does the water freeze in the carré machine?" all substances require certain amounts of heat to enable them to take and to maintain the liquid state if they are ordinarily solid, and the gaseous state if ordinarily liquid or solid, and the greater the change of state the greater the heat needed. moreover, this heat does not make them warm, it is simply absorbed or swallowed up, and becomes latent, and is merely necessary to maintain the new condition assumed. in the case of the carré machine, liquid water is, by removal of the atmospheric pressure, coerced, as it were, to take the gaseous form. but to do so it needs to absorb the requisite amount of heat to aid it in taking that form, and this heat it must take up from all surrounding warm objects. it absorbs quickly all it can get out of itself as liquid water, out of the glass vessel containing it, and from the surrounding air. but the process of gasification with ebullition goes on so quickly that the temperature of the water thus robbed of heat quickly falls to ° c., and the remaining water freezes. thus, then, by pumping out the air from a vessel, _i.e._ working in a vacuum, we can boil a liquid in such exhausted vessel far below its ordinary boiling temperature in the open air. this fact is of the utmost industrial importance. but touching this question of latent heat, you may ask me for my proof that there is latent heat, and a large amount of it, in a substance that feels perfectly cold. i have told you that a gasified liquid, or a liquefied solid, or most of all a gasified solid, contains such heat, and if reconverted into liquid and solid forms respectively, that heat is evolved, or becomes sensible heat, and then it can be decidedly felt and indicated by the thermometer. take the case of a liquid suddenly solidifying. the heat latent in that liquid, and necessary to keep it a liquid, is no longer necessary and comes out, and the substance appears to become hot. quicklime is a cold, white, solid substance, but there is a compound of water and lime--slaked lime--which is also a solid powdery substance, called by the chemist, hydrate of lime. the water used to slake the quicklime is a liquid, and it may be ice-cold water, but to form hydrate of lime it must assume a solid form, and hence can and does dispense with its heat of liquefaction in the change of state. you all know how hot lime becomes on slaking with water. of course we have heat of chemical combination here as well as evolution of latent heat. as another example, we may take a solution of acetate of soda, so strong that it is just on the point of crystallising. if it crystallises it solidifies, and the liquid consequently gives up its latent heat of liquefaction. we will make it crystallise, first connecting the tube containing it to another one containing a coloured liquid and closed by a cork carrying a narrow tube dipping into the coloured liquid. on crystallising, the solution gives off heat, as is shown by the expansion of the air in the corked tube, and the consequent forcing of the coloured liquid up the narrow tube. consequently in your works you never dissolve a salt or crystal in water or other liquid without rendering heat latent, or consuming heat; you never allow steam to condense in the steam pipes about the premises without losing vastly more heat than possibly many are aware of. let us inquire as to the latent heat of water and of steam. _latent heats of water and steam._--if we mix kilogram (about lb.) of ice (of course at zero or ° c.) with kilogram of water at ° c., and stir well till the ice is melted, _i.e._ has changed its state from solid to liquid, we find, on putting a thermometer in, the temperature is only ° c. this simply means that ° of heat (centigrade degrees) have become latent, and represent the heat of liquefaction of kilogram of ice. had we mixed kilogram of water at ° c. with kilogram of water at ° c. there would have been no change of state, and the temperature of the mixture might be represented as a distribution of the ° c. through the whole mass of the kilograms, and so would be - / ° c. we say, therefore, the latent heat of water is the heat which is absorbed or rendered latent when a unit of weight, say kilogram of water as ice, melts and liquefies to a unit of water at zero, or it is heat units. these units of heat would raise units of weight of liquid water through ° c., or one unit of liquid water through °. let us now inquire what the latent heat of steam is. if we take kilogram of water at ° c. and blow steam from boiling water at ° c. into it until the water just boils, and then stop and weigh the resulting water, we shall find it amounts to · kilograms, so that · kilogram of water which was in the gaseous steam form, and had besides a sensible heat of ° c., has changed its state to that of liquid water. this liquid water, being at the boiling-point, has still the ° c. of sensible heat, and hence the water in the gaseous steam form can have given up to the water at ° c. into which it was blown, only the latent heat of gasification which was not sensible, but by virtue of which it was enabled to assume the gaseous form. but if · kilogram of steam at ° c. can heat kilogram of water through degrees, then kilogram of steam can raise · kilograms of ice-cold water through degrees, or kilograms through degree, and thus the latent heat of steam is heat units. _effect of increase of pressure on the boiling of water._--now we have referred to diminution of pressure and its effect on the boiling-point of water, and i may point out that by increasing the pressure, such, _e.g._, as boiling water under a high pressure of steam, you raise the boiling-point. there are some industrial operations in which the action of certain boiling solutions is unavailing to effect certain decompositions or other ends when the boiling is carried on under the ordinary atmospheric pressure, and boiling in closed and strong vessels under pressure must be resorted to. take as an example the wood-pulp process for making paper from wood shavings. boiling in open pans with caustic soda lye is insufficient to reduce the wood to pulp, and so boiling in strong vessels under pressure is adopted. the temperature of the solution rises far above ° f. ( ° c.). let us see what may result chemically from the attainment of such high temperatures of water in our steam boilers working under high pressures. if you blow ordinary steam at ° f. or ° c., into fats or oils, the fats and oils remain undecomposed; but suppose you let fatty and oily matters of animal or vegetable origin, such as lubricants, get into your boiler feed-water and so into your boiler, what will happen? i have only to tell you that a process is patented for decomposing fats with superheated steam, to drive or distil over the admixed fatty acids and glycerin, in order to show you that in your boilers such greasy matters will be more or less decomposed. fats are neutral as fats, and will not injure the iron of the boilers; but once decompose them and they are split up into an acid called a fat acid, and glycerin. that fat acid at the high temperature soon attacks your boilers and pipes, and eats away the iron. that is one of the curious results that may follow at such high temperatures. mineral or hydrocarbon oils do not contain these fat acids, and so cannot possibly, even with high-pressure steam, corrode the boiler metal. _effect of dissolved salts on the boiling of water._--let us inquire what this effect is? suppose we dissolve a quantity of a salt in water, and then blow steam at ° c. ( ° f.) into that water, the latter will boil not at ° f., but at a higher temperature. there is a certain industrial process i know of, in course of which it is necessary first to maintain a vessel containing water, by means of a heated closed steam coil, at ° f. ( ° c.), and at a certain stage to raise the temperature to about ° f. ( ° c.). the pressure on the boiler connected with the steam coil is raised to nearly seven atmospheres, and thus the heat of the high-pressure steam rises to ° f. ( ° c.), and then a considerable quantity of nitrate of ammonium, a crystallised salt, is thrown into the water, in which it dissolves. strange to say, although the water alone would boil at ° f., a strong solution in water of the ammonium nitrate only boils at ° f., so that the effect of dissolving that salt in the water is the same as if the pressure were raised to seven atmospheres. now let us, as hat manufacturers, learn a practical lesson from this fact. we have observed that wool and fur fibres are injured by boiling in pure water, and the heat has much to do with this damage; but if the boiling take place in bichrome liquors or similar solutions, that boiling will, according to the strength of the solution in dissolved matters, take place at a temperature more or less elevated above the boiling-point of water, and so the damage done will be the more serious the more concentrated the liquors are, quite independently of the nature of the substances dissolved in those liquors. _solution._--we have already seen that when a salt of any kind dissolves in water, heat is absorbed, and becomes latent; in other words, cold is produced. i will describe a remarkable example or experiment, well illustrating this fact. if you take some glauber's salt, crystallised sulphate of soda, and mix it with some hydrochloric acid (or spirits of salt), then so rapidly will the solution proceed, and consequently so great will be the demand for heat, that if a vessel containing water be put in amongst the dissolving salt, the heat residing in that vessel and its water will be rapidly extracted, and the water will freeze. as regards solubility, some salts and substances are much more quickly and easily dissolved than others. we are generally accustomed to think that to dissolve a substance quickly we cannot do better than build a fire under the containing vessel, and heat the liquid. this is often the correct method of proceeding, but not always. thus it would mean simply loss of fuel, and so waste of heat, to do this in dissolving ordinary table salt or rock salt in water, for salt is as soluble in cold water as in hot. some salts are, incredible though it may appear, less soluble in boiling water than in cold. water just above the freezing-point dissolves nearly twice as much lime as it does when boiling. you see, then, that a knowledge of certain important facts like these may be so used as to considerably mitigate your coal bills, under given circumstances and conditions. lecture iv water: its chemistry and properties; impurities and their action; tests of purity--_continued_ in the last lecture, under the head of "solution," i mentioned that some salts, some chemical substances, are more soluble in water than others, and that their solubilities under different circumstances of temperature vary in different ways. however, some salts and compounds are practically insoluble in water under any circumstances. we now arrive at the important result known to chemists as the precipitation of insoluble compounds from solutions. in order to define this result, however, we must, of course, first consider the circumstances of causation of the result. let us take a simple case of chemical decomposition resulting in the deposition or precipitation of a substance from solution in the insoluble state. we will take a salt you are probably acquainted with--sulphate of copper, or bluestone, and dissolve it in water, and we have then the sulphate of copper in solution in water. now suppose it is our desire to obtain from that solution all the copper by depositing it in some insoluble form. we may accomplish this in several different ways, relying on certain methods of decomposing that sulphate of copper. one of the simplest and most economical is that adopted in a certain so-called wet method of extracting copper. it is based on the fact that metallic iron has a greater tendency to combine in water solutions, with the acids of copper salts, than the copper has in those salts. we simply need to place some scraps of iron in the copper sulphate solution to induce a change which may be represented as follows: copper sulphate, consisting of a combination of copper oxide with sulphuric acid, yields with iron, iron sulphate, a combination of iron oxide with sulphuric acid, and metallic copper. the metallic copper produced separates in the form of a red coating on the iron scraps. but we may also, relying on the fact that oxide of copper is insoluble in water, arrange for the deposition of the copper in that form. this we can do by adding caustic soda to a hot solution of copper sulphate, when we get the following change: copper sulphate, consisting of a combination of copper oxide with sulphuric acid, yields with caustic soda, sulphate of soda, a combination of soda with sulphuric acid and oxide of copper. oxide of copper is black, and so in this decomposition what is called a "black precipitate" of that oxide is produced on adding the caustic soda. but it might not suit us thus to deposit the copper from our solution; we might desire to remove the sulphuric acid from the copper sulphate, and leave the copper dissolved, say in the form of a chloride. we select, then, a compound which is a chloride, and a chloride of a metal which forms an insoluble combination with sulphuric acid--chloride of barium, say. on adding this chloride of barium to sulphate of copper solution, we get then a change which we might represent thus: copper sulphate, consisting of a combination of copper oxide with sulphuric acid, yields with barium chloride, which is a combination of barium and chlorine, insoluble barium sulphate, a combination of barium oxide with sulphuric acid, and soluble copper chloride, a combination of copper and chlorine. this is called a double interchange. now these are a few illustrations to show you what is meant by chemical decompositions. one practical lesson, of course, we may draw is this: we must have a care in dissolving bluestone or copper sulphate, not to attempt it in iron pans, and not to store or put verdigris into iron vessels, or the iron will be acted upon, and to some extent the copper salt will become contaminated with iron. it will now be clear to you that, as a solvent for bodies usually soluble in water, water that is perfectly pure will be most suitable and not likely to cause any deposition or precipitation through chemical decompositions, for there are no salts or other compounds in pure water to cause such changes. such pure water is called soft water. but the term is only a comparative one, and water that is not quite, but nearly pure--pure enough for most practical purposes--is also called soft water. now rain is the purest form of natural water, for it is a kind of distilled water. water rises in vapour from the ocean as from a still, and the salt and other dissolved matters remain behind. meeting cold currents of air, the vapours condense in rain, and fall upon the earth. after coming in contact with the earth, the subsequent condition of that water entirely depends upon the character, as regards solubility or insolubility, of the substances composing the strata or layers of earth upon which it falls, and through which it sinks. if it meets with insoluble rocks--for all rocks are not insoluble--it remains, of course, pure and soft, and in proportion as the constituents of rock and soil are soluble, in that proportion does the water become hard. we all know how dangerous acid is in water, causing that water to act on many substances, the iron of iron vessels, the lime in soil or rock, etc., bringing iron and lime respectively into solution. now the atmosphere contains carbonic acid, and carbonic acid occurs in the earth, being evolved by decomposing vegetation, etc. carbonic acid is also soluble to a certain, though not large extent, in water. as we shall see, water charged with carbonic acid attacks certain substances insoluble in pure water, and brings them into solution, and thus the water soon becomes hard. about the close of the last lecture, i said that lime is, to a certain extent, soluble in cold water. the solution is called lime-water; it might be called a solution of caustic lime. when carbonic acid gas first comes in contact with such a solution, chalk or carbonate of lime, which is insoluble in water, is formed, and the lime is thus precipitated as carbonate. supposing, however, we continued to pass carbonic acid gas into that water, rendered milky with chalk powder, very soon the liquid would clear, and we should get once more a solution of lime, but not caustic lime as it was at first, simply now a solution of carbonate of lime in carbonic acid, or a solution of bicarbonate of lime. i will take some lime-water, and i will blow through; my breath contains carbonic acid, and you will see the clear liquid become milky owing to separation of insoluble carbonate of lime, or chalk. i now continue blowing, and at length that chalk dissolves with the excess of carbonic acid, forming bicarbonate of lime. this experiment explains how it is that water percolating through or running over limestone strata dissolves out the insoluble chalk. such water, hard from dissolved carbonate of lime, can be softened by merely boiling the water, for the excess of carbonic acid is then expelled, and the chalk is precipitated again. this would be too costly for the softening of large quantities of water, the boiling process consuming too much coal, and so another process is adopted. quicklime, or milk of lime, is added to the water in the proper quantity. this lime unites with the excess of carbonic acid holding chalk in solution, and forms with it insoluble chalk, and so all deposits together as chalk. by this liming process, also, the iron of the water dissolved likewise in ferruginous streams, etc., by carbonic acid, would be precipitated. to show this deposition i will now add some clear lime-water to the solution i made of chalk with the carbonic acid of my breath, and a precipitate is at once formed, all the lime and carbonic acid together depositing as insoluble chalk. hence clear lime-water forms a good test for the presence of bicarbonates of lime or iron in a water. but water may be hard from the presence of other salts, other lime salts. for example, certain parts of the earth contain a great deal of gypsum, or natural sulphate of lime, and this is soluble to some extent in water. water thus hardened is not affected by boiling, or the addition of lime, and is therefore termed permanently hard water, the water hardened with dissolved chalk being termed temporarily hard water. i have said nothing of solid or undissolved impurities in water, which are said to be in suspension, for the separation of these is a merely mechanical matter of settling, or filtration and settling combined. as a general rule, the water of rivers contains the most suspended and vegetable matter and the least amount of dissolved constituents, whereas spring and well waters contain the most dissolved matters and the least suspended. serious damage may be done to the dyer by either of these classes of impurities, and i may tell you that the dissolved calcareous and magnesian impurities are the most frequent in occurrence and the most injurious. i told you that on boiling, the excess of carbonic acid holding chalk or carbonate of lime in solution as bicarbonate, is decomposed and carbonate of lime precipitated. you can at once imagine, then, what takes place in your steam boilers when such water is used, and how incrustations are formed. let us now inquire as to the precise nature of the waste and injury caused by hard and impure waters. let us also take, as an example, those most commonly occurring injurious constituents, the magnesian and calcareous impurities. hard water only produces a lather with soap when that soap has effected the softening of the water, and not till then. in that process the soap is entirely wasted, and the fatty acids in it form, with the lime and magnesia, insoluble compounds called lime and magnesia soaps, which are sticky, greasy, adhesive bodies, that precipitate and fix some colouring matters like a mordant. we have in such cases, then, a kind of double mischief--(i) waste of soap, (ii) injury to colours and dyes on the fabrics. but this is not all, for colours are precipitated as lakes, and mordants also are precipitated, and thus wasted, in much the same sense as the soaps are. now by taking a soap solution, formed by dissolving a known weight of soap in a known volume of water, and adding this gradually to hard water until a permanent lather is just produced, we can directly determine the consumption of soap by such a water, and ascertain the hardness. such a method is called clark's process of determination or testing, or clark's soap test. we hear a great deal just now of soaps that will wash well in hard water, and do wonders under any conditions; but mark this fact, none of them will begin to perform effective duty until such hard water has been rendered soft at the expense of the soap. soaps made of some oils, such as cocoa-nut oil, for example, are more soluble in water than when made of tallow, etc., and so they more quickly soften a hard water and yield lather, but they are wasted, as far as consumption is concerned, to just the same extent as any other soaps. they do not, however, waste so much time and trouble in effecting the end in view, and, as you know, "time is money" in these days of work and competition. after making a soap test as described above, and knowing the quantity of water used, it is, of course, easy to calculate the annual loss of soap caused by the hardness of the water. the monthly consumption of soap in london is , , kilograms (about tons), and it is estimated that the hardness of the thames water means the use of , kilograms (nearly tons) more soap per month than would be necessary if soft water were used. of course the soap manufacturers around london would not state that fact on their advertising placards, but rather dwell on the victorious onslaught their particular brand will make on the dirt in articles to be washed, in the teeth of circumstances that would be hopeless for any other brand of soap! i have referred to the sticky and adhesive character of the compounds called lime soaps, formed in hard waters. now in washing and scouring wool and other fibres, these sticky lime soaps adhere so pertinaciously that the fibres, be they of wool, silk, or any other article, remain in part untouched, impermeable to mordant or colouring matter, and hence irregular development of colour must be the consequence. also an unnatural lustre or peculiar bloom may in parts arise, ruining the appearance of the goods. in some cases the lime soaps act like mordants, attracting colouring matter unequally, and producing patchy effects. in the dye-baths in which catechu and tannin are used, there is a waste of these matters, for insoluble compounds are formed with the lime, and the catechu and tannin are, to a certain extent, precipitated and lost. some colours are best developed in an acid bath, such as cochineal scarlet, but the presence of the bicarbonate of lime tends to cause neutralisation of the acidity, and so the dyeing is either retarded or prevented. such mordants as "red liquor" and "iron liquor," which are acetates of alumina and iron respectively, are also wasted, a portion of them being precipitated by the lime, thus weakening the mordant baths. _ferruginous impurities in water._--iron in solution in water is very objectionable in dyeing operations. when the iron is present as bicarbonate, it acts on soap solutions like the analogous lime and magnesia compounds, producing even worse results. in wool scouring, cotton bleaching, and other processes requiring the use of alkaline carbonates, ferric oxide is precipitated on the fibre. a yellowish tinge is communicated to bleached fabrics, and to dye bright and light colours is rendered almost out of the question. you may always suspect iron to be present in water flowing from or obtained directly out of old coal pits, iron mines, or from places abounding in iron and aluminous shales. moreover, you sometimes, or rather generally, find that surface water draining off moorland districts, and passing over ochre beds, contains iron, and on its way deposits on the beds of the streamlets conveying it, and on the stones, red or brown oxide of iron. all water of this kind ought to be avoided in dyeing and similar operations. the iron in water from old coal pits and shale deposits is usually present as sulphate due to the oxidation of pyrites, a sulphuret or sulphide of iron. water from heaths and moorlands is often acid from certain vegetable acids termed "peaty acids." this acidity places the water in the condition of a direct solvent for iron, and that dissolved iron may cause great injury. if such water cannot be dispensed with, the best way is to carefully neutralise it with carbonate of soda; the iron is then precipitated as carbonate of iron, and can be removed. _contamination of water by factories._--you may have neighbours higher up the stream than yourselves, and these firms may cast forth as waste products substances which will cause immense waste and loss. amongst these waste products the worst are those coming from chemical works, paper works, bleach works, etc. if the paper works be those working up wood pulp, the pollutions of effluent water will be about as noxious as they well can be. you will have gums and resins from the wood, calcium chloride from the bleach vats, acids from the "sours"; resin, and resin-soaps; there may also be alumina salts present. now alumina, lime, resin, and resin-soaps, etc., precipitate dyestuffs, and also soap; if the water is alkaline, some of the mordants used may be precipitated and wasted, and very considerable damage done. permanent hardness in water, due to the presence of gypsum or sulphate of lime in solution, may be remedied by addition of caustic soda. of course, if an alkaline water is objectionable in any process, the alkali would have to be neutralised by the addition of some acid. for use in boilers, water might thus be treated, but it would become costly if large quantities required such treatment. water rendered impure by contaminations from dyehouses and some chemical works can be best purified, and most cheaply, by simple liming, followed by a settling process. if space is limited and much water is required, instead of the settling reservoirs, filtering beds of coke, sand, etc., may be used. the lime used neutralises acids in the contaminated and impure water, precipitates colouring matters, mordants, soap, albuminous matters, etc. _tests of purity._--i will now describe a few tests that may be of value to you in deciding as to what substances are contaminating any impure waters that may be at hand. _iron._--if to a water you suspect to be hard from presence of carbonate of lime or carbonate of iron in solution in carbonic acid, _i.e._ as bicarbonates, you add some clear lime-water, and a white precipitate is produced, you have a proof of carbonate of lime--hardness. if the precipitate is brownish, you may have, also, carbonate of iron. i will now mention a very delicate test for iron. such a test would be useful in confirmation. if a very dilute solution of such iron water be treated with a drop or two of pure hydrochloric acid, and a drop or so of permanganate of potash solution or of condy's fluid, and after that a few drops of yellow prussiate of potash solution be added, then a blue colour (prussian blue), either at once or after standing a few hours, proves the presence of iron. _copper._--sometimes, as in the neighbourhood of copper mines or of some copper pyrites deposits, a water may be contaminated with small quantities of copper. the yellow prussiate once more forms a good test, but to ensure the absence of free mineral acids, it is first well to add a little acetate of soda solution. a drop or two of the prussiate solution then gives a brown colour, even if but traces of copper are present. _magnesia._--suppose lime and magnesia are present. you may first evaporate to a small bulk, adding a drop of hydrochloric acid if the liquid becomes muddy. then add ammonia and ammonium oxalate, when lime alone is precipitated as the oxalate of lime. filter through blotting paper, and to the clear filtrate add some phosphate of soda solution. a second precipitation proves the presence of magnesia. _sulphates._--a solution of barium chloride and dilute hydrochloric acid gives a white turbidity. _chlorides._--a solution of silver nitrate and nitric acid gives a white curdy precipitate. _test for lead in drinking water._--i will, lastly, give you a test that will be useful in your own homes to detect minute quantities of lead in water running through lead pipes. place a large quantity of the water in a glass on a piece of white paper, and add a solution of sulphuretted hydrogen and let stand for some time. a brown colour denotes lead. of course copper would also yield a brown coloration, but i am supposing that the circumstances preclude the presence of copper. i have already said that rain water is the purest of natural waters; it is so soft, and free from dissolved mineral matters because it is a distilled water. in distilling water to purify it, we must be very careful what material we use for condensing the steam in, since it is a fact probably not sufficiently well known, that the softer and purer a water is, the more liable it is to attack lead pipes. hence a coil of lead pipe to serve as condensing worm would be inadmissible. such water as manchester water, and glasgow water from loch katrine still more so, are more liable to attack lead pipes than the hard london waters. to illustrate this fact, we will distil some water and condense in a leaden worm, then, on testing the water with our reagent, the sulphuretted hydrogen water, a brown colour is produced, showing the presence of lead. on condensing in a block tin worm, however, no tin is dissolved, so tin is safer and better as the material for such a purpose than lead. _filtration._--we hear a great deal about filtration or filters as universal means of purifying water. filtration, we must remember, will, as a rule, only remove solid or suspended impurities in water. for example, if we take some ivory black or bone black, and mix it with water and afterwards filter the black liquid through blotting-paper, the bone black remains on the paper, and clear, pure water comes through. filtering is effective here. if we take some indigo solution, however, and pour it on to the filter, the liquid runs through as blue as it was when poured upon the filter. filtering is ineffective here, and is so generally with liquids containing matters dissolved in them. but i said "generally," and so the question is suggested--will filtration of any kind remove matters in solution? this question i will, in conclusion, try to answer. bone charcoal, or bone black, has a wonderful attraction for many organic matters such as colours, dyes, and coloured impurities like those in peat water, raw sugar solutions, etc. for example, if we place on a paper filter some bone black, and filter through it some indigo solution, after first warming the latter with some more of the bone black, the liquid comes through clear, all the indigo being absorbed in some peculiar way, difficult to explain, by the bone black, and remaining on the filter. this power of charcoal also extends to gases, and to certain noxious dissolved organic impurities, but it is never safe to rely too much on such filters, since the charcoal can at length become charged with impurities, and gradually cease to act. these filters need cleaning and renewing from time to time. lecture v acids and alkalis _properties of acids and alkalis._--the name acids is given to a class of substances, mostly soluble in water, having an acid or sour taste, and capable of turning blue litmus solution red. all acids contain one or more atoms of hydrogen capable of being replaced by metals, and when such hydrogen atoms are completely replaced by metals, there result so-called neutral or normal salts, that is, neutral substances having no action on litmus solution. these salts can also be produced by the union of acids with equivalent quantities of certain metallic oxides or hydroxides, called bases, of which those soluble in water are termed alkalis. alkalis have a caustic taste, and turn red litmus solution blue. in order to explain what is called the law of equivalence, i will remind you of the experiment of the previous lecture, when a piece of bright iron, being placed in a solution of copper sulphate, became coated with metallic copper, an equivalent weight of iron meanwhile suffering solution as sulphate of iron. according to the same law, a certain weight of soda would always require a certain specific equivalent weight of an acid, say hydrochloric acid, to neutralise its alkaline or basic properties, producing a salt. the specific gravities of acids and alkalis in solution are made use of in works, etc., as a means of ascertaining their strengths and commercial values. tables have been carefully constructed, such that for every degree of specific gravity a corresponding percentage strength of acidity and alkalinity may be looked up. the best tables for this purpose are given in lunge and hurter's _alkali-makers' pocket-book_, but for ordinary purposes of calculation in the works or factory, a convenient relationship exists in the case of hydrochloric acid between specific gravity and percentage of real acid, such that specific gravity as indicated by twaddell's hydrometer directly represents percentage of real acid in any sample of hydrochloric acid. the point at which neutralisation of an acid by alkali or _vice versâ_ just takes place is ascertained very accurately by the use of certain sensitive colours. at first litmus and cochineal tinctures were used, but in testing crude alkalis containing alumina and iron, it was found that lakes were formed with these colours, and they become precipitated in the solution, and so no longer sensitive. the chemist was then obliged to resort to certain sensitive coal-tar colours, which did not, as the dyer and printer knew, form lakes with alumina and iron, such as methyl orange, fluorescein, congo red, phenolphthalein, and so forth. for determining the alkalimetric strength of commercial sodas, a known weight of the sample is dissolved in water, and a few drops of a solution of methyl orange are added, which colour the solution yellow or orange. into this solution is then run, from a burette or graduated tube, a standard solution of an acid, that is, a solution prepared by dissolving a known weight of an acid, say hydrochloric acid, in a known volume of water. the acid is run in gradually until the yellow colour changes to pink, at which point the volume of acid used is noted. knowing the weight of acid contained in this volume of standard acid, and having regard to the law of equivalence mentioned above, it is an easy matter to calculate the amount of alkali equivalent to the acid used, and from this the alkali contained in the sample. _sulphuric acid._--the first process for manufacturing sulphuric acid or vitriol was by placing some burning sulphur in a closed vessel containing some water. the water absorbed the acid formed by the burning sulphur. it was next discovered that by mixing with the sulphur some nitre, much more sulphuric acid could be produced per given quantity of brimstone. at first large glass carboys were used, but in the carboys were replaced by chambers of lead containing water at the bottom, and in these lead chambers the mixture of sulphur and nitre was burnt on iron trays. next, although gradually, the plant was divided into two portions--a furnace for burning the sulphur, and a chamber for receiving the vapours. the system was thus developed into the one followed at the present time. the sulphur, or, in most cases, cupreous iron pyrites (a combination of iron and copper with sulphur), is burned in specially constructed kilns or furnaces, and the hot gases, consisting essentially of sulphur dioxide with the excess of air, pass through flues in which are placed cast-iron "nitre pots" containing a mixture of nitre (sodium nitrate) and vitriol. the gases thus become mixed with nitrous fumes or gaseous oxides of nitrogen, and, after cooling, are ready for mixing with steam or water spray in the lead chambers in which the vitriol is produced. these oxides of nitrogen enable the formation of sulphuric acid to take place more quickly by playing the part of oxygen-carriers. sulphuric acid is formed by the union of oxygen with sulphur dioxide and water; the oxides of nitrogen combine with the oxygen of the air present in the chambers, then give up this oxygen to the sulphur dioxide and water or steam to form sulphuric acid, again combine with more oxygen, and so on. the exact processes or reactions are of course much more complicated, but the above represents what is practically the ultimate result. it is evident that the gases leaving the last lead chamber in which the formation of vitriol is effected, must still contain nitrous fumes, and it becomes a matter of importance to recover them, so that they can be used over again. to effect this object, use is made of the solubility of nitrous fumes in strong vitriol. the gases from the last lead chamber of the series are passed through what is called a gay-lussac tower (the process was invented by the eminent french chemist gay-lussac), which is a tower made of lead, supported by a wooden framework, and filled with coke or special stoneware packing, over which strong vitriol is caused to flow. the vitriol dissolves the nitrogen oxides, and so-called "nitrous vitriol" flows out at the base of the tower. the recovery of the nitrogen compounds from the nitrous vitriol is effected in glover towers (the invention of john glover of newcastle), which also serve to concentrate to some extent the weak acid produced in the lead chambers, and to cool the hot gases from the sulphur burners or pyrites kilns. the weak chamber acid is mixed with the nitrous vitriol from the gay-lussac tower, and the mixture is pumped to the top of the glover tower, which is of similar construction to the gay-lussac tower, but is generally packed with flints. this glover tower is placed between the sulphur burners or pyrites kilns and the first lead chamber. the nitrous vitriol passing down the tower meets the hot gases from the kilns, and a threefold object is effected: ( ) the nitrous fumes are expelled from the nitrous vitriol, and are carried into the chambers, to again play the part of oxygen-carriers; ( ) the weak chamber acid which was mixed with the nitrous vitriol is concentrated by the hot kiln gases; and ( ) the hot gases themselves are cooled. the acid from the glover tower is purified by special treatment--for example, the arsenic may be removed, after precipitation with sulphuretted hydrogen, in the form of insoluble arsenic sulphide,--and the purified acid is concentrated by heating in glass or platinum vessels. a considerable amount of sulphuric acid is now made by the so-called "contact process," in which sulphur dioxide and oxygen unite to form sulphuric acid in presence of a heated "contact" substance, usually some form of finely-divided platinum. _nitric acid._--this acid is usually prepared by distilling a mixture of sodium nitrate and vitriol in cast-iron retorts or pots, the nitric acid being collected in stoneware vessels connected one with another, or, as is more generally the case at the present time, in condensing apparatus consisting of stoneware pipes or coils cooled by water. the effluent gases are passed through a scrubber in order to free them from the last traces of acid before discharging them into the atmosphere. _hydrochloric acid._--the greater part of the hydrochloric acid manufactured in great britain is obtained as an intermediate product in the leblanc alkali process, which will presently be described, being produced by heating common salt with vitriol. a large quantity is, however, also produced by the so-called direct process of hargreaves & robinson, which is, in principle, the same method as that employed in the leblanc process, except that the intermediate product, vitriol, is not separated. it consists essentially in passing the hot gases from pyrites kilns, as used in the manufacture of vitriol, through large cast-iron vessels containing common salt heated to a high temperature. various physical conditions must be complied with in order to make the process a success. for example, the salt is used in the form of moulded hard porous cakes made from a damp mixture of common salt and rock salt. the cast-iron vessels must be heated uniformly, and the hot pyrites kiln gases must be passed downwards through the salt in order to ensure uniform distribution. the hydrochloric acid is condensed in stoneware pipes connected with towers packed with coke or stoneware. _alkali: leblanc process._--the manufacture of vitriol, as i have described it to you, is the first step in the leblanc process. the next stage consists in the manufacture of sodium sulphate (salt-cake) and hydrochloric acid from the sulphuric acid and common salt; this is called the salt-cake process. the production of salt-cake or crude sodium sulphate is carried out in two stages. a large covered iron pan, called the decomposing pan or salt-cake pot, is mounted in one part of the salt-cake furnace, and alongside it is the hearth or bed on which the second stage of the process, the drying or roasting, is effected. the mixture of common salt and vitriol is charged into the salt-cake pot, which is heated by a fire below. when from two-thirds to three-quarters of the hydrochloric acid has been expelled from the charge, the mass acquires the consistence of thick dough, and at this stage it is raked out of the pan on to the roasting hearth alongside, where the decomposition is completed by means of flames playing directly on to the top of the charge. the hydrochloric acid evolved during the process is condensed in much the same manner as in the process of hargreaves & robinson previously described. it is a curious fact that in the earlier years of the leblanc process, hydrochloric acid, or "spirits of salt," as it is frequently called, was a by-product that required all the vigilance of the alkali-works inspectors to prevent it being allowed to escape from the chimneys in more than a certain small regulated amount. now, it is the principal product; indeed, the leblanc alkali maker may be said to subsist on that hydrochloric acid, as his chief instrument for producing chloride of lime or bleaching powder. mechanical furnaces are now used to a large extent for the salt-cake process. they consist broadly of a large revolving furnace-hearth or bed, on to which the mixture of salt and vitriol is charged, and on which it is continuously agitated, and gradually moved to the place of discharge, by rakes or the like, operated by suitable machinery. the next stage of the leblanc process is the manufacture of "black ash," or crude sodium carbonate. this is usually done in large cylindrical revolving furnaces, through, which flames from a fire-grate, or from the burning of gaseous fuel, pass; the waste heat is utilised for boiling down "black ash" liquor, obtained by lixiviating the black ash. a mixture of salt-cake, limestone or chalk (calcium carbonate), and powdered coal or coal slack is charged into the revolving cylinder; during the process the mass becomes agglomerated, and the final product is what is known as a "black-ash ball," consisting chiefly of crude sodium carbonate and calcium sulphide, but containing smaller quantities of many other substances. the soda ash or sodium carbonate is obtained from the black ash by lixiviating with water, and after various purification processes, the solution is boiled down, as previously stated, by the waste heat of the black-ash furnace. the alkali is sold in various forms as soda ash, soda crystals, washing soda, etc. caustic soda is manufactured from solution of carbonate of soda by causticising, that is, treatment with caustic lime or quicklime. it will have been noticed that one of the chief reagents in the leblanc process is the sulphur used in the form of brimstone or as pyrites for making vitriol in the first stage; this sulphur goes through the entire process; from the vitriol it goes to form a constituent of the salt-cake, and afterwards of the calcium sulphide contained in the black ash. this calcium sulphide remains as an insoluble mass when the carbonate of soda is extracted from the black ash, and forms the chief constituent of the alkali waste, which until the year could be seen in large heaps around chemical works. now, however, by means of treatment with kiln gases containing carbonic acid, the sulphur is extracted from the waste in the form of hydrogen sulphide, which is burnt to form vitriol, or is used for making pure sulphur; and so what was once waste is now a source of profit. _ammonia-soda process of alkali manufacture._--this process depends upon the fact that when carbonic acid is forced, under pressure, into a saturated solution of ammonia and common salt, sodium bicarbonate is precipitated, whilst ammonium chloride or "sal-ammoniac" remains dissolved in the solution. the reaction was discovered in by a scotch chemist named john thom, and small quantities of ammonia-soda were made at that time by the firm of mcnaughton & thom. the successful carrying out of the process on the large scale depends principally upon the complete recovery of the expensive reagent, ammonia, and this problem was only solved within comparatively recent years by solvay. the process has been perfected and worked with great success in england by messrs. brunner, mond, & co., and has proved a successful rival to the leblanc process. alkali is also produced to some extent by electrolytic processes, depending upon the splitting up of a solution of common salt into caustic soda and chlorine by the use of an electric current. lecture vi boric acid, borax, soap _boric acid._--at ordinary temperatures and under ordinary conditions boric acid is a very weak acid, but like silicic and some other acids, its relative powers of affinity and combination become very much changed at high temperatures; thus, fused and strongly heated boric acid can decompose carbonates and even sulphates, and yet a current of so weak an acid as hydrogen sulphide, passed through a strong solution of borax, will decompose it and set free boric acid. boric acid is obtained chiefly from italy. in a tract of country called the maremma of tuscany, embracing an area of about forty square miles, are numerous chasms and crevices, from which hot vapour and heated gases and springs of water spurt. the steam issuing from these hot springs contains small quantities of boric acid, that acid being one of those solid substances distilling to some extent in a current of steam. the steam vapours thus bursting forth, owing to some kind of constant volcanic disturbance, are also more or less laden with sulphuretted hydrogen gas, communicating a very ill odour to the neighbourhood. these phenomena were at first looked upon by the people as the work of the devil, and priestly exorcisms were in considerable request in the hope of quelling them, very much as a great deal of the mere speech-making at the present time in england on foreign competition and its evils, and the dulness of trade, the artificial combinations to keep up prices, to reduce wages, general lamentation, etc., are essayed in the attempt to charm away bad trade. at length a kind of prophet arose of a very practical character in the form of the late count lardarel, who, mindful of the fact that the chemist höffer, in the time of the grand duke leopold i., had discovered boric acid in the volcanic steam jets, looked hopefully beyond the exorcisms of the priests and the superstitions of the people to a possible blessing contained in what appeared to be an unholy confusion of nature. he constructed tanks of from to ft. in diameter and to ft. in depth, of such a kind that the steam jets were surrounded by or contained in them, and thus the liquors formed by condensation became more and more concentrated. these tanks were arranged at different levels, so that the liquors could be run off from one to the other, and finally to settling cisterns. subsequently the strong liquors were run to lead-lined, wooden vats, in which the boric acid was crystallised out. had the industry depended on the use of fuel it could never have developed, but count lardarel ingeniously utilised the heat of the steam for all the purposes, and neither coal nor wood was required. where would that tuscan boric acid industry have been now had merely the lamentations of landowners, fears of the people, and exorcisms of the priests been continued? instead of being the work of the arch-enemy of mankind, was not it rather an incitement to a somewhat high and difficult step in an upward direction towards the attainment, on a higher platform of knowledge and skill, of a blessing for the whole province of tuscany? what was true in the history of that industry and its development is every whit as true of the much-lamented slackening of trade through foreign competition or other causes now in this country, and coming home to yourselves in the hat-manufacturing industry. the higher platform to which it was somewhat difficult to step up, but upon which the battle must be fought and the victory won, was one of a higher scientific and technological education and training. the chemist höffer made the discovery of boric acid in the vapours, they would no doubt take note; but höffer went no further; and it needed the man of both educated and practical mind like count lardarel to turn the discovery to account and extract the blessing. in like manner it was clear that in our educational schemes for the benefit of the people, there must not only be the scientific investigator of abstract truth, but also the scientific technologist to point the way to the practical realisation of tangible profit. moreover, and a still more important truth, it is the scientific education of the proprietors and heads we want--educated capital rather than educated workmen. _borax._--a good deal of the tuscan boric acid is used in france for the manufacture of borax, which is a sodium salt of boric acid. borax is also manufactured from boronitrocalcite, a calcium salt of boric acid, which is found in chili and other parts of south america. the crude boronitrocalcite or "tiza" is boiled with sodium carbonate solution, and, after settling, the borax is obtained by crystallisation. borax itself is found in california and nevada, u.s.a., and also in peru, ceylon, china, persia, and thibet. the commercial product is obtained from the native borax (known as "tincal") by dissolving in water and allowing the solution to crystallise. the peruvian borax sometimes contains nitre. for testing the purity of refined borax the following simple tests will usually suffice. a solution of the borax is made containing part of borax to parts of water, and small portions of the solution are tested as follows: _heavy metals_ (_lead_, _copper_, etc.).--on passing sulphuretted hydrogen into the solution, no coloration or precipitate should be produced. _calcium salts._--the solution should not give a precipitate with ammonium oxalate solution. _carbonates._--the solution should not effervesce on addition of nitric or hydrochloric acid. _chlorides._--no appreciable precipitate should be produced on addition of silver nitrate solution and nitric acid. _sulphates._--no appreciable precipitate should be produced on adding hydrochloric acid and barium chloride. _iron._-- c.c. of the solution should not immediately be coloured blue by · c.c. of potassium ferrocyanide solution. _soap._--soap is a salt in the chemical sense, and this leads to a wider definition of the term "salt" or "saline" compound. fats and oils, from which soaps are manufactured, are a kind of _quasi_ salts, composed of a fatty acid and a chemical constant, if i may use the term, in the shape of base, namely, glycerin. when these fats and oils, often called glycerides, are heated with alkali, soda, a true salt of the fatty acid and soda is formed, and this is the soap, whilst the glycerin remains behind in the "spent soap lye." now glycerin is soluble in water containing dissolved salt (brine), whilst soap is insoluble, though soluble in pure water. the mixture of soap and glycerin produced from the fat and soda is therefore treated with brine, a process called "cutting the soap." the soap separates out in the solid form as a curdy mass, which can be easily separated. certain soaps are able to absorb a large quantity of water, and yet appear quite solid, and in purchasing large quantities of soap it is necessary, therefore, to determine the amount of water present. this can be easily done by weighing out ten or twenty grams of the soap, cut in small pieces, into a porcelain dish and heating over a gas flame, whilst keeping the soap continually stirred, until a glass held over the dish no longer becomes blurred by escaping steam. after cooling, the dry soap is weighed, and the loss of weight represents the amount of moisture. i have known cases where soap containing about per cent. of water has been sold at the full market price. some soaps also contain more alkali than is actually combined with the fatty acids of the soap, and that excess alkali is injurious in washing silks and scouring wool, and is also not good for the skin. the presence of this free or excess alkali can be at once detected by rubbing a little phenolphthalein solution on to the freshly-cut surface of a piece of soap; if free alkali be present, a red colour will be produced. lecture vii shellac, wood spirit, and the stiffening and proofing process _shellac._--the resin tribe, of which shellac is a member, comprises vegetable products of a certain degree of similarity. they are mostly solid, glassy-looking substances insoluble in water, but soluble in alcohol and wood spirit. in many cases the alcoholic solutions show an acid reaction. the resins are partly soluble in alkalis, with formation of a kind of alkali salts which we may call resin-soaps. shellac is obtained from the resinous incrustation produced on the bark of the twigs and branches of various tropical trees by the puncture of the female "lac insect" (_taccardia lacca_). the lac is removed from the twigs by "beating" in water; the woody matter floats to the surface, and the resin sinks to the bottom, and when removed forms what is known as "seed-lac." formerly, the solution, which contains the colouring matter dissolved from the crude "stick-lac," was evaporated for recovery of the so-called "lac-dye," but the latter is no longer used technically. the seed-lac is bleached by boiling with sodium or potassium carbonate, alum, or borax, and then, if it is not pale enough, is further bleached by exposure to sunlight. it is now dried, melted, and mixed with a certain proportion of rosin or of orpiment (a sulphide of arsenic) according to the purpose for which it is desired. after further operations of melting and straining, the lac is melted and spread into thin sheets to form ordinary shellac, or is melted and dropped on to a smooth surface to form "button-lac." ordinary shellac almost invariably contains some rosin, but good button-lac is free from this substance. the presence of per cent. of rosin in shellac can be detected by dissolving in a little alcohol, pouring the solution into water, and drying the fine impalpable powder which separates. this powder is extracted with petroleum spirit, and the solution shaken with water containing a trace of copper acetate. if rosin be present, the petroleum spirit will be coloured emerald-green. borax, soda crystals, and ammonia are all used to dissolve shellac, and it may be asked: which of these is least injurious to wool? and why? how is their action modified by the presence of dilute sulphuric acid in the wool? i would say that soda crystals and ammonia are alkalis, and if used strong, are sure to do a certain amount of injury to the fibre of wool, and more if used hot than cold. of the two, the ammonia will have the least effect, especially if dilute, but borax is better than either. the influence of a little sulphuric acid in the wool would be in the direction of neutralising some of the ammonia or soda, and shellac, if dissolved in the alkalis, would be to some extent precipitated on the fibre, unless the alkali, soda or ammonia, were present in sufficient excess to neutralise that sulphuric acid and to leave a sufficient balance to keep the shellac in solution. borax, which is a borate of soda, would be so acted on by the sulphuric acid that some boric acid would be set free, the sulphuric acid robbing some of that borax of its soda. this boric acid would not be nearly so injurious to wool as carbonate of soda or ammonia would. the best solvent for shellac, however, in the preparation of the stiffening and proofing mixture for hats, is probably wood spirit or methylated spirit. a solution of shellac in wood spirit is indeed used for the spirit-proofing of silk hats, and to some extent of felt hats, and on the whole the best work, i believe, is done with it. moreover, borax is not a cheap agent, and being non-volatile it is all left behind in the proofed material, whereas wood spirit or methylated spirit is a volatile liquid, _i.e._ a liquid easily driven off in vapour, and after application to the felt it may be almost all recovered again for re-use. in this way i conceive the use of wood spirit would be both more effective and also cheaper than that of borax, besides being most suitable in the case of any kind of dyes and colours to be subsequently applied to the hats. _wood spirit._--wood spirit, the pure form of which is methyl alcohol, is one of the products of the destructive distillation of wood. the wood is distilled in large iron retorts connected to apparatus for condensing the distillation products. the heating is conducted slowly at first, so that the maximum yield of the valuable products--wood acid (acetic acid) and wood spirit--which distil at a low temperature, is obtained. when the condensed products are allowed to settle, they separate into two distinct layers, the lower one consisting of a thick, very dark tar, whilst the upper one, much larger in quantity, is the crude wood acid (containing also the wood spirit), and is reddish-yellow or reddish-brown in colour. this crude wood acid is distilled, and the wood spirit which distils off first is collected separately from the acetic acid which afterwards comes over. the acid is used for the preparation of alumina and iron mordants (see next lecture), or is neutralised with lime, forming grey acetate of lime, from which, subsequently, pure acetic acid or acetone is prepared. the crude wood spirit is mixed with milk of lime, and after standing for several hours is distilled in a rectifying still. the distillate is diluted with water, run off from any oily impurities which are separated, and re-distilled once or twice after treatment with quicklime. _stiffening and proofing process._--before proceeding to discuss the stiffening and proofing of hat forms or "bodies," it will be well to point out that it was in thoroughly grasping the importance of a rational and scientific method of carrying out this process that continental hat manufacturers had been able to steal a march upon their english rivals in competition as to a special kind of hat which sold well on the continent. there are, or ought to be, three aims in the process of proofing and stiffening, all the three being of equal importance. these are: first, to waterproof the hat-forms; second, to stiffen them at the same time and by the same process; and the third, the one the importance of which i think english hat manufacturers have frequently overlooked, at least in the past, is to so proof and stiffen the hat-forms as to leave them in a suitable condition for the subsequent dyeing process. in proofing the felt, the fibres become varnished over with a kind of glaze which is insoluble in water, and this varnish or proof is but imperfectly removed from the ends of the fibres on the upper surface of the felt. the consequence is a too slight penetration of the dyestuff into the inner pores of the fibres; indeed, in the logwood black dyeing of such proofed felt a great deal of the colour becomes precipitated on the outside of the fibres--a kind of process of "smudging-on" of a black pigment taking place. the subsequent "greening" of the black hats after a short period of wear is simply due to the ease with which such badly fixed dye rubs off, washes off, or wears off, the brownish or yellowish substratum which gradually comes to light, causing a greenish shade to at length appear. if we examine under the microscope a pure unproofed fur fibre, its characteristic structure is quite visible. examination of an unproofed fibre dyed with logwood black shows again the same characteristic structure with the dye inside the fibre, colouring it a beautiful bluish-grey tint, the inner cellular markings being black. a proofed fur fibre, on the other hand, when examined under the microscope, is seen to be covered with a kind of translucent glaze, which completely envelops it, and prevents the beautiful markings showing the scaly structure of the fibre from being seen. finally, if we examine microscopically a proofed fibre which has been dyed, or which we have attempted to dye, with logwood black, we find that the fibre presents an appearance similar to that of rope which has been drawn through some black pigment or black mud, and then dried. it is quite plain that no lustrous appearance or good "finish" can be expected from such material. now how did the continental hat manufacturers achieve their success, both as regards dyeing either with logwood black or with coal-tar colours, and also getting a high degree of "finish"? they attained their object by rubbing the proofing varnish on the inside of the hat bodies, in some cases first protecting the outside with a gum-varnish soluble in water but resisting the lac-varnish rubbed inside. thus the proofing could never reach the outside. on throwing the hat bodies, thus proofed by a logical and scientific process, into the dye-bath, the gums on the outer surface are dissolved and removed, and the dye strikes into a pure, clean fibre, capable of a high degree of finish. this process, however, whilst very good for the softer hats used on the continent, is not so satisfactory for the harder, stiffer headgear demanded in great britain. what was needed was a process which would allow of a through-and-through proofing and stiffening, and also of satisfactory dyeing of the stiffened and proofed felt. this was accomplished by a process patented in by mr. f.w. cheetham, and called the "veneering" process. the hat bodies, proofed as hard as usual, are thrown into a "bumping machine" containing hot water rendered faintly acid with sulphuric acid, and mixed with short-staple fur or wool, usually of a finer quality than that of which the hat bodies are composed. the hot acid water promotes in a high degree the felting powers of the short-staple wool or fur, and, to a lesser extent, the thinly proofed ends of the fibres projecting from the surfaces of the proofed hat-forms. thus the short-staple wool or fur felts itself on to the fibres already forming part of the hat bodies, and a new layer of pure, unproofed wool or fur is gradually wrought on to the proofed surface. the hat-forms are then taken out and washed, and can be dyed with the greatest ease and with excellent results, as will be seen from the accompanying illustration (see fig. ). this successful invention emphasises the value of the microscope in the study of processes connected with textile fibres. i would strongly advise everyone interested in hat manufacturing or similar industries to make a collection of wool and fur fibres, and mount them on microscope slides so as to form a kind of index collection for reference. [illustration: fig. . . natural wool fibre unproofed. . wool fibre showing proof on surface, filling up the cells and rendering the same dye-proof. . fur fibre from surface of veneered felt, showing dye deposited in cells and on the surface, bright and lustrous. . wool fibre as in no. , with dye deposited on surface of proof. . section of proofed and veneered body, showing unproofed surface. . section of proofed body without "veneer."] lecture viii mordants: their nature and use the name or word "mordant" indicates the empiricism, or our old friend "the rule of thumb," of the age in which it was first created and used. it serves as a landmark of that age, which, by the way, needed landmarks, for it was an age of something between scientific twilight and absolute darkness. _morder_ in french, derived from the latin _mordere_, means "to bite," and formerly the users of mordants in dyeing and printing believed their action to be merely a mechanical action, that is, that they exerted a biting or corroding influence, serving to open the pores of the fabrics, and thus to give more ready ingress to the colour or dye. most mordants are salts, or bodies resembling salts, and hence we must commence our study of mordants by a consideration of the nature of salts. i have already told you that acids are characterised by what we term an acid reaction upon certain vegetable and artificial colours, whilst bases or basic substances in solution, especially alkalis, restore those colours, or turn them to quite another shade; the acids do the one thing, and the alkalis and soluble bases do the opposite. the strongest and most soluble bases are the alkalis--soda, potash, and ammonia. you all know, probably, that a drop of vitriol allowed to fall on a black felt hat will stain that hat red if the hat has been dyed with logwood black; and if you want to restore the black, you can do this by touching the stain with a drop of strong ammonia. but the use of a black felt hat as a means of detecting acidity or alkalinity would not commend itself to an economic mind, and we find a very excellent reagent for the purpose in extract of litmus or litmus tincture, as well as in blotting paper stained therewith. the litmus is turned bright red by acids and blue by alkalis. if the acid is exactly neutralised by, that is combined with, the alkaline base to form fully neutralised salts, the litmus paper takes a purple tint. coloured reagents such as litmus are termed indicators. a substance called phenolphthalein, a coal-tar product, is a very delicate indicator; it is more sensitive to acids than litmus is. now there are some salts which contain a preponderance of acid in their composition, _i.e._ in which the acid has not been fully neutralised by the base; such salts are termed acid salts. bicarbonate of soda is one of these acid salts, but so feeble is carbonic acid in its acid properties and practical evidences, that we shall see both monocarbonate or "neutral" carbonate of soda and bicarbonate or "acid" carbonate of soda show evidences of, or, as chemists say, react with alkalinity towards litmus. however, phenolphthalein, though reacting alkaline with monocarbonate of soda, indicates the acidity of the bicarbonate of soda, a thing which, as i have just said, litmus will not do. we will take two jars containing solution of monocarbonate of soda, and in the first we will put some phenolphthalein solution, and in the second, some litmus tincture. the solution in the first jar turns rose coloured, and in the second, blue, indicating in each case that the solution is alkaline. if now, however, carbonic acid be blown into the two solutions, that in the first jar, containing the phenolphthalein, becomes colourless as soon as the monocarbonate of soda is converted into bicarbonate, and this disappearance of the rose colour indicates acidity; the blue solution in the jar containing litmus, on the other hand, is not altered by blowing in carbonic acid. furthermore, if to the colourless solution containing phenolphthalein, and which is acid towards that reagent, a little reddened litmus is added, this is still turned blue, and so still indicates the presence of alkali. we have, therefore, in bicarbonate of soda a salt which behaves as an acid to phenolphthalein and as an alkali to litmus. another extremely sensitive indicator is the coal-tar dyestuff known as "congo red"; the colour changes produced by it are exactly the inverse of those produced in the case of litmus, that is, it gives a blue colour with acids and a red colour with alkalis. we have now learned that acids are as the antipodes to alkalis or bases, and that the two may combine to form products which may be neutral or may have a preponderance either of acidity or of basicity--in short, they may yield neutral, acid, or basic salts. i must try to give you a yet clearer idea of these three classes of salts. now acids in general have, as we have seen, what we may call a "chemical appetite," and each acid in particular has a "specific chemical appetite" for bases, that is, each acid is capable of combining with a definite quantity of an individual base. the terms "chemical appetite" and "specific chemical appetite" are names i have coined for your present benefit, but for which chemists would use the words "affinity" and "valency" respectively. now some acids have a moderate specific appetite, whilst others possess a large one, and the same may be said of bases, and thus as an example we may have mono-, di-, and tri-acid salts, or mono-, di-, and tri-basic salts. in a tri-acid salt a certain voracity of the base is indicated, and in a tri-basic salt, of the acid. again, with a base capable of absorbing and combining with its compound atom or molecule several compound atoms or molecules of an acid, we have the possibility of partial saturation, and, perhaps, of several degrees of it, and also of full saturation, which means combination to the full extent of the powers of the base in question. also, with an acid capable of, or possessing a similar large absorptive faculty for bases, we have possibilities of the formation of salts of various degrees of basicity, according to the smaller or larger degree of satisfaction given to the molecule of such acid by the addition of a base. we will now take as a simple case that of hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt), which is a monobasic acid, that is, its molecule is capable of combining with only one molecule of a monoacid base. hydrochloric acid may be written, as its name would indicate, hcl, and an addition even of excess of such a base as caustic soda (written naoh) would only yield what is known as common salt or chloride of sodium (nacl), in which the metal sodium (na) has replaced the hydrogen (h) of the hydrochloric acid. now chloride of sodium when dissolved in water will turn litmus neither blue nor red; it is therefore neutral. such simple, neutral, monobasic salts are mostly very stable. by "stable" we mean they possess considerable resistance to agencies, that, in the case of other salts, effect decompositions of those salts. such other salts which are decomposed more or less readily are termed "unstable," but the terms are of course only comparative. now let us consider a di- or bi-basic acid. such an one is vitriol or sulphuric acid (h_{ }so_{ }). the hydrogen atoms are in this case an index of the basicity of the acid, and accordingly the fully saturated sodium salt is na_{ }so_{ } or neutral, or better normal, sulphate of soda. in like manner the fully saturated salt of the dibasic acid, carbonic acid (h_{ }co_{ }), is na_{ }co_{ }, ordinary or normal carbonate of soda. but we must observe that with these dibasic acids it is possible, by adding insufficient alkali to completely saturate them, to obtain salts in which only one hydrogen atom of the acid is replaced by the metal of the base. thus sulphuric and carbonic acids yield nahso_{ }, acid sulphate or bisulphate of soda, and nahco_{ }, bicarbonate of soda, respectively. an example of a tribasic acid is phosphoric acid, h_{ }po_{ }, and here we may have three different classes of salts of three various degrees of basicity or base-saturation. we may have the first step of basicity due to combination with soda, nah_{ }po_{ }, or monosodium phosphate, the second step, na_{ }hpo_{ }, or disodium phosphate, and the third, and final step, na_{ }po_{ }, or trisodium phosphate. now let us turn to the varying degrees of acidity, or rather the proportions of acid radicals in salts, due to the varying appetites or combining powers of bases. sodium only forms simple monoacid salts, as sodium chloride (nacl), sodium sulphate (na_{ }so_{ }); calcium forms diacid salts, _e.g._ calcium chloride (cacl_{ }); and aluminium and iron, triacid salts, for example, aluminium sulphate [al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }] and iron (ferric) sulphate [fe_{ }(so_{ })_{ }]. now in these triacid salts we can remove some of the acid groups and substitute the elements of water, oh, or hydroxyl, as it is called, for them. such salts, then, only partly saturated with acid, are termed basic salts. thus we have al_{ }(oh)_{ }(so_{ })_{ }, al_{ }(oh)_{ }so_{ }, as well as al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }, and we can get these basic salts by treating the normal sulphate [al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }] with sufficient caustic soda to remove the necessary quantities of sulphuric acid. now it is a curious thing that of these aluminium sulphates the fully saturated one, al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }, is the most stable, for even on long boiling of its solution in water it suffers no change, but the more basic is the sulphate the less stable it becomes, and so the more easily it decomposes on heating or boiling its solution, giving a deposit or precipitate of a still more basic sulphate, or of hydrated alumina itself, al_{ }(oh)_{ }, until we arrive at the salt al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }(oh)_{ }, which is quite unstable on boiling; al_{ }(so_{ })(oh)_{ } would be more unstable still. this behaviour may be easily shown experimentally. we will dissolve some "cake alum" or normal sulphate of alumina, al_{ }(so_{ })_{ }, in water, and boil some of the solution. no deposit or precipitate is produced; the salt is stable. to another portion of the solution we will add some caustic soda, naoh, in order to rob the normal sulphate of alumina of some of its sulphuric acid. this makes the sulphate of alumina basic, and the more basic, the more caustic soda is added, the sodium (na) of the caustic soda combining with the so_{ } of the sulphate of alumina to form sulphate of soda (na_{ }so_{ }), whilst the hydroxyl (oh) of the caustic soda takes the position previously occupied by the so_{ }. but this increase of basicity also means decrease of stability, for on boiling the solution, which now contains a basic sulphate of alumina, a precipitate is formed, a result which also follows if more caustic soda is added, production of still more basic salts or of hydrated alumina, al_{ }(oh)_{ }, taking place in either case. _mordanting or fixing acid (phenolic) colours._--but what has all this to do with mordanting? is possibly now the inquiry. so much as this, that only such unstable salts as i have just described, which decompose and yield precipitates by the action on them of alkalis, heat, the textile fibres themselves, or other agencies, are suitable to act as true mordants. hence, generally, the sources or root substances of the best and most efficient mordants are the metals of high specific appetite or valency. i think we have now got a clue to the principle of mordants and also to the importance of a sound chemical knowledge in dealing most effectively with them, and i may tell you that the man who did most to elucidate the theory of mordanting is not a practical man in the general sense of the term, but a man of the highest scientific attainments and standing, namely, professor liechti, who, with his colleague professor suida, did probably more than any other man to clear up much that heretofore was cloudy in this region. we have seen that with aluminium sulphate, basic salts are precipitated, _i.e._ salts with such a predominance of appetite for acids, or such _quasi_-acids as phenolic substances, that if such bodies were present they would combine with the basic parts of those precipitated salts as soon as the latter were formed, and all would be precipitated together as one complex compound. just such peculiar _quasi_-acid, or phenolic substances are alizarin, and most of the natural adjective dyestuffs, the colouring principles of logwood, cochineal, persian berries, etc. hence these substances will be combined and carried down with such precipitated basic salts. the complex compounds thus produced are coloured substances known as lakes. for example, if i take a solution containing basic sulphate of alumina, prepared as i have already described, and add to some alizarin, and then heat the mixture, i shall get a red lake of alizarin and alumina precipitated. if i had taken sulphate of iron instead of sulphate of alumina, and proceeded in a similar manner, and added alizarin, i should have obtained a dark purple lake. now if you imagine these reactions going on in a single fibre of a textile material, you have grasped the theory and purpose of mordanting. the textile fabric is drawn through the alumina solution to fill the pores and tubes of the fabric; it is then passed through a weak alkaline bath to basify or render basic the aluminium salt in the pores; and then it is finally carried into the dye-bath and heated there, in order to precipitate the colour lake in the fibre. the method usually employed to mordant woollen fabrics consists in boiling them with weak solutions of the metallic salts used as mordants, often with the addition of acid salts, cream of tartar, and the like. a partial decomposition of the metallic salts ensues, and it is induced by several conditions: ( ) the dilution of the liquid; ( ) the heating of the solution; ( ) the presence of the fibre, which itself tends to cause the breaking up of the metallic salts into less soluble basic ones. thus it is not really necessary to use basic aluminium sulphate for mordanting wool, since the latter itself decomposes the normal or neutral sulphate of alumina on heating, an insoluble basic sulphate being precipitated in the fibres of the wool. ( ) the presence of other added substances, as cream of tartar, etc. the best alumina mordant is probably the acetate of alumina ("red liquor"), and the best iron mordant, probably also the acetate ("iron liquor") (see preceding lecture), because the acetic acid is so harmless to the fibre, and is easily driven off on steaming, etc. a further reason is that from the solution of acetate of iron or alumina, basic acetates are very easily precipitated on heating, and are thus readily deposited in the fibre. _mordanting and fixing basic colours._--now let us ask ourselves a very important question. suppose we have a colour or dyestuff, such as magenta, which is of a basic character, and not of an acid or phenolic character like the colours alizarin, hæmatein (logwood), or carminic acid (cochineal), and we wish to fix this basic dyestuff on the tissue. can we then use "red liquor" (acetate of alumina), acetate of iron, copperas, etc.? the answer is, no; for such a process would be like trying to combine base with base, instead of base with acid, in order to form a salt. combination, and so precipitation, would not take place; no lake would be formed. we must seek for an acid or acid body to use as mordant for our basic colour, and an acid or acid body that will form an insoluble precipitate or colour-lake with the dyestuff. an acid much used, and very valuable for this purpose, is tannic acid. the tannate of rosaniline (colour principle of magenta) is a tolerably insoluble lake, which can be precipitated by magenta from a solution of tannate of soda, the magenta being capable of displacing the soda. but tannic acid, alone, does not form very fast lakes with magenta and the other basic dyestuffs, and so a means of rendering these lakes more insoluble is needed. it is found that tannic acid and tartar emetic (a tartrate of antimony and potash) yield a very insoluble compound, a tannate of antimony. perchloride of tin, in a similar manner, yields insoluble tannate of tin with tannic acid. these insoluble compounds, however, have sufficient acid-affinity left in the combined tannic acid to unite also with the basic aniline colours, forming very fast or insoluble colour lakes. this principle is extensively used in practice to fix basic aniline colours, especially on cotton. we should first soak the piece of cotton in a solution of tannic acid, and then pass it into a solution, say, of tartar emetic, when the tannic acid will be firmly fixed, as tannate of antimony, on the cotton. we then dip the mordanted piece of cotton into the colour bath, containing, for instance, magenta, and it is dyed a fine red, composed of a tannate of antimony and magenta. you now see, no doubt, the necessity of sharply discriminating between two classes of colouring matters, which we may term _colour acids_ and _colour bases_ respectively. there are but few acids that act like tannic acid in fixing basic aniline dyestuffs, but oleic acid and other fatty acids are of the number. a curious question might now be asked, namely: "could the acid colour alizarin, if fixed on cotton cloth, combine with a basic aniline colour, _e.g._ aniline violet, and act as a mordant for it, thus fixing it?" the answer is, "certainly"; and thus an alizarin purple would be produced, whilst if magenta were used in place of aniline violet, an alizarin red of a crimson tone would result. _chrome mordanting of wool and fur._--in studying this subject i would recommend a careful perusal of the chapter on "mordants" in j.j. hummel's book, entitled _the dyeing of textile fabrics_, and pages to of bowman's work on _the wool-fibre_. in the treatment of wool or fur with bichrome (potassium bichromate) we start with an acid salt, a bichromate (k_{ }cr_{ }o_{ }) and a strong oxidising agent, and we finish with a basic substance, namely, oxide of chromium, in the fibres of the wool or fur. if we desire to utilise the whole of the chromic acid in our mordanting liquor, we must add to it some sulphuric acid to set free the chromic acid from the potassium with which it is combined. bichromate of potash with sulphuric acid gives sulphate of potash and chromic acid. the question of the proper exhaustion of bichromate baths is an important economic one. now we must remember that this chromic acid (cro_{ }) oxidises our wool or fur, and must oxidise it before it can of itself act as a mordant by being reduced in the process to hydrated chromic oxide, cr_{ }o_{ } + h_{ }o. [ cro_{ } (chromic acid) = cr_{ }o_{ } (chromic oxide) + o_{ } (oxygen).] it is this hydrated chromic oxide in the fibre that yields with the hæmatein of the logwood your logwood black dye. mr. jarmain finds that it is not safe to use more than per cent. (of the weight of the wool) of bichromate; if per cent. be used, the colour becomes impaired, whilst if per cent. be employed, the wool cannot be dyed at all with logwood, the phenomenon known as "over-chroming" being the result of such excessive treatment. i think there is no doubt, as professor hummel says, that the colouring matter is oxidised and destroyed in such over-chroming, but i also think that there can be no doubt that the wool itself is also greatly injured and incapacitated for taking up colour. now the use of certain coal-tar black dyes in place of logwood obviates this use of bichrome, and thus the heavy stress on the fibre in mordanting with it. it also effects economy in avoiding the use of bichrome, as well as of copper salts; but even thus, of course, other problems have to be solved before it can be finally decided which is best. lecture ix dyestuffs and colours _classification._--in classifying the different dyestuffs and colouring matters it is, of course, necessary to consider first the properties of those colouring matters generally, and secondly the particular reason for making such classification. the scientific chemist, for example, would classify them according to theoretical considerations, as members of certain typical groups; the representative of medical science or hygiene would naturally classify them as poisonous and non-poisonous bodies; whilst the dyer will as naturally seek to arrange them according to their behaviour when applied to textile fabrics. but this behaviour on applying to textile fibres, if varied in character according to the chemical nature of the colouring matter, as well as the chemical and physical nature of the fabric--and it is so varied--will make such classification, if it is to be thorough-going, not a very simple matter. i may tell you that it is not a simple matter, and, moreover, the best classification and arrangement is that one which depends both on the action of the dyes on the fibres, and also on the intrinsic chemical character of the dyestuffs themselves. since the higher branches of organic chemistry are involved in the consideration of the structure and dispositions, and consequently more or less of the properties of these dyes, you will readily comprehend that the thorough appreciation and use of that highest and best method of classification, particularly in the case of the coal-tar dyes, will be, more or less, a sealed book except to the student of organic chemistry. but it may be asked, "how does that highest and best method of classifying the dyestuffs affect the users, the dyers, in their processes?" in reply, i would say, "i believe that the dyer who so understands the chemical principles involved in the processes he carries out, and in the best methods of classifying the dyes as chemical substances, so as to be able to act independently of the prescriptions and recipes given him by the dye manufacturers, and so be master of his own position, will, _ceteris paribus_, be the most economical and successful dyer." many manufacturers of dyestuffs have said the very same thing to me, but, independently of this, i know it, and can prove it with the greatest ease. let me now, by means of an experiment or two, prove to you that at least some classification is necessary to begin with. so different and varied are the substances used as colouring matters by the dyer, both as regards their chemical and physical properties, that they even act differently towards the same fibre. i will take four pieces of cotton fabric; three of them are simple white cotton, whilst the fourth cotton piece has had certain metallic salts mixed with thickening substances like gum, printed on it in the form of a pattern, which at present cannot readily be discerned. we will now observe and note the different action on these pieces of cotton--(i.) of a turmeric bath, (ii.) a magenta bath, and (iii.) a madder or alizarin bath. the turmeric dyes the cotton a fast yellow, the magenta only stains the cotton crimson, and on washing with water alone, almost every trace of colour is removed again; the madder, however, stains the cotton with no presentable shade of colour at all, produces a brownish-yellow stain, removed at once by a wash in water. but let us take the printed piece of cotton and dye that in the alizarin bath, and then we shall discover the conditions for producing colours with such a dyestuff as madder or alizarin. different coloured stripes are produced, and the colours are conditioned by the kind of metallic salts used. evidently the way in which, the turmeric dyes the cotton is different from that in which the madder dyes it. the first is a yellow dyestuff, but it would be hard to assign any one shade or tint to alizarin as a dyestuff. in fact alizarin (the principle of madder) is of itself not a dye, but it forms with each of several metals a differently coloured compound; and thus the metallic salt in the fabric is actually converted into a coloured compound, and the fabric is dyed or printed. the case is just the same with logwood black dyeing: without the presence of iron ("copperas," etc.), sulphate of copper ("bluestone"), or bichrome, you would get no black at all. we will now try similar experiments with woollen fabrics, taking three simple pieces of flannel, and also two pieces, the one having been first treated with a hot solution of alum and cream of tartar, and the other with copperas or sulphate of iron solution, and then washed. turmeric dyes the first yellow, like it did the cotton. magenta, however, permanently dyes the woollen as it did not the cotton. alizarin only stains the untreated woollen, whilst the piece treated with alumina is dyed red, and that with iron, purple. if, however, the pieces treated with iron and alumina had been dyed in the magenta solution, only one colour would have been the result, and that a magenta-red in each case. here we have, as proved by our experiments, two distinct classes of colouring matters. the one class comprises those which are of themselves the actual colour. the colour is fully developed in them, and to dye a fabric they only require fixing in their unchanged state upon that fabric. such dyes are termed _monogenetic_, because they can only generate or yield different shades of but one colour. indigo is such a dye, and so are magenta, aniline black, aniline violet, picric acid, ultramarine blue, and so on. ultramarine is not, it is true, confined to blue; you can get ultramarine green, and even rose-coloured ultramarine; but still, in the hands of the dyer, each shade remains as it came from the colour-maker, and so ultramarine is a monogenetic colour. monogenetic means capable of generating one. turning to the other class, which comprises, as we have shown, alizarin, and, besides, the colouring principle of logwood (hæmatein), gallein, and cochineal, etc., we have bodies usually possessed of some colour, it is true, but such colour is of no consequence, and, indeed, is of no use to dyers. these bodies require a special treatment to bring out or develop the colours, for there may be several that each is capable of yielding. we may consider them as colour-giving principles, and so we term them _polygenetic_ colours. polygenetic means capable of generating several or many. in the various colours and dyes we have all phases, and the monogenetic shades almost imperceptibly into the polygenetic. the mode of application of the two classes of colours is, of course, in each case quite essentially different, for in the case of the monogenetic class the idea is mainly either to dye at once and directly upon, the unprepared fibre, or having subjected the fabric to a previous preparation with a metallic or other solution, to fix directly the one colour on that fabric, on which, without such preparation, it would be loose. in the case of the polygenetic class, the idea is necessarily twofold. the dyeing materials are not colours, only colour generators. hence in all cases the fabric must be prepared with the twofold purpose--first, of using a metallic or other agent, capable of yielding, with the dye material, the desired colour; and secondly, of yielding it on the fibre in an insoluble and permanent form. now, though i have gone so far into this mode of classification, because it does afford some information and light, yet i can go no farther without getting into a territory that presupposes a knowledge and acquaintance with the chemical structure of the colouring matters as organic substances, which would be, at present, beyond us. i shall now turn to another mode of classification, which, if not so far-reaching as the other, is at least an exceedingly useful one. the two methods may be combined to a considerable extent. by the latter plan the colours may be conveniently divided into three groups: i., substantive colours; ii., adjective colours; iii., mineral and pigment colours. _substantive dyestuffs._--the substantive colours fix themselves readily and directly on animal fibres and substances, but only a few amongst them will dye vegetable fibres like cotton and linen directly. almost all substantive colours may, however, be fixed on cotton and linen by first preparing or mordanting those vegetable fibres. silk, wool, fur, etc., act like fibre and mordant together, for they absorb and fix the substantive colours firmly. in our experiments we saw that turmeric is one of the few substantive colours fixing itself on both cotton and wool, without any aid from a mordant or fixing agent. magenta was also a substantive colour, but alizarin was certainly not one of this class. _adjective dyestuffs._--some of these substances are definitely coloured bodies, but in some of them the colour is of no consequence or value, and is quite different and distinct from the colour eventually formed on the fibre, which colour only appears in conjunction with a special mordant; but, again, some of them are not coloured, and would not colour the fibre directly at all, only in conjunction with some mordant. all the polygenetic colours are, of course, comprised in this class, for example alizarin and logwood (hæmatein), whilst such monogenetic colours as annatto and turmeric are substantive, for they will fix themselves without a mordant on cotton and wool. the adjective colours can be conveniently subdivided into--(_a_) those existing in nature, as logwood (hæmatein) and cochineal; (_b_) those artificially formed from coal-tar products, as alizarin (madder), gallein, etc. _mineral and pigment dyestuffs._--these colours are insoluble in water and alcohol. they are either fixed on the fibre by mechanical means or by precipitation. for example, you use blacklead or plumbago to colour or darken your hats, and you work on this pigment colour by mechanical means. i will show you by experiment how to fix a coloured insoluble pigment in the fibre. i take a solution of acetate of lead (sugar of lead), and to it i add some solution of bichrome (potassium bichromate). acetate of lead (soluble in water) with bichromate of potash (also soluble in water) yields, on mixing the two, acetate of potash (soluble in water), and chromate of lead, or chrome yellow (insoluble in water), and which is consequently precipitated or deposited. now suppose i boil some of that chrome-yellow precipitate with lime-water, i convert that chrome yellow into chrome orange. this, you see, takes place without any reference to textile fibres. i will now work a piece of cotton in a lead solution, so that the little tubes of the cotton fibre shall be filled with it just as the larger glass tube or vessel was filled in the first experiment. i next squeeze and wash the piece, so as to remove extraneous solution of lead, just as if i had filled my glass tube by roughly dipping it bodily into the lead solution, and then washed and cleansed the outside of that tube. then i place the fabric in a warm solution of bichromate of potash (bichrome), when it becomes dyed a chrome yellow, for just as chromate of lead is precipitated in the glass tube, so it is now precipitated in the little tubes of the cotton fibre (see lecture i.). let us see if we can now change our chrome yellow to chrome orange, just as we did in the glass vessel by boiling in lime-water. i place the yellow fabric in boiling lime-water, when it is coloured or dyed orange. in each little tubular cotton fibre the same change goes on as went on in the glass vessel, and as the tube or glass vessel looks orange, so does the fabric, because the cotton fibres or tubes are filled with the orange chromium compound. you see this is quite a different process of pigment colouring from that of rubbing or working a colour mechanically on to the fibre. let us now turn to the substantive colours (group i.), and see if we can further sub-divide this large group for the sake of convenience. we can divide the group into two--(_a_) such colours as exist ready formed in nature, and chiefly occur in plants, of which the following are the most important: indigo, archil or orchil, safflower, turmeric, and annatto; (_b_) the very large sub-group of the artificial or coal-tar colours. we will briefly consider now the dyestuffs mentioned in group (_a_). _natural substantive colours._--indigo, one of the most valuable dyes, is the product of a large number of plants, the most important being different species of _indigofera_, which belong to the pea family. none of the plants (of which _indigofera tinctoria_ is the chief) contain the colouring matter in the free state, ready-made, so to say, but only as a peculiar colourless compound called _indican_, first discovered by edward schunck. when this body is treated with dilute mineral acids it splits up into indigo blue and a kind of sugar. but so easily is this change brought about that if the leaf of the plant be only bruised, the decomposition ensues, and a blue mark is produced through separation of the indigo blue. the possibility of dyeing with indigo so readily and easily is due to the fact that indigo blue absorbs hydrogen from bodies that will yield it, and becomes, as we say, reduced to a body without colour, called indigo white, a body richer in hydrogen than indigo blue, and a body that is soluble. if this white body (indigo white) be exposed to the air, the oxygen of the air undoes what the hydrogen did, and oxidises that indigo white to insoluble indigo blue. textile fabrics dipped in such reduced indigo solutions, and afterwards exposed to the air, become blue through deposit in the fibres of the insoluble indigo blue, and are so dyed. this is called the indigo-vat method. we can reduce this indigo so as to prepare the indigo-vat by simply mixing indigo blue, copperas (ferrous sulphate) solution, and milk of lime in a closely-stoppered bottle with water, and letting the mixture stand. the clear liquor only is used. a piece of cotton dipped in it, and exposed to the air, quickly turns blue by absorbing oxygen, and is thus dyed. the best proportions for the indigo-vat are, for cloth dyeing, parts of water, of indigo, to of copperas crystals, and to of dry slaked lime. the usual plan is to put in the water first, then add the indigo and copperas, which should be dissolved first, and finally to add the milk of lime, stirring all the time. artificial indigo has been made from coal-tar products. the raw material is a coal-tar naphtha called toluene or toluol, which is also the raw material for saccharin, a sweetening agent made from coal-tar. this artificial indigo is proving a formidable rival to the natural product. orchil paste, orchil extract, and cudbear are obtained by exposing the plants (species of lichens) containing the colouring principle, called _orcin_, itself a colourless substance, to the joint action of ammonia and air, when the oxygen of the air changes that orcin by oxidising it into _orcèin_, which is the true red colouring matter contained in the preparations named. the lichens thus treated acquire gradually a deep purple colour, and form the products called "cudbear." this dye works best in a neutral bath, but it will do what not many dyes will, namely, dye in either a slightly alkaline or slightly acid bath as well. orchil is not applicable in cotton dyeing. being a substantive colour no mordants are needed in dyeing silk and wool with it. the colour produced on wool and silk is a bright magenta-red with bluish shade. litmus is also obtained from the same lichens as yield orchil. it is not used in dyeing, and is a violet-blue colouring matter when neither acid nor alkaline, but neutral as it is termed. it turns red with only a trace of acid, and blue with the least trace of alkali, and so forms a very delicate reagent when pieces of paper are soaked with it, and dipped into the liquids to be tested. safflower: this vegetable dyeing material, for producing pink colours on cotton without the aid of a mordant, consists of the petals of the flower of _carthamus tinctorius_. it contains a principle termed "carthamin" or "carthamic acid," which can be separated by exhausting safflower with cold acidulated water (sulphuric acid) to dissolve out a yellow colouring matter which is useless. the residue after washing free from acid is treated with a dilute solution of soda crystals, and the liquid is then precipitated by an acid. a red precipitate is obtained, which fixes itself directly on cotton thread immersed in the liquid, and dyes it a delicate rose pink, which is, unfortunately, very fugitive. silk can be dyed like cotton. the colour is not fast against light. turmeric is the root portion of a plant called _curcuma tinctoria_, that grows in southern asia. the principle forming the colouring matter is "curcumin." it is insoluble in cold water, not much soluble in hot, but easily soluble in alcohol. from the latter solution it separates in brilliant yellow crystals. although the colour it yields is very fugitive, the wool and silk dyers still use it for producing especially olives, browns, and similar compound shades. it produces on cotton and wool a bright yellow colour without the aid of any mordant. to show you how easily dyeing with turmeric is effected, i will warm some powdered turmeric root in a flask with alcohol, and add the extract to a vessel of water warmed to about ° f. ( ° c.), and then dip a piece of cotton in and stir it about, when it will soon be permanently dyed a fine bright yellow. a piece of wool similarly worked in the bath is also dyed. however, the unfortunate circumstance is that this colour is fast neither to light nor alkalis. contact with soap and water, even, turns the yellow-dyed cotton, reddish-brown. annatto is a colouring principle obtained from the pulpy matter enclosing the seeds of the fruit of a tree, the _bixa orellana_, growing in central and southern america. the red or orange colour it yields is fugitive, and so its use is limited, being chiefly confined to silk dyeing. the yellow compound it contains is called "orellin," and it also contains an orange compound called "bixin," which is insoluble in water, but readily soluble in alkalis and in alcohol with a deep yellow colour. to dye cotton with it, a solution is made of the colour in a boiling solution of carbonate of soda. the cotton is worked in the diluted alkaline solution whilst hot. by passing the dyed cotton through water acidulated with a little vitriol or alum, a redder tint is assumed. for wool and silk, pale shades are dyed at ° f. ( ° c.) with the addition of soap to the bath, dark shades at ° to ° f. ( ° to ° c.). lecture x dyestuffs and colours--_continued_ _artificial substantive dyestuffs._--you may remember that in the last lecture we divided the colouring matters as follows: i. substantive colours, fixing themselves directly on animal fibres without a mordant, only a few of them doing this, however, on vegetable fibres, like cotton. we sub-divided them further as--(_a_) those occurring in nature, and (_b_) those prepared artificially, and chiefly, but not entirely, the coal-tar colouring matters. ii. adjective colours, fixing themselves only in conjunction with a mordant or mordants on animal or vegetable fibres, and including all the polygenetic colours. iii. mineral or pigment colours. i described experiments to illustrate what we mean by monogenetic and polygenetic colours, and indicating that the monogenetic colours are mainly included in the group of substantive colours, whilst the polygenetic colours are mainly included in the adjective colours. but i described also an illustration of group iii., the mineral or pigment colours, by which we may argue that chromate of lead is a polygenetic mineral colour, for, according to the treatment, we were able to obtain either chrome yellow (neutral lead chromate) or chrome orange (basic lead chromate). i also said there was a kind of borderland whichever mode of classification be adopted. thus, for example, there are colours that are fixed on the fibre either directly like indigo, and so are substantive, or they may be, and generally are, applied with a mordant like the adjective and polygenetic colours; examples of these are coerulein, alizarin blue, and a few more. we have now before us a vast territory, namely, that of the _b_ group of substantive colours, or, the largest proportion, indeed almost all of those prepared from coal-tar sources; alizarin, also prepared from coal-tar, belongs to the adjective colours. with regard to the source of these coal-tar colours, the word "coal-tar," i was going to say, speaks volumes, for the destructive and dry distillation of coal in gas retorts at the highest temperatures to yield illuminating gas, also yields us tar. but, coal distilled at lower temperatures, as well as shale, as in scotland, will yield tar, but tar of another kind, from which colour-generating substances cannot be obtained practically, but instead, paraffin oil and paraffin wax for making candles, etc. coal-tar contains a very large number of different substances, but only a few of them can be extracted profitably for colour-making. all the useful sources of colours and dyes from coal-tar are simply compounds of carbon and hydrogen--hydrocarbons, as they are called, with the exception of one, namely, phenol, or carbolic acid. i am not speaking here of those coal-tar constituents useful for making dyes, but of those actually extracted from coal-tar for that purpose, _i.e._ extracted to profit. for example, aniline is contained in coal-tar, but if we depended on the aniline contained ready made in coal-tar for our aniline dyes, the prices of these dyes would place them beyond our reach, would place them amongst diamonds and precious stones in rarity and cost, so difficult is it to extract the small quantity of aniline from coal-tar. the valuable constituents actually extracted are then these: benzene, toluene, xylene, naphthalene, anthracene, and phenol or carbolic acid. one ton of lancashire coal, when distilled in gas retorts, yields about gallons of coal-tar. let us now learn what those gallons of tar will give us in the shape of hydrocarbons and carbolic acid, mentioned as extracted profitably from tar. this is shown very clearly in the following table (table a). the gallons of tar yield - / lb. of benzene, / lb. of toluene, - / lb. of carbolic acid, between / and / lb. of xylene, - / lb. of naphthalene, and / lb. of anthracene, whilst the quantity of pitch left behind is - / lb. but our table shows us more; it indicates to us what the steps are from each raw material to each colouring matter, as well as showing us each colouring matter. we see here that our benzene yields us an equal weight of aniline, and the toluene ( / lb.) about / lb. of toluidine, the mixture giving, on oxidation, between / and / lb of magenta. from carbolic acid are obtained both aurin and picric acid, and here is the actual quantity of aurin obtainable ( - / lb.). from naphthalene, either naphthylamine (a body like aniline) or naphthol (resembling phenol) may be prepared. the amounts obtainable you see in the table. there are two varieties of naphthol, called alpha- and beta-naphthol, but only one phenol, namely, carbolic acid. naphthol yellow is of course a naphthol colour, whilst vermilline scarlet is a dye containing both naphthylamine and naphthol. you see the quantities of these dyes, namely lb. of scarlet and - / lb. of the naphthol yellow. the amount of pure anthracene obtained is / lb. this pure anthracene exhibits the phenomenon of fluorescence, that is, it not only looks white, but when the light falls on it, it seems to reflect a delicate violet or blue light. our table shows us that from the gallons of tar from ton of coal we may gain - / lb. of per cent. alizarin paste. chemically pure alizarin crystallises in bright-red needles; it is the colouring principle of madder, and also of alizarin paste. but the most wonderful thing about substantive coal-tar colours is their immense tinctorial power, _i.e._ the very little quantity of each required compared with the immense superficies of cloth it will dye to a full shade. table a.[ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- twelve gallons of gas-tar (average of manchester and salford tar) yield:-- ---------+---------+------+----------+----+--------------+---+---+--------+---- benzene.| toluene.| p |solvent | h n| naphthalene. | c | h | a | p | | h |naphtha | e a| | r | e | n | i | | e |for | a p| | e | a | t | t | | n |india | v h| | o | v | h | c | | o |rubber, | y t| | s | y | r | h | | l |containing| h| | o | | a | . | | . |the three | a| | t | o | c | | | |xylenes. | .| | e | i | e | | | | | | | . | l | n | | | | | | | | . | e. | ---------+----------------+----------+----+--------------+---+---+------------- · lb.=| · lb.=| · | · lb., | · | · lb. = | | | · lb.| · · lb. | · lb. |lb. |yielding |lb. | · lb. of |lb.|lb.|= · | lb. of | of |= · | · lb. | |alpha- | | | lb. of | aniline |toluidine|lb. of|of xylene | |naphthylamine | | |alizarin| | |aurin.|= · lb.| |= · lb. of | | | ( %). | | | |of | |vermilline | | | | \________________/ | |xylidine | |scarlet | | | | = · lb of | | | |rrr; or · | | | | magenta. | | | |lb. of | | | | | | | | |alpha- | | | | or · | | | | |or beta- | | | | lb. of | | | | |naphthol | | | | aniline | | | | |= · lb. of | | | | yields | | | | |naphthol | | | | · lb. | | | | |yellow | | | | of methyl| | | | | | | | | violet. | | | | | | | | | ---------+---------+------+----------+----+--------------+---+---+--------+---- [footnote : this table was compiled by mr. ivan levinstein, of manchester.] the next table (see table b) shows you the dyeing power of the colouring matters derived from ton of lancashire coal, which will astonish any thoughtful mind, for the magenta will dye yards of flannel, the aurin yards, the vermilline scarlet yards, and the alizarin yards (turkey-red cotton cloth). the next table (table c) shows the latent dyeing power resident, so to speak, in lb. of coal. by a very simple experiment a little of a very fine violet dye can be made from mere traces of the materials. one of the raw materials for preparing this violet dye is a substance with a long name, which itself was prepared from aniline. this substance is tetramethyldiamidobenzophenone, and a little bit of it is placed in a small glass test-tube, just moistened with a couple of drops of another aniline derivative called dimethylaniline, and then two drops of a fuming liquid, trichloride of phosphorus, added. on simply warming this mixture, the violet dyestuff is produced in about a minute. two drops of the mixture will colour a large cylinder of water a beautiful violet. the remainder (perhaps two drops more) will dye a skein of silk a bright full shade of violet. here, then, is a magnificent example of enormous tinctorial power. i must now draw the rein, or i shall simply transport you through a perfect wonderland of magic, bright colours and apparent chemical conjuring, without, however, an adequate return of solid instruction that you can carry usefully with you into every-day life and practice. table b.[ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- dyeing powers of colours from ton of lancashire coal. ------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ · lb. of| · lb. of | . lb. of | · lb. of | · lb. of | · lb. of magenta will|methyl |naphthol |vermilline |aurin will |alizarin dye |violet will |yellow will |will dye |dye |( %) will yards of |dye |dye |yards of |yards of |dye flannel, |yards of |yards of |flannel, |flannel, |yards of inches wide,|flannel, |flannel, |inches wide, |inches wide, |printers' a full |inches wide,|inches wide,|a full |a full |cloth a full shade. |a full |a full |scarlet. |orange. |turkey red. |violet. |yellow. | | | ------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ table c.[ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------------- dyeing powers of colours from lb. of lancashire coal. ------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ methyl | naphthol vermilline | aurin | alizarin magenta or violet. | yellow. or scarlet. | (orange). |(turkey red) ------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ × | × | × | × | · × | × inches of |inches of |inches of |inches of |inches of |inches of flannel. |flannel. |flannel. |flannel. |flannel. |printers' | | | | |cloth. ------------+------------+------------+-------------+-------------+------------ [footnote : these tables were compiled by mr. ivan levinstein, of manchester.] before we go another step, i must ask and answer, therefore, a few questions. can we not get some little insight into the structure and general mode of developing the leading coal-tar colours which serve as types of whole series? i will try what can be done with the little knowledge of chemistry we have so far accumulated. in our earlier lectures we have learnt that water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen, and in its compound atom or molecule we have two atoms of hydrogen combined with one of oxygen, symbolised as h_{ }o. we also learnt that ammonia, or spirits of hartshorn, is a compound of hydrogen with nitrogen, three atoms of hydrogen being combined with one of nitrogen, thus, nh_{ }. an example of a hydrocarbon or compound of carbon and hydrogen, is marsh gas (methane) or firedamp, ch_{ }. nitric acid, or _aqua fortis_, is a compound of nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, one atom of the first to three of the second and one of the third--no_{ }h. but this nitric acid question forces me on to a further statement, namely, we have in this formula or symbol, no_{ }h, a twofold idea--first, that of the compound as a whole, an acid; and secondly, that it is formed from a substance without acid properties by the addition of water, h_{ }o, or, if we like, hoh. this substance contains the root or radical of the nitric acid, and is no_{ }, which has the power of replacing one of the hydrogen atoms, or h, of water, and so we get, instead of hoh, no_{ }oh, which is nitric acid. this is chemical replacement, and on such replacement depends our powers of building up not only colours, but many other useful and ornamental chemical structures. you have all heard the old-fashioned statement that "nature abhors a vacuum." we had a very practical example of this when in our first lecture on water i brought an electric spark in contact with a mixture of free oxygen and hydrogen in a glass bulb. these gases at once united, three volumes of them condensing to two volumes, and these again to a minute particle of liquid water. a vacuum was left in that delicate glass bulb whilst the pressure of the atmosphere was crushing with a force of lb. on the square inch on the outside of the bulb, and thus a violent crash was the result of nature's abhorrence. there is such a kind of thing, though, and of a more subtle sort, which we might term a chemical vacuum, and it is the result of what we call chemical valency, which again might be defined as the specific chemical appetite of each substance. let us now take the case of the production of an aniline colour, and let us try to discover what aniline is, and how formed. i pointed to benzene or benzol in the table as a hydrocarbon, c_{ }h_{ }, which forms a principal colour-producing constituent of coal-tar. if you desire to produce chemical appetite in benzene, you must rob it of some of its hydrogen. thus c_{ }h_{ } is a group that would exist only for a moment, since it has a great appetite for h, and we may say this appetite would go the length of at once absorbing either one atom of h (hydrogen) or of some similar substance or group having a similar appetite. suppose, now, i place some benzene, c_{ }h_{ }, in a flask, and add some nitric acid, which, as we said, is no_{ }oh. on warming the mixture we may say a tendency springs up in that oh of the nitric acid to effect union with an h of the c_{ }h_{ } (benzene) to form hoh (water), when an appetite is at once left to the remainder, c_{ }h_{ }--on the one hand, and the no_{ }--on the other, satisfied by immediate union of these residues to form a substance c_{ }h_{ }no_{ }, nitro-benzene or "essence of mirbane," smelling like bitter almonds. this is the first step in the formation of aniline. i think i have told you that if we treat zinc scraps with water and vitriol, or water with potassium, we can rob that water of its oxygen and set free the hydrogen. it is, however, a singular fact that if we liberate a quantity of fresh hydrogen amongst our nitrobenzene c_{ }h_{ }no_{ }, that hydrogen tends to combine, or evinces an ungovernable appetite for the o_{ } of that no_{ } group, the tendency being again to form water h_{ }o. this, of course, leaves the residual c_{ }h_{ }n: group with an appetite, and only the excess of hydrogen present to satisfy it. accordingly hydrogen is taken up, and we get c_{ }h_{ }nh_{ } formed, which is aniline. i told you that ammonia is nh_{ }, and now in aniline we find an ammonia derivative, one atom of hydrogen (h) being replaced by the group c_{ }h_{ }. i will now describe the method of preparation of a small quantity of aniline, in order to illustrate what i have tried to explain in theory. benzene from coal-tar is warmed with nitric acid in a flask. a strong action sets in, and on adding water, the nitrobenzene settles down as a heavy oil, and the acid water can be decanted off. after washing by decantation with water once or twice, and shaking with some powdered marble to neutralise excess of acid, the nitrobenzene is brought into contact with fresh hydrogen gas by placing amongst it, instead of zinc, some tin, and instead of vitriol, some hydrochloric acid (spirits of salt). to show you that aniline is formed, i will now produce a violet colour with it, which only aniline will give. this violet colour is produced by adding a very small quantity of the aniline, together with some bleaching powder, to a mixture of chalk and water, the chalk being added for the purpose of destroying acidity. this aniline, c_{ }h_{ }nh_{ }, is a base, and forms the foundation of all the so-called basic aniline colours. if i have made myself clear so far, i shall be contented. it only remains to be said that for making magenta, pure aniline will not do, what is used being a mixture of aniline, with an aniline a step higher, prepared from toluene. if i were to give you the formula of magenta you would be astonished at its complexity and size, but i think now you will see that it is really built up of aniline derivatives. methyl violet is a colour we have already referred to, and its chemical structure is still more complex, but it also is built up of aniline materials, and so is a basic aniline colour. now it is possible for the colour-maker to prepare a very fine green dye from this beautiful violet (methyl violet). in fact he may convert the violet into the green colour by heating the first under pressure with a gas called methyl chloride (ch_{ }cl). methyl violet is constructed of aniline or substituted aniline groups; the addition of ch_{ }cl, then, gives us the methyl green. but one of the misfortunes of methyl green is that if the fabric dyed with it be boiled with water, at that temperature ( ° f.) the colour is decomposed and injured, for some of the methyl chloride in the compound is driven off. in fact, by stronger heating we may drive off all the methyl chloride and get the original methyl violet back again. but we have coal-tar colours which are not basic, but rather of the nature of acid,--a better term would be _phenolic_, or of the nature of phenol or carbolic acid. let us see what phenol or carbolic acid is. we saw that water may be formulated hoh, and that benzene is c_{ }h_{ }. well, carbolic acid or phenol is a derivative of water, or a derivative of benzene, just as you like, and it is formulated c_{ }h_{ }oh. you can easily prove this by dropping carbolic acid or phenol down a red-hot tube filled with iron-borings. the oxygen is taken up by the iron to give oxide of iron, and benzene is obtained, thus: c_{ }h_{ }oh gives o and c_{ }h_{ }. but there is another hydrocarbon called naphthalene, c_{ }h_{ }, and this forms not one, but two phenols. as the name of the hydrocarbon is naphthalene, however, we call these compounds naphthols, and one is distinguished as alpha- the other as beta-naphthol, both of them having the formula c_{ }h_{ }oh. but now with respect to the colours. if we treat phenol with nitric acid under proper conditions, we get a yellow dye called picric acid, which is trinitro-phenol c_{ }h_{ }(no_{ })_{ }oh; you see this is no aniline dye; it is not a basic colour, for it would saturate, _i.e._ destroy the basicity of bases. again, by oxidising phenol with oxalic acid and vitriol, we get a colour dyeing silk orange, namely, aurin, ho.c[c_{ }h_{ }(oh)]_{ }. this is also an acid or phenolic dye, as a glance at its formula will show you. its compound atom bristles, so to say, with phenol-residues, as some of the aniline dyes do with aniline residue-groups. we come now to a peculiar but immensely important group of colours known as the azo-dyes, and these can be basic or acid, or of mixed kind. just suppose two ammonia groups, nh_{ } and nh_{ }. if we rob those nitrogen atoms of their hydrogen atoms, we should leave two unsatisfied nitrogen atoms, atoms with an exceedingly keen appetite represented in terms of hydrogen atoms as n*** and n***. we might suppose a group, though of two n atoms partially satisfied by partial union with each other, thus--n:n--. now this group forms the nucleus of the azo-colours, and if we satisfy a nitrogen at one side with an aniline, and at the other with a phenol, or at both ends with anilines, and so on, we get azo-dyes produced. the number of coal-tar colours is thus very great, and the variety also. _adjective colours._--as regards the artificial coal-tar adjective dyestuffs, the principal are alizarin and purpurin. these are now almost entirely prepared from coal-tar anthracene, and madder and garancine are almost things of the past. vegetable adjective colours are brazil wood, containing the dye-generating principle brasilin, logwood, containing hæmatein, and santal-wood, camwood, and barwood, containing santalin. animal adjective colours are cochineal and lac dye. then of wood colours we have further: quercitron, persian berries, fustic and the tannins or tannic acids, comprising extracts, barks, fruits, and gallnuts, with also leaves and twigs, as with sumac. all these colours dye only with mordants, mostly forming with certain metallic oxides or basic salts, brightly-coloured compounds on the tissues to which they are applied. lecture xi dyeing of wool and fur; and optical properties of colours you have no doubt a tolerably vivid recollection of the illustrations given in lecture i., showing the structure of the fibre of wool and fur. we saw that the wool fibre, of which fur might be considered a coarser quality, possesses a peculiar, complex, scaly structure, the joints reminding one of the appearance of plants of the _equisetum_ family, whilst the scaled structure resembles that of the skin of the serpent. now you may easily understand that a structure like this, if it is to be completely and uniformly permeated by a dye liquor or any other aqueous solution, must have those scales not only well opened, but well cleansed, because if choked with greasy or other foreign matter impervious to or resisting water, there can be no chance of the mordanting or dye liquids penetrating uniformly; the resulting dye must be of a patchy nature. all wool, in its natural state, contains a certain amount of a peculiar compound almost like a potash soap, a kind of soft soap, but it also contains besides, a kind of fatty substance united with lime, and of a more insoluble nature than the first. this natural greasy matter is termed "yolk" or "suint"; and it ought never to be thrown away, as it sometimes is by the wool-scourers in this country, for it contains a substance resembling a fat named _cholesterin_ or _cholesterol_, which is of great therapeutical value. water alone will wash out a considerable amount of this greasy matter, forming a kind of lather with it, but not all. as is almost invariably the case, after death, the matters and secretions which in life favour the growth and development of the parts, then commence to do the opposite. it is as if the timepiece not merely comes to a standstill, but commences to run backwards. this natural grease, if it be allowed to stand in contact with the wool for some time after shearing, instead of nourishing and preserving the fibres as it does on the living animal, commences to ferment, and injures them by making them hard and brittle. we see, then, the importance of "scouring" wool for the removal of "yolk," as it is called, dirt, oil, etc. if this important operation were omitted, or incompletely carried out, each fibre would be more or less covered or varnished with greasy matter, resisting the absorption and fixing of mordant and dye. as scouring agents, ammonia, carbonate of ammonia, carbonate of soda completely free from caustic, and potash or soda soaps, especially palm-oil soaps, which need not be made with bleached palm oil, but which must be quite free from free alkali, may be used. in making these palm-oil soaps it is better to err on the side of a little excess of free oil or fat, but if more than per cent. of free fat be present, lathering qualities are then interfered with. oleic acid soaps are excellent, but are rather expensive for wool; they are generally used for silks. either as a skin soap or a soap for scouring wools, i should prefer one containing about / per cent. of free fatty matter, of course perfectly equally distributed, and not due to irregular saponification. on the average the soap solution for scouring wool may contain about - / oz. of soap to the gallon of water. in order to increase the cleansing powers of the soap solution, some ammonia may be added to it. however, if soap is used for wool-scouring, one thing must be borne in mind, namely, that the water used must not be hard, for if insoluble lime and magnesia soaps are formed and precipitated on the fibre, the scouring will have removed one evil, but replaced it by another. the principal scouring material used is one of the various forms of commercial carbonate of soda, either alone or in conjunction with soap. whatever be the form or name under which the carbonate of soda is sold, it must be free from hydrate of soda, _i.e._ caustic soda, or, as it is also termed, "causticity." by using this carbonate of soda you may dispense with soap, and so be able, even with a hard or calcareous water, to do your wool-scouring without anything like the ill effects that follow the use of soap and calcareous water. the carbonate of soda solutions ought not to exceed the specific gravity of ° to ° twaddell ( - / to oz. avoird. per gallon of water). the safest plan is to work with as considerable a degree of dilution and as low a temperature as are consistent with fetching the dirt and grease off. the scouring of loose wool, as we may now readily discern, divides itself into three stages: st, the stage in which those "yolk" or "suint" constituents soluble in water, are removed by steeping and washing in water. this operation is generally carried out by the wool-grower himself, for he desires to sell wool, and not wool plus "yolk" or "suint," and thus he saves himself considerable cost in transport. the water used in this process should not be at a higher temperature than ° f., and the apparatus ought to be provided with an agitator; nd, the cleansing or scouring proper, with a weak alkaline solution; rd, the rinsing or final washing in water. thus far we have proceeded along the same lines as the woollen manufacturer, but now we must deviate from that course, for he requires softness and delicacy for special purposes, for spinning and weaving, etc.; but the felt manufacturer, and especially the manufacturer of felt for felt hats, requires to sacrifice some of this softness and delicacy in favour of greater felting powers, which can only be obtained by raising the scales of the fibres by means of a suitable process, such as treatment with acids. this process is one which is by no means unfavourable to the dyeing capacities of the wool; on the whole it is decidedly favourable. so far everything in the treatment of the wool has been perfectly favourable for the subsequent operations of the felt-hat dyer, but now i come to a process which i consider i should be perfectly unwarranted in passing over before proceeding to the dyeing processes. in fact, were it not for this "proofing process" (see lecture vii.) the dyeing of felt hats would be as simple and easy of attainment as the ordinary dyeing of whole-wool fabrics. instead of this, however, i consider the hat manufacturer, as regards his dyeing processes as applied to the stiffer classes of felt hats, has difficulties to contend with fully comparable with those which present themselves to the dyer of mixed cotton and woollen or bradford goods. you have heard that the purpose of the wool-scourer is to remove the dirt, grease, and so-called yolk, filling the pores and varnishing the fibres. now the effect of the work of the felt or felt-hat proofer is to undo nearly all this for the sake of rendering the felt waterproof and stiff. the material used, also, is even more impervious and resisting to the action of aqueous solutions of dyes and mordants than the raw wool would be. in short, it is impossible to mordant and to dye shellac by any process that will dye wool. to give you an idea of what it is necessary to do in order to colour or dye shellac, take the case of coloured sealing-wax, which is mainly composed of shellac, four parts, and venice turpentine, one part. to make red sealing-wax this mixture is melted, and three parts of vermilion, an insoluble metallic pigment, are stirred in. if black sealing-wax is required, lamp-black or ivory-black is stirred in. the fused material is then cast in moulds, from which the sticks are removed on cooling. that is how shellac may be coloured as sealing-wax, but it is a totally different method from that by which wool is dyed. the difficulty then is this--in proofing, your hat-forms are rendered impervious to the dye solutions of your dye-baths, all except a thin superficial layer, which then has to be rubbed down, polished, and finished. thus in a short time, since the bulk of that superficially dyed wool or fur on the top of every hat is but small, and has been much reduced by polishing and rubbing, you soon hear of an appearance of bareness--i was going to say threadbareness--making itself manifest. this is simply because the colour or dye only penetrates a very little way down into the substance of the felt, until, in fact, it meets the proofing, which, being as it ought to be, a waterproofing, cannot be dyed. it cannot be dyed either by english or german methods; neither logwood black nor coal-tar blacks can make any really good impression on it. cases have often been described to me illustrating the difficulty in preventing hats which have been dyed black with logwood, and which are at first a handsome deep black, becoming rather too soon of a rusty or brownish shade. now my belief is that two causes may be found for this deterioration. one is the unscientific method adopted in many works of using the same bath practically for about a month together without complete renewal. during this time a large quantity of a muddy precipitate accumulates, rich in hydrated oxide of iron or basic iron salts of an insoluble kind. this mud amounts to no less than per cent. of the weight of the copperas used. from time to time carbonate of ammonia is added to the bath, as it is said to throw up "dirt." the stuff or "dirt," chiefly an ochre-like mass stained black with the dye, and rich in iron and carbonate of iron, is skimmed off, and fresh verdigris and copperas added with another lot of hat-forms. no doubt on adding fresh copperas further precipitation of iron will take place, and so this ochre-like precipitate will accumulate, and will eventually come upon the hats like a kind of thin black mud. now the effect of this will be that the dyestuff, partly in the fibre as a proper dye, and not a little on the fibre as if "smudged" on or painted on, will, on exposure to the weather, moisture, air, and so on, gradually oxidise, the great preponderance of iron on the fibre changing to a kind of iron-rust, corroding the fibres in the process, and thus at once accounting for the change to the ugly brownish shade, and to the rubbing off and rapid wearing away of the already too thin superficial coating of dyed felt fibre. in the final spells of dyeing in the dye-beck already referred to, tolerably thick with black precipitate or mud, the application of black to the hat-forms begins, i fear, to assume at length a too close analogy to another blacking process closely associated with a pair of brushes and the time-honoured name of day & martin. with that logwood black fibre, anyone could argue as to a considerable proportion of the dye rubbing, wearing, or washing off. thus, then, we have the second cause of the deterioration of the black, for the colour could not go into the fibre, and so it was chiefly laid or plastered on. you can also see that a logwood black hat dyer may well make the boast, and with considerable appearance of truth, that for the purposes of the english hat manufacturers, logwood black dyeing is the most appropriate, _i.e._ for the dyeing of highly proofed and stiff goods, but as to the permanent character of the black colour on those stiff hats, there you have quite another question. i firmly believe that in order to get the best results either with logwood black or "aniline blacks," it is absolutely necessary to have in possession a more scientific and manageable process of proofing. such a process is that invented by f.w. cheetham (see lecture vii. p. ). in the dyeing of wool and felt with coal-tar colours, it is in many cases sufficient to add the solution of the colouring matters to the cold or tepid water of the dye-bath, and, after introducing the woollen material, to raise the temperature of the bath. the bath is generally heated to the boiling-point, and kept there for some time. a large number of these coal-tar colours show a tendency of going so rapidly and greedily on to the fibre that it is necessary to find means to restrain them. this is done by adding a certain amount of glauber's salts (sulphate of soda), in the solution of which coal-tar colours are not so soluble as in water alone, and so go more slowly, deliberately, and thus evenly upon the fibre. it is usually also best to dye in a bath slightly acid with sulphuric acid, or to add some bisulphate of soda. there is another point that needs good heed taking to, namely, in using different coal-tar colours to produce some mixed effect, or give some special shade, the colours to be so mixed must possess compatibility under like circumstances. for example, if you want a violet of a very blue shade, and you take methyl violet and dissolve it in water and then add aniline blue also in solution, you find that precipitation of the colour takes place in flocks. a colouring matter which requires, as some do, to be applied in an acid bath, ought not to be applied simultaneously with one that dyes best in a neutral bath. numerous descriptions of methods of using coal-tar dyestuffs in hat-dyeing are available in different volumes of the _journal of the society of chemical industry_, and also tables for the detection of such dyestuffs on the fibre. now i will mention a process for dyeing felt a deep dead black with a coal-tar black dye which alone would not give a deep pure black, but one with a bluish-purple shade. to neutralise this purple effect, a small quantity of a yellow dyestuff and a trifle of indigotin are added. a deep black is thus produced, faster to light than logwood black it is stated, and one that goes on the fibre with the greatest ease. but i have referred to the use of small quantities of differently coloured dyes for the purpose of neutralising or destroying certain shades in the predominating colour. now i am conscious that this matter is one that is wrapped in complete mystery, and far from the true ken of many of our dyers; but the rational treatment of such questions possesses such vast advantages, and pre-supposes a certain knowledge of the theory of colour, of application and advantage so equally important, that i am persuaded i should not close this course wisely without saying a few words on that subject, namely, the optical properties of colours. colour is merely an impression produced upon the retina, and therefore on the brain, by various surfaces or media when light falls upon them or passes through them. remove the light, and colour ceases to exist. the colour of a substance does not depend so much on the chemical character of that substance, but rather and more directly upon the physical condition of the surface or medium upon which the light falls or through which it passes. i can illustrate this easily. for example, there is a bright-red paint known as crooke's heat-indicating paint. if a piece of iron coated with this paint be heated to about ° f., the paint at once turns chocolate brown, but it is the same chemical substance, for on cooling we get the colour back again, and this can be repeated any number of times. thus we see that it is the peculiar physical structure of bodies which appear coloured that has a certain effect upon the light, and hence it must be from the light itself that colour really emanates. originally all colour proceeds from the source of light, though it seems to come to the eye from the apparently coloured objects. but without some elucidation this statement would appear as an enigma, since it might be urged that the light of the sun as well as that of artificial light is white, and not coloured. i hope, however, to show you that that light is white, because it is so much coloured, so variously and evenly coloured, though i admit the term "coloured" here is used in a special sense. white light contains and is made up of all the differently coloured rainbow rays, which are continually vibrating, and whose wave-lengths and number of vibrations distinguish them from each other. we will take some white light from an electric lantern and throw it on a screen. in a prism of glass we have a simple instrument for unravelling those rays, and instead of letting them all fall on the same spot and illumine it with a white light, it causes them to fall side by side; in fact they all fall apart, and the prism has actually analysed that light. we get now a coloured band, similar to that of the rainbow, and this band is called the spectrum (see fig. ). if we could now run all these coloured rays together again, we should simply reproduce white light. we can do this by catching the coloured band in another prism, when the light now emerging will be found to be white. every part of that spectrum consists of homogeneous light, _i.e._ light that cannot be further split up. the way in which the white light is so unravelled by the prism is this: as the light passes through the prism its different component coloured rays are variously deflected from their normal course, so that on emerging we have each of these coloured rays travelling in its own direction, vibrating in its own plane. it is well to remember that the bending off, or deflection, or refraction, is towards the thick end of the prism always, and that those of the coloured rays in that analysed band, the spectrum, most bent away from the original line of direction of the white light striking the prism, are said to be the most refrangible rays, and consequently are situated in the most refrangible end or part of the spectrum, namely, that farthest from the original direction of the incident white light. these most refrangible rays are the violet, and we pass on to the least refrangible end, the red, through bluish-violet, blue, bluish-green, green, greenish-yellow, yellow, and orange. if you placed a prism say in the red part of the spectrum, and caught some of those red rays and allowed them to pass through your prism, and then either looked at the emerging light or let it fall on a white surface, you would find only red light would come through, only red rays. that light has been once analysed, and it cannot be further broken up. there is great diversity of shades, but only a limited number of primary impressions. of these primary impressions there are only four--red, yellow, green, and blue, together with white and black. white is a collective effect, whilst black is the antithesis of white and the very negation of colour. the first four are called primary colours, for no human eye ever detected in them two different colours, while all of the other colours contain two or more primary colours. if we mix the following tints of the spectrum, _i.e._ the following rays of coloured light, we shall produce white light, red and greenish-yellow, orange and prussian blue, yellow and indigo blue, greenish-yellow and violet. all those pairs of colours that unite to produce white are termed complementary colours. that is, one is complementary to the other. thus if in white light you suppress any one coloured strip of rays, which, mingled uniformly with all the rest of the spectral rays, produces the white light, then that light no longer remains white, but is tinged with some particular tint. whatever colour is thus suppressed, a particular other tint then pervades the residual light, and tinges it. that tint which thus makes its appearance is the one which, with the colour that was suppressed, gave white light, and the one is complementary to the other. thus white can always be compounded of two tints, and these two tints are complementary colours. but it is important to remark here that i am now speaking of rays of coloured light proceeding to and striking the eye; for a question like this might be asked: "you say that blue and yellow are complementary colours, and together they produce white, but if we mix a yellow and a blue paint or dye we have as the result a green colour. how is this?" the cases are entirely different, as i shall proceed to show. in speaking of the first, the complementary colours, we speak of pure spectral colours, coloured rays of light; in the latter, of pigment or dye colours. as we shall see, in the first, we have an addition direct of coloured lights producing white; in the latter, the green colour, appearing as the result of the mixture of the blue and yellow pigments, is obtained by the subtraction of colours; it is due to the absorption, by the blue and yellow pigments, of all the spectrum, practically, except the green portion. in the case of coloured objects, we are then confronted with the fact that these objects appear coloured because of an absorption by the colouring matter of every part of the rays of light falling thereupon, except that of the colour of the object, which colour is thrown off or reflected. this will appear clearer as we proceed. now let me point out a further fact and indicate another step which will show you the value of such knowledge as this if properly applied. i said that if we selected from the coloured light spectrum, separated from white light by a prism, say, the orange portion, and boring a hole in our screen, if we caught that orange light in another prism, it would emerge as orange light, and suffer no further analysis. it cannot be resolved into red and yellow, as some might have supposed, it is monochromatic light, _i.e._ light purely of one colour. but when a mixture of red and yellow light, which means, of course, a mixture of rays of greater and less refrangibility respectively than our spectral orange, the monochromatic orange--is allowed to strike the eye, then we have again the impression of orange. how are we to distinguish a pure and monochromatic orange colour from a colour produced by a mixture of red and yellow? in short, how are we to distinguish whether colours are homogeneous or mixed? the answer is, that this can only be done by the prism, apart from chemical analysis or testing of the substances. [illustration: fig. .] the spectroscope is a convenient prism-arrangement, such that the analytical effect produced by that prism is looked at through a telescope, and the light that falls on the prism is carefully preserved from other light by passing it along a tube after only admitting a small quantity through a regulated slit. now all solid and liquid bodies when raised to a white heat give a continuous spectrum, one like the prismatic band already described, and one not interrupted by any dark lines or bands. the rays emitted from the white-hot substance of the sun have to pass, before reaching our earth, through the sun's atmosphere, and since the light emitted from any incandescent body is absorbed on passing through the vapour of that substance, and since the sun is surrounded by such an atmosphere of the vapours of various metals and substances, hence we have, on examining the sun's spectrum, instead of coloured bands or lines only, many dark ones amongst them, which are called fraunhofer's lines. ordinary incandescent vapours from highly heated substances give discontinuous spectra, _i.e._ spectra in which the rays of coloured light are quite limited, and they appear in the spectroscope only as lines of the breadth of the slit. these are called line-spectra, and every chemical element possesses in the incandescent gaseous state its own characteristic lines of certain colour and certain refrangibility, by means of which that element can be recognised. to observe this you place a bunsen burner opposite the slit of the spectroscope, and introduce into its colourless flame on the end of a platinum wire a little of a volatile salt of the metal or element to be examined. the flame of the lamp itself is often coloured with a distinctiveness that is sufficient for a judgment to be made with the aid of the naked eye alone, as to the metal or element present. thus soda and its salts give a yellow flame, which is absolutely yellow or monochromatic, and if you look through your prism or spectroscope at it, you do not see a coloured rainbow band or spectrum, as with daylight or gaslight, but only one yellow double line, just where the yellow would have been if the whole spectrum had been represented. i think it is now plain that for the sake of observations and exact discrimination, it is necessary to map out our spectrum, and accordingly, in one of the tubes, the third, the spectroscope is provided with a graduated scale, so adjusted that when we look at the spectrum we also see the graduations of the scale, and so our spectrum is mapped; the lines marked out and named with the large and small letters of the alphabet, are certain of the prominent fraunhofer's lines (see a, b, c, a, d, etc., fig. ). we speak, for example, of the soda yellow-line as coinciding with d of the spectrum. these, then, are spectra produced by luminous bodies. the colouring matters and dyes, their solutions, and the substances dyed with them, are not, of course, luminous, but they do convert white light which strikes upon or traverses them into coloured light, and that is why they, in fact, appear either as coloured substances or solutions. the explanation of the coloured appearance is that the coloured substances or solutions have the power to absorb from the white light that strikes or traverses them, all the rays of the spectrum but those which are of the colour of the substance or solution in question, these latter being thrown off or reflected, and so striking the eye of the observer. take a solution of magenta, for example, and place a light behind it. all the rays of that white light are absorbed except the red ones, which pass through and are seen. thus the liquid appears red. if a dyed piece be taken, the light strikes it, and if a pure red, from that light all the rays but red are absorbed, and so red light alone is reflected from its surface. but this is not all with a dyed fabric, for here the light is not simply reflected light; part of it has traversed the upper layers of that coloured body, and is then reflected from the interior, losing a portion of its coloured rays by absorption. this reflected coloured light is always mixed with a certain amount of white light reflected from the actual surface of the body before penetrating its uppermost layer. thus, if dyed fabrics are examined by the spectroscope, the same appearances are generally observed as with the solution of the corresponding colouring matters. an absorption spectrum is in each case obtained, but the one from the solution is the purer, for it does not contain the mixed white light reflected from the surfaces of coloured objects. let us now take an example. we will take a cylinder glass full of picric acid in water, and of a yellow colour. now when i pass white light through that solution and examine the emerging light, which looks, to my naked eye, yellow, i find by the spectroscope that what has taken place is this: the blue part of the spectrum is totally extinguished as far as g and / of f. that is all. then why, say you, does that liquid look yellow if all the rest of those rays pass through and enter the eye, namely, the blue-green with a trifle of blue, the green, yellow, orange, and red? the reason is this: we have already seen that the colours complementary to, and so producing white light with red, are green and greenish-blue or bluish-green. hence these cancel, so to say, and we only see yellow. we do not see a pure yellow, then, in picric acid, but yellow with a considerable amount of white. here is a piece of scarlet paper. why does it appear scarlet? because from the white light falling upon it, it practically absorbs all the rays of the spectrum except the red and orange ones, and these it reflects. if this be so, then, and we take our spectrum band of perfectly pure colours and pass our strip of scarlet paper along that variously coloured band of light, we shall be able to test the truth of several statements i have made as to the nature of colour. i have said colour is only an impression, and not a reality; and that it does not exist apart from light. now, i can show you more, namely, that the colour of the so-called coloured object is entirely dependent on the existence in the light of the special coloured rays which it radiates, and that this scarlet paper depends on the red light of the spectrum for the existence of its redness. on passing the piece of scarlet paper along the coloured band of light, it appears red only when in the red portion of the spectrum, whilst in the other portions, though it is illumined, yet it has no colour, in fact it looks black. hence what i have said is true, and, moreover, that red paper looks red because, as you see, it absorbs and extinguishes all the rays of the spectrum but the red ones, and these it radiates. a bright green strip of paper placed in the red has no colour, and looks black, but transferred to the pure green portion it radiates that at once, does not absorb it as it did the red, and so the green shines out finely. i have told you that sodium salts give to a colourless flame a fine monochromatic or pure yellow colour. now, if this be so, and if all the light available in this world were of such a character, then such a colour as blue would be unknown. we will now ask ourselves another question, "we have a new blue colouring matter, and we desire to know if we may expect it to be one of the greatest possible brilliancy, what spectroscopic conditions ought it to fulfil?" on examining a solution of it, or rather the light passing through a solution of it, with the spectroscope, we ought to find that all the rays of the spectrum lying between and nearly to h and b (fig. ), _i.e._ all the bluish-violet, blue, and blue-green rays pass through it unchanged, unabsorbed, whilst all the rest should be completely absorbed. in like manner a pure yellow colour would allow all the rays lying between orange-red and greenish-yellow (fig. ) to pass through unchanged, but would absorb all the other colours of the spectrum. now we come to the, for you, most-important subject of mixtures of colours and their effects. let us take the popular case of blue and yellow producing green. we have seen that the subjective effect of the mixture of blue and yellow light on the eye is for the latter to lose sense of colour, since colour disappears, and we get what we term white light; in strict analogy to this the objective effect of a pure yellow pigment and a blue is also to destroy colour, and so no colour comes from the object to the eye; that object appears black. now the pure blue colouring matter would not yield a green with the pure yellow colouring matter, for if you plot off the two absorption spectra as previously described, on to the spectrum (fig. ), you will find that all the rays would be absorbed by the mixture, and the result would be a black. but, now, suppose a little less pure yellow were taken, one containing a little greenish-yellow and a trifle of green, and also a little orange-red on the other side to red, then whereas to the eye that yellow might be as good as the first; now, when mixed with a blue, we get a very respectable green. but, and this is very important, although of the most brilliant dyes and colours there are probably no two of these that would so unite to block out all the rays and produce black, yet this result can easily and practically be arrived at by using three colouring matters, which must be as different as possible from one another. thus a combination of a red, a yellow, and a blue colouring matter, when concentrated enough, will not let any light pass through it, and can thus be used for the production of blacks, and this property is made use of in dyeing. and now we see why a little yellow dye is added to our coal-tar black. a purplish shade would else be produced; the yellow used is a colour complementary to that purple, and it absorbs just those blue and purple rays of the spectrum necessary to illuminate by radiation that purple, and _vice versâ_; both yellow and purple therefore disappear. in like manner, had the black been of a greenish shade, i should have added croceine orange, which on the fabric would absorb just those green and bluish rays of light necessary to radiate from and illumine that greenish part, and the greenish part would do the like by the orange rays; the effects would be neutralised, and all would fall together into black. the end. index acetone, acid, boric. _see_ boric acid. " carbolic. _see_ phenol. " colours, mordanting, " hydrochloric. _see_ hydrochloric acid. " nitric. _see_ nitric acid. " sulphuric. _see_ sulphuric acid. acids, distinguishing, from alkalis, , " neutralisation of, " properties of, " specific gravities of, affinity, chemical, alizarin, , , , , , " blue, " paste, " pure, " purple, " red, alkali, manufacture of, by ammonia-soda process, " manufacture of, by electrolytic process, " manufacture of, by leblanc process, alkalis, distinguishing, from acids, , " neutralisation of, " properties of, " specific gravities of, alum, cake, aluminium sulphate, ammonia, , ammonia-soda process, aniline, " black, " constitution of, " preparation of, " reaction of " violet , animal fibres. _see_ fibres. annatto, , , anthracene, archil. _see_ orchil. aurin, , azo dyestuffs, barwood, basic colours or dyestuffs, mordanting, bast fibres. _see_ fibres. bastose, bastose, distinction between, and cellulose, beaumé hydrometer degrees, benzene, , bixin, black-ash process, blue colour, absorption spectrum of pure, boilers, incrustations in, boiling-point, effect of pressure on, " of water, effect of dissolved salts on, " of water, effect of increase of pressure on, borax, " tests of purity of, boric acid, boronitrocalcite, brasilin, brazil wood, camwood, carbolic acid. _see_ phenol. carminic acid, carré ice-making machine, carrotting. _see_ sécretage. carthamic acid, carthamin, cellulose, action of cupric-ammonium solutions on, " composition of, " distinction between, and bastose, " properties of pure, cholesterol, chrome mordanting, chrome orange, " yellow, chroming, over-, clark's soap test, coal-tar, " yield of valuable products from, cochineal, , , , , coerulein, colour, absorption spectrum of pure blue, " absorption spectrum of pure yellow, " acids, " bases, " nature of, coloured substances, spectra of, colours, acid, mordanting of, " basic, " classification of, " complementary, " mixed, spectra of, " pigment, " primary, " spectral, conditioning establishments, congo red, copper salts, dissolving, in iron pans, " wet method of extracting, corrosion caused by fatty acids, cotton and woollen goods, separation of mixed, cotton fibre, action of basic zinc chloride on, " composition of, " dimensions of, " stomata in cuticle of, " structure of, cotton-silk fibre, " " composition of, crookes' heat-indicating paint, cudbear, cupric ammonium solution, action of, on cellulose, curcumin, dextrin, dyeing felt hats deep black, " " effect of stiffening and proofing process in, , " of wool and felt with coal-tar colours, " of wool and fur, " power of coal-tar dyestuffs, " with mixed coal-tar colours, dyestuffs, adjectiv, , " azo, " classification of, " coal-tar, " " dyeing power of, " " yield of, " mineral, " monogenetic, " pigment, " polygenetic, " substantive, " " artificial, " " natural, equivalence, law of, fats, decomposition of, by superheated steam, felt, dyeing, deep black, " " with coal-tar colours, felting, dilute acid for promoting, " effect of water in, " fur, " interlocking of scales in, " preparation of fur for, " unsuitability of dead wool for, fibre, cotton. _see_ cotton. " cotton-silk. _see_ cotton-silk. " flax. _see_ flax. " jute. _see_ jute. " silk. _see_ silk. " wool. _see_ wool. fibres, action of acids on textile, " " alkaline solution of copper and glycerin on textile, " " alkalis on textile, " " caustic soda on textile , " " copper-oxide-ammonia on textile, " " nitric acid on textile, " " steam on textile, " " sulphuric acid on textile, fibres, animal, " bast, " vegetable, " " and animal, determining, in mixture, " " and animal, distinguishing, , " " and animal, distinguishing and separating, fibroïn, flax fibre, action of basic zinc chloride on, " composition of, " structure of, fraunhofer's lines, , fur, " action of acids on, " " of alkalis on, " " on, in sécretage process, " chrome mordanting of, " composition of, " felting, " finish and strength of felted, effect of boiling water on, " hygroscopicity of, " preparation of, for felting, " sécretage or carrotting of, " stiffening and proofing of felted, " sulphur in, reagents for detection of, fustic, gallein, , gallnuts, garancine, guy-lussac tower, glover tower, glucose, greening of black hats, hæmatein, , , hair, " cells from, " distinction between, and wool, , " dyeing, " growth of, " scales from, " " of, action of reagents on, " scaly structure of, " structure of, , " sulphur in, reagents for detection of, hargreaves & robinson's process, hats dyed logwood black, deterioration of, " greening of black, " stiffening and proofing of, , " stiffening and proofing of, by cheetham's process, " stiffening and proofing of, by continental process, " stiffening and proofing process, effect of, in dyeing, , heat, latent, , " " of steam, " " of water, heddebault's process of separating mixed cotton and woollen goods, hydrochloric acid, manufacture of, by hargreaves & robinson's process, " " manufacture of, by salt-cake process, ice, heat of liquefaction of, ice-making machine, carré, indican, indicators, , indigo, " artificial, " blue, " recovery of, from indigo-dyed woollen goods, " vat, " white, insoluble compounds, precipitation of, from solutions, iron liquor. _see_ mordant, iron. jute fibre, " composition of, lac, button, " dye, , " seed, " stick, _see also_ shellac. lakes, colour, latent heat. _see_ heat. leblanc process, light, analysis of white, " composition of white, " homogeneous or monochromatic, , " rays, refraction of, linen fibre. _see_ flax. litmus, , logwood, , , , , logwood black, , , " " deterioration of hats dyed with, madder, , , magenta, , , , , marsh gas, mercuric nitrate, use of, for the sécretage of fur, merino wool, methane. _see_ marsh gas. methyl alcohol. _see_ wood spirit. " green, " violet, mirbane, essence of, molisch's test, mordant, alumina, , " antimony, " iron, , " tannin, " tin, mordanting acid (phenolic) colours, " basic colours, " chrome, " woollen fabrics, mordants, " fatty acid, naphthalene, , naphthol yellow, naphthols, , naphthylamine, nitric acid, " manufacture of, nitrobenzene, nitroprusside of soda, oils, decomposition of, by superheated steam, orcèin, orchil, , orcin, orellin, over-chroming, _see_ chroming. paint, crookes' heat-indicating, persian berries, , phenol, " constitution of, phenolic colours. _see_ acid colours. phenolphthalein, picric acid, , " absorption spectrum of, " constitution of, plumbate of soda, potassium, decomposition of water by, , proofing mixture, " process, " " cheetham's, " " continental, " " effect of, in dyeing, , purpurin, quercitron, red liquor. see mordant, alumina. refraction of light rays, safflower, , salt-cake process, salts, " acid, , " basic, " neutral or normal, " stable, " unstable, santalin, santalwood, sealing-wax, coloured, sécretage of fur, " process, injury to fur in, sericin, shellac, " colouring of, " rosin in, detection of, " solvents for, _see also_ lac. silk fibre, action of acids on, " " " of alkaline solution of, copper and glycerin on, " " " of alkalis on, " " " of basic zinc chloride on, " " bleaching of, " " composition of, " " structure of, " " ungumming of, " glue, " gum, soap, " alkali in, detection of, " oleic acid, " palm oil, " water in, determination of, soda. _see_ alkali. solution, " precipitation of insoluble compounds from, specific gravity, spectra of coloured substances spectroscope, spectrum, " absorption, " continuous, " discontinuous or line, spirits of salt. _see_ hydrochloric acid. starch, steam, " latent heat of, stiffening mixture, " process, " " cheetham's, " " continental, " " effect of, in dyeing , suint. _see_ wool grease. sulphur in wool, fur, and hair, reagents for detection of, sulphuric acid, manufacture of, " " " by contact process, " " " by lead chamber process, sumach, tannins, tincal, tiza, toluene, toluidine, turmeric, , , , twaddell hydrometer degrees, ultramarine blue, ultramarine green, " rose-coloured, valency, vegetable fibres. _see_ fibres. veneering process, vermilline scarlet, vitriol. _see_ sulphuric acid. water, " boiling of " boiling-point of, effect of dissolved salts on " boiling-point of, effect of increase of pressure on, " chlorides in, detection of, " composition of, " contamination of, by factories, " copper in, detection of, " decomposition of, by potassium, , " filtration of, " hard, , " " clark's soap test for, " " softening of, " " waste of soap by, " hardness, temporary and permanent, of, " impurities in, " " effect of, in dyeing, " " ferruginous, " iron in, detection of, " latent heat of, " lead in, detection of, " lime in, detection of, " magnesium in, detection of, " purification of, " purity of, tests for, " soft, " effect of carbonic acid in hardening, " sulphates in, detection of, wood acid, " destructive distillation of, " spirit, wool, chrome mordanting of, " dead: why it will not felt, " dyeing, with coal-tar colours, " felted, effect of boiling water on finish and strength of, " felted, effect of stiffening process on finish of, , " felting of, interlocking of scales in, " fibre, " " action of acids on, " " " of alkalis on, " " composition of, " " curly structure of, " " distinction between, and hair, , " " growth of, " " hygroscopicity of, " " structure of, from diseased sheep, " " sulphur in, reagents for detection of, " grease, " kempy, " merino, " mordanting, " scouring, " stripping of, woollen goods, indigo-dyed, recovery of indigo from, " " mixed cotton and, separation of, xylenes, yellow colour, absorption spectrum of pure, yolk. _see_ wool grease. abridged catalogue of _special technical books_. index to subjects. page agricultural chemistry, air, industrial use of, alum and its sulphates, ammonia, aniline colours, animal fats, anti-corrosive paints, architecture, terms in, architectural pottery, artificial perfumes, balsams, bleaching, bleaching agents, bone products, bookbinding, brick-making, , burnishing brass, carpet yarn printing, casein, celluloid, cement, ceramic books, charcoal, chemical essays, chemical works, chemistry of pottery, clay analysis, coal dust firing, colour matching, colliery recovery work, colour-mixing for dyers, colour theory, combing machines, compounding oils, condensing apparatus, cosmetics, cotton dyeing, cotton spinning, , cotton waste, damask weaving, dampness in buildings, decorators' books, decorative textiles, dental metallurgy, drugs, drying oils, drying with air, dyeing marble, dyeing woollen fabrics, dyers' materials, dye-stuffs, edible fats and oils, electric wiring, , electricity in collieries, emery, enamelling metal, , enamels, engineering handbooks, engraving, essential oils, evaporating apparatus, external plumbing, fats, faults in woollen goods, flax spinning, food and drugs, fruit preserving, gas firing, glass-making recipes, glass painting, glue-making and testing, greases, gutta percha, hat manufacturing, hemp spinning, history of staffs potteries hops, hot-water supply, india-rubber, industrial alcohol, inks, , , , iron-corrosion, iron, science of, japanning, jute spinning, lace-making, lacquering, lake pigments, lead and its compound, leather-working mater'ls, , libraries, linoleum, lithography, lubricants, manures, , meat preserving, mineral pigments, mineral waxes, mine ventilation, mine haulage, mining, electricity, needlework, oil and colour recipes, oil boiling, oil merchants' manual, oils, ozone, industrial use of, paint manufacture, paint materials, paint-material testing, paint mixing, paper-mill chemistry, paper-pulp dyeing, petroleum, pigments, chemistry of, plumbers' work, pottery clays, pottery decorating, pottery manufacture, pottery marks, power-loom weaving, preserved foods, printers' ready reckoner printing inks, , , recipes, resins, ring spinning frame, risks of occupations, riveting china, etc., sanitary plumbing, scheele's essays, sealing waxes, shale tar distillation, shoe polishes, silk dyeing, silk throwing, smoke prevention, soaps, spinning, , , spirit varnishes, staining marble, and bone, steam drying, steel hardening, sugar refining, sweetmeats, technical schools, list, terra-cotta, testing paint materials, testing yarns, textile fabrics, , textile fibres, textile materials, timber, varnishes, vegetable fats, vegetable preserving, warp sizing, waste utilisation, water, industrial use, water-proofing fabrics, waxes, weaving calculations, white lead and zinc, wood distillation, wood extracts, wood waste utilisation, wood-dyeing, wool-dyeing, woollen goods, , , writing inks, x-ray work, yarn sizing, yarn testing, zinc white paints, published by scott, greenwood & son broadway, ludgate, london, e.c. full particulars of contents of the books mentioned in this abridged catalogue will be found in the following catalogues of current technical books. list i. artists' colours--bone products--butter and margarine manufacture--casein--cements--chemical works (designing and erection)--chemistry (agricultural, industrial, practical and theoretical)--colour mixing--colour manufacture--compounding oils--decorating--driers--drying oils--drysaltery--emery--essential oils--fats (animal, vegetable, edible)--gelatines--glues--greases-- gums--inks--lead--leather--lubricants--oils--oil crushing--paints--paint manufacturing--paint material testing--perfumes--petroleum--pharmacy-- recipes (paint, oil and colour)--resins--sealing waxes--shoe polishes--soap manufacture--solvents--spirit varnishes--varnishes--white lead--workshop wrinkles. list ii. bleaching--bookbinding--carpet yarn printing--colour (matching, mixing, theory)--cotton combing machines--dyeing (cotton, woollen and silk goods)--dyers' materials--dye-stuffs--engraving--flax, hemp and jute spinning and twisting--gutta-percha--hat manufacturing--india-rubber--inks--lace-making--lithography--needlework--paper making--paper-mill chemist--paper-pulp dyeing--point lace--power-loom weaving--printing inks--silk throwing--smoke prevention--soaps--spinning--textile (spinning, designing, dyeing, weaving, finishing)--textile materials--textile fabrics--textile fibres--textile oils--textile soaps--timber--water (industrial uses)--water-proofing--weaving--writing inks--yarns (testing, sizing). list iii. architectural terms--brassware (bronzing, burnishing, dipping, lacquering)--brickmaking--building--cement work--ceramic industries--china--coal-dust firing--colliery books--concrete--condensing apparatus--dental metallurgy--drainage--drugs--dyeing--earthenware--electrical books--enamelling--enamels--engineering handbooks--evaporating apparatus--flint glass-making--foods--food preserving--fruit preserving--gas engines--gas firing--gearing--glassware (painting, riveting)--hops--iron (construction, science)--japanning--lead--meat preserving--mines (haulage, electrical equipment, ventilation, recovery work from)--plants (diseases, fungicides, insecticides)--plumbing books--pottery (architectural, clays, decorating, manufacture, marks on)--reinforced concrete--riveting (china, earthenware, glassware)--steam turbines--sanitary engineering--steel (hardening, tempering)--sugar--sweetmeats--toothed gearing--vegetable preserving--wood dyeing--x-ray work. copies of any of these lists will be sent post free on application. (paints, colours, pigments and printing inks.) the chemistry of pigments. by ernest j. parry, b.sc. (lond.), f.i.c., f.c.s., and j.h. coste, f.i.c., f.c.s. demy vo. five illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the manufacture of paint. a practical handbook for paint manufacturers, merchants and painters. by j. cruickshank smith, b.sc. demy vo. pp. sixty illustrations and one large diagram. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) dictionary of chemicals and raw products used in the manufacture of paints, colours, varnishes and allied preparations. by george h. hurst, f.c.s. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) the manufacture of lake pigments from artificial colours. by francis h. jennison, f.i.c., f.c.s. sixteen coloured plates, showing specimens of eighty-nine colours, specially prepared from the recipes given in the book. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the manufacture of mineral and lake pigments. containing directions for the manufacture of all artificial, artists and painters' colours, enamel, soot and metallic pigments. a text-book for manufacturers, merchants, artists and painters, by dr. josef bersch. translated by a.c. wright, m.a. (oxon.), b.sc. (lond.). forty-three illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) recipes for the colour, paint, varnish, oil, soap and drysaltery trades. compiled by an analytical chemist. pp. second revised edition. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) oil colours and printers' inks. by louis edgar andÉs. translated from the german. pp. crown vo. illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) modern printing inks. a practical handbook for printing ink manufacturers and printers. by alfred seymour. demy vo. six illustrations. pages. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) three hundred shades and how to mix them. for architects, painters and decorators. by a. desaint, artistic interior decorator of paris. the book contains folio plates, measuring in. by in., each plate containing specimens of three artistic shades. these shades are all numbered, and their composition and particulars for mixing are fully given at the beginning of the book. each plate is interleaved with grease-proof paper, and the volume is very artistically bound in art and linen with the shield of the painters' guild impressed on the cover in gold and silver. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) house decorating and painting. by w. norman brown. eighty-eight illustrations. pp. crown vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) a history of decorative art. by w. norman brown. thirty-nine illustrations. pp. crown vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) workshop wrinkles. for decorators, painters, paperhangers, and others. by w.n. brown. crown vo. pp. second edition. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) casein. by robert scherer. translated from the german by chas. salter. demy vo. illustrated. second revised english edition. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) simple methods for testing painters' materials. by a.c. wright, m.a. (oxon.)., b.sc. (lond.). crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) iron-corrosion, anti-fouling and anti-corrosive paints. translated from the german of louis edgar andÉs. sixty-two illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the testing and valuation of raw materials used in paint and colour manufacture. by m.w. jones, f.c.s. a book for the laboratories of colour works. pp. crown vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list i._ the manufacture and comparative merits of white lead and zinc white paints. by g. petit, civil engineer, etc. translated from the french. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) students' handbook of paints, colours, oils and varnishes. by john furnell. crown vo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) (varnishes and drying oils.) the manufacture of varnishes and kindred industries. by j. geddes mcintosh. second, greatly enlarged, english edition, in three volumes, based on and including the work of ach. livache. volume i.--oil crushing, refining and boiling, the manufacture of linoleum, printing and lithographic inks, and india-rubber substitutes. demy vo. pp. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) volume ii.--varnish materials and oil-varnish making. demy vo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) volume iii.--spirit varnishes and spirit varnish materials. demy vo. illustrated. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) drying oils, boiled oil and solid and liquid driers. by l.e. andÉs. expressly written for this series of special technical books, and the publishers hold the copyright for english and foreign editions. forty-two illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (_analysis of resins, see page ._) (oils, fats, waxes, greases, petroleum.) lubricating oils, pats and greases: their origin, preparation, properties, uses and analyses. a handbook for oil manufacturers, refiners and merchants, and the oil and fat industry in general. by george h. hurst, f.c.s. third revised and enlarged edition. seventy-four illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) technology of petroleum: oil fields of the world--their history, geography and geology--annual production and development--oil-well drilling--transport. by henry neuberger and henry noalhat. translated from the french by j.g. mcintosh. pp. illustrations. plates. super royal vo. price s. net. (post free, s, d. home; s. d. abroad.) mineral waxes: their preparation and uses. by rudolf gregorius. translated from the german. crown vo. pp. illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the practical compounding of oils, tallow and grease for lubrication, etc. by an expert oil refiner. second edition. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the manufacture of lubricants, shoe polishes and leather dressings. by richard brunner. translated from the sixth german edition by chas. salter. illustrations. crown vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the oil merchants' manual and oil trade ready reckoner. compiled by frank f. sherriff. second edition revised and enlarged. demy vo. pp. with two sheets of tables. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) animal fats and oils: their practical production, purification and uses for a great variety of purposes. their properties, falsification and examination. translated from the german of louis edgar andÉs. sixty-two illustrations. pp. second edition, revised and enlarged. demy vo., price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list i._ vegetable fats and oils: their practical preparation, purification and employment for various purposes, their properties, adulteration and examination. translated from the german of louis edgar andÉs. ninety-four illustrations. pp. second edition. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) edible fats and oils: their composition, manufacture and analysis. by w.h. simmons, b.sc. (lond.), and c.a. mitchell, b.a. (oxon.). demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (essential oils and perfumes.) the chemistry of essential oils and artificial perfumes. by ernest j. parry, b.sc. (lond.), f.i.c., f.c.s. second edition, revised and enlarged. pp. illustrations. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (soap manufacture.) soaps. a practical manual of the manufacture of domestic, toilet and other soaps. by george h. hurst, f.c.s. nd edition. pp. illustrations. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) textile soaps and oils. handbook on the preparation, properties and analysis of the soaps and oils used in textile manufacturing, dyeing and printing. by george h. hurst, f.c.s. crown vo. pp. . price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the handbook of soap manufacture. by wm. h. simmons, b.sc. (lond.), f.c.s. and h.a. appleton. demy vo. pp. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (cosmetical preparations.) cosmetics: manufacture, employment and testing of all cosmetic materials and cosmetic specialities. translated from the german of dr. theodor koller. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (glue, bone products and manures.) glue and glue testing. by samuel rideal, d.sc. (lond.), f.i.c. fourteen engravings. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad) bone products and manures: an account of the most recent improvements in the manufacture of fat, glue, animal charcoal, size, gelatine and manures. by thomas lambert, technical and consulting chemist. illustrated by twenty-one plans and diagrams. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (_see also chemical manures, p. ._) (chemicals, waste products, etc.) reissue of chemical essays of c.w. scheele. first published in english in . translated from the academy of sciences at stockholm, with additions. pp. demy vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the manufacture of alum and the sulphates and other salts of alumina and iron. their uses and applications as mordants in dyeing and calico printing, and their other applications in the arts manufactures, sanitary engineering, agriculture and horticulture. translated from the french of lucien geschwind. illustrations. pp. royal vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) ammonia and its compounds: their manufacture and uses. by camille vincent, professor at the central school of arts and manufactures, paris. translated from the french by m.j. salter. royal vo. pp. thirty-two illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) chemical works: their design, erection, and equipment. by s.s. dyson and s.s. clarkson. royal vo. pp. with plates and illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) shale tar distillation: the treatment of shale and lignite products. translated from the german of w. scheithauer. [_in the press_. _for contents of these books, see list i._ industrial alcohol. a practical manual on the production and use of alcohol for industrial purposes and for use as a heating agent, as an illuminant and as a source of motive power. by j.g. mcintosh, lecturer on manufacture and applications of industrial alcohol at the polytechnic, regent street, london. demy vo. . pp. with illustrations and tables. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the utilisation of waste products. a treatise on the rational utilisation, recovery and treatment of waste products of all kinds. by dr. theodor koller. translated from the second revised german edition. twenty-two illustrations. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) analysis of resins and balsams. translated from the german of dr. karl dieterich. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (agricultural chemistry and manures.) manual of agricultural chemistry. by herbert ingle, f.i.c., late lecturer on agricultural chemistry, the leeds university; lecturer in the victoria university. second edition, with additional matter relating to tropical agriculture, etc. pp. illustrations. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) chemical manures. translated from the french of j. fritsch. demy vo. illustrated. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (_see also bone products and manures, p. ._) (writing inks and sealing waxes.) ink manufacture: including writing, copying, lithographic, marking, stamping, and laundry inks. by sigmund lehner. three illustrations. crown vo. pp. translated from the german of the fifth edition. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) sealing-waxes, wafers and other adhesives for the household, office, workshop and factory. by h.c. standage, crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (lead ores and lead compounds.) lead and its compounds. by thos. lambert, technical and consulting chemist. demy vo. pp. forty illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) notes on lead ores: their distribution and properties. by jas. fairie, f.g.s. crown vo. pages. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (_white lead and zinc white paints, see p. ._.) (industrial hygiene.) the risks and dangers to health of various occupations and their prevention. by leonard a. parry, m.d., b.sc. (lond.). pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (industrial uses of air, steam and water.) drying by means of air and steam. explanations, formulæ, and tables for use in practice. translated from the german of e. hausbrand. two folding diagrams and thirteen tables. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (_see also "evaporating, condensing and cooling apparatus," p. ._) pure air, ozone, and water. a practical treatise of their utilisation and value in oil, grease, soap, paint, glue and other industries. by w.b. cowell. twelve illustrations. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the industrial uses of water. composition--effects--troubles--remedies--residuary waters--purification--analysis. by h. de la coux. royal vo. translated from the french and revised by arthur morris. pp. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (_see books on smoke prevention, engineering and metallurgy, p. , etc._) _for contents of these books, see list iii._ (x rays.) practical x ray work. by frank t. addyman, b.sc. (lond.), f.i.c., member of the roentgen society of london; radiographer to st. george's hospital; demonstrator of physics and chemistry, and teacher of radiography in st. george's hospital medical school. demy vo. twelve plates from photographs of x ray work. fifty-two illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (india-rubber and gutta percha.) india-rubber and gutta percha. second english edition, revised and enlarged. based on the french work of t. seeligmann, g. lamy torrilhon and h. falconnet by john geddes mcintosh. royal vo. illustrations. pages. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (leather trades.) the leather worker's manual. being a compendium of practical recipes and working formulæ for curriers, bootmakers, leather dressers, blacking manufacturers, saddlers, fancy leather workers. by h.c. standage. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (_see also manufacture of shoe polishes, leather dressings, etc., p. ._) (pottery, bricks, tiles, glass, etc.) modern brickmaking. by alfred b. searle, royal vo. pages. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) the manual of practical potting. compiled by experts, and edited by chas. f. binns. third edition, revised and enlarged. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) pottery decorating. a description of all the processes for decorating pottery and porcelain. by r. hainbach. translated from the german. crown vo. pp. twenty-two illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) a treatise on ceramic industries. a complete manual for pottery, tile, and brick manufacturers. by emile bourry. a revised translation from the french, with some critical notes by alfred b. searle. demy vo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) architectural pottery. bricks, tiles, pipes, enamelled terra-cottas, ordinary and incrusted quarries, stoneware mosaics, faïences and architectural stoneware. by leon lefÊvre. translated from the french by k.h. bird, m.a., and w. moore binns. with five plates. illustrations in the text, and numerous estimates. pp., royal vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) ceramic technology: being some aspects of technical science as applied to pottery manufacture. edited by charles f. binns. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the art of riveting glass, china and earthenware. by j. howarth. second edition. paper cover. price s. net. (by post, home or abroad, s. d.) notes on pottery clays. the distribution, properties, uses and analyses of ball clays, china clays and china stone. by jas. fairie, f.g.s. pp. crown vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) how to analyse clay. by h.m. ashby. demy vo. pages. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) a reissue of the history of the staffordshire potteries; and the rise and progress of the manufacture of pottery and porcelain. with references to genuine specimens, and notices of eminent potters. by simeon shaw. (originally published in .) pp. demy vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) a reissue of the chemistry of the several natural and artificial heterogeneous compounds used in manufacturing porcelain, glass and pottery. by simeon shaw. (originally published in .) pp. royal vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) british pottery marks. by g. woolliscroft rhead. demy vo. pp. with over twelve-hundred illustrations of marks. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list iii._ (glassware, glass staining and painting.) recipes for flint glass making. by a british glass master and mixer. sixty recipes. being leaves from the mixing book of several experts in the flint glass trade, containing up-to-date recipes and valuable information as to crystal, demi-crystal and coloured glass in its many varieties. it contains the recipes for cheap metal suited to pressing, blowing, etc., as well as the most costly crystal and ruby. second edition. crown vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) a treatise on the art of glass painting. prefaced with a review of ancient glass. by ernest r. suffling. with one coloured plate and thirty-seven illustrations. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (paper making, paper dyeing, and testing.) the dyeing of paper pulp. a practical treatise for the use of papermakers, paperstainers, students and others. by julius erfurt, manager of a paper mill. translated into english and edited with additions by julius hÜbner, f.c.s., lecturer on papermaking at the manchester municipal technical school. with illustrations and patterns of paper dyed in the pulp. royal vo, pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad). the paper mill chemist. by henry p. stevens, m.a., ph.d., f.i.c. royal mo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the treatment of paper for special purposes. by l.e. andÉs. translated from the german. crown vo. illustrations. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (enamelling on metal.) enamels and enamelling. for enamel makers, workers in gold and silver, and manufacturers of objects of art. by paul randau. translated from the german. with sixteen illustrations. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the art of enamelling on metal. by w. norman brown. twenty-eight illustrations. crown vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) (textile and dyeing subjects.) the finishing of textile fabrics (woollen, worsted, union and other cloths). by roberts beaumont, m.sc., m.i. mech.e., professor of textile industries, the university of leeds; author of "colour in woven design"; "woollen and worsted cloth manufacture"; "woven fabrics at the world's fair"; vice-president of the jury of award at the paris exhibition, ; inspector of textile institutes; society of arts silver medallist; honorary medallist of the city and guilds of london institute. with illustrations of fibres, yarns and fabrics, also sectional and other drawings of finishing machinery demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) fibres used in textile and allied industries. by c. ainsworth mitchell, b.a. (oxon.), f.i.c., and r.m. prideaux, f.i.c. with illustrations specially drawn direct from the fibres. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) dressings and finishings for textile fabrics and their application. description of all the materials used in dressing textiles: their special properties, the preparation of dressings and their employment in finishing linen, cotton, woollen and silk fabrics. fireproof and waterproof dressings, together with the principal machinery employed. translated from the third german edition of friedrich polleyn. demy vo. pp. sixty illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the chemical technology of textile fibres; their origin, structure, preparation, washing, bleaching, dyeing, printing and dressing. by dr. georg von georgievics. translated from the german by charles salter. pp. forty-seven illustrations. royal vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) power-loom weaving and yarn numbering, according to various systems, with conversion tables. translated from the german of anthon gruner. with twenty-six diagrams in colours. pp. crown vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) textile raw materials and their conversion into yarns. (the study of the raw materials and the technology of the spinning process.) by julius zipser. translated from german by charles salter. illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list ii_. grammar of textile design. by h. nisbet, weaving and designing master, bolton municipal technical school. demy vo. pp. illustrations and diagrams. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) art needlework and design. point lace. a manual of applied art for secondary schools and continuation classes. by m.e. wilkinson. oblong quarto. with plates. bound in art linen. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) home lace-making. a handbook for teachers and pupils. by m.e.w. milroy. crown vo. pp. with plates and diagrams. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the chemistry of hat manufacturing. lectures delivered before the hat manufacturers' association. by watson smith, f.c.s., f.i.c. revised and edited by albert shonk. crown vo. pp. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the technical testing of yarns and textile fabrics. with reference to official specifications. translated from the german of dr. j. herzfeld. second edition. sixty-nine illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) decorative and fancy textile fabrics. by r.t. lord. for manufacturers and designers of carpets, damask, dress and all textile fabrics. pp. demy vo. designs and illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) theory and practice of damask weaving. by h. kinzer and k. walter. royal vo. eighteen folding plates. six illustrations. translated from the german. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) faults in the manufacture of woollen goods and their prevention. by nicolas reiser. translated from the second german edition. crown vo. sixty-three illustrations. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) spinning and weaving calculations, especially relating to woollens. from the german of n. reiser. thirty-four illustrations. tables. pp. demy vo. . price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) waterproofing of fabrics. by dr. s. mierzinski. crown vo. pp. illus. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) how to make a woollen mill pay. by john mackie. crown vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) yarn and warp sizing in all its branches. translated from the german of carl kretschmar. royal vo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (_for "textile soaps and oils" see p. ._) (dyeing, colour printing, matching and dye-stuffs.) the colour printing of carpet yarns. manual for colour chemists and textile printers. by david paterson, f.c.s. seventeen illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the science of colour mixing. a manual intended for the use of dyers, calico printers and colour chemists. by david paterson, f.c.s. forty-one illustrations. five coloured plates, and four plates showing eleven dyed specimens of fabrics. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) dyers' materials: an introduction to the examination, evaluation and application of the most important substances used in dyeing, printing, bleaching and finishing. by paul heerman, ph.d. translated from the german by a.c. wright, m.a. (oxon)., b.sc. (lond.). twenty-four illustrations. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) colour matching on textiles. a manual intended for the use of students of colour chemistry, dyeing and textile printing. by david paterson, f.c.s. coloured frontispiece. twenty-nine illustrations and fourteen specimens of dyed fabrics. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) colour: a handbook of the theory of colour. by george h. hurst, f.c.s. with ten coloured plates and seventy-two illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list ii_. reissue of the art of dyeing wool, silk and cotton. translated from the french of m. hellot, m. macquer and m. le pileur d'apligny. first published in english in . six plates. demy vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the chemistry of dye-stuffs. by dr. georg von georgievics. translated from the second german edition. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) the dyeing of cotton fabrics: a practical handbook for the dyer and student. by franklin beech, practical colourist and chemist. pp. forty-four illustrations of bleaching and dyeing machinery. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the dyeing of woollen fabrics. by franklin beech, practical colourist and chemist. thirty-three illustrations. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (silk manufacture.) silk throwing and waste silk spinning. by hollins rayner. demy vo. pp. illus. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (bleaching and bleaching agents.) a practical treatise on the bleaching of linen and cotton yarn and fabrics. by l. tailfer, chemical and mechanical engineer. translated from the french by john geddes mcintosh. demy vo. pp. twenty illus. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) modern bleaching agents and detergents. by professor max bottler. translated from the german. crown vo. illustrations. pages. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (cotton spinning and combing.) cotton spinning (first year). by thomas thornley, spinning master, bolton technical school. pp. eighty-four illustrations. crown vo. second impression. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) cotton spinning (intermediate, or second year). by thomas thornley. second impression. pp. seventy illustrations. crown vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home: s. d. abroad.) cotton spinning (honours, or third year). by thomas thornley. pp seventy-four illustrations. crown vo. second edition. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) cotton combing machines. by thos. thornley, spinning master, technical school, bolton. demy vo. illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) cotton waste: its production, characteristics, regulation, opening, carding, spinning and weaving. by thomas thornley. demy vo. about pages. [_in the press._ the ring spinning frame: guide for overlookers and students. by n. booth. crown vo. pages. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) [_just published._ (flax, hemp and jute spinning.) modern flax, hemp and jute spinning and twisting. a practical handbook for the use of flax, hemp and jute spinners, thread, twine and rope makers. by herbert r. carter, mill manager, textile expert and engineer, examiner in flax spinning to the city and guilds of london institute. demy vo. . with illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s abroad.) (collieries and mines.) recovery work after pit fires. by robert lamprecht, mining engineer and manager. translated from the german. illustrated by six large plates, containing seventy-six illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) ventilation in mines. by robert wabner, mining engineer. translated from the german. royal vo. thirty plates and twenty-two illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) haulage and winding appliances used in mines. by carl volk. translated from the german. royal vo. with six plates and illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list iii._ the electrical equipment of collieries. by w. galloway duncan, electrical and mechanical engineer, member of the institution of mining engineers, head of the government school of engineering, dacca, india; and david penman, certificated colliery manager, lecturer in mining to fife county committee. demy vo. pp. illustrations and diagrams. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (dental metallurgy.) dental metallurgy: manual for students and dentists. by a.b. griffiths, ph.d. demy vo. thirty-six illustrations. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (engineering, smoke prevention and metallurgy.) the prevention of smoke. combined with the economical combustion of fuel. by w.c. popplewell, m.sc., a.m. inst., c.e., consulting engineer. forty-six illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) gas and coal dust firing. a critical review of the various appliances patented in germany for this purpose since . by albert pÜtsch. pp. demy vo. translated from the german. with illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the hardening and tempering of steel in theory and practice. by fridolin reiser. translated from the german of the third edition. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) siderology: the science of iron (the constitution of iron alloys and slags). translated from german of hanns freiherr v. jÜptner. pp. demy vo. eleven plates and ten illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) evaporating, condensing and cooling apparatus. explanations, formulæ and tables for use in practice. by e. hausbrand, engineer. translated by a.c. wright, m.a. (oxon.), b.sc., (lond.). with twenty-one illustrations and seventy-six tables. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (the "broadway" series of engineering handbooks.) volume i.--reinforced concrete. by ewart s. andrews, b.sc. eng. (lond.). [_in the press._ volume ii.--gas and oil engines. [_in the press._ volume iii.--structural steel and iron work. [_in the press._ volume iv.--toothed gearing. by g.t. white, b.sc. (lond.). [_in the press._ volume v.--steam turbines: their theory and construction. [_in the press._ (sanitary plumbing, electric wiring, metal work, etc.) external plumbing work. a treatise on lead work for roofs. by john w. hart, r.p.c. illustrations. pp. demy vo. second edition revised. price s. d. net. (post free. s. d. home; s. abroad.) hints to plumbers on joint wiping, pipe bending and lead burning. third edition, revised and corrected, by john w. hart, r.p.c. illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) sanitary plumbing and drainage. by john w. hart. demy vo. with illustrations. pp. . price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) electric wiring and fitting. by sydney f. walker, r.n., m.i.e.e., m.i.min.e., a.m.inst.c.e., etc., etc. crown vo. pp. with illustrations and tables. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the principles and practice of dipping, burnishing, lacquering and bronzing brass ware. by w. norman brown. pp. crown vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) [_just published._ the development of the incandescent electric lamps. by g. basil barham, a.m.i.e.e. illustrated. demy vo. pp. [_in the press._ _for contents of these books, see list i._ wiring calculations for electric light and power installations. a practical handbook containing wiring tables, rules, and formulæ for the use of architects, engineers, mining engineers, and electricians, wiring contractors and wiremen, etc. by g. lummis paterson. crown vo. twenty-two illustrations. pp. [_in the press._ a handbook on japanning and enamelling for cycles, bedsteads, tinware, etc. by william norman brown. pp. and illustrations. crown vo. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home and abroad.) the principles of hot water supply. by john w. hart, r.p.c. with illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) (brewing and botanical.) hops in their botanical, agricultural and technical aspect, and as an article of commerce. by emmanuel gross, professor at the higher agricultural college, tetschen-liebwerd. translated from the german. seventy-eight illustrations. pp. demy vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s d. abroad.) a book on the diseases of plants, fungicides and insecticides, etc. demy vo. about pp. [_in the press._ (wood products, timber and wood waste.) wood products: distillates and extracts. by p. dumesny, chemical engineer, expert before the lyons commercial tribunal, member of the international association of leather chemists; and j. noyer. translated from the french by donald grant. royal vo. pp. illustrations and numerous tables. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) timber: a comprehensive study of wood in all its aspects (commercial and botanical), showing the different applications and uses of timber in various trades, etc. translated from the french of paul charpentier. royal vo. pp. illustrations. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. abroad.) the utilisation of wood waste. translated from the german of ernst hubbard. crown vo. pp. fifty illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. _ d_. abroad.) (_see also utilisation of waste products, p. ._) (building and architecture.) ornamental cement work. by oliver wheatley. demy vo. illustrations. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) [_just published._ the prevention of dampness in buildings; with remarks on the causes, nature and effects of saline, efflorescences and dry-rot, for architects, builders, overseers, plasterers, painters and house owners. by adolf wilhelm keim. translated from the german of the second revised edition by m.j. salter, f.i.c., f.c.s. eight coloured plates and thirteen illustrations. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) handbook of technical terms used in architecture and building, and their allied trades and subjects. by augustine c. passmore. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (foods, drugs and sweetmeats.) food and drugs. by e.j. parry, b.sc., f.i.c., f.c.s. volume i. the analysis of food and drugs (chemical and microscopical). royal vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) volume ii. the sale of food and drugs acts, - . royal vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) [_just published._ the manufacture of preserved foods and sweetmeats. by a. hausner. with twenty-eight illustrations. translated from the german of the third enlarged edition. crown vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) recipes for the preserving of fruit, vegetables and meat. by e. wagner. translated from the german. crown vo. pp. with illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) _for contents of these books, see list iii._ (dyeing fancy goods.) the art of dyeing and staining marble, artificial stone, bone, horn, ivory and wood, and of imitating all sorts of wood. a practical handbook for the use of joiners, turners, manufacturers of fancy goods, stick and umbrella makers, comb makers, etc. translated from the german of d.h. soxhlet, technical chemist. crown vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (celluloid.) celluloid: its raw material, manufacture, properties and uses. a handbook for manufacturers of celluloid and celluloid articles, and all industries using celluloid; also for dentists and teeth specialists. by dr. fr. bÖckmann, technical chemist. translated from the third revised german edition. crown vo. pp. with illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (lithography, printing and engraving.) practical lithography. by alfred seymour. demy vo. with frontispiece and illus. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) printers' and stationers' ready reckoner and compendium. compiled by victor graham. crown vo. pp. . price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) engraving for illustration. historical and practical notes. by j. kirkbride. pp. two plates and illustrations. crown vo. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (_for printing inks, see p. ._) (bookbinding.) practical bookbinding. by paul adam. translated from the german. crown vo. pp. illustrations. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) (sugar refining.) the technology of sugar: practical treatise on the modern methods of manufacture of sugar from the sugar cane and sugar beet. by john geddes mcintosh. second revised and enlarged edition. demy vo. fully illustrated. pp. seventy-six tables. . price s. d. net. (post free, s. home; s. d. abroad.) (_see "evaporating, condensing, etc., apparatus," p. ._) (emery.) emery and the emery industry. translated from the german of a. haenig. crown vo. illustrations. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) [_just published._ (libraries and bibliography.) classified guide to technical and commercial books. compiled by edgar greenwood. demy vo. pp. . being a subject-list of the principal british and american books in print; giving title, author, size, date, publisher and price. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) handbook to the technical and art schools and colleges of the united kingdom. containing particulars of nearly , technical, commercial and art schools throughout the united kingdom. with full particulars of the courses of instruction, names of principals, secretaries, etc. demy vo. pp. price s. d. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. abroad.) the libraries, museums and art galleries year book, - . being the third edition of greenwood's "british library year book". edited by alex. j. philip. demy vo. pp. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) the plumbing, heating and lighting annual for . the trade reference book for plumbers, sanitary, heating and lighting engineers, builders' merchants, contractors and architects. quarto. bound in cloth and gilt lettered. price s. net. (post free, s. d. home; s. d. abroad.) _including the translation of hermann kechnagel's "kalender fur gesundheits-techniker," handbook for heating, ventilating, and domestic engineers, of which scott, greenwood & son have purchased the sole right for the english language._ scott, greenwood & son, _technical book and trade journal publishers_, broadway, ludgate hill, london, e.c. telegraphic address, "printeries, london". tel. no.: bank . _january, _. book provided by the new york university library. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original more than illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) watch and clock escapements a complete study in theory and practice of the lever, cylinder and chronometer escapements, together with a brief account of the origin and evolution of the escapement in horology compiled from the well-known escapement serials published in the keystone nearly two hundred original illustrations published by the keystone the organ of the jewelry and optical trades th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. all rights reserved copyright, , by b. thorpe, publisher of the keystone. preface especially notable among the achievements of the keystone in the field of horology were the three serials devoted to the lever, cylinder and chronometer escapements. so highly valued were these serials when published that on the completion of each we were importuned to republish it in book form, but we deemed it advisable to postpone such publication until the completion of all three, in order that the volume should be a complete treatise on the several escapements in use in horology. the recent completion of the third serial gave us the opportunity to republish in book form, and the present volume is the result. we present it to the trade and students of horology happy in the knowledge that its contents have already received their approval. an interesting addition to the book is the illustrated story of the escapements, from the first crude conceptions to their present perfection. contents chapter i. the detached lever escapement chapter ii. the cylinder escapement chapter iii. the chronometer escapement chapter iv. history of escapements chapter v. putting in a new cylinder index watch and clock escapements chapter i. the detached lever escapement. in this treatise we do not propose to go into the history of this escapement and give a long dissertation on its origin and evolution, but shall confine ourselves strictly to the designing and construction as employed in our best watches. by designing, we mean giving full instructions for drawing an escapement of this kind to the best proportions. the workman will need but few drawing instruments, and a drawing-board about " by " will be quite large enough. the necessary drawing-instruments are a t-square with " blade; a scale of inches divided into decimal parts; two pairs dividers with pen and pencil points--one pair of these dividers to be " and the other "; one ruling pen. other instruments can be added as the workman finds he needs them. those enumerated above, however, will be all that are absolutely necessary. [illustration: fig. ] we shall, in addition, need an arc of degrees, which we can best make for ourselves. to construct one, we procure a piece of no. brass, about ½" long by ¼" wide. we show such a piece of brass at _a_, fig. . on this piece of brass we sweep two arcs with a pair of dividers set at precisely ", as shown (reduced) at _a a_ and _b b_. on these arcs we set off the space held in our dividers--that is "--as shown at the short radial lines at each end of the two arcs. now it is a well-known fact that the space embraced by our dividers contains exactly sixty degrees of the arcs _a a_ and _b b_, or one-sixth of the entire circle; consequently, we divide the arcs _a a_ and _b b_ into sixty equal parts, to represent degrees, and at one end of these arcs we halve five spaces so we can get at half degrees. [illustration: fig. ] before we take up the details of drawing an escapement we will say a few words about "degrees," as this seems to be something difficult to understand by most pupils in horology when learning to draw parts of watches to scale. at fig. we show several short arcs of fifteen degrees, all having the common center _g_. most learners seem to have an idea that a degree must be a specific space, like an inch or a foot. now the first thing in learning to draw an escapement is to fix in our minds the fact that the extent of a degree depends entirely on the radius of the arc we employ. to aid in this explanation we refer to fig. . here the arcs _c_, _d_, _e_ and _f_ are all fifteen degrees, although the linear extent of the degree on the arc _c_ is twice that of the degree on the arc _f_. when we speak of a degree in connection with a circle we mean the one-three-hundred-and-sixtieth part of the periphery of such a circle. in dividing the arcs _a a_ and _b b_ we first divide them into six spaces, as shown, and each of these spaces into ten minor spaces, as is also shown. we halve five of the degree spaces, as shown at _h_. we should be very careful about making the degree arcs shown at fig. , as the accuracy of our drawings depends a great deal on the perfection of the division on the scale _a_. in connection with such a fixed scale of degrees as is shown at fig. , a pair of small dividers, constantly set to a degree space, is very convenient. making a pair of dividers. [illustration: fig. ] to make such a pair of small dividers, take a piece of hard sheet brass about / " thick, ¼" wide, ½" long, and shape it as shown at fig. . it should be explained, the part cut from the sheet brass is shown below the dotted line _k_, the portion above (_c_) being a round handle turned from hard wood or ivory. the slot _l_ is sawn in, and two holes drilled in the end to insert the needle points _i i_. in making the slot _l_ we arrange to have the needle points come a little too close together to agree with the degree spaces on the arcs _a a_ and _b b_. we then put the small screw _j_ through one of the legs _d''_, and by turning _j_, set the needle points _i i_ to exactly agree with the degree spaces. as soon as the points _i i_ are set correctly, _j_ should be soft soldered fast. the degree spaces on _a_ are set off with these dividers and the spaces on _a_ very carefully marked. the upper and outer arc _a a_ should have the spaces cut with a graver line, while the lower one, _b b_ is best permanently marked with a carefully-made prick punch. after the arc _a a_ is divided, the brass plate _a_ is cut back to this arc so the divisions we have just made are on the edge. the object of having two arcs on the plate _a_ is, if we desire to get at the number of degrees contained in any arc of a " radius we lay the scale _a_ so the edge agrees with the arc _a a_, and read off the number of degrees from the scale. in setting dividers we employ the dotted spaces on the arc _b b_. delineating an escape wheel. [illustration: fig. ] we will now proceed to delineate an escape wheel for a detached lever. we place a piece of good drawing-paper on our drawing-board and provide ourselves with a very hard (hhh) drawing-pencil and a bottle of liquid india ink. after placing our paper on the board, we draw, with the aid of our t-square, a line through the center of the paper, as shown at _m m_, fig. . at ½" from the lower margin of the paper we establish the point _p_ and sweep the circle _n n_ with a radius of ". we have said nothing about stretching our paper on the drawing-board; still, carefully-stretched paper is an important part of nice and correct drawing. we shall subsequently give directions for properly stretching paper, but for the present we will suppose the paper we are using is nicely tacked to the face of the drawing-board with the smallest tacks we can procure. the paper should not come quite to the edge of the drawing-board, so as to interfere with the head of the t-square. we are now ready to commence delineating our escape wheel and a set of pallets to match. the simplest form of the detached lever escapement in use is the one known as the "ratchet-tooth lever escapement," and generally found in english lever watches. this form of escapement gives excellent results when well made; and we can only account for it not being in more general use from the fact that the escape-wheel teeth are not so strong and capable of resisting careless usage as the club-tooth escape wheel. it will be our aim to convey broad ideas and inculcate general principles, rather than to give specific instructions for doing "one thing one way." the ratchet-tooth lever escapements of later dates have almost invariably been constructed on the ten-degree lever-and-pallet-action plan; that is, the fork and pallets were intended to act through this arc. some of the other specimens of this escapement have larger arcs--some as high as twelve degrees. pallet-and-fork action. [illustration: fig. ] we illustrate at fig. what we mean by ten degrees of pallet-and-fork action. if we draw a line through the center of the pallet staff, and also through the center of the fork slot, as shown at _a b_, fig. , and allow the fork to vibrate five degrees each side of said lines _a b_, to the lines _a c_ and _a c'_, the fork has what we term ten-degree pallet action. if the fork and pallets vibrate six degrees on each side of the line _a b_--that is, to the lines _a d_ and _a d'_--we have twelve degrees pallet action. if we cut the arc down so the oscillation is only four and one-quarter degrees on each side of _a b_, as indicated by the lines _a s_ and _a s'_, we have a pallet-and-fork action of eight and one-half degrees; which, by the way, is a very desirable arc for a carefully-constructed escapement. the controlling idea which would seem to rule in constructing a detached lever escapement, would be to make it so the balance is free of the fork; that is, detached, during as much of the arc of the vibration of the balance as possible, and yet have the action thoroughly sound and secure. where a ratchet-tooth escapement is thoroughly well-made of eight and one-half degrees of pallet-and-fork action, ten and one-half degrees of escape-wheel action can be utilized, as will be explained later on. we will now resume the drawing of our escape wheel, as illustrated at fig. . in the drawing at fig. we show the circle _n n_, which represents the periphery of our escape wheel; and in the drawing we are supposed to be drawing it ten inches in diameter. we produce the vertical line _m_ passing through the center _p_ of the circle _n_. from the intersection of the circle _n_ with the line _m_ at _i_ we lay off thirty degrees on each side, and establish the points _e f_; and from the center _p_, through these points, draw the radial lines _p e'_ and _p f'_. the points _f e_, fig. , are, of course, just sixty degrees apart and represent the extent of two and one-half teeth of the escape wheel. there are two systems on which pallets for lever escapements are made, viz., equidistant lockings and circular pallets. the advantages claimed for each system will be discussed subsequently. for the first and present illustration we will assume we are to employ circular pallets and one of the teeth of the escape wheel resting on the pallet at the point _f_; and the escape wheel turning in the direction of the arrow _j_. if we imagine a tooth as indicated at the dotted outline at _d_, fig. , pressing against a surface which coincides with the radial line _p f_, the action would be in the direction of the line _f h_ and at right angles to _p f_. if we reason on the action of the tooth _d_, as it presses against a pallet placed at _f_, we see the action is neutral. [illustration: fig. ] establishing the center of pallet staff. [illustration: fig. ] with a fifteen-tooth escape wheel each tooth occupies twenty-four degrees, and from the point _f_ to _e_ would be two and one-half tooth-spaces. we show the dotted points of four teeth at _d d' d''d'''_. to establish the center of the pallet staff we draw a line at right angles to the line _p e'_ from the point _e_ so it intersects the line _f h_ at _k_. for drawing a line at right angles to another line, as we have just done, a hard-rubber triangle, shaped as shown at _c_, fig. , can be employed. to use such a triangle, we place it so the right, or ninety-degrees angle, rests at _e_, as shown at the dotted triangle _c_, fig. , and the long side coincides with the radial line _p e'_. if the short side of the hard-rubber triangle is too short, as indicated, we place a short ruler so it rests against the edge, as shown at the dotted line _g e_, fig. , and while holding it securely down on the drawing we remove the triangle, and with a fine-pointed pencil draw the line _e g_, fig. , by the short rule. let us imagine a flat surface placed at _e_ so its face was at right angles to the line _g e_, which would arrest the tooth _d''_ after the tooth _d_ resting on _f_ had been released and passed through an arc of twelve degrees. a tooth resting on a flat surface, as imagined above, would also rest dead. as stated previously, the pallets we are considering have equidistant locking faces and correspond to the arc _l l_, fig. . in order to realize any power from our escape-wheel tooth, we must provide an impulse face to the pallets faced at _f e_; and the problem before us is to delineate these pallets so that the lever will be propelled through an arc of eight and one-half degrees, while the escape wheel is moving through an arc of ten and one-half degrees. we make the arc of fork action eight and one-half degrees for two reasons--( ) because most text-books have selected ten degrees of fork-and-pallet action; ( ) because most of the finer lever escapements of recent construction have a lever action of less than ten degrees. laying out escape-wheel teeth. to "lay out" or delineate our escape-wheel teeth, we continue our drawing shown at fig. , and reproduce this cut very nearly at fig. . with our dividers set at five inches, we sweep the short arc _a a'_ from _f_ as a center. it is to be borne in mind that at the point _f_ is located the extreme point of an escape-wheel tooth. on the arc _a a_ we lay off from _p_ twenty-four degrees, and establish the point _b_; at twelve degrees beyond _b_ we establish the point _c_. from _f_ we draw the lines _f b_ and _f c_; these lines establishing the form and thickness of the tooth _d_. to get the length of the tooth, we take in our dividers one-half a tooth space, and on the radial line _p f_ establish the point _d_ and draw circle _d' d'_. to facilitate the drawing of the other teeth, we draw the circles _d' c'_, to which the lines _f b_ and _f c_ are tangent, as shown. we divide the circle _n n_, representing the periphery of our escape wheel, into fifteen spaces, to represent teeth, commencing at _f_ and continued as shown at _o o_ until the entire wheel is divided. we only show four teeth complete, but the same methods as produced these will produce them all. to briefly recapitulate the instructions for drawing the teeth for the ratchet-tooth lever escapement: we draw the face of the teeth at an angle of twenty-four degrees to a radial line; the back of the tooth at an angle of thirty-six degrees to the same radial line; and make teeth half a tooth-space deep or long. [illustration: fig. ] we now come to the consideration of the pallets and how to delineate them. to this we shall add a careful analysis of their action. let us, before proceeding further, "think a little" over some of the factors involved. to aid in this thinking or reasoning on the matter, let us draw the heavy arc _l_ extending from a little inside of the circle _n_ at _f_ to the circle _n_ at _e_. if now we imagine our escape wheel to be pressed forward in the direction of the arrow _j_, the tooth _d_ would press on the arc _l_ and be held. if, however, we should revolve the arc _l_ on the center _k_ in the direction of the arrow _i_, the tooth _d_ would _escape_ from the edge of _l_ and the tooth _d''_ would pass through an arc (reckoning from the center _p_) of twelve degrees, and be arrested by the inside of the arc _l_ at _e_. if we now should reverse the motion and turn the arc _l_ backward, the tooth at _e_ would, in turn, be released and the tooth following after _d_ (but not shown) would engage _l_ at _f_. by supplying motive to revolve the escape wheel (_e_) represented by the circle _n_, and causing the arc _l_ to oscillate back and forth in exact intervals of time, we should have, in effect, a perfect escapement. to accomplish automatically such oscillations is the problem we have now on hand. how motion is obtained. in clocks, the back-and-forth movement, or oscillating motion, is obtained by employing a pendulum; in a movable timepiece we make use of an equally-poised wheel of some weight on a pivoted axle, which device we term a balance; the vibrations or oscillations being obtained by applying a coiled spring, which was first called a "pendulum spring," then a "balance spring," and finally, from its diminutive size and coil form, a "hairspring." we are all aware that for the motive power for keeping up the oscillations of the escaping circle _l_ we must contrive to employ power derived from the teeth _d_ of the escape wheel. about the most available means of conveying power from the escape wheel to the oscillating arc _l_ is to provide the lip of said arc with an inclined plane, along which the tooth which is disengaged from _l_ at _f_ to slide and move said arc _l_ through--in the present instance an arc of eight and one-half degrees, during the time the tooth _d_ is passing through ten and one-half degrees. this angular motion of the arc _l_ is represented by the radial lines _k f'_ and _k r_, fig. . we desire to impress on the reader's mind the idea that each of these angular motions is not only required to be made, but the motion of one mobile must convey power to another mobile. in this case the power conveyed from the mainspring to the escape wheel is to be conveyed to the lever, and by the lever transmitted to the balance. we know it is the usual plan adopted by text-books to lay down a certain formula for drawing an escapement, leaving the pupil to work and reason out the principles involved in the action. in the plan we have adopted we propose to induct the reader into the why and how, and point out to him the rules and methods of analysis of the problem, so that he can, if required, calculate mathematically exactly how many grains of force the fork exerts on the jewel pin, and also how much (or, rather, what percentage) of the motive power is lost in various "power leaks," like "drop" and lost motion. in the present case the mechanical result we desire to obtain is to cause our lever pivoted at _k_ to vibrate back and forth through an arc of eight and one-half degrees; this lever not only to vibrate back and forth, but also to lock and hold the escape wheel during a certain period of time; that is, through the period of time the balance is performing its excursion and the jewel pin free and detached from the fork. we have spoken of paper being employed for drawings, but for very accurate delineations we would recommend the horological student to make drawings on a flat metal plate, after perfectly smoothing the surface and blackening it by oxidizing. pallet-and-fork action. by adopting eight and one-half degrees pallet-and-fork action we can utilize ten and one-half degrees of escape-wheel action. we show at _a a'_, fig. , two teeth of a ratchet-tooth escape wheel reduced one-half; that is, the original drawing was made for an escape wheel ten inches in diameter. we shall make a radical departure from the usual practice in making cuts on an enlarged scale, for only such parts as we are talking about. to explain, we show at fig. about one-half of an escape wheel one eighth the size of our large drawing; and when we wish to show some portion of such drawing on a larger scale we will designate such enlargement by saying one-fourth, one-half or full size. [illustration: fig. ] at fig. we show at half size that portion of our escapement embraced by the dotted lines _d_, fig. . this plan enables us to show very minutely such parts as we have under consideration, and yet occupy but little space. the arc _a_, fig. , represents the periphery of the escape wheel. on this line, ten and one-half degrees from the point of the tooth _a_, we establish the point _c_ and draw the radial line _c c'_. it is to be borne in mind that the arc embraced between the points _b_ and _c_ represents the duration of contact between the tooth _a_ and the entrance pallet of the lever. the space or short arc _c n_ represents the "drop" of the tooth. this arc of one and one-half degrees of escape-wheel movement is a complete loss of six and one-fourth per cent. of the entire power of the mainspring, as brought down to the escapement; still, up to the present time, no remedy has been devised to overcome it. all the other escapements, including the chronometer, duplex and cylinder, are quite as wasteful of power, if not more so. it is usual to construct ratchet-tooth pallets so as to utilize but ten degrees of escape-wheel action; but we shall show that half a degree more can be utilized by adopting the eight and one-half degree fork action and employing a double-roller safety action to prevent over-banking. [illustration: fig. ] from the point _e_, which represents the center of the pallet staff, we draw through _b_ the line _e f_. at one degree below _e f_ we draw the line _e g_, and seven and one-half degrees below the line _e g_ we draw the line _e h_. for delineating the lines _e g_, etc., correctly, we employ a degree-arc; that is, on the large drawing we are making we first draw the line _e b f_, fig. , and then, with our dividers set at five inches, sweep the short arc _i_, and on this lay off first one degree from the intersection of _f e_ with the arc _i_, and through this point draw the line _e g_. from the intersection of the line _f e_ with the arc _i_ we lay off eight and one-half degrees, and through this point draw the line _e h_. bear in mind that we are drawing the pallet at _b_ to represent one with eight and one-half degrees fork-and-pallet action, and with equidistant lockings. if we reason on the matter under consideration, we will see the tooth _a_ and the pallet _b_, against which it acts, part or separate when the tooth arrives at the point _c_; that is, after the escape wheel has moved through ten and one-half degrees of angular motion, the tooth drops from the impulse face of the pallet and falls through one and one-half degrees of arc, when the tooth _a''_, fig. , is arrested by the exit pallet. to locate the position of the inner angle of the pallet _b_, sweep the short arc _l_ by setting the dividers so one point or leg rests at the center _e_ and the other at the point _c_. somewhere on this arc _l_ is to be located the inner angle of our pallet. in delineating this angle, moritz grossman, in his "prize essay on the detached lever escapement," makes an error, in plate iii of large english edition, of more than his entire lock, or about two degrees. we make no apologies for calling attention to this mistake on the part of an authority holding so high a position on such matters as mr. grossman, because a mistake is a mistake, no matter who makes it. we will say no more of this error at present, but will farther on show drawings of mr. grossman's faulty method, and also the correct method of drawing such a pallet. to delineate the locking face of our pallet, from the point formed by the intersection of the lines _e g b b'_, fig. , as a center, we draw the line _j_ at an angle of twelve degrees to _b b''_. in doing this we employ the same method of establishing the angle as we made use of in drawing the lines _e g_ and _e h_, fig. . the line _j_ establishes the locking face of the pallet _b_. setting the locking face of the pallet at twelve degrees has been found in practice to give a safe "draw" to the pallet and keep the lever secure against the bank. it will be remembered the face of the escape-wheel tooth was drawn at twenty-four degrees to a radial line of the escape wheel, which, in this instance, is the line _b b'_, fig. . it will now be seen that the angle of the pallet just halves this angle, and consequently the tooth _a_ only rests with its point on the locking face of the pallet. we do not show the outlines of the pallet _b_, because we have not so far pointed out the correct method of delineating it. methods of making good drawing instruments. perhaps we cannot do our readers a greater favor than to digress from the study of the detached lever escapement long enough to say a few words about drawing instruments and tablets or surfaces on which to delineate, with due precision, mechanical designs or drawings. ordinary drawing instruments, even of the higher grades, and costing a good deal of money, are far from being satisfactory to a man who has the proper idea of accuracy to be rated as a first-class mechanic. ordinary compasses are obstinate when we try to set them to the hundredth of an inch; usually the points are dull and ill-shapen; if they make a puncture in the paper it is unsightly. watchmakers have one advantage, however, because they can very easily work over a cheap set of drawing instruments and make them even superior to anything they can buy at the art stores. to illustrate, let us take a cheap pair of brass or german-silver five-inch dividers and make them over into needle points and "spring set." to do this the points are cut off at the line _a a_, fig , and a steel tube is gold-soldered on each leg. the steel tube is made by taking a piece of steel wire which will fit a no. chuck of a whitcomb lathe, and drilling a hole in the end about one-fourth of an inch deep and about the size of a no. sewing needle. we show at fig. a view of the point _a'_, fig. , enlarged, and the steel tube we have just drilled out attached at _c_. about the best way to attach _c_ is to solder. after the tube _c_ is attached a hole is drilled through _a'_ at _d_, and the thumb-screw _d_ inserted. this thumb-screw should be of steel, and hardened and tempered. the use of this screw is to clamp the needle point. with such a device as the tube _c_ and set-screw _d_, a no. needle is used for a point; but for drawings on paper a turned point, as shown at fig , is to be preferred. such points can be made from a no. needle after softening enough to be turned so as to form the point _c_. this point at the shoulder _f_ should be about / of an inch, or the size of a fourth-wheel pivot to an eighteen size movement. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the idea is, when drawing on paper the point _c_ enters the paper. for drawing on metal the form of the point is changed to a simple cone, as shown at _b'_ _c_, fig. . such cones can be turned carefully, then hardened and tempered to a straw color; and when they become dull, can be ground by placing the points in a wire chuck and dressing them up with an emery buff or an arkansas slip. the opposite leg of the dividers is the one to which is attached the spring for close setting of the points. in making this spring, we take a piece of steel about two and one-fourth inches long and of the same width as the leg of the divider, and attach it to the inside of the leg as shown at fig. , where _d_ represents the spring and _a_ the leg of the dividers. the spring _d_ has a short steel tube _c''_ and set-screw _d''_ for a fine point like _b_ or _b'_. in the lower end of the leg _a_, fig. , is placed the milled-head screw _g_, which serves to adjust the two points of the dividers to very close distances. the spring _d_ is, of course, set so it would press close to the leg _a_ if the screw _g_ did not force it away. spring and adjusting screw for drawing instruments. [illustration: fig. ] it will be seen that we can apply a spring _d_ and adjusting screw opposite to the leg which carries the pen or pencil point of all our dividers if we choose to do so; but it is for metal drawing that such points are of the greatest advantage, as we can secure an accuracy very gratifying to a workman who believes in precision. for drawing circles on metal, "bar compasses" are much the best, as they are almost entirely free from spring, which attends the jointed compass. to make (because they cannot be bought) such an instrument, take a piece of flat steel, one-eighth by three-eighths of an inch and seven inches long, and after turning and smoothing it carefully, make a slide half an inch wide, as shown at fig. , with a set-screw _h_ on top to secure it at any point on the bar _e_. in the lower part of the slide _f_ is placed a steel tube like _c_, shown in figs. and , with set-screw for holding points like _b b'_, fig. . at the opposite end of the bar _e_ is placed a looped spring _g_, which carries a steel tube and point like the spring _d_, fig. . above this tube and point, shown at _j_, fig. , is placed an adjustment screw _k_ for fine adjustment. the inner end of the screw _k_ rests against the end of the bar _e_. the tendency of the spring _g_ is to close upon the end of _e_; consequently if we make use of the screw _k_ to force away the lower end of _g_, we can set the fine point in _j_ to the greatest exactness. the spring _g_ is made of a piece of steel one-eighth of an inch square, and secured to the bar _e_ with a screw and steady pins at _m_. a pen and pencil point attachment can be added to the spring _g_; but in case this is done it would be better to make another spring like _g_ without the point _j_, and with the adjusting screw placed at _l_. in fitting pen and pencil points to a spring like _g_ it would probably be economical to make them outright; that is, make the blades and screw for the ruling pen and a spring or clamping tube for the pencil point. consideration of detached lever escapement resumed. we will now, with our improved drawing instruments, resume the consideration of the ratchet-tooth lever escapement. we reproduce at fig. a portion of diagram iii, from moritz grossmann's "prize essay on the detached lever escapement," in order to point out the error in delineating the entrance pallet to which we previously called attention. the cut, as we give it, is not quite one-half the size of mr. grossmann's original plate. in the cut we give the letters of reference employed the same as on the original engraving, except where we use others in explanation. the angular motion of the lever and pallet action as shown in the cut is ten degrees; but in our drawing, where we only use eight and one-half degrees, the same mistake would give proportionate error if we did not take the means to correct it. the error to which we refer lies in drawing the impulse face of the entrance pallet. the impulse face of this pallet as drawn by mr. grossmann would not, from the action of the engaging tooth, carry this pallet through more than eight degrees of angular motion; consequently, the tooth which should lock on the exit pallet would fail to do so, and strike the impulse face. we would here beg to add that nothing will so much instruct a person desiring to acquire sound ideas on escapements as making a large model. the writer calls to mind a wood model of a lever escapement made by one of the "boys" in the elgin factory about a year or two after mr. grossmann's prize essay was published. it went from hand to hand and did much toward establishing sound ideas as regards the correct action of the lever escapement in that notable concern. if a horological student should construct a large model on the lines laid down in mr. grossmann's work, the entrance pallet would be faulty in form and would not properly perform its functions. why? perhaps says our reader. in reply let us analyze the action of the tooth _b_ as it rests on the pallet _a_. now, if we move this pallet through an angular motion of one and one-half degrees on the center _g_ (which also represents the center of the pallet staff), the tooth _b_ is disengaged from the locking face and commences to slide along the impulse face of the pallet and "drops," that is, falls from the pallet, when the inner angle of the pallet is reached. [illustration: fig. ] this inner angle, as located by mr. grossmann, is at the intersection of the short arc _i_ with the line _g n_, which limits the ten-degree angular motion of the pallets. if we carefully study the drawing, we will see the pallet has only to move through eight degrees of angular motion of the pallet staff for the tooth to escape, _because the tooth certainly must be disengaged when the inner angle of the pallet reaches the peripheral line a_. the true way to locate the position of the inner angle of the pallet, is to measure down on the arc _i_ ten degrees from its intersection with the peripheral line _a_ and locate a point to which a line is drawn from the intersection of the line _g m_ with the radial line _a c_, thus defining the inner angle of the entrance pallet. we will name this point the point _x_. it may not be amiss to say the arc _i_ is swept from the center _g_ through the point _u_, said point being located ten degrees from the intersection of the radial _a c_ with the peripheral line _a_. it will be noticed that the inner angle of the entrance pallet _a_ seems to extend inward, beyond the radial line _a j_, that is, toward the pallet center _g_, and gives the appearance of being much thicker than the exit pallet _a'_; but we will see on examination that the extreme angle _x_ of the entrance pallet must move on the arc _i_ and, consequently, cross the peripheral line _a_ at the point _u_. if we measure the impulse faces of the two pallets _a a'_, we will find them nearly alike in linear extent. mr. grossmann, in delineating his exit pallet, brings the extreme angle (shown at _ _) down to the periphery of the escape, as shown in the drawing, where it extends beyond the intersection of the line _g f_ with the radial line _a _. the correct form for the entrance pallet should be to the dotted line _z x y_. [illustration: fig. ] we have spoken of engaging and disengaging frictions; we do not know how we can better explain this term than by illustrating the idea with a grindstone. suppose two men are grinding on the same stone; each has, say, a cold chisel to grind, as shown at fig. , where _g_ represents the grindstone and _n n'_ the cold chisels. the grindstone is supposed to be revolving in the direction of the arrow. the chisels _n_ and _n'_ are both being ground, but the chisel _n'_ is being cut much the more rapidly, as each particle of grit of the stone as it catches on the steel causes the chisel to hug the stone and bite in deeper and deeper; while the chisel shown at _n_ is thrust away by the action of the grit. now, friction of any kind is only a sort of grinding operation, and the same principles hold good. the necessity for good instruments. it is to be hoped the reader who intends to profit by this treatise has fitted up such a pair of dividers as those we have described, because it is only with accurate instruments he can hope to produce drawings on which any reliance can be placed. the drawing of a ratchet-tooth lever escapement of eight and one-half degrees pallet action will now be resumed. in the drawing at fig. is shown a complete delineation of such an escapement with eight and one-half degrees of pallet action and equidistant locking faces. it is, of course, understood the escape wheel is to be drawn ten inches in diameter, and that the degree arcs shown in fig. will be used. we commence by carefully placing on the drawing-board a sheet of paper about fifteen inches square, and then vertically through the center draw the line _a' a''_. at some convenient position on this line is established the point _a_, which represents the center of the escape wheel. in this drawing it is not important that the entire escape wheel be shown, inasmuch as we have really to do with but a little over sixty degrees of the periphery of the escape wheel. with the dividers carefully set at five inches, from _a_, as a center, we sweep the arc _n n_, and from the intersection of the perpendicular line _a' a''_ with the arc _n_ we lay off on each side thirty degrees from the brass degree arc, and through the points thus established are drawn the radial lines _a b'_ and _a d'_. [illustration: fig. ] the point on the arc _n_ where it intersects with the line _b'_ is termed the point _b_. at the intersection of the radial line _a d'_ is established the point _d_. we take ten and one-half degrees in the dividers, and from the point _b_ establish the point _c_, which embraces the arc of the escape wheel which is utilized by the pallet action. through the point _b_ the line _h' h_ is drawn at right angles to the line _a b'_. the line _j j'_ is also drawn at right angles to the line _a d'_ through the point _d_. we now have an intersection of the lines just drawn in common with the line _a a'_ at the point _g_, said point indicating the center of the pallet action. the dividers are now set to embrace the space between the points _b_ and _g_ on the line _h' h_, and the arc _f f_ is swept; which, in proof of the accuracy of the work, intersects the arc _n_ at the point _d_. this arc coincides with the locking faces of both pallets. to lay out the entrance pallet, the dividers are set to five inches, and from _g_ as a center the short arc _o o_ is swept. on this arc one degree is laid off below the line _h' h_, and the line _g i_ drawn. the space embraced between the lines _h_ and _i_ on the arc _f_ represents the locking face of the entrance pallet, and the point formed at the intersection of the line _g i_ with the arc _f_ is called the point _p_. to give the proper lock to the face of the pallet, from the point _p_ as a center is swept the short arc _r r_, and from its intersection with the line _a b'_ twelve degrees are laid off and the line _b s_ drawn, which defines the locking face of the entrance pallet. from _g_ as a center is swept the arc _c' c'_, intersecting the arc _n n_ at _c_. on this arc (_c_) is located the inner angle of the entrance pallet. the dividers are set to embrace the space on the arc _c'_ between the lines _g h'_ and _g k_. with this space in the dividers one leg is set at the point _c_, measuring down on the arc _c'_ and establishing the point _t_. the points _p_ and _t_ are then connected, and thus the impulse face of the entrance pallet _b_ is defined. from the point _t_ is drawn the line _t t'_, parallel to the line _b s_, thus defining the inner face of the entrance pallet. delineating the exit pallet. to delineate the exit pallet, sweep the short arc _u u_ (from _g_ as a center) with the dividers set at five inches, and from the intersection of this arc with the line _g j'_ set off eight and one-half degrees and draw the line _g l_. at one degree below this line is drawn the line _g m_. the space on the arc _f_ between these lines defines the locking face of the exit pallet. the point where the line _g m_ intersects the arc _f_ is named the point _x_. from the point _x_ is erected the line _x w_, perpendicular to the line _g m_. from _x_ as a center, and with the dividers set at five inches, the short arc _y y_ is swept, and on this arc are laid off twelve degrees, and the line _x z_ is drawn, which line defines the locking face of the exit pallet. next is taken ten and one-half degrees from the brass degree-scale, and from the point _d_ on the arc _n_ the space named is laid off, and thus is established the point _v_; and from _g_ as a center is swept the arc _v' v'_ through the point _v_. it will be evident on a little thought, that if the tooth _a'_ impelled the exit pallet to the position shown, the outer angle of the pallet must extend down to the point _v_, on the arc _v' v'_; consequently, we define the impulse face of this pallet by drawing a line from point _x_ to _v_. to define the outer face of the exit pallet, we draw the line _v e_ parallel to the line _x z_. there are no set rules for drawing the general form of the pallet arms, only to be governed by and conforming to about what we would deem appropriate, and to accord with a sense of proportion and mechanical elegance. ratchet-tooth pallets are usually made in what is termed "close pallets"; that is, the pallet jewel is set in a slot sawed in the steel pallet arm, which is undoubtedly the strongest and most serviceable form of pallet made. we shall next consider the ratchet-tooth lever escapement with circular pallets and ten degrees of pallet action. delineating circular pallets. to delineate "circular pallets" for a ratchet-tooth lever escapement, we proceed very much as in the former drawing, by locating the point _a_, which represents the center of the escape wheel, at some convenient point, and with the dividers set at five inches, sweep the arc _m_, to represent the periphery of the escape wheel, and then draw the vertical line _a b'_, fig. . we (as before) lay off thirty degrees on the arc _m_ each side of the intersection of said arc with the line _a b'_, and thus establish on the arc _m_ the points _a b_, and from _a_ as a center draw through the points so established the radial lines _a a'_ and _a b'_. we erect from the point _a_ a perpendicular to the line _a a_, and, as previously explained, establish the pallet center at _b_. inasmuch as we are to employ circular pallets, we lay off to the left on the arc _m_, from the point _a_, five degrees, said five degrees being half of the angular motion of the escape wheel utilized in the present drawing, and thus establish the point _c_, and from _a_ as a center draw through this point the radial line _a c'_. to the right of the point _a_ we lay off five degrees and establish the point _d_. to illustrate the underlying principle of our circular pallets: with one leg of the dividers set at _b_ we sweep through the points _c a d_ the arcs _c'' a'' d''_. from _b_ as a center, we continue the line _b a_ to _f_, and with the dividers set at five inches, sweep the short arc _e e_. from the intersection of this arc with the line _b f_ we lay off one and a half degrees and draw the line _b g_, which establishes the extent of the lock on the entrance pallet. it will be noticed the linear extent of the locking face of the entrance pallet is greater than that of the exit, although both represent an angle of one and a half degrees. really, in practice, this discrepancy is of little importance, as the same side-shake in banking would secure safety in either case. [illustration: fig. ] the fault we previously pointed out, of the generally accepted method of delineating a detached lever escapement, is not as conspicuous here as it is where the pallets are drawn with equidistant locking faces; that is, the inner angle of the entrance pallet (shown at _s_) does not have to be carried down on the arc _d'_ as far to insure a continuous pallet action of ten degrees, as with the pallets with equidistant locking faces. still, even here we have carried the angle _s_ down about half a degree on the arc _d'_, to secure a safe lock on the exit pallet. the amount of lock. if we study the large drawing, where we delineate the escape wheel ten inches in diameter, it will readily be seen that although we claim one and a half degrees lock, we really have only about one degree, inasmuch as the curve of the peripheral line _m_ diverges from the line _b f_, and, as a consequence, the absolute lock of the tooth _c_ on the locking face of the entrance pallet _e_ is but about one degree. under these conditions, if we did not extend the outer angle of the exit pallet at _t_ down to the peripheral line _m_, we would scarcely secure one-half a degree of lock. this is true of both pallets. we must carry the pallet angles at _r s n t_ down on the circles _c'' d'_ if we would secure the lock and impulse we claim; that is, one and a half degrees lock and eight and a half degrees impulse. now, while the writer is willing to admit that a one-degree lock in a sound, well-made escapement is ample, still he is not willing to allow of a looseness of drawing to incorporate to the extent of one degree in any mechanical matter demanding such extreme accuracy as the parts of a watch. it has been claimed that such defects can, to a great extent, be remedied by setting the escapement closer; that is, by bringing the centers of the pallet staff and escape wheel nearer together. we hold that such a course is not mechanical and, further, that there is not the slightest necessity for such a policy. advantage of making large drawings. by making the drawings large, as we have already suggested and insisted upon, we can secure an accuracy closely approximating perfection. as, for instance, if we wish to get a lock of one and a half degrees on the locking face of the entrance pallet _e_, we measure down on the arc _c''_ from its intersection with the peripheral line _m_ one and a half degrees, and establish the point _r_ and thus locate the outer angle of the entrance pallet _e_, so there will really be one and a half degrees of lock; and by measuring down on the arc _d'_ ten degrees from its intersection with the peripheral line _m_, we locate the point _s_, which determines the position of the inner angle of the entrance pallet, and we know for a certainty that when this inner angle is freed from the tooth it will be after the pallet (and, of course, the lever) has passed through exactly ten degrees of angular motion. for locating the inner angle of the exit pallet, we measure on the arc _d'_, from its intersection with the peripheral line _m_, eight and a half degrees, and establish the point _n_, which locates the position of this inner angle; and, of course, one and a half degrees added on the arc _d'_ indicates the extent of the lock on this pallet. such drawings not only enable us to theorize to extreme exactness, but also give us proportionate measurements, which can be carried into actual construction. the club-tooth lever escapement. we will now take up the club-tooth form of the lever escapement. this form of tooth has in the united states and in switzerland almost entirely superceded the ratchet tooth. the principal reason for its finding so much favor is, we think, chiefly owing to the fact that this form of tooth is better able to stand the manipulations of the able-bodied watchmaker, who possesses more strength than skill. we will not pause now, however, to consider the comparative merits of the ratchet and club-tooth forms of the lever escapement, but leave this part of the theme for discussion after we have given full instructions for delineating both forms. with the ratchet-tooth lever escapement all of the impulse must be derived from the pallets, but in the club-tooth escapement we can divide the impulse planes between the pallets and the teeth to suit our fancy; or perhaps it would be better to say carry out theories, because we have it in our power, in this form of the lever escapement, to indulge ourselves in many changes of the relations of the several parts. with the ratchet tooth the principal changes we could make would be from pallets with equidistant lockings to circular pallets. the club-tooth escape wheel not only allows of circular pallets and equidistant lockings, but we can divide the impulse between the pallets and the teeth in such a way as will carry out many theoretical advantages which, after a full knowledge of the escapement action is acquired, will naturally suggest themselves. in the escapement shown at fig. we have selected, as a very excellent example of this form of tooth, circular pallets of ten degrees fork action and ten and a half degrees of escape-wheel action. it will be noticed that the pallets here are comparatively thin to those in general use; this condition is accomplished by deriving the principal part of the impulse from driving planes placed on the teeth. as relates to the escape-wheel action of the ten and one-half degrees, which gives impulse to the escapement, five and one-half degrees are utilized by the driving planes on the teeth and five by the impulse face of the pallet. of the ten degrees of fork action, four and a half degrees relate to the impulse face of the teeth, one and a half degrees to lock, and four degrees to the driving plane of the pallets. in delineating such a club-tooth escapement, we commence, as in former examples, by first assuming the center of the escape wheel at _a_, and with the dividers set at five inches sweeping the arc _a a_. through _a_ we draw the vertical line _a b'_. on the arc _a a_, and each side of its intersection with the line _a b'_, we lay off thirty degrees, as in former drawings, and through the points so established on the arc _a a_ we draw the radial lines _a b_ and _a c_. from the intersection of the radial line _a b_ with the arc _a_ we draw the line _h h_ at right angles to _a b_. where the line _h_ intersects the radial lines _a b'_ is located the center of the pallet staff, as shown at _b_. inasmuch as we decided to let the pallet utilize five degrees of escape-wheel action, we take a space of two and a half degrees in the dividers, and on the arc _a a_ lay off the said two and a half degrees to the left of this intersection, and through the point so established draw the radial line _a g_. from _b_ as a center we sweep the arc _d d_ so it passes through the point of intersection of the arc _a_ with the line _a g_. [illustration: fig. ] we again lay off two and a half degrees from the intersection of the line _a b_ with the arc _a_, but this time to the right of said intersection, and through the point so established, and from _b_ as a center, we sweep the arc _e_. from the intersection of the radial line _a g_ with the arc _a_ we lay off to the left five and a half degrees on said arc, and through the point so established draw the radial line _a f_. with the dividers set at five inches we sweep the short arc _m_ from _b_ as a center. from the intersection of the line _h b h'_ with the arc _m_ we lay off on said arc and above the line _h'_ four and a half degrees, and through the point so established draw the line _b j_. we next set the dividers so they embrace the space on the radial line _a b_ between its intersection with the line _b j_ and the center _a_, and from _a_ as a center sweep the arc _i_, said arc defining the _addendum_ of the escape-wheel teeth. we draw a line from the intersection of the radial line _a f_ with the arc _i_ to the intersection of the radial line _a g_ with the arc _a_, and thus define the impulse face of the escape-wheel tooth _d_. for defining the locking face of the tooth we draw a line at an angle of twenty-four degrees to the line _a g_, as previously described. the back of the tooth is defined with a curve swept from some point on the addendum circle _i_, such as our judgment will dictate. in the drawing shown at fig. the radius of this curve was obtained by taking eleven and a half degrees from the degree arc of " radius in the dividers, and setting one leg at the intersection of the radial line _a f_ with the arc _i_, and placing the other on the line _i_, and allowing the point so established to serve as a center, the arc was swept for the back of the tooth, the small circle at _n_ denoting one of the centers just described. the length for the face of the tooth was obtained by taking eleven degrees from the degree arc just referred to and laying that space off on the line _p_, which defined the face of the tooth. the line _b k_ is laid off one and a half degrees below _b h_ on the arc _m_. the extent of this arc on the arc _d_ defines the locking face of the entrance pallet. we set off four degrees on the arc _m_ below the line _b k_, and through the point so established draw the line _b l_. we draw a line from the intersection of the line _a g_ with the line _c h_ to the intersection of the arc _e_ with the line _c l_, and define the impulse face of the entrance pallet. relations of the several parts. before we proceed to delineate the exit pallet of our escapement, let us reason on the relations of the several parts. the club-tooth lever escapement is really the most complicated escapement made. we mean by this that there are more factors involved in the problem of designing it correctly than in any other known escapement. most--we had better say all, for there are no exceptions which occur to us--writers on the lever escapement lay down certain empirical rules for delineating the several parts, without giving reasons for this or that course. for illustration, it is an established practice among escapement makers to employ tangential lockings, as we explained and illustrated in fig. . now, when we adopt circular pallets and carry the locking face of the entrance pallet around to the left two and a half degrees, the true center for the pallet staff, if we employ tangent lockings, would be located on a line drawn tangent to the circle _a a_ from its intersection with the radial line _a k_, fig. . such a tangent is depicted at the line _s l'_. if we reason on the situation, we will see that the line _a k_ is not at right angles to the line _s l_; and, consequently, the locking face of the entrance pallet _e_ has not really the twelve-degree lock we are taught to believe it has. [illustration: fig. ] we will not discuss these minor points further at present, but leave them for subsequent consideration. we will say, however, that we could locate the center of the pallet action at the small circle _b'_ above the center _b_, which we have selected as our fork-and-pallet action, and secure a perfectly sound escapement, with several claimed advantages. let us now take up the delineation of the exit pallet. it is very easy to locate the outer angle of this pallet, as this must be situated at the intersection of the addendum circle _i_ and the arc _g_, and located at _o_. it is also self-evident that the inner or locking angle must be situated at some point on the arc _h_. to determine this location we draw the line _b c_ from _b_ (the pallet center) through the intersection of the arc _h_ with the pitch circle _a_. again, it follows as a self-evident fact, if the pallet we are dealing with was locked, that is, engaged with the tooth _d''_, the inner angle _n_ of the exit pallet would be one and a half degrees inside the pitch circle _a_. with the dividers set at ", we sweep the short arc _b b_, and from the intersection of this arc with the line _b c_ we lay off ten degrees, and through the point so established, from _b_, we draw the line _b d_. below the point of intersection of the line _b d_ with the short arc _b b_ we lay off one and a half degrees, and through the point thus established we draw the line _b e_. locating the inner angle of the exit pallet. the intersection of the line _b e_ with the arc _h_, which we will term the point _n_, represents the location of the inner angle of the exit pallet. we have already explained how we located the position of the outer angle at _o_. we draw the line _n o_ and define the impulse face of the exit pallet. if we mentally analyze the problem in hand, we will see that as the exit pallet vibrates through its ten degrees of arc the line _b d_ and _b c_ change places, and the tooth _d''_ locks one and a half degrees. to delineate the locking face of the exit pallet, we erect a perpendicular to the line _b e_ from the point _n_, as shown by the line _n p_. from _n_ as a center we sweep the short arc _t t_, and from its intersection with the line _n p_ we lay off twelve degrees, and through the point so established we draw the line _n u_, which defines the locking face of the exit pallet. we draw the line _o o'_ parallel with _n u_ and define the outer face of said pallet. in fig. we have not made any attempt to show the full outline of the pallets, as they are delineated in precisely the same manner as those previously shown. we shall next describe the delineation of a club-tooth escapement with pallets having equidistant locking faces; and in fig. we shall show pallets with much wider arms, because, in this instance, we shall derive more of the impulse from the pallets than from the teeth. we do this to show the horological student the facility with which the club-tooth lever escapement can be manipulated. we wish also to impress on his mind the facts that the employment of thick pallet arms and thin pallet arms depends on the teeth of the escape wheel for its efficiency, and that he must have knowledge enough of the principles of action to tell at a glance on what lines the escapement was constructed. suppose, for illustration, we get hold of a watch which has thin pallet arms, or stones, if they are exposed pallets, and the escape was designed for pallets with thick arms. there is no sort of tinkering we can do to give such a watch a good motion, except to change either the escape wheel or the pallets. if we know enough of the lever escapement to set about it with skill and judgment, the matter is soon put to rights; but otherwise we can look and squint, open and close the bankings, and tinker about till doomsday, and the watch be none the better. club-tooth lever with equidistant locking faces. in drawing a club-tooth lever escapement with equidistant locking, we commence, as on former occasions, by producing the vertical line _a k_, fig. , and establishing the center of the escape wheel at _a_, and with the dividers set at " sweep the pitch circle _a_. on each side of the intersection of the vertical line _a k_ with the arc _a_ we set off thirty degrees on said arc, and through the points so established draw the radial lines _a b_ and _a c_. from the intersection of the radial line _a b_ with the arc _a_ lay off three and a half degrees to the left of said intersection on the arc _a_, and through the point so established draw the radial line _a e_. from the intersection of the radial line _a b_ with the arc _a_ erect the perpendicular line _f_, and at the crossing or intersection of said line with the vertical line _a k_ establish the center of the pallet staff, as indicated by the small circle _b_. from _b_ as a center sweep the short arc _l_ with a " radius; and from the intersection of the radial line _a b_ with the arc _a_ continue the line _f_ until it crosses the short arc _l_, as shown at _f'_. lay off one and a half degrees on the arc _l_ below its intersection with the line _f'_, and from _b_ as a center draw the line _b_ _i_ through said intersection. from _b_ as a center, through the intersection of the radial line _a b_ and the arc _a_, sweep the arc _g_. the space between the lines _b f'_ and _b i_ on the arc _g_ defines the extent of the locking face of the entrance pallet _c_. the intersection of the line _b f'_ with the arc _g_ we denominate the point _o_, and from this point as a center sweep the short arc _p_ with a " radius; and on this arc, from its intersection with the radial line _a b_, lay off twelve degrees, and through the point so established, from _o_ as a center, draw the radial line _o m_, said line defining the locking face of the entrance pallet _c_. [illustration: fig. ] it will be seen that this gives a positive "draw" of twelve degrees to the entrance pallet; that is, counting to the line _b f'_. in this escapement as delineated there is perfect tangential locking. if the locking face of the entrance-pallet stone at _c_ was made to conform to the radial line _a b_, the lock of the tooth _d_ at _o_ would be "dead"; that is, absolutely neutral. the tooth _d_ would press the pallet _c_ in the direction of the arrow _x_, toward the center of the pallet staff _b_, with no tendency on the part of the pallet to turn on its axis _b_. theoretically, the pallet with the locking face cut to coincide with the line _a b_ would resist movement on the center _b_ in either direction indicated by the double-headed arrow _y_. a pallet at _c_ with a circular locking face made to conform to the arc _g_, would permit movement in the direction of the double-headed arrow _y_ with only mechanical effort enough to overcome friction. but it is evident on inspection that a locking face on the line _a b_ would cause a retrograde motion of the escape wheel, and consequent resistance, if said pallet was moved in either direction indicated by the double-headed arrow _y_. precisely the same conditions obtain at the point _u_, which holds the same relations to the exit pallet as the point _o_ does to the entrance pallet _c_. angular motion of escape wheel determined. the arc (three and a half degrees) of the circle _a_ embraced between the radial lines _a b_ and _a e_ determines the angular motion of the escape wheel utilized by the escape-wheel tooth. to establish and define the extent of angular motion of the escape wheel utilized by the pallet, we lay off seven degrees on the arc _a_ from the point _o_ and establish the point _n_, and through the point _n_, from _b_ as a center, we sweep the short arc _n'_. now somewhere on this arc _n'_ will be located the inner angle of the entrance pallet. with a carefully-made drawing, having the escape wheel " in diameter, it will be seen that the arc _a_ separates considerably from the line, _b f'_ where it crosses the arc _n'_. it will be remembered that when drawing the ratchet-tooth lever escapement a measurement of eight and a half degrees was made on the arc _n'_ down from its intersection with the pitch circle, and thus the inner angle of the pallet was located. in the present instance the addendum line _w_ becomes the controlling arc, and it will be further noticed on the large drawing that the line _b h_ at its intersection with the arc _n'_ approaches nearer to the arc _w_ than does the line _b f'_ to the pitch circle _a_; consequently, the inner angle of the pallet should not in this instance be carried down on the arc _n'_ so far to correct the error as in the ratchet tooth. reason tells us that if we measure ten degrees down on the arc _n'_ from its intersection with the addendum circle _w_ we must define the position of the inner angle of the entrance pallet. we name the point so established the point _r_. the outer angle of this pallet is located at the intersection of the radial line _a b_ with the line _b i_; said intersection we name the point _v_. draw a line from the point _v_ to the point _r_, and we define the impulse face of the entrance pallet; and the angular motion obtained from it as relates to the pallet staff embraces six degrees. measured on the arc _l_, the entire ten degrees of angular motion is as follows: two and a half degrees from the impulse face of the tooth, and indicated between the lines _b h_ and _b f_; one and a half degrees lock between the lines _b f'_ and _b i_; six degrees impulse from pallet face, entrance between the lines _b i_ and _b j_. a departure from former practices. grossmann and britten, in all their delineations of the club-tooth escapement, show the exit pallet as disengaged. to vary from this beaten track we will draw our exit pallet as locked. there are other reasons which prompt us to do this, one of which is, pupils are apt to fall into a rut and only learn to do things a certain way, and that way just as they are instructed. to illustrate, the writer has met several students of the lever escapement who could make drawings of either club or ratchet-tooth escapement with the lock on the entrance pallet; but when required to draw a pallet as illustrated at fig. , could not do it correctly. occasionally one could do it, but the instances were rare. a still greater poser was to request them to delineate a pallet and tooth when the action of escaping was one-half or one-third performed; and it is easy to understand that only by such studies the master workman can thoroughly comprehend the complications involved in the club-tooth lever escapement. an apt illustration. as an illustration: two draughtsmen, employed by two competing watch factories, each designs a club-tooth escapement. we will further suppose the trains and mainspring power used by each concern to be precisely alike. but in practice the escapement of the watches made by one factory would "set," that is, if you stopped the balance dead still, with the pin in the fork, the watch would not start of itself; while the escapement designed by the other draughtsman would not "set"--stop the balance dead as often as you choose, the watch would start of itself. yet even to experienced workmen the escape wheels and pallets _looked_ exactly alike. of course, there was a difference, and still none of the text-books make mention of it. for the present we will go on with delineating our exit pallet. the preliminaries are the same as with former drawings, the instructions for which we need not repeat. previous to drawing the exit pallet, let us reason on the matter. the point _r_ in fig. is located at the intersection of pitch circle _a_ and the radial line _a c_; and this will also be the point at which the tooth _c_ will engage the locking face of the exit pallet. this point likewise represents the advance angle of the engaging tooth. now if we measure on the arc _k_ (which represents the locking faces of both pallets) downward one and a half degrees, we establish the lock of the pallet _e_. to get this one and a half degrees defined on the arc _k_, we set the dividers at ", and from _b_ as a center sweep the short arc _i_, and from the intersection of the arc _i_ with the line _b e_ we lay off on said arc _i_ one and a half degrees, and through the point so established draw the line _b f_. now the space on the arc _k_ between the lines _b e_ and _b f_ defines the angular extent of the locking face. with the dividers set at " and one leg resting at the point _r_, we sweep the short arc _t_, and from the intersection of said arc with the line _a c_ we draw the line _n p_; but in doing so we extend it (the line) so that it intersects the line _b f_, and at said intersection is located the inner angle of the exit pallet. this intersection we will name the point _n_. [illustration: fig. ] from the intersection of the line _b e_ with the arc _i_ we lay off two and a half degrees on said arc, and through the point so established we draw the line _b g_. the intersection of this line with the arc _k_ we name the point _z_. with one leg of our dividers set at _a_ we sweep the arc _l_ so it passes through the point _z_. this last arc defines the addendum of the escape-wheel teeth. from the point _r_ on the arc _a_ we lay off three and a half degrees, and through the point so established draw the line _a j_. locating the outer angle of the impulse planes. the intersection of this line with the addendum arc _l_ locates the outer angle of the impulse planes of the teeth, and we name it the point _x_. from the point _r_ we lay off on the arc _a_ seven degrees and establish the point _v_, which defines the extent of the angular motion of the escape wheel utilized by pallet. through the point _v_, from _b_ as a center, we sweep the short arc _m_. it will be evident on a moment's reflection that this arc _m_ must represent the path of movement of the outer angle of the exit pallet, and if we measure down ten degrees from the intersection of the arc _l_ with the arc _m_, the point so established (which we name the point _s_) must be the exact position of the outer angle of the pallet during locking. we have a measure of ten degrees on the arc _m_, between the lines _b g_ and _b h_, and by taking this space in the dividers and setting one leg at the intersection of the arc _l_ with the arc _m_, and measuring down on _m_, we establish the point _s_. drawing a line from point _n_ to point _s_ we define the impulse face of the pallet. making an escapement model. [illustration: fig. ] it is next proposed we apply the theories we have been considering and make an enlarged model of an escapement, as shown at figs. and . this model is supposed to have an escape wheel one-fifth the size of the " one we have been drawing. in the accompanying cuts are shown only the main plate and bridges in full lines, while the positions of the escape wheel and balance are indicated by the dotted circles _i b_. the cuts are to no precise scale, but were reduced from a full-size drawing for convenience in printing. we shall give exact dimensions, however, so there will be no difficulty in carrying out our instructions in construction. [illustration: fig. ] perhaps it would be as well to give a general description of the model before taking up the details. a reduced side view of the complete model is given at fig. . in this cut the escapement model shown at figs. and is sketched in a rough way at _r_, while _n_ shows a glass cover, and _m_ a wooden base of polished oak or walnut. this base is recessed on the lower side to receive an eight-day spring clock movement, which supplies the motive power for the model. this base is recessed on top to receive the main plate _a_, fig. , and also to hold the glass shade _n_ in position. the base _m_ is ½" high and " diameter. the glass cover _n_ can have either a high and spherical top, as shown, or, as most people prefer, a flattened oval. [illustration: fig. ] the main plate _a_ is of hard spring brass, / " thick and " in diameter; in fact, a simple disk of the size named, with slightly rounded edges. the top plate, shown at _c_, figs. and , is / " thick and shaped as shown. this plate (_c_) is supported on two pillars ½" in diameter and ¼" high. fig. is a side view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _p_. the cock _d_ is also of / " spring brass shaped as shown, and attached by the screw _f_ and steady pins _s s_ to the top plate _c_. the bridge _f g_ carries the top pivots of escape wheel and pallet staff, and is shaped as shown at the full outline. this bridge is supported on two pillars ½" high and ½" in diameter, one of which is shown at _e_, fig. , and both at the dotted circles _e e'_, fig. . to lay out the lower plate we draw the line _a a_ so it passes through the center of _a_ at _m_. at . " from one edge of _a_ we establish on the line _a_ the point _d_, which locates the center of the escape wheel. on the same line _a_ at . " from _d_ we establish the point _b_, which represents the center of the pallet staff. at the distance of . " from _b_ we establish the point _c_, which represents the center of the balance staff. to locate the pillars _h_, which support the top plate _c_, we set the dividers at . ", and from the center _m_ sweep the arc _n_. from the intersection of this arc with the line _a_ (at _r_) we lay off on said arc _n_ . " and establish the points _g g'_, which locate the center of the pillars _h h_. with the dividers set so one leg rests at the center _m_ and the other leg at the point _d_, we sweep the arc _t_. with the dividers set at . " we establish on the arc _t_, from the point _d_, the points _e e'_, which locate the position of the pillars _e e'_. the outside diameter of the balance _b_ is - / " with the rim / " wide and / " deep, with screws in the rim in imitation of the ordinary compensation balance. speaking of a balance of this kind suggests to the writer the trouble he experienced in procuring material for a model of this kind--for the balance, a pattern had to be made, then a casting made, then a machinist turned the casting up, as it was too large for an american lathe. a hairspring had to be specially made, inasmuch as a mainspring was too short, the coils too open and, more particularly, did not look well. pallet jewels had to be made, and lapidists have usually poor ideas of close measurements. present-day conditions, however, will, no doubt, enable the workman to follow our instructions much more readily. making the bridges. in case the reader makes the bridges _c_ and _f_, as shown in fig. , he should locate small circles on them to indicate the position of the screws for securing these bridges to the pillars which support them, and also other small circles to indicate the position of the pivot holes _d b_ for the escape wheel and pallet staff. in practice it will be well to draw the line _a a_ through the center of the main plate _a_, as previously directed, and also establish the point _d_ as therein directed. the pivot hole _d'_ for the escape wheel, and also the holes at _e e_ and _b_, are now drilled in the bridge _f_. these holes should be about / " in diameter. the same sized hole is also drilled in the main plate _a_ at _d_. we now place a nicely-fitting steel pin in the hole _d'_ in the bridge _f_ and let it extend into the hole _d_ in the main plate. we clamp the bridge _f_ to _a_ so the hole _b_ comes central on the line _a_, and using the holes _e e_ in _f_ as guides, drill or mark the corresponding holes _e' e'_ and _b_ in the main plate for the pillars _e e'_ and the pallet staff. [illustration: fig. ] this plan will insure the escape wheel and pallet staff being perfectly upright. the same course pursued with the plate _c_ will insure the balance being upright. the pillars which support the bridges are shaped as shown at fig. , which shows a side view of one of the pillars which support the top plate or bridge _c_. the ends are turned to ¼" in diameter and extend half through the plate, where they are held by screws, the same as in american movements. [illustration: fig. ] the pillars (like _h_) can be riveted in the lower plate _a_, but we think most workmen will find it more satisfactory to employ screws, as shown at fig. . the heads of such screws should be about / " in diameter and nicely rounded, polished and blued. we would not advise jeweling the pivot holes, because there is but slight friction, except to the foot of the balance pivot, which should be jeweled with a plano-convex garnet. [illustration: fig. ] imitation rubies for capping the top pivots. the top pivots to the escape wheel should be capped with imitation rubies for appearance sake only, letting the cap settings be red gold, or brass red gilded. if real twelve-karat gold is employed the cost will not be much, as the settings are only about / " across and can be turned very thin, so they will really contain but very little gold. the reason why we recommend imitation ruby cap jewels for the upper holes, is that such jewels are much more brilliant than any real stone we can get for a moderate cost. besides, there is no wear on them. the pallet jewels are also best made of glass, as garnet or any red stone will look almost black in such large pieces. red carnelian has a sort of brick-red color, which has a cheap appearance. there is a new phosphorus glass used by optical instrument makers which is intensely hard, and if colored ruby-red makes a beautiful pallet jewel, which will afford as much service as if real stones were used; they are no cheaper than carnelian pallets, but much richer looking. the prettiest cap for the balance is one of those foilback stones in imitation of a rose-cut diamond. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in turning the staffs it is the best plan to use double centers, but a piece of stubs steel wire that will go into a no. wire chuck, will answer; in case such wire is used, a brass collet must be provided. this will be understood by inspecting fig. , where _l_ represents the stubs wire and _b n_ the brass collet, with the balance seat shown at _k_. the escape-wheel arbor and pallet staff can be made in the same way. the lower end of the escape wheel pivot is made about ¼" long, so that a short piece of brass wire can be screwed upon it, as shown in fig. , where _h_ represents the pivot, _a_ the lower plate, and the dotted line at _p_ the brass piece screwed on the end of the pivot. this piece _p_ is simply a short bit of brass wire with a female screw tapped into the end, which screws on to the pivot. an arm is attached to _p_, as shown at _t_. the idea is, the pieces _t p_ act like a lathe dog to convey the power from one of the pivots of an old eight-day spring clock movement, which is secured by screws to the lower side of the main plate _a_. the plan is illustrated at fig. , where _l_ represents pivot of the eight-day clock employed to run the model. counting the escape-wheel pivot of the clock as one, we take the third pivot from this in the clock train, placing the movement so this point comes opposite the escape-wheel pivot of the model, and screw the clock movement fast to the lower side of the plate _a_. the parts _t_, fig. , are alike on both pivots. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] profitable for explaining to a customer. to fully appreciate such a large escapement model as we have been describing, a person must see it with its great balance, nearly " across, flashing and sparkling in the show window in the evening, and the brilliant imitation ruby pallets dipping in and out of the escape wheel. a model of this kind is far more attractive than if the entire train were shown, the mystery of "what makes it go?" being one of the attractions. such a model is, further, of great value in explaining to a customer what you mean when you say the escapement of his watch is out of order. any practical workman can easily make an even $ extra in a year by making use of such a model. for explaining to customers an extra balance cock can be used to show how the jewels (hole and cap) are arranged. where the parts are as large as they are in the model, the customer can see and understand for himself what is necessary to be done. it is not to be understood that our advice to purchase the jewels for an extra balance cock conflicts with our recommending the reader not to jewel the holes of his model. the extra cock is to be shown, not for use, and is employed solely for explaining to a customer what is required when a pivot or jewel is found to be broken. how large screws are made. the screws which hold the plates in place should have heads about / " in diameter, to be in proportion to the scale on which the balance and escape wheel are gotten up. there is much in the manner in which the screw heads are finished as regards the elegance of such a model. a perfectly flat head, no matter how highly polished, does not look well, neither does a flattened conehead, like fig. . the best head for this purpose is a cupped head with chamfered edges, as shown at fig. in vertical section. the center _b_ is ground and polished into a perfect concave by means of a metal ball. the face, between the lines _a a_, is polished dead flat, and the chamfered edge _a c_ finished a trifle convex. the flat surface at _a_ is bright, but the concave _b_ and chamfer at _c_ are beautifully blued. for a gilt-edged, double extra head, the chamfer at _c_ can be "snailed," that is, ground with a suitable lap before bluing, like the stem-wind wheels on some watches. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fancy screwheads. there are two easy methods of removing the blue from the flat part of the screwhead at _a_. ( ) make a special holder for the screw in the end of a cement brass, as shown at _e_, fig. , and while it is slowly revolving in the lathe touch the flat surface _a_ with a sharpened pegwood wet with muriatic acid, which dissolves the blue coating of oxide of iron. ( ) the surface of the screwhead is coated with a very thin coating of shellac dissolved in alcohol and thoroughly dried, or a thin coating of collodion, which is also dried. the screw is placed in the ordinary polishing triangle and the flat face at _a_ polished on a tin lap with diamantine and oil. in polishing such surfaces the thinnest possible coating of diamantine and oil is smeared on the lap--in fact, only enough to dim the surface of the tin. it is, of course, understood that it is necessary to move only next to nothing of the material to restore the polish of the steel. the polishing of the other steel parts is done precisely like any other steel work. [illustration: fig. ] the regulator is of the howard pattern. the hairspring stud is set in the cock like the elgin three-quarter-plate movement. the richest finish for such a model is frosted plates and bridges. the frosting should not be a fine mat, like a watch movement, but coarse-grained--in fact, the grain of the frosting should be proportionate to the size of the movement. the edges of the bridges and balance cock can be left smooth. the best process for frosting is by acid. details for doing the work will now be given. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to do this frosting by acid nicely, make a sieve by tacking and gluing four pieces of thin wood together, to make a rectangular box without a bottom. four pieces of cigar-box wood, " long by ½" wide, answer first rate. we show at _a a a a_, fig. , such a box as if seen from above; with a side view, as if seen in the direction of the arrow _a_, at fig. . a piece of india muslin is glued across the bottom, as shown at the dotted lines _b b_. by turning up the edges on the outside of the box, the muslin bottom can be drawn as tight as a drum head. how to do acid frosting. to do acid frosting, we procure two ounces of gum mastic and place in the square sieve, shown at fig. . usually more than half the weight of gum mastic is in fine dust, and if not, that is, if the gum is in the shape of small round pellets called "mastic tears," crush these into dust and place the dust in _a_. let us next suppose we wish to frost the cock on the balance, shown at fig. . before we commence to frost, the cock should be perfectly finished, with all the holes made, the regulator cap in position, the screw hole made for the howard regulator and the index arc engraved with the letters s and f. [illustration: fig. ] it is not necessary the brass should be polished, but every file mark and scratch should be stoned out with a scotch stone; in fact, be in the condition known as "in the gray." it is not necessary to frost any portion of the cock _c_, except the upper surface. to protect the portion of the cock not to be frosted, like the edges and the back, we "stop out" by painting over with shellac dissolved in alcohol, to which a little lampblack is added. it is not necessary the coating of shellac should be very thick, but it is important it should be well dried. how to prepare the surface. for illustration, let us suppose the back and edges of the cock at fig. are coated with shellac and it is laid flat on a piece of paper about a foot square to catch the excess of mastic. holes should be made in this paper and also in the board on which the paper rests to receive the steady pins of the cock. we hold the sieve containing the mastic over the cock and, gently tapping the box _a_ with a piece of wood like a medium-sized file handle, shake down a little snowstorm of mastic dust over the face of the cock _c_. exactly how much mastic dust is required to produce a nice frosting is only to be determined by practice. the way to obtain the knack is to frost a few scraps to "get your hand in." nitric acid of full strength is used, dipping the piece into a shallow dish for a few seconds. a good-sized soup plate would answer very nicely for frosting the bottom plate, which, it will be remembered, is " in diameter. how to etch the surface. after the mastic is sifted on, the cock should be heated up to about ° f., to cause the particles of mastic to adhere to the surface. the philosophy of the process is, the nitric acid eats or dissolves the brass, leaving a little brass island the size of the particle of mastic which was attached to the surface. after heating to attach the particles of mastic, the dipping in nitric acid is done as just described. common commercial nitric acid is used, it not being necessary to employ chemically pure acid. for that matter, for such purposes the commercial acid is the best. after the acid has acted for fifteen or twenty seconds the brass is rinsed in pure water to remove the acid, and dried by patting with an old soft towel, and further dried by waving through the air. a little turpentine on a rag will remove the mastic, but turpentine will not touch the shellac coating. the surface of the brass will be found irregularly acted upon, producing a sort of mottled look. to obtain a nice frosting the process of applying the mastic and etching must be repeated three or four times, when a beautiful coarse-grain mat or frosting will be produced. the shellac protection will not need much patching up during the three or four bitings of acid, as the turpentine used to wash off the mastic does not much affect the shellac coating. all the screw holes like _s s_ and _d_, also the steady pins on the back, are protected by varnishing with shellac. the edges of the cocks and bridges should be polished by rubbing lengthwise with willow charcoal or a bit of chamois skin saturated with oil and a little hard rouge scattered upon it. the frosting needs thorough scratch-brushing. [illustration: fig. ] at fig. we show the balance cock of our model with modified form of howard regulator. the regulator bar _a_ and spring _b_ should be ground smooth on one side and deeply outlined to perfect form. the regulator cap _c_ is cut out to the correct size. these parts are of decarbonized cast steel, annealed until almost as soft as sheet brass. it is not so much work to finish these parts as one might imagine. let us take the regulator bar for an example and carry it through the process of making. the strip of soft sheet steel on which the regulator bar is outlined is represented by the dotted outline _b_, fig. . [illustration: fig. ] to cut out sheet steel rapidly we take a piece of smooth clock mainspring about ¾" and " long and double it together, softening the bending point with the lamp until the piece of mainspring assumes the form shown at fig. , where _c_ represents the piece of spring and _h h_ the bench-vise jaws. the piece of soft steel is placed between the limbs of _c c'_ of the old mainspring up to the line _a_, fig. , and clamped in the vise jaws. the superfluous steel is cut away with a sharp and rather thin cold chisel. [illustration: fig. ] the chisel is presented as shown at _g_, fig. (which is an end view of the vise jaws _h h_ and regulator bar), and held to cut obliquely and with a sort of shearing action, as illustrated in fig. , where _a''_ represents the soft steel and _g_ the cold chisel. we might add that fig. is a view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _f_. it is well to cut in from the edge _b_ on the line _d_, fig. , with a saw, in order to readily break out the surplus steel and not bend the regulator bar. by setting the pieces of steel obliquely in the vise, or so the line _e_ comes even with the vise jaws, we can cut to more nearly conform to the circular loop _a''_ of the regulator _a_. [illustration: fig. ] the smooth steel surface of the bent mainspring _c_ prevents the vise jaws from marking the soft steel of the regulator bar. a person who has not tried this method of cutting out soft steel would not believe with what facility pieces can be shaped. any workman who has a universal face plate to his lathe can turn out the center of the regulator bar to receive the disk _c_, and also turn out the center of the regulator spring _b_. what we have said about the regulator bar applies also to the regulator spring _b_. this spring is attached to the cock _d_ by means of two small screws at _n_. the micrometer screw _f_ is tapped through _b''_ as in the ordinary howard regulator, and the screw should be about no. of a swiss screw-plate. the wire from which such screw is made should be / " in diameter. the steel cap _c_ is fitted like the finer forms of swiss watches. the hairspring stud _e_ is of steel, shaped as shown, and comes outlined with the other parts. to temper and polish steel. the regulator bar should be hardened by being placed in a folded piece of sheet iron and heated red hot, and thrown into cold water. the regulator bar _a a'_ is about " long; and for holding it for hardening, cut a piece of thin sheet iron ½" by ¼" and fold it through the middle lengthwise, as indicated by the dotted line _g_, fig. . the sheet iron when folded will appear as shown at fig. . a piece of flat sheet metal of the same thickness as the regulator bar should be placed between the iron leaves _i i_, and the leaves beaten down with a hammer, that the iron may serve as a support for the regulator during heating and hardening. a paste made of castile soap and water applied to the regulator bar in the iron envelope will protect it from oxidizing much during the heating. the portions of the regulator bar marked _h_ are intended to be rounded, while the parts marked _m_ are intended to be dead flat. the rounding is carefully done, first with a file and finished with emery paper. the outer edge of the loop _a''_ is a little rounded, also the inner edge next the cap _c_. this will be understood by inspecting fig. , where we show a magnified vertical section of the regulator on line _l_, fig. . the curvature should embrace that portion of _a''_ between the radial lines _o o'_, and should, on the model, not measure more than / ". it will be seen that the curved surface of the regulator is sunk so it meets only the vertical edge of the loop _a''_. for the average workman, polishing the flat parts _m_ is the most difficult to do, and for this reason we will give entire details. it is to be expected that the regulator bar will spring a little in hardening, but if only a little we need pay no attention to it. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] how flat steel polishing is done. polishing a regulator bar for a large model, such as we are building, is only a heavy job of flat steel work, a little larger but no more difficult than to polish a regulator for a sixteen-size watch. we would ask permission here to say that really nice flat steel work is something which only a comparatively few workmen can do, and, still, the process is quite simple and the accessories few and inexpensive. first, ground-glass slab " by " by ¼"; second, flat zinc piece ¼" by ¼" by ¼"; third, a piece of thick sheet brass " by " by / "; and a bottle of vienna lime. the glass slab is only a piece of plate glass cut to the size given above. the zinc slab is pure zinc planed dead flat, and the glass ground to a dead surface with another piece of plate glass and some medium fine emery and water, the whole surface being gone over with emery and water until completely depolished. the regulator bar, after careful filing and dressing up on the edges with an oilstone slip or a narrow emery buff, is finished as previously described. we would add to the details already given a few words on polishing the edges. [illustration: fig. ] it is not necessary that the edges of steelwork, like the regulator bar _b_, fig. , should be polished to a flat surface; indeed, they look better to be nicely rounded. perhaps we can convey the idea better by referring to certain parts: say, spring to the regulator, shown at _d_, fig. , and also the hairspring stud _e_. the edges of these parts look best beveled in a rounded manner. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] it is a little difficult to convey in words what is meant by "rounded" manner. to aid in understanding our meaning, we refer to figs. and , which are transverse sections of _d_, fig. , on the line _f_. the edges of _d_, in fig. , are simply rounded. there are no rules for such rounding--only good judgment and an eye for what looks well. the edges of _d_ as shown in fig. are more on the beveled order. in smoothing and polishing such edges, an ordinary jeweler's steel burnish can be used. [illustration: fig. ] smoothing and polishing. the idea in smoothing and polishing such edges is to get a fair gloss without much attention to perfect form, inasmuch as it is the flat surface _d_ on top which produces the impression of fine finish. if this is flat and brilliant, the rounded edges, like _g c_ can really have quite an inferior polish and still look well. for producing the flat polish on the upper surface of the regulator bar _b_ and spring _d_, the flat surface _d_, figs. , , and , we must attach the regulator bar to a plate of heavy brass, as shown at fig. , where _a_ represents the brass plate, and _b_ the regulator bar, arranged for grinding and polishing flat. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for attaching the regulator bar _b_ to the brass plate _a_, a good plan is to cement it fast with lathe wax; but a better plan is to make the plate _a_ of heavy sheet iron, something about / " thick, and secure the two together with three or four little catches of soft solder. it is to be understood the edges of the regulator bar or the regulator spring are polished, and all that remains to be done is to grind and polish the flat face. two pieces _a a_ of the same thickness as the regulator bar are placed as shown and attached to _a_ to prevent rocking. after _b_ is securely attached to _a_, the regulator should be coated with shellac dissolved in alcohol and well dried. the object of this shellac coating is to keep the angles formed at the meeting of the face and side clean in the process of grinding with oilstone dust and oil. the face of the regulator is now placed on the ground glass after smearing it with oil and oilstone dust. it requires but a very slight coating to do the work. the grinding is continued until the required surface is dead flat, after which the work is washed with soap and water and the shellac dissolved away with alcohol. the final polish is obtained on the zinc lap with vienna lime and alcohol. where lathe cement is used for securing the regulator to the plate _a_, the alcohol used with the vienna lime dissolves the cement and smears the steel. diamantine and oil are the best materials for polishing when the regulator bar is cemented to the plate _a_. knowledge that is most essential. _the knowledge most important for a practical working watchmaker to possess is how to get the watches he has to repair in a shape to give satisfaction to his customers._ no one will dispute the truth of the above italicised statement. it is only when we seek to have limits set, and define what such knowledge should consist of, that disagreement occurs. one workman who has read grossmann or saunier, or both, would insist on all watches being made to a certain standard, and, according to their ideas, all such lever watches as we are now dealing with should have club-tooth escapements with equidistant lockings, ten degrees lever and pallet action, with one and one-half degrees lock and one and one-half degrees drop. another workman would insist on circular pallets, his judgment being based chiefly on what he had read as stated by some author. now the facts of the situation are that lever escapements vary as made by different manufacturers, one concern using circular pallets and another using pallets with equidistant lockings. what a workman should know to repair a watch. one escapement maker will divide the impulse equally between the tooth and pallet; another will give an excess to the tooth. now while these matters demand our attention in the highest degree in a theoretical sense, still, for such "know hows" as count in a workshop, they are of but trivial importance in practice. we propose to deal in detail with the theoretical consideration of "thick" and "thin" pallets, and dwell exhaustively on circular pallets and those with equidistant locking faces; but before we do so we wish to impress on our readers the importance of being able to free themselves of the idea that all lever escapements should conform to the rigid rules of any dictum. educate the eye to judge of angular as well as linear extent. for illustration: it would be easy to design a lever escapement that would have locking faces which were based on the idea of employing neither system, but a compromise between the two, and still give a good, sound action. all workmen should learn to estimate accurately the extent of angular motion, so as to be able to judge correctly of escapement actions. it is not only necessary to know that a club-tooth escapement should have one and one-half degrees drop, but the eye should be educated, so to speak, as to be able to judge of angular as well as linear extent. [illustration: fig. ] most mechanics will estimate the size of any object measured in inches or parts of inches very closely; but as regards angular extent, except in a few instances, we will find mechanics but indifferent judges. to illustrate, let us refer to fig. . here we have the base line _a a'_ and the perpendicular line _a b_. now almost any person would be able to see if the angle _a a b_ was equal to _b a a'_; but not five in one hundred practical mechanics would be able to estimate with even tolerable accuracy the measure the angles made to the base by the lines _b c d_; and still watchmakers are required in the daily practice of their craft to work to angular motions and movements almost as important as to results as diameters. what is the use of our knowing that in theory an escape-wheel tooth should have one and one-half degrees drop, when in reality it has three degrees? it is only by educating the eye from carefully-made drawings; or, what is better, constructing a model on a large scale, that we can learn to judge of proper proportion and relation of parts, especially as we have no convenient tool for measuring the angular motion of the fork or escape wheel. nor is it important that we should have, if the workman is thoroughly "booked up" in the principles involved. as we explained early in this treatise, there is no imperative necessity compelling us to have the pallets and fork move through ten degrees any more than nine and one-half degrees, except that experience has proven that ten degrees is about the right thing for good results. in this day, when such a large percentage of lever escapements have exposed pallets, we can very readily manipulate the pallets to match the fork and roller action. for that matter, in many instances, with a faulty lever escapement, the best way to go about putting it to rights is to first set the fork and roller so they act correctly, and then bring the pallets to conform to the angular motion of the fork so adjusted. fork and roller action. although we could say a good deal more about pallets and pallet action, still we think it advisable to drop for the present this particular part of the lever escapement and take up fork and roller action, because, as we have stated, frequently the fork and roller are principally at fault. in considering the action and relation of the parts of the fork and roller, we will first define what is considered necessary to constitute a good, sound construction where the fork vibrates through ten degrees of angular motion and is supposed to be engaged with the roller by means of the jewel pin for thirty degrees of angular motion of the balance. there is no special reason why thirty degrees of roller action should be employed, except that experience in practical construction has come to admit this as about the right arc for watches of ordinary good, sound construction. manufacturers have made departures from this standard, but in almost every instance have finally come back to pretty near these proportions. in deciding on the length of fork and size of roller, we first decide on the distance apart at which to place the center of the balance and the center of the pallet staff. these two points established, we have the length of the fork and diameter of the roller defined at once. how to find the roller diameter from the length of the fork. to illustrate, let us imagine the small circles _a b_, fig. , to represent the center of a pallet staff and balance staff in the order named. we divide this space into four equal parts, as shown, and the third space will represent the point at which the pitch circles of the fork and roller will intersect, as shown by the arc _a_ and circle _b_. now if the length of the radii of these circles stand to each other as three to one, and the fork vibrates through an arc of ten degrees, the jewel pin engaging such fork must remain in contact with said fork for thirty degrees of angular motion of the balance. [illustration: fig. ] or, in other words, the ratio of angular motion of two _mobiles_ acting on each must be in the same ratio as the length of their radii at the point of contact. if we desire to give the jewel pin, or, in ordinary horological phraseology, have a greater arc of roller action, we would extend the length of fork (say) to the point _c_, which would be one-fifth of the space between _a_ and _b_, and the ratio of fork to roller action would be four to one, and ten degrees of fork action would give forty degrees of angular motion to the roller--and such escapements have been constructed. why thirty degrees of roller action is about right. now we have two sound reasons why we should not extend the arc of vibration of the balance: (_a_) if there is an advantage to be derived from a detached escapement, it would surely be policy to have the arc of contact, that is, for the jewel pin to engage the fork, as short an arc as is compatible with a sound action. (_b_) it will be evident to any thinking mechanic that the acting force of a fork which would carry the jewel pin against the force exerted by the balance spring through an arc of fifteen degrees, or half of an arc of thirty degrees, would fail to do so through an arc of twenty degrees, which is the condition imposed when we adopt forty degrees of roller action. for the present we will accept thirty degrees of roller action as the standard. before we proceed to delineate our fork and roller we will devote a brief consideration to the size and shape of a jewel pin to perform well. in this matter there has been a broad field gone over, both theoretically and in practical construction. wide jewel pins, round jewel pins, oval jewel pins have been employed, but practical construction has now pretty well settled on a round jewel pin with about two-fifths cut away. and as regards size, if we adopt the linear extent of four degrees of fork or twelve degrees of roller action, we will find it about right. how to set a fork and roller action right. as previously stated, frequently the true place to begin to set a lever escapement right is with the roller and fork. but to do this properly we should know when such fork and roller action is right and safe in all respects. we will see on analysis of the actions involved that there are three important actions in the fork and roller functions: (_a_) the fork imparting perfect impulse through the jewel pin to the balance. (_b_) proper unlocking action. (_c_) safety action. the last function is in most instances sadly neglected and, we regret to add, by a large majority of even practical workmen it is very imperfectly understood. in most american watches we have ample opportunity afforded to inspect the pallet action, but the fork and roller action is placed so that rigid inspection is next to impossible. the vacheron concern of swiss manufacturers were acute enough to see the importance of such inspection, and proceeded to cut a circular opening in the lower plate, which permitted, on the removal of the dial, a careful scrutiny of the action of the roller and fork. while writing on this topic we would suggest the importance not only of knowing how to draw a correct fork and roller action, but letting the workman who desires to be _au fait_ in escapements delineate and study the action of a faulty fork and roller action--say one in which the fork, although of the proper form, is too short, or what at first glance would appear to amount to the same thing, a roller too small. drawings help wonderfully in reasoning out not only correct actions, but also faulty ones, and our readers are earnestly advised to make such faulty drawings in several stages of action. by this course they will educate the eye to discriminate not only as to correct actions, but also to detect those which are imperfect, and we believe most watchmakers will admit that in many instances it takes much longer to locate a fault than to remedy it after it has been found. [illustration: fig. ] let us now proceed to delineate a fork and roller. it is not imperative that we should draw the parts to any scale, but it is a rule among english makers to let the distance between the center of the pallet staff and the center of the balance staff equal in length the chord of ninety-six degrees of the pitch circle of the escape wheel, which, in case we employ a pitch circle of " radius, would make the distance between _a_ and _b_, fig. , approximately ½", which is a very fair scale for study drawings. how to delineate a fork and roller. to arrive at the proper proportions of the several parts, we divide the space _a b_ into four equal parts, as previously directed, and draw the circle _a_ and short arc _b_. with our dividers set at ", from _b_ as a center we sweep the short arc _c_. from our arc of sixty degrees, with a " radius, we take five degrees, and from the intersection of the right line _a b_ with the arc _c_ we lay off on each side five degrees and establish the points _d e_; and from _b_ as a center, through these points draw the lines _b d'_ and _b e'_. now the arc embraced between these lines represents the angular extent of our fork action. from _a_ as a center and with our dividers set at ", we sweep the arc _f_. from the scale of degrees we just used we lay off fifteen degrees on each side of the line _a b_ on the arc _f_, and establish the points _g h_. from _a_ as a center, through the points just established we draw the radial lines _a g'_ and _a h'_. the angular extent between these lines defines the limit of our roller action. now if we lay off on the arc _f_ six degrees each side of its intersection with the line _a b_, we define the extent of the jewel pin; that is, on the arc _f_ we establish the points _l m_ at six degrees from the line _a b_, and through the points _l m_ draw, from _a_ as a center, the radial lines _a l'_ and _a m'_. the extent of the space between the lines _a l'_ and _a m'_ on the circle _a_ defines the size of our jewel pin. to determine the size of a jewel pin. [illustration: fig. ] to make the situation better understood, we make an enlarged drawing of the lines defining the jewel pin at fig. . at the intersection of the line _a b_ with the arc _a_ we locate the point _k_, and from it as a center we sweep the circle _i_ so it passes through the intersection of the lines _a l'_ and _a m'_ with the arc _a_. we divide the radius of the circle _i_ on the line _a b_ into five equal parts, as shown by the vertical lines _j_. of these five spaces we assume three as the extent of the jewel pin, cutting away that portion to the right of the heavy vertical line at _k_. [illustration: fig. ] we will now proceed to delineate a fork and roller as the parts are related on first contact of jewel pin with fork and initial with the commencing of the act of unlocking a pallet. the position and relations are also the same as at the close of the act of impulse. we commence the drawing at fig. , as before, by drawing the line _a b_ and the arcs _a_ and _b_ to represent the pitch circles. we also sweep the arc _f_ to enable us to delineate the line _a g'_. next in order we draw our jewel pin as shown at _d_. in drawing the jewel pin we proceed as at fig. , except we let the line _a g'_, fig. , assume the same relations to the jewel pin as _a b_ in fig. ; that is, we delineate the jewel pin as if extending on the arc _a_ six degrees on each side of the line _a g'_, fig. . the theory of the fork action. to aid us in reasoning, we establish the point _m_, as in fig. , at _m_, fig. , and proceed to delineate another and imaginary jewel pin at _d'_ (as we show in dotted outline). a brief reasoning will show that in allowing thirty degrees of contact of the fork with the jewel pin, the center of the jewel pin will pass through an arc of thirty degrees, as shown on the arcs _a_ and _f_. now here is an excellent opportunity to impress on our minds the true value of angular motion, inasmuch as thirty degrees on the arc _f_ is of more than twice the linear extent as on the arc _a_. before we commence to draw the horn of the fork engaging the jewel pin _d_, shown at full line in fig. , we will come to perfectly understand what mechanical relations are required. as previously stated, we assume the jewel pin, as shown at _d_, fig. , is in the act of encountering the inner face of the horn of the fork for the end or purpose of unlocking the engaged pallet. now if the inner face of the horn of the fork was on a radial line, such radial line would be _p b_, fig. . we repeat this line at _p_, fig. , where the parts are drawn on a larger scale. to delineate a fork at the instant the last effort of impulse has been imparted to the jewel pin, and said jewel pin is in the act of separating from the inner face of the prong of the fork--we would also call attention to the fact that relations of parts are precisely the same as if the jewel pin had just returned from an excursion of vibration and was in the act of encountering the inner face of the prong of the fork in the act of unlocking the escapement. we mentioned this matter previously, but venture on the repetition to make everything clear and easily understood. we commence by drawing the line _a b_ and dividing it in four equal parts, as on previous occasions, and from _a_ and _b_ as centers draw the pitch circles _c d_. by methods previously described, we draw the lines _a a_ and _a a'_, also _b b_ and _b b'_ to represent the angular motion of the two mobiles, viz., fork and roller action. as already shown, the roller occupies twelve degrees of angular extent. to get at this conveniently, we lay off on the arc by which we located the lines _a a_ and _a a'_ six degrees above the line _a a_ and draw the line _a h_. now the angular extent on the arc _c_ between the lines _a a_ and _a h_ represents the radius of the circle defining the jewel pin. from the intersection of the line _a a_ with the arc _c_ as a center, and with the radius just named, we sweep the small circle _d_, fig. , which represents our jewel pin; we afterward cut away two-fifths and draw the full line _d_, as shown. we show at fig. a portion of fig. , enlarged four times, to show certain portions of our delineations more distinctly. if we give the subject a moment's consideration we will see that the length of the prong _e_ of the lever fork is limited to such a length as will allow the jewel pin _d_ to pass it. how to delineate the prongs of a lever fork. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to delineate this length, from _b_ as a center we sweep the short arc _f_ so it passes through the outer angle _n_, fig. , of the jewel pin. this arc, carried across the jewel pin _d_, limits the length of the opposite prong of the fork. the outer face of the prong of the fork can be drawn as a line tangent to a circle drawn from _a_ as a center through the angle _n_ of the jewel pin. such a circle or arc is shown at _o_, figs. and . there has been a good deal said as to whether the outer edge of the prong of a fork should be straight or curved. to the writer's mind, a straight-faced prong, like from _s_ to _m_, is what is required for a fork with a single roller, while a fork with a curved prong will be best adapted for a double roller. this subject will be taken up again when we consider double-roller action. the extent or length of the outer face of the prong is also an open subject, but as there is but one factor of the problem of lever escapement construction depending on it, when we name this and see this requirement satisfied we have made an end of this question. the function performed by the outer face of the prong of a fork is to prevent the engaged pallet from unlocking while the guard pin is opposite to the passing hollow. the inner angle _s_ of the horn of the fork must be so shaped and located that the jewel pin will just clear it as it passes out of the fork, or when it passes into the fork in the act of unlocking the escapement. in escapements with solid bankings a trifle is allowed, that is, the fork is made enough shorter than the absolute theoretical length to allow for safety in this respect. the proper length of a lever. we will now see how long a lever must be to perform its functions perfectly. now let us determine at what point on the inner face of the prong _e'_ the jewel pin parts from the fork, or engages on its return. to do this we draw a line from the center _r_ (fig. ) of the jewel pin, so as to meet the line _e_ at right angles, and the point _t_ so established on the line _e_ is where contact will take place between the jewel pin and fork. it will be seen this point (_t_) of contact is some distance back of the angle _u_ which terminates the inner face of the prong _e'_; consequently, it will be seen the prongs _e e'_ of the fork can with safety be shortened enough to afford a safe ingress or egress to the jewel pin to the slot in the fork. as regards the length of the outer face of the prong of the fork, a good rule is to make it one and a half times the diameter of the jewel pin. the depth of the slot need be no more than to free the jewel in its passage across the ten degrees of fork action. a convenient rule as to the depth of the slot in a fork is to draw the line _k_, which, it will be seen, coincides with the circle which defines the jewel pin. how to delineate the safety action. [illustration: fig. ] we will next consider a safety action of the single roller type. the active or necessary parts of such safety action consist of a roller or disk of metal, usually steel, shaped as shown in plan at _a_, fig. . in the edge of this disk is cut in front of the jewel pin a circular recess shown at _a_ called the passing hollow. the remaining part of the safety action is the guard pin shown at _n_ figs. and , which is placed in the lever. now it is to be understood that the sole function performed by the guard pin is to strike the edge of the roller _a_ at any time when the fork starts to unlock the engaged pallet, except when the jewel pin is in the slot of the fork. to avoid extreme care in fitting up the passing hollow, the horns of the fork are arranged to strike the jewel pin and prevent unlocking in case the passing hollow is made too wide. to delineate the safety action we first draw the fork and jewel pin as previously directed and as shown at fig. . the position of the guard pin should be as close to the bottom of the slot of the fork as possible and be safe. as to the size of the guard pin, it is usual to make it about one-third or half the diameter of the jewel pin. the size and position of the guard pin decided on and the small circle _n_ drawn, to define the size and position of the roller we set our dividers so that a circle drawn from the center _a_ will just touch the edge of the small circle _n_, and thus define the outer boundary of our roller, or roller table, as it is frequently called. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for deciding the angular extent of the passing hollow we have no fixed rule, but if we make it to occupy about half more angular extent on the circle _y_ than will coincide with the angular extent of the jewel pin, it will be perfectly safe and effectual. we previously stated that the jewel pin should occupy about twelve degrees of angular extent on the circle _c_, and if we make the passing hollow occupy eighteen degrees (which is one and a half the angular extent of the jewel pin) it will do nicely. but if we should extend the width of the passing hollow to twenty-four degrees it would do no harm, as the jewel pin would be well inside the horn of the fork before the guard pin could enter the passing hollow. [illustration: fig. ] we show in fig. the fork as separated from the roller, but in fig. , which is a side view, we show the fork and jewel pin as engaged. when drawing a fork and roller action it is safe to show the guard pin as if in actual contact with the roller. then in actual construction, if the parts are made to measure and agree with the drawing in the gray, that is, before polishing, the process of polishing will reduce the convex edge of the roller enough to free it. it is evident if thought is given to the matter, that if the guard pin is entirely free and does not touch the roller in any position, a condition and relation of parts exist which is all we can desire. we are aware that it is usual to give a considerable latitude in this respect even by makers, and allow a good bit of side shake to the lever, but our judgment would condemn the practice, especially in high-grade watches. restrict the frictional surfaces. grossmann, in his essay on the detached lever escapement, adopts one and a half degrees lock. now, we think that one degree is ample; and we are sure that every workman experienced in the construction of the finer watches will agree with us in the assertion that we should in all instances seek to reduce the extent of all frictional surfaces, no matter how well jeweled. acting under such advice, if we can reduce the surface friction on the lock from one and a half degrees to one degree or, better, to three-fourths of a degree, it is surely wise policy to do so. and as regards the extent of angular motion of the lever, if we reduce this to six degrees, exclusive of the lock, we would undoubtedly obtain better results in timing. we shall next consider the effects of opening the bankings too wide, and follow with various conditions which are sure to come in the experience of the practical watch repairer. it is to be supposed in this problem that the fork and roller action is all right. the reader may say to this, why not close the banking? in reply we would offer the supposition that some workman had bent the guard pin forward or set a pallet stone too far out. we have now instructed our readers how to draw and construct a lever escapement complete, of the correct proportions, and will next take up defective construction and consider faults existing to a lesser or greater degree in almost every watch. faults may also be those arising from repairs by some workman not fully posted in the correct form and relation of the several parts which go to make up a lever escapement. it makes no difference to the artisan called upon to put a watch in perfect order as to whom he is to attribute the imperfection, maker or former repairer; all the workman having the job in hand has to do is to know positively that such a fault actually exists, and that it devolves upon him to correct it properly. be fearless in repairs, if sure you are right. hence the importance of the workman being perfectly posted on such matters and, knowing that he is right, can go ahead and make the watch as it should be. the writer had an experience of this kind years ago in chicago. a jules jurgensen watch had been in the hands of several good workmen in that city, but it would stop. it was then brought to him with a statement of facts given above. he knew there must be a fault somewhere and searched for it, and found it in the exit pallet--a certain tooth of the escape wheel under the right conditions would sometimes not escape. it might go through a great many thousand times and yet it might, and did sometimes, hold enough to stop the watch. now probably most of my fellow-workmen in this instance would have been afraid to alter a "jurgensen," or even hint to the owner that such a thing could exist as a fault in construction in a watch of this justly-celebrated maker. the writer removed the stone, ground a little from the base of the offending pallet stone, replaced it, and all trouble ended--no stops from that on. study of an escapement error. [illustration: fig. ] now let us suppose a case, and imagine a full-plate american movement in which the ingress or entrance pallet extends out too far, and in order to have it escape, the banking on that side is opened too wide. we show at fig. a drawing of the parts in their proper relations under the conditions named. it will be seen by careful inspection that the jewel pin _d_ will not enter the fork, which is absolutely necessary. this condition very frequently exists in watches where a new pallet stone has been put in by an inexperienced workman. now this is one of the instances in which workmen complain of hearing a "scraping" sound when the watch is placed to the ear. the remedy, of course, lies in warming up the pallet arms and pushing the stone in a trifle, "but how much?" say some of our readers. there is no definite rule, but we will tell such querists how they can test the matter. remove the hairspring, and after putting the train in place and securing the plates together, give the winding arbor a turn or two to put power on the train; close the bankings well in so the watch cannot escape on either pallet. put the balance in place and screw down the cock. carefully turn back the banking on one side so the jewel pin will just pass out of the slot in the fork. repeat this process with the opposite banking; the jewel pin will now pass out on each side. be sure the guard pin does not interfere with the fork action in any way. the fork is now in position to conform to the conditions required. how to adjust the pallets to match the fork. if the escapement is all right, the teeth will have one and a half degrees lock and escape correctly; but in the instance we are considering, the stone will not permit the teeth to pass, and must be pushed in until they will. it is not a very difficult matter after we have placed the parts together so we can see exactly how much the pallet protrudes beyond what is necessary, to judge how far to push it back when we have it out and heated. there is still an "if" in the problem we are considering, which lies in the fact that the fork we are experimenting with may be too short for the jewel pin to engage it for ten degrees of angular motion. this condition a man of large experience will be able to judge of very closely, but the better plan for the workman is to make for himself a test gage for the angular movement of the fork. of course it will be understood that with a fork which engages the roller for eight degrees of fork action, such fork will not give good results with pallets ground for ten degrees of pallet action; still, in many instances, a compromise can be effected which will give results that will satisfy the owner of a watch of moderate cost, and from a financial point of view it stands the repairer in hand to do no more work than is absolutely necessary to keep him well pleased. we have just made mention of a device for testing the angular motion of the lever. before we take up this matter, however, we will devote a little time and attention to the subject of jewel pins and how to set them. we have heretofore only considered jewel pins of one form, that is, a round jewel pin with two-fifths cut away. we assumed this form from the fact that experience has demonstrated that it is the most practicable and efficient form so far devised or applied. subsequently we shall take up the subject of jewel pins of different shapes. how to set a jewel pin as it should be. many workmen have a mortal terror of setting a jewel pin and seem to fancy that they must have a specially-devised instrument for accomplishing this end. most american watches have the hole for the jewel pin "a world too wide" for it, and we have heard repeated complaints from this cause. probably the original object of this accommodating sort of hole was to favor or obviate faults of pallet action. let us suppose, for illustration, that we have a roller with the usual style of hole for a jewel pin which will take almost anything from the size of a no. sewing needle up to a round french clock pallet. [illustration: fig. ] we are restricted as regards the proper size of jewel pin by the width of the slot in the fork. selecting a jewel which just fits the fork, we can set it as regards its relation to the staff so it will cause the pitch circle of the jewel pin to coincide with either of dotted circles _a_ or _a'_, fig. . this will perhaps be better understood by referring to fig. , which is a view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _c_. here we see the roller jewel at _d_, and if we bring it forward as far as the hole in the roller will permit, it will occupy the position indicated at the dotted lines; and if we set it in (toward the staff) as far as the hole will allow, it will occupy the position indicated by the full outline. [illustration: fig. ] now such other condition might very easily exist, that bringing the jewel pin forward to the position indicated by the dotted lines at _d_, fig. , would remedy the defect described and illustrated at fig. without any other change being necessary. we do not assert, understand, that a hole too large for the jewel pin is either necessary or desirable--what we wish to convey to the reader is the necessary knowledge so that he can profit by such a state if necessary. a hole which just fits the jewel pin so the merest film of cement will hold it in place is the way it should be; but we think it will be some time before such rollers are made, inasmuch as economy appears to be a chief consideration. about jewel-pin setters. to make a jewel-pin setter which will set a jewel pin straight is easy enough, but to devise any such instrument which will set a jewel so as to perfectly accord with the fork action is probably not practicable. what the workman needs is to know from examination when the jewel pin is in the proper position to perform its functions correctly, and he can only arrive at this knowledge by careful study and thought on the matter. if we make up our minds on examining a watch that a jewel pin is "set too wide," that is, so it carries the fork over too far and increases the lock to an undue degree, take out the balance, remove the hairspring, warm the roller with a small alcohol lamp, and then with the tweezers move the jewel pin in toward the staff. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] no attempt should be made to move a jewel pin unless the cement which holds the jewel is soft, so that when the parts cool off the jewel is as rigid as ever. a very little practice will enable any workman who has the necessary delicacy of touch requisite to ever become a good watchmaker, to manipulate a jewel pin to his entire satisfaction with no other setter than a pair of tweezers and his eye, with a proper knowledge of what he wants to accomplish. to properly heat a roller for truing up the jewel pin, leave it on the staff, and after removing the hairspring hold the balance by the rim in a pair of tweezers, "flashing it" back and forth through the flame of a rather small alcohol lamp until the rim of the balance is so hot it can just be held between the thumb and finger, and while at this temperature the jewel pin can be pressed forward or backward, as illustrated in fig. , and then a touch or two will set the pin straight or parallel with the staff. figs. and are self-explanatory. for cementing in a jewel pin a very convenient tool is shown at figs. and . it is made of a piece of copper wire about / " in diameter, bent to the form shown at fig. . the ends _b b_ of the copper wire are flattened a little and recessed on their inner faces, as shown in fig. , to grasp the edges of the roller _a_. the heat of an alcohol lamp is applied to the loop of the wire at _g_ until the small bit of shellac placed in the hole _h_ melts. the necessary small pieces of shellac are made by warming a bit of the gum to near the melting point and then drawing the softened gum into a filament the size of horse hair. a bit of this broken off and placed in the hole _h_ supplies the cement necessary to fasten the jewel pin. figs. and will, no doubt, assist in a clear understanding of the matter. how to make an angle-measuring device. we will now resume the consideration of the device for measuring the extent of the angular motion of the fork and pallets. now, before we take this matter up in detail we wish to say, or rather repeat what we have said before, which is to the effect that ten degrees of fork and lever action is not imperative, as we can get just as sound an action and precisely as good results with nine and a half or even nine degrees as with ten, if other acting parts are in unison with such an arc of angular motion. the chief use of such an angle-measuring device is to aid in comparing the relative action of the several parts with a known standard. [illustration: fig. ] for use with full-plate movements about the best plan is a spring clip or clasp to embrace the pallet staff below the pallets. we show at fig. such a device. to make it, take a rather large size of sewing needle--the kind known as a milliner's needle is about the best. the diameter of the needle should be about no. , so that at _b_ we can drill and put in a small screw. it is important that the whole affair should be very light. the length of the needle should be about - / ", in order that from the notch _a_ to the end of the needle _a'_ should be ½". the needle should be annealed and flattened a little, to give a pretty good grasp to the notch _a_ on the pallet staff. good judgment is important in making this clamp, as it is nearly impossible to give exact measurements. about / " in width when seen in the direction of the arrow _j_ will be found to be about the right width. the spring _b_ can be made of a bit of mainspring, annealed and filed down to agree in width with the part _a_. in connection with the device shown at fig. we need a movement-holder to hold the movement as nearly a constant height as possible above the bench. the idea is, when the clamp _a b_ is slipped on the pallet staff the index hand _a'_ will extend outward, as shown in fig. , where the circle _c_ is supposed to represent the top plate of a watch, and _a'_ the index hand. how the angular motion is measured. [illustration: fig. ] fig. is supposed to be seen from above. it is evident that if we remove the balance from the movement shown at _c_, leaving power on the train, and with an oiling tool or hair broach move the lever back and forth, the index hand _a'_ will show in a magnified manner the angular motion of the lever. now if we provide an index arc, as shown at _d_, we can measure the extent of such motion from bank to bank. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to get up such an index arc we first make a stand as shown at _e f_, fig. . the arc _d_ is made to ½" radius, to agree with the index hand _a'_, and is divided into twelve degree spaces, six each side of a zero, as shown at fig. , which is an enlarged view of the index _d_ in fig. . the index arc is attached to a short bit of wire extending down into the support _e_, and made adjustable as to height by the set-screw _l_. let us suppose the index arc is adjusted to the index hand _a'_, and we move the fork as suggested; you see the hand would show exactly the arc passed through from bank to bank, and by moving the stand _e f_ we can arrange so the zero mark on the scale stands in the center of such arc. this, of course, gives the angular motion from bank to bank. as an experiment, let us close the bankings so they arrest the fork at the instant the tooth drops from each pallet. if this arc is ten degrees, the pallet action is as it should be with the majority of modern watches. testing lock and drop with our new device. let us try another experiment: we carefully move the fork away from the bank, and if after the index hand has passed through one and a half degrees the fork flies over, we know the lock is right. we repeat the experiment from the opposite bank, and in the same manner determine if the lock is right on the other pallets. you see we have now the means of measuring not only the angular motion of the lever, but the angular extent of the lock. at first glance one would say that if now we bring the roller and fork action to coincide and act in unison with the pallet action, we would be all right; and so we would, but frequently this bringing of the roller and fork to agree is not so easily accomplished. it is chiefly toward this end the waltham fork is made adjustable, so it can be moved to or from the roller, and also that we can allow the pallet arms to be moved, as we will try and explain. as we set the bankings the pallets are all right; but to test matters, let us remove the hairspring and put the balance in place. now, if the jewel pin passes in and out of the fork, it is to be supposed the fork and roller action is all right. to test the fork and roller action we close the banking a little on one side. if the fork and jewel pin are related to each other as they should be, the jewel pin will not pass out of the fork, nor will the engaged tooth drop from that pallet. this condition should obtain on both pallets, that is, if the jewel pin will not pass out of the fork on a given bank the tooth engaged on its pallet should not drop. we have now come to the most intricate and important problems which relate to the lever escapement. however, we promise our readers that if they will take the pains to follow closely our elucidations, to make these puzzles plain. but we warn them that they are no easy problems to solve, but require good, hard thinking. the readiest way to master this matter is by means of such a model escapement as we have described. with such a model, and the pallets made to clamp with small set-screws, and roller constructed so the jewel pin could be set to or from the staff, this matter can be reduced to object lessons. but study of the due relation of the parts in good drawings will also master the situation. a few experiments with our angle-measuring device. in using the little instrument for determining angular motion that we have just described, care must be taken that the spring clamp which embraces the pallet staff does not slip. in order to thoroughly understand the methods of using this angle-measuring device, let us take a further lesson or two. we considered measuring the amount of lock on each pallet, and advised the removal of the balance, because if we left the balance in we could not readily tell exactly when the tooth passed on to the impulse plane; but if we touch the fork lightly with an oiling tool or a hair broach, moving it (the fork) carefully away from the bank and watching the arc indicated by the hand _a_, fig. , we can determine with great exactness the angular extent of lock. the diagram at fig. illustrates how this experiment is conducted. we apply the hair broach to the end of the fork _m_, as shown at _l_, and gently move the fork in the direction of the arrow _i_, watching the hand _a_ and note the number of degrees, or parts of degrees, indicated by the hand as passed over before the tooth is unlocked and passes on to the impulse plane and the fork flies forward to the opposite bank. now, the quick movement of the pallet and fork may make the hand mark more or less of an arc on the index than one of ten degrees, as the grasp may slip on the pallet staff; but the arc indicated by the slow movement in unlocking will be correct. [illustration: fig. ] by taking a piece of sharpened pegwood and placing the point in the slot of the fork, we can test the fork to see if the drop takes place much before the lever rests against the opposite bank. as we have previously stated, the drop from the pallet should not take place until the lever _almost_ rests on the banking pin. what the reader should impress on his mind is that the lever should pass through about one and a half degrees arc to unlock, and the remainder (eight and a half degrees) of the ten degrees are to be devoted to impulse. but, understand, if the impulse angle is only seven and a half degrees, and the jewel pin acts in accordance with the rules previously given, do not alter the pallet until you know for certain you will gain by it. an observant workman will, after a little practice, be able to determine this matter. we will next take up the double roller and fork action, and also consider in many ways the effect of less angles of action than ten degrees. this matter now seems of more importance, from the fact that we are desirous to impress on our readers that _there is no valid reason for adopting ten degrees of fork and roller action with the table roller, except that about this number of degrees of action are required to secure a reliable safety action_. with the double roller, as low as six degrees fork and pallet action can be safely employed. in fork and pallet actions below six degrees of angular motion, side-shake in pivot holes becomes a dangerous factor, as will be explained further on. it is perfectly comprehending the action of the lever escapement and then being able to remedy defects, that constitute the master workman. how to measure the angular motion of an escape wheel. [illustration: fig. ] we can also make use of our angle-testing device for measuring our escape-wheel action, by letting the clasp embrace the arbor of the escape wheel, instead of the pallet staff. we set the index arc as in our former experiments, except we place the movable index _d_, fig. , so that when the engaged tooth rests on the locking face of a pallet, the index hand stands at the extreme end of our arc of twelve degrees. we next, with our pointed pegwood, start to move the fork away from the bank, as before, we look sharp and see the index hand move backward a little, indicating the "draw" on the locking face. as soon as the pallet reaches the impulse face, the hand _a_ moves rapidly forward, and if the escapement is of the club-tooth order and closely matched, the hand _a_ will pass over ten and a half degrees of angular motion before the drop takes place. [illustration: fig. ] we will warn our readers in advance, that if they make such a testing device they will be astonished at the inaccuracy which they will find in the escapements of so-called fine watches. the lock, in many instances, instead of being one and a half degrees, will oftener be found to be from two to four degrees, and the impulse derived from the escape wheel, as illustrated at fig. , will often fall below eight degrees. such watches will have a poor motion and tick loud enough to keep a policeman awake. trials with actual watches, with such a device as we have just described, in conjunction with a careful study of the acting parts, especially if aided by a large model, such as we have described, will soon bring the student to a degree of skill unknown to the old-style workman, who, if a poor escapement bothered him, would bend back the banking pins or widen the slot in the fork. we hold that educating our repair workmen up to a high knowledge of what is required to constitute a high-grade escapement, will have a beneficial effect on manufacturers. when we wish to apply our device to the measurement of the escapement of three-quarter-plate watches, we will require another index hand, with the grasping end bent downward, as shown at fig. . the idea with this form of index hand is, the bent-down jaws _b'_, fig. , grasp the fork as close to the pallet staff as possible, making an allowance for the acting center by so placing the index arc that the hand _a_ will read correctly on the index _d_. suppose, for instance, we place the jaws _b'_ inside the pallet staff, we then place the index arc so the hand reads to the arc indicated by the dotted arc _m_, fig. , and if set outside of the pallet staff, read by the arc _o_. [illustration: fig. ] how a balance controls the timekeeping of a watch. we think a majority of the fine lever escapements made abroad in this day have what is termed double-roller safety action. the chief gains to be derived from this form of safety action are: ( ) reducing the arc of fork and roller action; ( ) reducing the friction of the guard point to a minimum. while it is entirely practicable to use a table roller for holding the jewel pin with a double-roller action, still a departure from that form is desirable, both for looks and because as much of the aggregate weight of a balance should be kept as far from the axis of rotation as possible. we might as well consider here as elsewhere, the relation the balance bears to the train as a controlling power. strictly speaking, _the balance and hairspring are the time measurers_, the train serving only two purposes: (_a_) to keep the balance in motion; (_b_) to classify and record the number of vibrations of the balance. hence, it is of paramount importance that the vibrations of the balance should be as untrammeled as possible; this is why we urge reducing the arc of connection between the balance and fork to one as brief as is consistent with sound results. with a double-roller safety action we can easily reduce the fork action to eight degrees and the roller action to twenty-four degrees. inasmuch as satisfactory results in adjustment depend very much on the perfection of construction, we shall now dwell to some extent on the necessity of the several parts being made on correct principles. for instance, by reducing the arc of engagement between the fork and roller, we lessen the duration of any disturbing influence of escapement action. to resume the explanation of why it is desirable to make the staff and all parts near the axis of the balance as light as possible, we would say it is the moving portion of the balance which controls the regularity of the intervals of vibration. to illustrate, suppose we have a balance only / " in diameter, but of the same weight as one in an ordinary eighteen-size movement. we can readily see that such a balance would require but a very light hairspring to cause it to give the usual , vibrations to the hour. we can also understand, after a little thought, that such a balance would exert as much breaking force on its pivots as a balance of the same weight, but ¾" in diameter acting against a very much stronger hairspring. there is another factor in the balance problem which deserves our attention, which factor is atmospheric resistance. this increases rapidly in proportion to the velocity. how barometric pressure affects a watch. the most careful investigators in horological mechanics have decided that a balance much above / " in diameter, making , vibrations per hour, is not desirable, because of the varying atmospheric disturbances as indicated by barometric pressure. a balance with all of its weight as near the periphery as is consistent with strength, is what is to be desired for best results. it is the moving matter composing the balance, pitted against the elastic force of the hairspring, which we have to depend upon for the regularity of the timekeeping of a watch, and if we can take two grains' weight of matter from our roller table and place them in the rim or screws of the balance, so as to act to better advantage against the hairspring, we have disposed of these two grains so as to increase the efficiency of the controlling power and not increase the stress on the pivots. [illustration: fig. ] we have deduced from the facts set forth, two axioms: (_a_) that we should keep the weight of our balance as much in the periphery as possible, consistent with due strength; (_b_) avoid excessive size from the disturbing effect of the air. we show at _a_, fig. , the shape of the piece which carries the jewel pin. as shown, it consists of three parts: ( ) the socket _a_, which receives the jewel pin _a_; ( ) the part _a''_ and hole _b_, which goes on the balance staff; ( ) the counterpoise _a'''_, which makes up for the weight of the jewel socket _a_, neck _a'_ and jewel pin. this counterpoise also makes up for the passing hollow _c_ in the guard roller _b_, fig. . as the piece _a_ is always in the same relation to the roller _b_, the poise of the balance must always remain the same, no matter how the roller action is placed on the staff. we once saw a double roller of nearly the shape shown at fig. , which had a small gold screw placed at _d_, evidently for the purpose of poising the double rollers; but, to our thinking, it was a sort of hairsplitting hardly worth the extra trouble. rollers for very fine watches should be poised on the staff before the balance is placed upon it. [illustration: fig. ] we shall next give detailed instructions for drawing such a double roller as will be adapted for the large model previously described, which, as the reader will remember, was for ten degrees of roller action. we will also point out the necessary changes required to make it adapted for eight degrees of fork action. we would beg to urge again the advantages to be derived from constructing such a model, even for workmen who have had a long experience in escapements, our word for it they will discover a great many new wrinkles they never dreamed of previously. it is important that every practical watchmaker should thoroughly master the theory of the lever escapement and be able to comprehend and understand at sight the faults and errors in such escapements, which, in the every-day practice of his profession, come to his notice. in no place is such knowledge more required than in fork and roller action. we are led to say the above chiefly for the benefit of a class of workmen who think there is a certain set of rules which, if they could be obtained, would enable them to set to rights any and all escapements. it is well to understand that no such system exists and that, practically, we must make one error balance another; and it is the "know how" to make such faults and errors counteract each other that enables one workman to earn more for himself or his employer in two days than another workman, who can file and drill as well as he can, will earn in a week. proportions of the double-roller escapement. the proportion in size between the two rollers in a double-roller escapement is an open question, or, at least, makers seldom agree on it. grossmann shows, in his work on the lever escapement, two sizes: ( ) half the diameter of the acting roller; ( ) two-thirds of the size of the acting roller. the chief fault urged against a smaller safety roller is, that it necessitates longer horns to the fork to carry out the safety action. longer horns mean more metal in the lever, and it is the conceded policy of all recent makers to have the fork and pallets as light as possible. another fault pertaining to long horns is, when the horn does have to act as safety action, a greater friction ensues. in all soundly-constructed lever escapements the safety action is only called into use in exceptional cases, and if the watch was lying still would theoretically never be required. where fork and pallets are poised on their arbor, pocket motion (except torsional) should but very little affect the fork and pallet action of a watch, and torsional motion is something seldom brought to act on a watch to an extent to make it worthy of much consideration. in the double-roller action which we shall consider, we shall adopt three-fifths of the pitch diameter of the jewel-pin action as the proper size. not but what the proportions given by grossmann will do good service; but we adopt the proportions named because it enables us to use a light fork, and still the friction of the guard point on the roller is but little more than where a guard roller of half the diameter of the acting roller is employed. the fork action we shall consider at present is ten degrees, but subsequently we shall consider a double-roller action in which the fork and pallet action is reduced to eight degrees. we shall conceive the play between the guard point and the safety roller as one degree, which will leave half a degree of lock remaining in action on the engaged pallet. theoretical action of double roller considered. in the drawing at fig. we show a diagram of the action of the double-roller escapement. the small circle at _a_ represents the center of the pallet staff, and the one at _b_ the center of the balance staff. the radial lines _a d_ and _a d'_ represent the arc of angular motion of fork action. the circle _b b_ represents the pitch circle of the jewel pin, and the circle at _c c_ the periphery of the guard or safety roller. the points established on the circle _c c_ by intersection of the radial lines _a d_ and _a d'_ we will denominate the points _h_ and _h'_. it is at these points the end of the guard point of the fork will terminate. in construction, or in delineating for construction, we show the guard enough short of the points _h h'_ to allow the fork an angular motion of one degree, from _a_ as a center, before said point would come in contact with the safety roller. [illustration: fig. ] we draw through the points _h h'_, from _b_ as a center, the radial lines _b g_ and _b g'_. we measure this angle by sweeping the short arc _i_ with any of the radii we have used for arc measurement in former delineations, and find it to be a trifle over sixty degrees. to give ourselves a practical object lesson, let us imagine that a real guard point rests on the circle _c_ at _h_. suppose we make a notch in the guard roller represented by the circle _c_, to admit such imaginary guard point, and then commence to revolve the circle _c_ in the direction of the arrow _j_, letting the guard point rest constantly in such notch. when the notch _n_ in _c_ has been carried through thirty degrees of arc, counting from _b_ as a center, the guard point, as relates to _a_ as a center, would only have passed through an arc of five degrees. we show such a guard point and notch at _o n_. in fact, if a jewel pin was set to engage the fork on the pitch circle _b a_, the escapement would lock. to obviate such lock we widen the notch _n_ to the extent indicated by the dotted lines _n'_, allowing the guard point to fall back, so to speak, into the notch _n_, which really represents the passing hollow. it is not to be understood that the extended notch at _n_ is correctly drawn as regards position, because when the guard point was on the line _a f_ the point _o_ would be in the center of the extended notch, or passing hollow. we shall next give the details of drawing the double roller, but before doing so we deemed it important to explain the action of such guard points more fully than has been done heretofore. how to design a double-roller escapement. we have already given very desirable forms for the parts of a double-roller escapement, consequently we shall now deal chiefly with acting principles as regards the rollers, but will give, at fig. , a very well proportioned and practical form of fork. the pitch circle of the jewel pin is indicated by the dotted circle _a_, and the jewel pin of the usual cylindrical form, with two-fifths cut away. the safety roller is three-fifths of the diameter of the pitch diameter of the jewel-pin action, as indicated by the dotted circle _a_. the safety roller is shown in full outline at _b'_, and the passing hollow at _e_. it will be seen that the arc of intersection embraced between the radial lines _b c_ and _b d_ is about sixty-one and a half degrees for the roller, but the angular extent of the passing hollow is only a little over thirty-two degrees. the passing hollow _e_ is located and defined by drawing the radial line _b c_ from the center _b_ through the intersection of radial line _a i_ with the dotted arc _b_, which represents the pitch circle of the safety roller. we will name this intersection the point _l_. now the end of the guard point _c_ terminates at the point _l_, and the passing hollow _e_ extends on _b_ sixteen degrees on each side of the radial line _b c_. [illustration: fig. ] the roller action is supposed to continue through thirty degrees of angular motion of the balance staff, and is embraced on the circle _a_ between the radial line _b k_ and _b o_. to delineate the inner face of the horn _p_ of the fork _f_ we draw the short arc _g_, from _a_ as a center, and on said arc locate at two degrees from the center at _b_ the point _f_. we will designate the upper angle of the outer face of the jewel pin _d_ as the point _s_ and, from _a_ as a center, sweep through this point _s_ the short arc _n n_. parallel with the line _a i_ and at the distance of half the diameter of the jewel pin _d_, we draw the short lines _t t'_, which define the inner faces of the fork. the intersection of the short line _t_ with the arc _n_ we will designate the point _r_. with our dividers set to embrace the space between the point _r_ and the point _f_, we sweep the arc which defines the inner face of the prong of the fork. the space we just made use of is practically the same as the radius of the circle _a_, and consequently of the same curvature. practically, the length of the guard point _c'_ is made as long as will, with certainty, clear the safety roller _b_ in all positions. while we set the point _f_ at two degrees from the center _b_, still, in a well-constructed escapement, one and a half degrees should be sufficient, but the extra half degree will do no harm. if the roller _b'_ is accurately made and the guard point _c'_ properly fitted, the fork will not have half a degree of play. the reader will remember that in the escapement model we described we cut down the drop to one degree, being less by half a degree than advised by grossmann and saunier. we also advised only one degree of lock. in the perfected lever escapement, which we shall describe and give working drawings for the construction of, we shall describe a detached lever escapement with only eight degrees fork and pallet action, with only three-fourths of a degree drop and three-fourths of a degree lock, which we can assure our readers is easily within the limits of practical construction by modern machinery. how the guard point is made. [illustration: fig. ] the guard point _c'_, as shown at fig. , is of extremely simple construction. back of the slot of the fork, which is three-fifths of the diameter of the jewel pin in depth, is made a square hole, as shown at _u_, and the back end of the guard point _c_ is fitted to this hole so that it is rigid in position. this manner of fastening the guard point is equally efficient as that of attaching it with a screw, and much lighter--a matter of the highest importance in escapement construction, as we have already urged. about the best material for such guard points is either aluminum or phosphor bronze, as such material is lighter than gold and very rigid and strong. at fig. we show a side view of the essential parts depicted in fig. , as if seen in the direction of the arrow _v_, but we have added the piece which holds the jewel pin _d_. a careful study of the cut shown at fig. will soon give the horological student an excellent idea of the double-roller action. we will now take up and consider at length why saunier draws his entrance pallet with fifteen degrees draw and his exit pallet with only twelve degrees draw. to make ourselves more conversant with saunier's method of delineating the lever escapement, we reproduce the essential features of his drawing, fig. , plate viii, of his "modern horology," in which he makes the draw of the locking face of the entrance pallet fifteen degrees and his exit pallet twelve degrees. in the cut shown at fig. we use the same letters of reference as he employs. we do not quote his description or directions for delineation because he refers to so much matter which he has previously given in the book just referred to. besides we cannot entirely endorse his methods of delineations for many reasons, one of which appears in the drawing at fig. . [illustration: fig. ] more about tangential lockings. most writers endorse the idea of tangential lockings, and saunier speaks of the escapement as shown at fig. as having such tangential lockings, which is not the case. he defines the position of the pallet staff from the circle _t_, which represents the extreme length of the teeth; drawing the radial lines _a d_ and _a e_ to embrace an arc of sixty degrees, and establishing the center of his pallet staff _c_ at the intersection of the lines _d c_ and _e c_, which are drawn at right angles to the radial lines _a d_ and _a e_, and tangential to the circle _t_. here is an error; the lines defining the center of the pallet staff should have been drawn tangent to the circle _s_, which represents the locking angle of the teeth. this would have placed the center of the pallet staff farther in, or closer to the wheel. any person can see at a glance that the pallets as delineated are not tangential in a true sense. [illustration: fig. ] we have previously considered engaging friction and also repeatedly have spoken of tangential lockings, but will repeat the idea of tangential lockings at fig. . a tangential locking is neutral, or nearly so, as regards engaging friction. for illustration we refer to fig. , where _a_ represents the center of an escape wheel. we draw the radial lines _a y_ and _a z_ so that they embrace sixty degrees of the arcs _s_ or _t_, which correspond to similar circles in fig. , and represent the extreme extent of the teeth and likewise the locking angle of such teeth. in fact, with the club-tooth escapement all that part of a tooth which extends beyond the line _s_ should be considered the same as the addendum in gear wheels. consequently, a tangential locking made to coincide with the center of the impulse plane, as recommended by saunier, would require the pallet staff to be located at _c'_ instead of _c_, as he draws it. if the angle _k'_ of the tooth _k_ in fig. was extended outward from the center _a_ so it would engage or rest on the locking face of the entrance pallet as shown at fig. , then the draw of the locking angle would not be quite fifteen degrees; but it is evident no lock can take place until the angle _a_ of the entrance pallet has passed inside the circle _s_. we would say here that we have added the letters _s_ and _t_ to the original drawings, as we have frequently to refer to these circles, and without letters had no means of designation. before the locking angle _k'_ of the tooth can engage the pallet, as shown in fig. , the pallet must turn on the center _c_ through an angular movement of at least four degrees. we show the situation in the diagram at fig. , using the same letters of reference for similar parts as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] as drawn in fig. the angle of draft _g a i_ is equal to fifteen degrees, but when brought in a position to act as shown at _g a' i'_, fig. , the draw is less even than twelve degrees. the angle _c a i_ remains constant, as shown at _c a' i'_, but the relation to the radial _a g_ changes when the pallet moves through the angle _w c w'_, as it must when locked. a tangential locking in the true sense of the meaning of the phrase is a locking set so that a pallet with its face coinciding with a radial line like _a g_ would be neutral, and the thrust of the tooth would be tangent to the circle described by the locking angle of the tooth. thus the center _c_, fig. , is placed on the line _w'_ which is tangent to the circle _s_; said line _w'_ also being at right angles to the radial line _a g_. the facts are, the problems relating to the club-tooth lever escapement are very intricate and require very careful analysis, and without such care the horological student can very readily be misled. faulty drawings, when studying such problems, lead to no end of errors, and practical men who make imperfect drawings lead to the popular phrase, "oh, such a matter may be all right in theory, but will not work in practice." we should always bear in mind that _theory, if right, must lead practice_. correct drawing required. if we delineate our entrance pallet to have a draw of twelve degrees when in actual contact with the tooth, and then construct in exact conformity with such drawings, we will find our lever to "hug the banks" in every instance. it is inattention to such details which produces the errors of makers complained of by saunier in section of his "modern horology," and which he attempts to correct by drawing the locking face at fifteen degrees draw. we shall show that neither _c_ nor _c'_, fig. , is the theoretically correct position for the pallet center for a tangential locking. we will now take up the consideration of a club-tooth lever escapement with circular pallets and tangential lockings; but previous to making the drawings we must decide several points, among which are the thickness of the pallet arms, which establishes the angular motion of the escape wheel utilized by such pallet arms, and also the angular motion imparted to the pallets by the impulse faces of the teeth. we will, for the present, accept the thickness of the arms as being equivalent to five degrees of angular extent of the pitch circle of the escape wheel. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in making our drawings we commence, as on former occasions, by establishing the center of our escape wheel at _a_, fig. , and sweeping the arc _a a_ to represent the pitch circle of such wheel. through the center _a_ we draw the vertical line _a b_, which is supposed to also pass through the center of the pallet staff. the intersection of the line _a b_ with the arc _a_ we term the point _d_, and from this point we lay off on said arc _a_ thirty degrees each side of said intersection, and thus establish the points _c b_. from _a_, through the point _c_, we draw the line _a c c'_. on the arc _a a_ and two and a half degrees to the left of the point _c_ we establish the point _f_, which space represents half of the thickness of the entrance pallet. from _a_ we draw through the point _f_ the line _a f f'_. from _f_, and at right angles to said line _a f_, we draw the line _f e_ until it crosses the line _a b_. now this line _f e_ is tangent to the arc _a_ from the point _f_, and consequently a locking placed at the point _f_ is a true tangential locking; and if the resting or locking face of a pallet was made to coincide with the line _a f'_, such locking face would be strictly "dead" or neutral. the intersection of the line _f e_ with the line _a b_ we call the point _c_, and locate at this point the center of our pallet staff. according to the method of delineating the lever escapement by moritz grossmann the tangent line for locating the center of the pallet staff is drawn from the point _c_, which would locate the center of the pallet staff at the point _h_ on the line _a b_. grossmann, in delineating his locking face for the draw, shows such face at an angle of twelve degrees to the radial line _a f'_, when he should have drawn it twelve degrees to an imaginary line shown at _f i_, which is at right angles to the line _f h_. to the writer's mind this is not just as it should be, and may lead to misunderstanding and bad construction. we should always bear in mind the fact that the basis of a locking face is a neutral plane placed at right angles to the line of thrust, and the "draw" comes from a locking face placed at an angle to such neutral plane. a careful study of the diagram at fig. will give the reader correct ideas. if a tooth locks at the point _c_, the tangential thrust would be on the line _c h'_, and a neutral locking face would be on the line _a c_. neutral lockings. to aid in explanation, let us remove the pallet center to _d_; then the line of thrust would be _c d_ and a neutral locking face would coincide with the line _m m_, which is at right angles to the line _c d_. if we should now make a locking face with a "draw" and at an angle to the line _c d_, say, for illustration, to correspond to the line _c c'_ (leaving the pallet center at _d_), we would have a strong draw and also a cruel engaging friction. if, however, we removed the engaging tooth, which we have just conceived to be at _c_, to the point _k_ on the arc _a' a'_, fig. , the pallet center _d_ would then represent a tangential locking, and a neutral pallet face would coincide with the radial line _a k'_; and a locking face with twelve degrees draw would coincide nearly with the line _l_. let us next analyze what the effect would be if we changed the pallet center to _h'_, fig. , leaving the engaging tooth still at _k_. in this instance the line _l l_ would then coincide with a neutral locking face, and to obtain the proper draw we should delineate the locking face to correspond to the line _k n_, which we assume to be twelve degrees from _k l_. it is not to be understood that we insist on precisely twelve degrees draw from a neutral plane for locking faces for lever pallets. what we do insist upon, however, is a "safe and sure draw" for a lever pallet which will hold a fork to the banks and will also return it to such banks if by accident the fork is moved away. we are well aware that it takes lots of patient, hard study to master the complications of the club-tooth lever escapement, but it is every watchmaker's duty to conquer the problem. the definition of "lock," in the detached lever escapement, is the stoppage or arrest of the escape wheel of a watch while the balance is left free or detached to perform the greater portion of its arc of vibration. "draw" is a function of the locking parts to preserve the fork in the proper position to receive and act on the jewel pin of the balance. it should be borne in mind in connection with "lock" and "draw," that the line of thrust as projected from the locked tooth of the escape wheel should be as near tangential as practicable. this maxim applies particularly to the entrance pallet. we would beg to add that practically it will make but little odds whether we plant the center of our pallet staff at _c_ or _h_, fig. , provided we modify the locking and impulse angles of our pallets to conform to such pallet center. but it will not do to arrange the parts for one center and then change to another. practical hints for lever escapements. apparently there seems to be a belief with very many watchmakers that there is a set of shorthand rules for setting an escapement, especially in american watches, which, if once acquired, conquers all imperfections. now we wish to disabuse the minds of our readers of any such notions. although the lever escapement, as adopted by our american factories, is constructed on certain "lines," still these lines are subject to modifications, such as may be demanded for certain defects of construction. if we could duplicate every part of a watch movement perfectly, then we could have certain rules to go by, and fixed templets could be used for setting pallet stones and correcting other escapement faults. let us now make an analysis of the action of a lever escapement. we show at fig. an ordinary eighteen-size full-plate lever with fork and pallets. the dotted lines _a b_ are supposed to represent an angular movement of ten degrees. now, it is the function of the fork to carry the power of the train to the balance. how well the fork performs its office we will consider subsequently; for the present we are dealing with the power as conveyed to the fork by the pallets as shown at fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the angular motion between the lines _a c_ (which represents the lock) is not only absolutely lost--wasted--but during this movement the train has to retrograde; that is, the dynamic force stored in the momentum of the balance has to actually turn the train backward and against the force of the mainspring. true, it is only through a very short arc, but the necessary force to effect this has to be discounted from the power stored in the balance from a former impulse. for this reason we should make the angular motion of unlocking as brief as possible. grossmann, in his essay, endorses one and a half degrees as the proper lock. in the description which we employed in describing the large model for illustrating the action of the detached lever escapement, we cut the lock to one degree, and in the description of the up-to-date lever escapement, which we shall hereafter give, we shall cut the lock down to three-quarters of a degree, a perfection easily to be attained by modern tools and appliances. we shall also cut the drop down to three-quarters of a degree. by these two economies we more than make up for the power lost in unlocking. with highly polished ruby or sapphire pallets ten degrees of draw is ample. but such draw must positively be ten degrees from a neutral locking face, not an escapement drawn on paper and called ten degrees, but when actually measured would only show eight and a half or nine degrees. the perfected lever escapement. with ten degrees angular motion of the lever and one and a half degrees lock, we should have eight and a half degrees impulse. the pith of the problem, as regards pallet action, for the practical workman can be embodied in the following question: what proportion of the power derived from the twelve degrees of angular motion of the escape wheel is really conveyed to the fork? the great leak of power as transmitted by the lever escapement to the balance is to be found in the pallet action, and we shall devote special attention to finding and stopping such leaks. when power is lost in the lever escapement. if we use a ratchet-tooth escape wheel we must allow at least one and a half degrees drop to free the back of the tooth; but with a club-tooth escape wheel made as can be constructed by proper skill and care, the drop can be cut down to three-quarters of a degree, or one-half of the loss with the ratchet tooth. we do not wish our readers to imagine that such a condition exists in most of the so-called fine watches, because if we take the trouble to measure the actual drop with one of the little instruments we have described, it will be found that the drop is seldom less than two, or even three degrees. if we measure the angular movement of the fork while locked, it will seldom be found less than two or three degrees. now, we can all understand that the friction of the locking surface has to be counted as well as the recoil of the draw. locking friction is seldom looked after as carefully as the situation demands. our factories make the impulse face of the pallets rounded, but leave the locking face flat. we are aware this condition is, in a degree, necessary from the use of exposed pallets. in many of the english lever watches with ratchet teeth, the locking faces are made cylindrical, but with such watches the pallet stones, as far as the writer has seen, are set "close"; that is, with steel pallet arms extending above and below the stone. there is another feature of the club-tooth lever escapement that next demands our attention which we have never seen discussed. we refer to arranging and disposing of the impulse of the escape wheel to meet the resistance of the hairspring. let us imagine the dotted line _a d_, fig. , to represent the center of action of the fork. we can readily see that the fork in a state of rest would stand half way between the two banks from the action of the hairspring, and in the pallet action the force of the escape wheel, one tooth of which rests on the impulse face of a pallet, would be exerted against the elastic force of the hairspring. if the force of the mainspring, as represented by the escape-wheel tooth, is superior to the power of the hairspring, the watch starts itself. the phases of this important part of the detached lever escapement will be fully discussed. about the club-tooth escapement. we will now take up a study of the detached lever escapement as relates to pallet action, with the point specially in view of constructing an escapement which cannot "set" in the pocket, or, in other words, an escapement which will start after winding (if run down) without shaking or any force other than that supplied by the train as impelled by the mainspring. in the drawing at fig. we propose to utilize eleven degrees of escape-wheel action, against ten and a half, as laid down by grossmann. of this eleven degrees we propose to divide the impulse arc of the escape wheel in six and five degrees, six to be derived from the impulse face of the club tooth and five from the impulse plane of the pallet. the pallet action we divide into five and four, with one degree of lock. five degrees of pallet action is derived from the impulse face of the tooth and four from the impulse face of the pallet. the reader will please bear in mind that we do not give these proportions as imperative, because we propose to give the fullest evidence into the reader's hands and enable him to judge for himself, as we do not believe in laying down imperious laws that the reader must accept on our assertion as being correct. our idea is rather to furnish the proper facts and put him in a situation to know for himself. the reader is urged to make the drawings for himself on a large scale, say, an escape wheel " pitch diameter. such drawings will enable him to realize small errors which have been tolerated too much in drawings of this kind. the drawings, as they appear in the cut, are one-fourth the size recommended, and many of the lines fail to show points we desire to call attention to. as for instance, the pallet center at _b_ is tangential to the pitch circle _a_ from the point of tooth contact at _f_. to establish this point we draw the radial lines _a c_ and _a d_ from the escape-wheel center _a_, as shown, by laying off thirty degrees on each side of the intersection of the vertical line _i_ (passing through the centers _a b_) with the arc _a_, and then laying off two and a half degrees on _a_ and establishing the point _f_, and through _f_ from the center _a_ draw the radial line _a f'_. through the point _f_ we draw the tangent line _b' b b''_, and at the intersection of the line _b_ with _i_ we establish the center of our pallet staff at _b_. at two and a half degrees from the point _c_ we lay off two and a half degrees to the right of said point and establish the point _n_, and draw the radial line _a n n'_, which establishes the extent of the arc of angular motion of the escape wheel utilized by the pallet arm. [illustration: fig. ] we have now come to the point where we must exercise our reasoning powers a little. we know the locking angle of the escape-wheel tooth passes on the arc _a_, and if we utilize the impulse face of the tooth for five degrees of pallet or lever motion we must shape it to this end. we draw the short arc _k_ through the point _n_, knowing that the inner angle of the pallet stone must rest on this arc wherever it is situated. as, for instance, when the locking face of the pallet is engaged, the inner angle of the pallet stone must rest somewhere on this arc (_k_) inside of _a_, and the extreme outer angle of the impulse face of the tooth must part with the pallet on this arc _k_. how to locate the pallet action. with the parts related to each other as shown in the cut, to establish where the inner angle of the pallet stone is located in the drawing, we measure down on the arc _k_ five degrees from its intersection with _a_, and establish the point _s_. the line _b b_, fig. , as the reader will see, does not coincide with the intersection of the arcs _a_ and _k_, and to conveniently get at the proper location for the inner angle of our pallet stone, we draw the line _b b'_, which passes through the point _n_ located at the intersection of the arc _a_ with the arc _k_. from _b_ as a center we sweep the short arc _j_ with any convenient radius of which we have a sixty-degree scale, and from the intersection of _b b'_ with _j_ we lay off five degrees and draw the line _b s'_, which establishes the point _s_ on the arc _k_. as stated above, we allow one degree for lock, which we establish on the arc _o_ by laying off one degree on the arc _j_ below its intersection with the line _b b_. we do not show this line in the drawing, from the fact that it comes so near to _b b'_ that it would confuse the reader. above the arc _a_ on the arc _k_ at five degrees from the point _n_ we establish the point _l_, by laying off five degrees on the arc _j_ above the intersection of the line _b b_ with _j_. the point _l_, fig. , establishes where the outer angle of the tooth will pass the arc _k_ to give five degrees of angular motion to the lever. from _a_ as a center we sweep the arc _m_, passing through the point _l_. the intersection of the arc _m_ with the line _a h_ we call the point _r_, and by drawing the right line _r f_ we delineate the impulse face of the tooth. on the arc _o_ and one degree below its intersection with the line _b b_ we establish the point _t_, and by drawing a right line from _t_ to _s_ we delineate the impulse face of our entrance pallet. "action" drawings. one great fault with most of our text books on horology lies in the fact that when dealing with the detached lever escapement the drawings show only the position of the pallets when locked, and many of the conditions assumed are arrived at by mental processes, without making the proper drawings to show the actual relation of the parts at the time such conditions exist. for illustration, it is often urged that there is a time in the action of the club-tooth lever escapement action when the incline on the tooth and the incline on the pallet present parallel surfaces, and consequently endure excessive friction, especially if the oil is a little thickened. we propose to make drawings to show the exact position and relation of the entrance pallet and tooth at three intervals viz: ( ) locked; ( ) the position of the parts when the lever has performed one-half of its angular motion; ( ) when half of the impulse face of the tooth has passed the pallet. the position of the entrance pallet when locked is sufficiently well shown in fig. to give a correct idea of the relations with the entrance pallet; and to conform to statement ( ), as above. we will now delineate the entrance pallet, not in actual contact, however, with the pallet, because if we did so the lines we employed would become confused. the methods we use are such that _we can delineate with absolute correctness either a pallet or tooth at any point in its angular motion_. we have previously given instructions for drawing the pallet locked; and to delineate the pallet after five degrees of angular motion, we have only to conceive that we substitute the line _s'_ for the line _b'_. all angular motions and measurements for pallet actions are from the center of the pallet staff at _b_. as we desire to now delineate the entrance pallet, it has passed through five degrees of angular motion and the inner angle _s_ now lies on the pitch circle of the escape wheel, the angular space between the lines _b' s'_ being five degrees, the line _b''_ reducing the impulse face to four degrees. drawing an escapement to show angular motion. to delineate our locking face we draw a line at right angles to the line _b b''_ from the point _t_, said point being located at the intersection of the arc _o_ with the line _b b''_. to draw a line perpendicular to _b b''_ from the point _t_, we take a convenient space in our dividers and establish on the line _b b''_ the points _x x'_ at equal distances from the point _t_. we open the dividers a little (no special distance) and sweep the short arcs _x'' x'''_, as shown at fig. . through the intersection of the short arcs _x'' x'''_ and to the point _t_ we draw the line _t y_. the reader will see from our former explanations that the line _t y_ represents the neutral plane of the locking face, and that to have the proper draw we must delineate the locking face of our pallet at twelve degrees. to do this we draw the line _t x'_ at twelve degrees to the line _t y_, and proceed to outline our pallet faces as shown. we can now understand, after a moment's thought, that we can delineate the impulse face of a tooth at any point or place we choose by laying off six degrees on the arc _m_, and drawing radial lines from _a_ to embrace such arc. to illustrate, suppose we draw the radial lines _w' w''_ to embrace six degrees on the arc _a_. we make these lines contiguous to the entrance pallet _c_ for convenience only. to delineate the impulse face of the tooth, we draw a line extending from the intersection of the radial line _a' w'_ with the arc _m_ to the intersection of the arc _a_ with the radial line _a w''_. [illustration: fig. ] we next desire to know where contact will take place between the wheel-tooth _d_ and pallet _c_. to determine this we sweep, with our dividers set so one leg rests at the escape-wheel center _a_ and the other at the outer angle _t_ of the entrance pallet, the short arc _t' w_. where this arc intersects the line _w_ (which represents the impulse face of the tooth) is where the outer angle _t_ of the entrance pallet _c_ will touch the impulse face of the tooth. to prove this we draw the radial line _a v_ through the point where the short arc _t t'_ passes through the impulse face _w_ of the tooth _d_. then we continue the line _w_ to _n_, to represent the impulse face of the tooth, and then measure the angle _a w n_ between the lines _w n_ and _v a_, and find it to be approximately sixty-four degrees. we then, by a similar process, measure the angle _a t s'_ and find it to be approximately sixty-six degrees. when contact ensues between the tooth _d_ and pallet _c_ the tooth _d_ will attack the pallet at the point where the radial line _a v_ crosses the tooth face. we have now explained how we can delineate a tooth or pallet at any point of its angular motion, and will next explain how to apply this knowledge in actual practice. practical problems in the lever escapement. to delineate our entrance pallet after one-half of the engaged tooth has passed the inner angle of the entrance pallet, we proceed, as in former illustrations, to establish the escape-wheel center at _a_, and from it sweep the arc _b_, to represent the pitch circle. we next sweep the short arcs _p s_, to represent the arcs through which the inner and outer angles of the entrance pallet move. now, to comply with our statement as above, we must draw the tooth as if half of it has passed the arc _s_. to do this we draw from _a_ as a center the radial line _a j_, passing through the point _s_, said point _s_ being located at the intersection of the arcs _s_ and _b_. the tooth _d_ is to be shown as if one half of it has passed the point _s_; and, consequently, if we lay off three degrees on each side of the point _s_ and establish the points _d m_, we have located on the arc _b_ the angular extent of the tooth to be drawn. to aid in our delineations we draw from the center _a_ the radial lines _a d'_ and _a m'_, passing through the points _d m_. the arc _a_ is next drawn as in former instructions and establishes the length of the addendum of the escape-wheel teeth, the outer angle of our escape-wheel tooth being located at the intersection of the arc _a_ with the radial line _a d'_. as shown in fig. , the impulse planes of the tooth _d_ and pallet _c_ are in contact and, consequently, in parallel planes, as mentioned on page . it is not an easy matter to determine at exactly what degree of angular motion of the escape wheel such condition takes place; because to determine such relation mathematically requires a knowledge of higher mathematics, which would require more study than most practical men would care to bestow, especially as they would have but very little use for such knowledge except for this problem and a few others in dealing with epicycloidal curves for the teeth of wheels. for all practical purposes it will make no difference whether such parallelism takes place after eight or nine degrees of angular motion of the escape wheel subsequent to the locking action. the great point, as far as practical results go, is to determine if it takes place at or near the time the escape wheel meets the greatest resistance from the hairspring. we find by analysis of our drawing that parallelism takes place about the time when the tooth has three degrees of angular motion to make, and the pallet lacks about two degrees of angular movement for the tooth to escape. it is thus evident that the relations, as shown in our drawing, are in favor of the train or mainspring power over hairspring resistance as three is to two, while the average is only as eleven to ten; that is, the escape wheel in its entire effort passes through eleven degrees of angular motion, while the pallets and fork move through ten degrees. the student will thus see we have arranged to give the train-power an advantage where it is most needed to overcome the opposing influence of the hairspring. [illustration: fig. ] as regards the exalted adhesion of the parallel surfaces, we fancy there is more harm feared than really exists, because, to take the worst view of the situation, such parallelism only exists for the briefest duration, in a practical sense, because theoretically these surfaces never slide on each other as parallel planes. mathematically considered, the theoretical plane represented by the impulse face of the tooth approaches parallelism with the plane represented by the impulse face of the pallet, arrives at parallelism and instantly passes away from such parallelism. to draw a pallet in any position. as delineated in fig. , the impulse planes of the tooth and pallet are in contact; but we have it in our power to delineate the pallet at any point we choose between the arcs _p s_. to describe and illustrate the above remark, we say the lines _b e_ and _b f_ embrace five degrees of angular motion of the pallet. now, the impulse plane of the pallet occupies four of these five degrees. we do not draw a radial line from _b_ inside of the line _b e_ to show where the outer angle of the impulse plane commences, but the reader will see that the impulse plane is drawn one degree on the arc _p_ below the line _b e_. we continue the line _h h_ to represent the impulse face of the tooth, and measure the angle _b n h_ and find it to be twenty-seven degrees. now suppose we wish to delineate the entrance pallet as if not in contact with the escape-wheel tooth--for illustration, say, we wish the inner angle of the pallet to be at the point _v_ on the arc _s_. we draw the radial line _b l_ through _v_; and if we draw another line so it passes through the point _v_ at an angle of twenty-seven degrees to _b l_, and continue said line so it crosses the arc _p_, we delineate the impulse face of our pallet. we measure the angle _i n b_, fig. , and find it to be seventy-four degrees; we draw the line _v t_ to the same angle with _v b_, and we define the inner face of our pallet in the new position. we draw a line parallel with _v t_ from the intersection of the line _v y_ with the arc _p_, and we define our locking face. if now we revolve the lines we have just drawn on the center _b_ until the line _l b_ coincides with the line _f b_, we will find the line _y y_ to coincide with _h h_, and the line _v v'_ with _n i_. higher mathematics applied to the lever escapement. we have now instructed the reader how to delineate either tooth or pallet in any conceivable position in which they can be related to each other. probably nothing has afforded more efficient aid to practical mechanics than has been afforded by the graphic solution of abstruce mathematical problems; and if we add to this the means of correction by mathematical calculations which do not involve the highest mathematical acquirements, we have approached pretty close to the actual requirements of the practical watchmaker. [illustration: fig. ] to better explain what we mean, we refer the reader to fig. , where we show preliminary drawings for delineating a lever escapement. we wish to ascertain by the graphic method the distance between the centers of action of the escape wheel and the pallet staff. we make our drawing very carefully to a given scale, as, for instance, the radius of the arc _a_ is ". after the drawing is in the condition shown at fig. we measure the distance on the line _b_ between the points (centers) _a b_, and we thus by graphic means obtain a measure of the distance between _a b_. now, by the use of trigonometry, we have the length of the line _a f_ (radius of the arc _a_) and all the angles given, to find the length of _f b_, or _a b_, or both _f b_ and _a b_. by adopting this policy we can verify the measurements taken from our drawings. suppose we find by the graphic method that the distance between the points _a b_ is . ", and by trigonometrical computation find the distance to be . ". we know from this that there is . " to be accounted for somewhere; but for all practical purposes either measurement should be satisfactory, because our drawing is about thirty-eight times the actual size of the escape wheel of an eighteen-size movement. how the basis for close measurements is obtained. let us further suppose the diameter of our actual escape wheel to be . ", and we were constructing a watch after the lines of our drawing. by "lines," in this case, we mean in the same general form and ratio of parts; as, for illustration, if the distance from the intersection of the arc _a_ with the line _b_ to the point _b_ was one-fifteenth of the diameter of the escape wheel, this ratio would hold good in the actual watch, that is, it would be the one-fifteenth part of . ". again, suppose the diameter of the escape wheel in the large drawing is " and the distance between the centers _a b_ is . "; to obtain the actual distance for the watch with the escape wheel . " diameter, we make a statement in proportion, thus: : . :: . to the actual distance between the pivot holes of the watch. by computation we find the distance to be . ". these proportions will hold good in every part of actual construction. all parts--thickness of the pallet stones, length of pallet arms, etc.--bear the same ratio of proportion. we measure the thickness of the entrance pallet stone on the large drawing and find it to be . "; we make a similar statement to the one above, thus: : . :: . to the actual thickness of the real pallet stone. by computation we find it to be . ". all angular relations are alike, whether in the large drawing or the small pallets to match the actual escape wheel . " in diameter. thus, in the pallet _d_, fig. , the impulse face, as reckoned from _b_ as a center, would occupy four degrees. make a large escapement model. reason would suggest the idea of having the theoretical keep pace and touch with the practical. it has been a grave fault with many writers on horological matters that they did not make and measure the abstractions which they delineated on paper. we do not mean by this to endorse the cavil we so often hear--"oh, that is all right in theory, but it will not work in practice." if theory is right, practice must conform to it. the trouble with many theories is, they do not contain all the elements or factors of the problem. [illustration: fig. ] near the beginning of this treatise we advised our readers to make a large model, and described in detail the complete parts for such a model. what we propose now is to make adjustable the pallets and fork to such a model, in order that we can set them both right and wrong, and thus practically demonstrate a perfect action and also the various faults to which the lever escapement is subject. the pallet arms are shaped as shown at _a_, fig. . the pallets _b b'_ can be made of steel or stone, and for all practical purposes those made of steel answer quite as well, and have the advantage of being cheaper. a plate of sheet brass should be obtained, shaped as shown at _c_, fig. . this plate is of thin brass, about no. , and on it are outlined the pallet arms shown at fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make the pallets adjustable, they are set in thick disks of sheet brass, as shown at _d_, figs. , and . at the center of the plate _c_ is placed a brass disk _e_, fig. , which serves to support the lever shown at fig. . this disk _e_ is permanently attached to the plate _c_. the lever shown at fig. is attached to the disk _e_ by two screws, which pass through the holes _h h_. if we now place the brass pieces _d d'_ on the plate _c_ in such a way that the pallets set in them correspond exactly to the pallets as outlined on the plate _c_, we will find the action of the pallets to be precisely the same as if the pallet arms _a a'_, fig. , were employed. [illustration: fig. ] to enable us to practically experiment with and to fully demonstrate all the problems of lock, draw, drop, etc., we make quite a large hole in _c_ where the screws _b_ come. to explain, if the screws _b b_ were tapped directly into _c_, as they are shown at fig. , we could only turn the disk _d_ on the screw _b_; but if we enlarge the screw hole in _c_ to three or four times the natural diameter, and then place the nut _e_ under _c_ to receive the screw _b_, we can then set the disks _d d'_ and pallets _b b'_ in almost any relation we choose to the escape wheel, and clamp the pallets fast and try the action. we show at fig. a view of the pallet _b'_, disk _d'_ and plate _c_ (seen in the direction of the arrow _c_) as shown in fig. . practical lessons with fork and pallet action. it will be noticed in fig. that the hole _g_ for the pallet staff in the lever is oblong; this is to allow the lever to be shifted back and forth as relates to roller and fork action. we will not bother about this now, and only call attention to the capabilities of such adjustments when required. at the outset we will conceive the fork _f_ attached to the piece _e_ by two screws passing through the holes _h h_, fig. . such an arrangement will insure the fork and roller action keeping right if they are put right at first. fig. will do much to aid in conveying a clear impression to the reader. the idea of the adjustable features of our escapement model is to show the effects of setting the pallets wrong or having them of bad form. for illustration, we make use of a pallet with the angle too acute, as shown at _b'''_, fig. . the problem in hand is to find out by mechanical experiments and tests the consequences of such a change. it is evident that the angular motion of the pallet staff will be increased, and that we shall have to open one of the banking pins to allow the engaging tooth to escape. to trace out _all_ the consequences of this one little change would require a considerable amount of study, and many drawings would have to be made to illustrate the effects which would naturally follow only one such slight change. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] suppose, for illustration, we should make such a change in the pallet stone of the entrance pallet; we have increased the angle between the lines _k l_ by (say) one and a half degrees; by so doing we would increase the lock on the exit pallet to three degrees, provided we were working on a basis of one and a half degrees lock; and if we pushed back the exit pallet so as to have the proper degree of lock (one and a half) on it, the tooth which would next engage the entrance pallet would not lock at all, but would strike the pallet on the impulse instead of on the locking face. again, such a change might cause the jewel pin to strike the horn of the fork, as indicated at the dotted line _m_, fig. . dealing with such and similar abstractions by mental process requires the closest kind of reasoning; and if we attempt to delineate all the complications which follow even such a small change, we will find the job a lengthy one. but with a large model having adjustable parts we provide ourselves with the means for the very best practical solution, and the workman who makes and manipulates such a model will soon master the lever escapement. quiz problems in the detached lever escapement. some years ago a young watchmaker friend of the writer made, at his suggestion, a model of the lever escapement similar to the one described, which he used to "play with," as he termed it--that is, he would set the fork and pallets (which were adjustable) in all sorts of ways, right ways and wrong ways, so he could watch the results. a favorite pastime was to set every part for the best results, which was determined by the arc of vibration of the balance. by this sort of training he soon reached that degree of proficiency where one could no more puzzle him with a bad lever escapement than you could spoil a meal for him by disarranging his knife, fork and spoon. let us, as a practical example, take up the consideration of a short fork. to represent this in our model we take a lever as shown at fig. , with the elongated slot for the pallet staff at _g_. to facilitate the description we reproduce at fig. the figure just mentioned, and also employ the same letters of reference. we fancy everybody who has any knowledge of the lever escapement has an idea of exactly what a "short fork" is, and at the same time it would perhaps puzzle them a good deal to explain the difference between a short fork and a roller too small. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in our practical problems, as solved on a large escapement model, say we first fit our fork of the proper length, and then by the slot _g_ move the lever back a little, leaving the bankings precisely as they were. what are the consequences of this slight change? one of the first results which would display itself would be discovered by the guard pin failing to perform its proper functions. for instance, the guard pin pushed inward against the roller would cause the engaged tooth to pass off the locking face of the pallet, and the fork, instead of returning against the banking, would cause the guard pin to "ride the roller" during the entire excursion of the jewel pin. this fault produces a scraping sound in a watch. suppose we attempt to remedy the fault by bending forward the guard pin _b_, as indicated by the dotted outline _b'_ in fig. , said figure being a side view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _a_. this policy would prevent the engaged pallet from passing off of the locking face of the pallet, but would be followed by the jewel pin not passing fully into the fork, but striking the inside face of the prong of the fork at about the point indicated by the dotted line _m_. we can see that if the prong of the fork was extended to about the length indicated by the outline at _c_, the action would be as it should be. to practically investigate this matter to the best advantage, we need some arrangement by which we can determine the angular motion of the lever and also of the roller and escape wheel. to do this, we provide ourselves with a device which has already been described, but of smaller size, for measuring fork and pallet action. the device to which we allude is shown at figs. , and . fig. shows only the index hand, which is made of steel about / " thick and shaped as shown. the jaws _b''_ are intended to grasp the pallet staff by the notches _e_, and hold by friction. the prongs _l l_ are only to guard the staff so it will readily enter the notch _e_. the circle _d_ is only to enable us to better hold the hand _b_ flat. [illustration: fig. ] how to measure escapement angles. from the center of the notches _e_ to the tip of the index hand _b'_ the length is ". this distance is also the radius of the index arc _c_. this index arc is divided into thirty degrees, with three or four supplementary degrees on each side, as shown. for measuring pallet action we only require ten degrees, and for roller action thirty degrees. the arc _c_, fig. , can be made of brass and is about ½" long by ¼" wide; said arc is mounted on a brass wire about / " diameter, as shown at _k_, fig. , which is a view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _i_. this wire _k_ enters a base shown at _d e_, fig. , which is provided with a set-screw at _j_ for holding the index arc at the proper height to coincide with the hand _b_. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] a good way to get up the parts shown in fig. is to take a disk of thick sheet brass about " in diameter and insert in it a piece of brass wire about ¼" diameter and / " long, through which drill axially a hole to receive the wire _k_. after the jaws _b''_ are clamped on the pallet staff, we set the index arc _c_ so the hand _b'_ will indicate the angular motion of the pallet staff. by placing the index hand _b_ on the balance staff we can get at the exact angular duration of the engagement of the jewel pin in the fork. of course, it is understood that this instrument will also measure the angles of impulse and lock. thus, suppose the entire angular motion of the lever from bank to bank is ten degrees; to determine how much of this is lock and how much impulse, we set the index arc _c_ so that the hand _b'_ marks ten degrees for the entire motion of the fork, and when the escapement is locked we move the fork from its bank and notice by the arc _c_ how many degrees the hand indicated before it passed of its own accord to the opposite bank. if we have more than one and a half degrees of lock we have too much and should seek to remedy it. how? it is just the answers to such questions we propose to give by the aid of our big model. determination of "right" methods. "be sure you are right, then go ahead," was the advice of the celebrated davie crockett. the only trouble in applying this motto to watchmaking is to know when you are right. we have also often heard the remark that there was only one right way, but any number of wrong ways. now we are inclined to think that most of the people who hold to but one right way are chiefly those who believe all ways but their own ways are wrong. iron-bound rules are seldom sound even in ethics, and are utterly impracticable in mechanics. we have seen many workmen who had learned to draw a lever escapement of a given type, and lived firm in the belief that all lever escapements were wrong which were not made so as to conform to this certain method. one workman believes in equidistant lockings, another in circular pallets; each strong in the idea that their particular and peculiar method of designing a lever escapement was the only one to be tolerated. the writer is free to confess that he has seen lever escapements of both types, that is, circular pallets and equidistant lockings, which gave excellent results. another mooted point in the lever escapement is, to decide between the merits of the ratchet and the club-tooth escape wheel. english makers, as a rule, hold to the ratchet tooth, while continental and american manufacturers favor the club tooth. the chief arguments in favor of the ratchet tooth are: (_a_) it will run without oiling the pallets; (_b_) in case the escape wheel is lost or broken it is more readily replaced, as all ratchet-tooth escape wheels are alike, either for circular pallets or equidistant lockings. the objections urged against it are: (_a_) excessive drop; (_b_) the escape wheel, being frail, is liable to be injured by incompetent persons handling it; (_c_) this escapement in many instances does require to have the pallets oiled. escapements compared. (_a_) that a ratchet-tooth escape wheel requires more drop than a club tooth must be admitted without argument, as this form of tooth requires from one-half to three-fourths of a degree more drop than a club tooth; (_b_) as regards the frailty of the teeth we hold this as of small import, as any workman who is competent to repair watches would never injure the delicate teeth of an escape wheel; (_c_) ratchet-tooth lever escapements will occasionally need to have the pallets oiled. the writer is inclined to think that this defect could be remedied by proper care in selecting the stone (ruby or sapphire) and grinding the pallets in such a way that the escape-wheel teeth will not act against the foliations with which all crystalline stones are built up. all workmen who have had an extended experience in repair work are well aware that there are some lever escapements in which the pallets absolutely require oil; others will seem to get along very nicely without. this applies also to american brass club-tooth escapements; hence, we have so much contention about oiling pallets. the writer does not claim to know positively that the pallet stones are at fault because some escapements need oiling, but the fact must admit of explanation some way, and is this not at least a rational solution? all persons who have paid attention to crystallography are aware that crystals are built up, and have lines of cleavage. in the manufacture of hole jewels, care must be taken to work with the axis of crystallization, or a smooth hole cannot be obtained. the advantages claimed for the club-tooth escapement are many; among them may be cited (_a_) the fact that it utilizes a greater arc of impulse of the escape wheel; (_b_) the impulse being divided between the tooth and the pallet, permits greater power to be utilized at the close of the impulse. this feature we have already explained. it is no doubt true that it is more difficult to match a set of pallets with an escape wheel of the club-tooth order than with a ratchet tooth; still the writer thinks that this objection is of but little consequence where a workman knows exactly what to do and how to do it; in other words, is sure he is right, and can then go ahead intelligently. it is claimed by some that all american escape wheels of a given grade are exact duplicates; but, as we have previously stated, this is not exactly the case, as they vary a trifle. so do the pallet jewels vary a little in thickness and in the angles. suppose we put in a new escape wheel and find we have on the entrance pallet too much drop, that is, the tooth which engaged this pallet made a decided movement forward before the tooth which engaged the exit pallet encountered the locking face of said pallet. if we thoroughly understand the lever escapement we can see in an instant if putting in a thicker pallet stone for entrance pallet will remedy the defect. here again we can study the effects of a change in our large model better than in an escapement no larger than is in an ordinary watch. how to set pallet stones. there have been many devices brought forward to aid the workman in adjusting the pallet stones to lever watches. before going into the details of any such device we should thoroughly understand exactly what we desire to accomplish. in setting pallet stones we must take into consideration the relation of the roller and fork action. as has already been explained, the first thing to do is to set the roller and fork action as it should be, without regard in a great degree to pallet action. [illustration: fig. ] to explain, suppose we have a pallet stone to set in a full-plate movement. the first thing to do is to close the bankings so that the jewel pin will not pass out of the slot in the fork on either side; then gradually open the bankings until the jewel pin will pass out. this will be understood by inspecting fig. , where _a a'_ shows a lever fork as if in contact with both banks, and the jewel pin, represented at _b b''_, just passes the angle _a c'_ of the fork. the circle described by the jewel pin _b_ is indicated by the arc _e_. it is well to put a slight friction under the balance rim, in order that we can try the freedom of the guard pin. as a rule, all the guard pin needs is to be free and not touch the roller. the entire point, as far as setting the fork and bankings is concerned, is to have the fork and roller action sound. for all ordinary lever escapements the angular motion of the lever banked in as just described should be _about_ ten degrees. as explained in former examples, if the fork action is entirely sound and the lever only vibrates through an arc of nine degrees, it is quite as well to make the pallets conform to this arc as to make the jewel pin carry the fork through full ten degrees. again, if the lever vibrates through eleven degrees, it is as well to make the pallets conform to this arc. the writer is well aware that many readers will cavil at this idea and insist that the workman should bring all the parts right on the basis of ten degrees fork and lever action. in reply we would say that no escapement is perfect, and it is the duty of the workman to get the best results he can for the money he gets for the job. in the instance given above, of the escapement with nine degrees of lever action, when the fork worked all right, if we undertook to give the fork the ten degrees demanded by the stickler for accuracy we would have to set out the jewel pin or lengthen the fork, and to do either would require more time than it would to bring the pallets to conform to the fork and roller action. it is just this knowing how and the decision to act that makes the difference in the workman who is worth to his employer twelve or twenty-five dollars per week. we have described instruments for measuring the angle of fork and pallet action, but after one has had experience he can judge pretty nearly and then it is seldom necessary to measure the angle of fork action as long as it is near the proper thing, and then bring the pallets to match the escape wheel after the fork and roller action is as it should be--that is, the jewel pin and fork work free, the guard pin has proper freedom, and the fork vibrates through an arc of about ten degrees. usually the workman can manipulate the pallets to match the escape wheel so that the teeth will have the proper lock and drop at the right instant, and again have the correct lock on the next succeeding pallet. the tooth should fall but a slight distance before the tooth next in action locks it, because all the angular motion the escape wheel makes except when in contact with the pallets is just so much lost power, which should go toward giving motion to the balance. there seems to be a little confusion in the use of the word "drop" in horological phrase, as it is used to express the act of parting of the tooth with the pallet. the idea will be seen by inspecting fig. , where we show the tooth _d_ and pallet _c_ as about parting or dropping. when we speak of "banking up to the drop" we mean we set the banking screws so that the teeth will just escape from each pallet. by the term "fall" we mean the arc the tooth passes through before the next pallet is engaged. this action is also illustrated at fig. , where the tooth _d_, after dropping from the pallet _c_, is arrested at the position shown by the dotted outline. we designate this arc by the term "fall," and we measure this motion by its angular extent, as shown by the dotted radial lines _i f_ and _i g_. as we have explained, this fall should only extend through an arc of one and a half degrees, but by close escapement matching this arc can be reduced to one degree, or even a trifle less. [illustration: fig. ] we shall next describe an instrument for holding the escape wheel and pallets while adjusting them. as shown at fig. , the fork _a'_ is banked a little close and the jewel pin as shown would, in some portions, rub on _c'_, making a scraping sound. how to make an escapement matching tool. [illustration: fig. ] a point has now been reached where we can use an escapement matcher to advantage. there are several good ones on the market, but we can make one very cheaply and also add our own improvements. in making one, the first thing to be provided is a movement holder. any of the three-jaw types of such holders will answer, provided the jaws hold a movement plate perfectly parallel with the bed of the holder. this will be better understood by inspecting fig. , which is a side view of a device of this kind seen edgewise in elevation. in this _b_ represents the bed plate, which supports three swing jaws, shown at _c_, figs. and . the watch plate is indicated by the parallel dotted lines _a_, fig. . the seat _a_ of the swing jaws _c_ must hold the watch plate _a_ exactly parallel with the bed plate _b_. in the cheap movement holders these seats (_a_) are apt to be of irregular heights, and must be corrected for our purpose. we will take it for granted that all the seats _a_ are of precisely the same height, measured from _b_, and that a watch plate placed in the jaws _c_ will be held exactly parallel with the said bed _b_. we must next provide two pillars, shown at _d e_, figs. and . these pillars furnish support for sliding centers which hold the top pivots of the escape wheel and pallet staff while we are testing the depths and adjusting the pallet stones. it will be understood that these pillars _d e_ are at right angles to the plane of the bed _b_, in order that the slides like _g n_ on the pillars _d e_ move exactly vertical. in fact, all the parts moving up and down should be accurately made, so as not to destroy the depths taken from the watch plate _a_. suppose, to illustrate, that we place the plate _a_ in position as shown, and insert the cone point _n_, figs. and , in the pivot hole for the pallet staff, adjusting the slide _g n_ so that the cone point rests accurately in said pivot hole. it is further demanded that the parts _i h f g n d_ be so constructed and adjusted that the sliding center _i_ moves truly vertical, and that we can change ends with said center _i_ and place the hollow cone end _m_, fig. , so it will receive the top pivot of the pallet staff and hold it exactly upright. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the idea of the sliding center _i_ is to perfectly supply the place of the opposite plate of the watch and give us exactly the same practical depths as if the parts were in their place between the plates of the movement. the foot of the pillar _d_ has a flange attached, as shown at _f_, which aids in holding it perfectly upright. it is well to cut a screw on _d_ at _d'_, and screw the flange _f_ on such screw and then turn the lower face of _f_ flat to aid in having the pillar _d_ perfectly upright. details of fitting up escapement matcher. it is well to fit the screw _d'_ loosely, so that the flange _f_ will come perfectly flat with the upper surface of the base plate _b_. the slide _g n_ on the pillar _d_ can be made of two pieces of small brass tube, one fitting the pillar _d_ and the other the bar _f_. the slide _g n_ is held in position by the set screw _g_, and the rod _f_ by the set screw _h_. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the piece _h_ can be permanently attached to the rod _f_. we show separate at figs. and the slide _g n_ on an enlarged scale from fig. . fig. is a view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _e_. all joints and movable parts should work free, in order that the center _i_ may be readily and accurately set. the parts _h f_ are shown separate and enlarged at figs. and . the piece _h_ can be made of thick sheet brass securely attached to _f_ in such a way as to bring the v-shaped groove at right angles to the axis of the rod _f_. it is well to make the rod _f_ about / " in diameter, while the sliding center _i_ need not be more than / " in diameter. the cone point _n_ should be hardened to a spring temper and turned to a true cone in an accurately running wire chuck. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the hollow cone end _m_ of _i_ should also be hardened, but this is best done after the hollow cone is turned in. the hardening of both ends should only be at the tips. the sliding center _i_ can be held in the v-shaped groove by two light friction springs, as indicated at the dotted lines _s s_, fig. , or a flat plate of no. or sheet brass of the size of _h_ can be employed, as shown at figs. and , where _o_ represents the plate of no. brass, _p p_ the small screws attaching the plate _o_ to _h_, and _k_ a clamping screw to fasten _i_ in position. it will be found that the two light springs _s s_, fig. will be the most satisfactory. the wire legs, shown at _l_, will aid in making the device set steady. the pillar _e_ is provided with the same slides and other parts as described and illustrated as attached to _d_. the position of the pillars _d_ and _e_ are indicated at fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] we will next tell how to flatten _f_ to keep _h_ exactly vertical. to aid in explanation, we will show (enlarged) at fig. the bar _f_ shown in fig. . in flattening such pieces to prevent turning, we should cut away about two-fifths, as shown at fig. , which is an end view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _c_. in such flattening we should not only cut away two-fifths at one end, but we must preserve this proportion from end to end. to aid in this operation we make a fixed gage of sheet metal, shaped as shown at _i_, fig. . [illustration: fig. ] escapement matching device described. [illustration: fig. ] in practical construction we first file away about two-fifths of _f_ and then grind the flat side on a glass slab to a flat, even surface and, of course, equal thickness from end to end. we reproduce the sleeve _g_ as shown at fig. as if seen from the left and in the direction of the axis of the bar _f_. to prevent the bar _f_ turning on its axis, we insert in the sleeve _g_ a piece of wire of the same size as _f_ but with three-fifths cut away, as shown at _y_, fig. . this piece _y_ is soldered in the sleeve _g_ so its flat face stands vertical. to give service and efficiency to the screw _h_, we thicken the side of the sleeve _f_ by adding the stud _w_, through which the screw _h_ works. a soft metal plug goes between the screw _h_ and the bar _f_, to prevent _f_ being cut up and marred. it will be seen that we can place the top plate of a full-plate movement in the device shown at fig. and set the vertical centers _i_ so the cone points _n_ will rest in the pivot holes of the escape wheel and pallets. it is to be understood that the lower side of the top plate is placed uppermost in the movement holder. [illustration: fig. ] if we now reverse the ends of the centers _i_ and let the pivots of the escape wheel and pallet staff rest in the hollow cones of these centers _i_, we have the escape wheel and pallets in precisely the same position and relation to each other as if the lower plate was in position. it is further to be supposed that the balance is in place and the cock screwed down, although the presence of the balance is not absolutely necessary if the banking screws are set as directed, that is, so the jewel pin will just freely pass in and out of the fork. how to set pallet stones. we have now come to setting or manipulating the pallet stones so they will act in exact conjunction with the fork and roller. to do this we need to have the shellac which holds the pallet stones heated enough to make it plastic. the usual way is to heat a piece of metal and place it in close proximity to the pallets, or to heat a pair of pliers and clamp the pallet arms to soften the cement. of course, it is understood that the movement holder cannot be moved about while the stones are being manipulated. the better way is to set the movement holder on a rather heavy plate of glass or metal, so that the holder will not jostle about; then set the lamp so it will do its duty, and after a little practice the setting of a pair of pallet stones to perfectly perform their functions will take but a few minutes. in fact, if the stones will answer at all, three to five minutes is as much time as one could well devote to the adjustment. the reader will see that if the lever is properly banked all he has to do is to set the stones so the lock, draw and drop are right, when the entire escapement is as it should be, and will need no further trial or manipulating. chapter ii. the cylinder escapement. there is always in mechanical matters an underlying combination of principles and relations of parts known as "theory." we often hear the remark made that such a thing may be all right in theory, but will not work in practice. this statement has no foundation in fact. if a given mechanical device accords strictly with theory, it will come out all right practically. _mental conceptions_ of a machine are what we may term their theoretical existence. when we make drawings of a machine mentally conceived, we commence its mechanical construction, and if we make such drawings to scale, and add a specification stating the materials to be employed, we leave only the merest mechanical details to be carried out; the brain work is done and only finger work remains to be executed. with these preliminary remarks we will take up the consideration of the cylinder escapement invented by robert graham about the year . it is one of the two so-called frictional rest dead-beat escapements which have come into popular use, the other being the duplex. usage, or, to put it in other words, experience derived from the actual manufacture of the cylinder escapement, settled the best forms and proportions of the several parts years ago. still, makers vary slightly on certain lines, which are important for a man who repairs such watches to know and be able to carry out, in order to put them in a condition to perform as intended by the manufacturers. it is not knowing these lines which leaves the average watchmaker so much at sea. he cuts and moves and shifts parts about to see if dumb luck will not supply the correction he does not know how to make. this requisite knowledge does not consist so much in knowing how to file or grind as it does in discriminating where such application of manual dexterity is to be applied. and right here let us make a remark to which we will call attention again later on. the point of this remark lies in the question--how many of the so-called practical watchmakers could tell you what proportion of a cylinder should be cut away from the half shell? how many could explain the difference between the "real" and "apparent" lift? comparatively few, and yet a knowledge of these things is as important for a watchmaker as it is for a surgeon to understand the action of a man's heart or the relations of the muscles to the bones. essential parts of the cylinder escapement. the cylinder escapement is made up of two essential parts, viz.: the escape wheel and the cylinder. the cylinder escape wheel in all modern watches has fifteen teeth, although saunier, in his "modern horology," delineates a twelve-tooth wheel for apparently no better reason than because it was more easily drawn. we, in this treatise, will consider both the theoretical action and the practical construction, but more particularly the repair of this escapement in a thorough and complete manner. at starting out, we will first agree on the names of the several parts of this escapement, and to aid us in this we will refer to the accompanying drawings, in which fig. is a side elevation of a cylinder complete and ready to have a balance staked on to it. fig. shows the cylinder removed from the balance collet. figs. and show the upper and lower plugs removed from the cylinder. fig. is a horizontal section of fig. on the line _i_. fig. is a side view of one tooth of a cylinder escape wheel as if seen in the direction of the arrow _f_ in fig. . fig. is a top view of two teeth of a cylinder escape wheel. the names of the several parts usually employed are as follows: _a._--upper or main shell. _a'._--half shell. _a''._--column. _a'''._--small shell. _b b' b''._--balance collet. _g._--upper plug. _h._--lower plug. _g._--entrance lip of cylinder. _h._--exit lip of cylinder. _c._--banking slot. _c._--tooth. _d._--u arm. _e._--stalk of pillar. _i._--u space. _l._--point of tooth. _k._--heel of tooth. the cylinder escapement has two engagements or actions, during the passage of each tooth; that is, one on the outside of the cylinder and one on the inside of the shell. as we shall show later on, the cylinder escapement is the only positively dead-beat escapement in use, all others, even the duplex, having a slight recoil during the process of escaping. when the tooth of a cylinder escape wheel while performing its functions, strikes the cylinder shell, it rests dead on the outer or inner surface of the half shell until the action of the balance spring has brought the lip of the cylinder so that the impulse face of the tooth commences to impart motion or power to the balance. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] most writers on horological matters term this act the "lift," which name was no doubt acquired when escapements were chiefly confined to pendulum clocks. very little thought on the matter will show any person who inspects fig. that if the tooth _c_ is released or escapes from the inside of the half shell of the cylinder _a_, said cylinder must turn or revolve a little in the direction of the arrow _j_, and also that the next succeeding tooth of the escape wheel will engage the cylinder on the outside of the half shell, falling on the dead or neutral portion of said cylinder, to rest until the hairspring causes the cylinder to turn in the opposite direction and permitting the tooth now resting on the outside of the cylinder to assume the position shown on the drawing. the first problem in our consideration of the theoretical action of the cylinder escapement, is to arrange the parts we have described so as to have these two movements of the escape wheel of like angular values. to explain what we mean by this, we must premise by saying, that as our escape wheel has fifteen teeth and we make each tooth give two impulses in alternate directions we must arrange to have these half-tooth movements exactly alike, or, as stated above, of equal angular values; and also each impulse must convey the same power or force to the balance. all escape wheels of fifteen teeth acting by half impulses must impel the balance during twelve degrees (minus the drop) of escape-wheel action; or, in other words, when a tooth passes out of the cylinder from the position shown at fig. , the form of the impulse face of the tooth and the shape of the exit lip of the cylinder must be such during twelve degrees (less the drop) of the angular motion of the escape wheel. the entire power of such an escape wheel is devoted to giving impulse to the balance. the extent of angular motion of the balance during such impulse is, as previously stated, termed the "lifting angle." this "lifting angle" is by horological writers again divided into real and apparent lifts. this last division is only an imaginary one, as the real lift is the one to be studied and expresses the arc through which the impulse face of the tooth impels the balance during the act of escaping, and so, as we shall subsequently show, should no more be counted than in the detached lever escapement, where a precisely similar condition exists, but is never considered or discussed. we shall for the present take no note of this lifting angle, but confine ourselves to the problem just named, of so arranging and designing our escape-wheel teeth and cylinder that each half of the tooth space shall give equal impulses to the balance with the minimum of drop. to do this we will make a careful drawing of an escape-wheel tooth and cylinder on an enlarged scale; our method of making such drawings will be on a new and original system, which is very simple yet complete. drawing the cylinder escapement. all horological--and for that matter all mechanical--drawings are based on two systems of measurements: ( ) linear extent; ( ) angular movement. for the first measurement we adopt the inch and its decimals; for the second we adopt degrees, minutes and seconds. for measuring the latter the usual plan is to employ a protractor, which serves the double purpose of enabling us to lay off and delineate any angle and also to measure any angle obtained by the graphic method, and it is thus by this graphic method we propose to solve very simply some of the most abstruce problems in horological delineations. as an instance, we propose to draw our cylinder escapement with no other instruments than a steel straight-edge, showing one-hundredths of an inch, and a pair of dividers; the degree measurement being obtained from arcs of sixty degrees of radii, as will be explained further on. in describing the method for drawing the cylinder escapement we shall make a radical departure from the systems usually laid down in text-books, and seek to simplify the formulas which have heretofore been given for such delineations. in considering the cylinder escapement we shall pursue an analytical course and strive to build up from the underlying principles. in the drawings for this purpose we shall commence with one having an escape wheel of " radius, and our first effort will be the primary drawing shown at fig. . here we establish the point _a_ for the center of our escape wheel, and from this center sweep the short arc _a a_ with a " radius, to represent the circumference of our escape wheel. from _a_ we draw the vertical line _a b_, and from the intersection of said line with the arc _a a_ we lay off twelve degree spaces on each side of the line _a b_ on said arc _a_ and establish the points _b c_. from _a_ as a center we draw through the points _b c_ the radial lines _b' c'_. to define the face of the incline to the teeth we set our dividers to the radius of any of the convenient arcs of sixty degrees which we have provided, and sweep the arc _t t_. from the intersection of said arc with the line _a b'_ we lay off on said arc sixty-four degrees and establish the point _g_ and draw the line _b g_. why we take sixty-four degrees for the angle _a b g_ will be explained later on, when we are discussing the angular motion of the cylinder. by dividing the eleventh degree from the point _b_ on the arc _a a_ into thirds and taking two of them, we establish the point _y_ and draw the radial line _a y'_. where this line _a y'_ intersects the line _b g_ we name the point _n_, and in it is located the point of the escape-wheel tooth. that portion of the line _b g_ which lies between the points _b_ and _n_ represents the measure of the inner diameter of the cylinder, and also the length of the chord of the arc which rounds the impulse face of the tooth. we divide the space _b n_ into two equal portions and establish the point _e_, which locates the position of the center of the cylinder. from _a_ as a center and through the point _e_ we sweep the arc _e' e'_, and it is on this line that the points establishing the center of the cylinder will in every instance be located. from _a_ as a center, through the point _n_ we sweep the arc _k_, and on this line we locate the points of the escape-wheel teeth. for delineating the curved impulse faces of the escape-wheel teeth we draw from the point _e_ and at right angles to the line _b g_ the line _e o_. we next take in our dividers the radius of the arc _k_, and setting one leg at either of the points _b_ or _n_, establish with the other leg the point _p'_ on the line _e o_, and from the point _p'_ as a center we sweep the arc _b v n_, which defines the curve of the impulse faces of the teeth. from _a_ as a center through the point _p'_ we sweep the arc _p_, and in all instances where we desire to delineate the curved face of a tooth we locate either the position of the point or the heel of such tooth, and setting one leg of our dividers at such point, the other leg resting on the arc _p_, we establish the center from which to sweep the arc defining the face of said tooth. advantages gained in shaping. the reason for giving a curved form to the impulse face of the teeth of cylinder escape wheels are somewhat intricate, and the problem involves several factors. that there are advantages in so shaping the incline or impulse face is conceded, we believe, by all recent manufacturers. the chief benefit derived from such curved impulse faces will be evident after a little thought and study of the situation and relation of parts as shown in fig. . it will be seen on inspection that the angular motion imparted to the cylinder by the impulse face of the tooth when curved as shown, is greater during the first half of the twelve degrees of escape-wheel action than during the last half, thus giving the escape wheel the advantage at the time the balance spring increases its resistance to the passage of the escape-wheel tooth across the lip of the cylinder. or, in other words, as the ratio of resistance of the balance spring increases, in a like ratio the curved form of the impulse face of the tooth gives greater power to the escape-wheel action in proportion to the angular motion of the escape wheel. hence, in actual service it is found that cylinder watches with curved impulse planes to the escape-wheel teeth are less liable to set in the pocket than the teeth having straight impulse faces. the outer diameter of the cylinder. [illustration: fig. ] to define the remainder of the form of our escape-wheel tooth we will next delineate the heel. to do this we first define the outer diameter of our cylinder, which is the extent from the point _n_ to _c_, and after drawing the line _n c_ we halve the space and establish the point _x_, from which point as a center we sweep the circle _w w_, which defines the outer circumference of our cylinder. with our dividers set to embrace the extent from the point _n_ to the point _c_ we set one leg at the point _b_, and with the other leg establish on the arc _k_ the point _h_. we next draw the line _b h_, and from the point _b_ draw the line _b f_ at right angle to the line _b h_. our object for drawing these lines is to define the heel of our escape-wheel tooth by a right angle line tangent to the circle _w_, from the point _b_; which circle _w_ represents the curve of the outer circumference of the cylinder. we shape the point of the tooth as shown to give it the proper stability, and draw the full line _j_ to a curve from the center _a_. we have now defined the form of the upper face of the tooth. how to delineate the u arms will be taken up later on, as, in the present case, the necessary lines would confuse our drawing. we would here take the opportunity to say that there is a great latitude taken by makers as regards the extent of angular impulse given to the cylinder, or, as it is termed, the "actual lift." this latitude governs to a great extent the angle _a b g_, which we gave as sixty-four degrees in our drawing. it is well to understand that the use of sixty-four degrees is based on no hard-and-fast rules, but varies back and forth, according as a greater or lesser angle of impulse or lift is employed. in practical workshop usage the impulse angle is probably more easily estimated by the ratio between the diameter of the cylinder and the measured (by lineal measure) height of the impulse plane. or, to be more explicit, we measure the radial extent from the center _a_ between the arcs _a k_ on the line _a b_, and use this for comparison with the outer diameter of the cylinder. we can readily see that as we increase the height of the heel of the impulse face of our tooth we must also increase the angle of impulse imparted to the cylinder. with the advantages of accurate micrometer calipers now possessed by the horological student it is an easy matter to get at the angular extent of the real lift of any cylinder. the advantage of such measuring instruments is also made manifest in determining when the proper proportion of the cylinder is cut away for the half shell. [illustration: fig. ] in the older methods of watchmaking it was a very common rule to say, let the height of the incline of the tooth be one-seventh of the outer diameter of the cylinder, and at the same time the trade was furnished with no tools except a clumsy douzieme gage; but with micrometer calipers which read to one-thousandths of an inch such rules can be definitely carried into effect and not left to guess work. let us compare the old method with the new: suppose we have a new cylinder to put in; we have the old escape wheel, but the former cylinder is gone. the old-style workman would take a round broach and calculate the size of the cylinder by finding a place where the broach would just go between the teeth, and the size of the broach at this point was supposed to be the outer diameter of the cylinder. by our method we measure the diameter of the escape wheel in thousandths of an inch, and from this size calculate exactly what the diameter of the new cylinder should be in thousandths of an inch. suppose, to further carry out our comparison, the escape wheel which is in the watch has teeth which have been stoned off to permit the use of a cylinder which was too small inside, or, in fact, of a cylinder too small for the watch: in this case the broach system would only add to the trouble and give us a cylinder which would permit too much inside drop. drawing a cylinder. we have already instructed the pupil how to delineate a cylinder escape wheel tooth and we will next describe how to draw a cylinder. as already stated, the center of the cylinder is placed to coincide with the center of the chord of the arc which defines the impulse face of the tooth. consequently, if we design a cylinder escape wheel tooth as previously described, and setting one leg of our compasses at the point _e_ which is situated at the center of the chord of the arc which defines the impulse face of the tooth and through the points _d_ and _b_ we define the inside of our cylinder. we next divide the chord _d b_ into eight parts and set our dividers to five of these parts, and from _e_ as a center sweep the circle _h_ and define the outside of our cylinder. from _a_ as a center we draw the radial line _a e'_. at right angles to the line _a e'_ and through the point _e_ we draw the line from _e_ as a center, and with our dividers set to the radius of any of the convenient arcs which we have divided into sixty degrees, we sweep the arc _i_. where this arc intersects the line _f_ we term the point _k_, and from this point we lay off on the arc _i_ degrees, and draw the line _l e l'_, which we see coincides with the chord of the impulse face of the tooth. we set our dividers to the same radius by which we sweep the arc _i_ and set one leg at the point _b_ for a center and sweep the arc _j'_. if we measure this arc from the point _j'_ to intersection of said arc _j'_ with the line _l_ we will find it to be sixty-four degrees, which accounts for our taking this number of degrees when we defined the face of our escape-wheel tooth, fig. . there is no reason why we should take twenty-degrees for the angle _k e l_ except that the practical construction of the larger sizes of cylinder watches has established the fact that this is about the right angle to employ, while in smaller watches it frequently runs up as high as twenty-five. although the cylinder is seemingly a very simple escapement, it is really a very abstruce one to follow out so as to become familiar with all of its actions. the cylinder proper considered. [illustration: fig. ] we will now proceed and consider the cylinder proper, and to aid us in understanding the position and relation of the parts we refer to fig. , where we repeat the circles _d_ and _h_, shown in fig. , which represents the inside and outside of the cylinder. we have here also repeated the line _f_ of fig. as it cuts the cylinder in half, that is, divides it into two segments of degrees each. if we conceive of a cylinder in which just one-half is cut away, that is, the lips are bounded by straight radial lines, we can also conceive of the relation and position of the parts shown in fig. . the first position of which we should take cognizance is, the tooth _d_ is moved back to the left so as to rest on the outside of our cylinder. the cylinder is also supposed to stand so that the lips correspond to the line _f_. on pressing the tooth _d_ forward the incline of the tooth would attack the entrance lip of the cylinder at just about the center of the curved impulse face, imparting to the cylinder twenty degrees of angular motion, but the point of the tooth at _d_ would exactly encounter the inner angle of the exit lip, and of course the cylinder would afford no rest for the tooth; hence, we see the importance of not cutting away too much of the half shell of the cylinder. but before we further consider the action of the tooth _d_ in its action as it passes the exit lip of the cylinder we must finish with the action of the tooth on the entrance lip. a very little thought and study of fig. will convince us that the incline of the tooth as it enters the cylinder will commence at _t_, fig. , but at the close of the action the tooth parts from the lip on the inner angle. now it is evident that it would require greater force to propel the cylinder by its inner angle than by the outer one. to compensate for this we round the edge of the entrance lip so that the action of the tooth instead of commencing on the outer angle commences on the center of the edge of the entrance lip and also ends its action on the center of the entrance lip. to give angular extent enough to the shell of the cylinder to allow for rounding and also to afford a secure rest for the tooth inside the cylinder, we add six degrees to the angular extent of the entrance lip of the cylinder shell, as indicated on the arc _o'_, fig. , three of these degrees being absorbed for rounding and three to insure a dead rest for the tooth when it enters the cylinder. why the angular extent is increased. without rounding the exit lip the action of the tooth on its exit would be entirely on the inner angle of the shell. to obviate this it is the usual practice to increase the angular extent of the cylinder ten degrees, as shown on the arc _o'_ between the lines _f_ and _p_, fig. . why we should allow ten degrees on the exit lip and but six degrees on the entrance lip will be understood by observing fig. , where the radial lines _s_ and _r_ show the extent of angular motion of the cylinder, which would be lost if the tooth commenced to act on the inner angle and ended on the outer angle of the exit lip. this arc is a little over six degrees, and if we add a trifle over three degrees for rounding we would account for the ten degrees between the lines _f_ and _p_, fig. . it will now be seen that the angular extent is degrees. if we draw the line _w_ we can see in what proportion the measurement should be made between the outer diameter of the cylinder and the measure of the half shell. it will be seen on measurement that the distance between the center _e_ and the line _w_ is about one-fifteenth part of the outer diameter of the cylinder and consequently with a cylinder which measures / of an inch in diameter, now the half shell should measure half of the entire diameter of the cylinder plus one-fifteenth part of such diameter, or ½ thousandths of an inch. after these proportions are understood and the drawing made, the eye will get accustomed to judging pretty near what is required; but much the safer plan is to measure, where we have the proper tools for doing so. most workmen have an idea that the depth or distance at which the cylinder is set from the escape wheel is a matter of adjustment; while this is true to a certain extent, still there is really only one position for the center of the cylinder, and that is so that the center of the pivot hole coincides exactly with the center of the chord to the curve of the impulse face of the tooth or the point _e_, fig. . any adjustment or moving back and forth of the chariot to change the depth could only be demanded where there was some fault existing in the cylinder or where it had been moved out of its proper place by some genius as an experiment in cylinder depths. it will be evident on observing the drawing at fig. that when the cylinder is performing an arc of vibration, as soon as the entrance lip has passed the point indicated by the radial line _e x_ the point of the escape-wheel tooth will commence to act on the cylinder lip and continue to do so through an arc of forty degrees, or from the lines _x_ to _l_. making a working model. to practically study the action of the cylinder escapement it is well to make a working model. it is not necessary that such a model should contain an entire escape wheel; all that is really required is two teeth cut out of brass of the proper forms and proportions and attached to the end of an arm - / " long with studs riveted to the u arms to support the teeth. this u arm is attached to the long arm we have just mentioned. a flat ring of heavy sheet brass is shaped to represent a short transverse section of a cylinder. this segment is mounted on a yoke which turns on pivots. in making such a model we can employ all the proportions and exact forms of the larger drawings made on a ten-inch radius. such a model becomes of great service in learning the importance of properly shaping the lips of the cylinder. and right here we beg to call attention to the fact that in the ordinary repair shop the proper shape of cylinder lips is entirely neglected. proper shape of cylinder lips. the workman buys a cylinder and whether the proper amount is cut away from the half shell, or the lips, the correct form is entirely ignored, and still careful attention to the form of the cylinder lips adds full ten per cent. to the efficiency of the motive force as applied to the cylinder. in making study drawings of the cylinder escapement it is not necessary to employ paper so large that we can establish upon it the center of the arc which represents the periphery of our escape wheel, as we have at our disposal two plans by which this can be obviated. first, placing a bit of bristol board on our drawing-board in which we can set one leg of our dividers or compasses when we sweep the peripheral arc which we use in our delineations; second, making three arcs in brass or other sheet metal, viz.: the periphery of the escape wheel, the arc passing through the center of the chord of the arc of the impulse face of the tooth, and the arc passing through the point of the escape-wheel tooth. of these plans we favor the one of sticking a bit of cardboard on the drawing board outside of the paper on which we are making our drawing. [illustration: fig. ] at fig. we show the position and relation of the several parts just as the tooth passes into the shell of the cylinder, leaving the lip of the cylinder just as the tooth parted with it. the half shell of the cylinder as shown occupies degrees or the larger arc embraced between the radial lines _k_ and _l_. in drawing the entrance lip the acting face is made almost identical with a radial line except to round the corners for about one-third the thickness of the cylinder shell. no portion, however, of the lip can be considered as a straight line, but might be described as a flattened curve. [illustration: fig. ] a little study of what would be required to get the best results after making such a drawing will aid the pupil in arriving at the proper shape, especially when he remembers that the thickness of the cylinder shell of a twelve-line watch is only about five one-thousandths of an inch. but because the parts are small we should not shirk the problem of getting the most we possibly can out of a cylinder watch. the extent of arc between the radial lines _k f_, as shown in fig. , is four degrees. although in former drawings we showed the angular extent added as six degrees, as we show the lip _m_ in fig. , two degrees are lost in rounding. the space _k f_ on the egress or exit side is intended to be about four degrees, which shows the extent of lock. we show at fig. the tooth _d_ just having passed out of the cylinder, having parted with the exit lip _p_. in making this drawing we proceed as with fig. by establishing a center for our radius of " outside of our drawing paper and drawing the line _a a_ to such center and sweeping the arcs _a b c_. we establish the point _e_, which represents the center of our cylinder, as before. we take the space to represent the radial extent of the outside of our cylinder in our dividers and from _e_ as a center sweep a fine pencil line, represented by the dotted line _t_ in our drawing; and where this circle intersects the arc _a_ we name it the point _s_; and it is at this point the heel of our escape-wheel tooth must part with the exit lip of the cylinder. from _e_ as a center and through the point _s_ we draw the line _e l''_. with our dividers set to the radius of any convenient arc which we have divided into degrees, we sweep the short arc _d'_. the intersection of this arc with the line _e l''_ we name the point _u_; and from _e_ as a center we draw the radial line _e u f'_. we place the letter _f''_ in connection with this line because it (the line) bears the same relations to the half shell of the cylinder shown in fig. that the line _f_ does to the half shell (_d_) shown in fig. . we draw the line _f'' f'''_, fig. , which divides the cylinder into two segments of degrees each. we take the same space in our dividers with which we swept the interior of the cylinder in fig. and sweep the circle _v_, fig. . from _e_ as a center we sweep the short arc _d''_, fig. , and from its intersection of the line _f''_ we lay off six degrees on said arc _d''_ and draw the line _e' k''_, which defines the angular extent of our entrance lip to the half shell of the cylinder in fig. . we draw the full lines of the cylinder as shown. we next delineate the heel of the tooth which has just passed out of the cylinder, as shown at _d'_, fig. . we now have a drawing showing the position of the half shell of the cylinder just as the tooth has passed the exit lip. this drawing also represents the position of the half shell of the cylinder when the tooth rests against it on the outside. if we should make a drawing of an escape-wheel tooth shaped exactly as the one shown at fig. and the point of the tooth resting at _x_, we would show the position of a tooth encountering the cylinder after a tooth which has been engaged in the inside of the shell has passed out. by following the instructions now given, we can delineate a tooth in any of its relations with the cylinder shell. delineating an escape-wheel tooth while in action. we will now go through the operation of delineating an escape-wheel tooth while in action. the position we shall assume is the one in which the cylinder and escape-wheel tooth are in the relation of the passage of half the impulse face of the tooth into the cylinder. to do this is simple enough: we first produce the arcs _a b c_, fig. , as directed, and then proceed to delineate a tooth as in previous instances. to delineate our cylinder in the position we have assumed above, we take the space between the points _e d_ in our dividers and setting one leg at _d_ establish the point _g_, to represent the center of our cylinder. if we then sweep the circle _h_ from the center of _g_ we define the inner surface of the shell of our cylinder. strictly speaking, we have not assumed the position we stated, that is, the impulse face of the tooth as passing half way into the cylinder. to comply strictly with our statement, we divide the chord of the impulse face of the tooth _a_ into eight equal spaces, as shown. now as each of these spaces represent the thickness of the cylinder, if we take in our dividers four of these spaces and half of another, we have the radius of a circle passing the center of the cylinder shell. consequently, if with this space in our dividers we set the leg at _d_, we establish on the arc _b_ the point _i_. we locate the center of our cylinder when one-half of an entering tooth has passed into the cylinder. if now from the new center with our dividers set at four of the spaces into which we have divided the line _e f_ we can sweep a circle representing the inner surface of the cylinder shell, and by setting our dividers to five of these spaces we can, from _i_ as a center, sweep an arc representing the outside of the cylinder shell. for all purposes of practical study the delineation we show at fig. is to be preferred, because, if we carry out all the details we have described, the lines would become confused. we set our dividers at five of the spaces on the line _e f_ and from _g_ as a center sweep the circle _j_, which delineates the outer surface of our cylinder shell. let us now, as we directed in our former instructions, draw a flattened curve to represent the acting surface of the entrance lip of our cylinder as if it were in direct contact with the impulse face of the tooth. to delineate the exit lip we draw from the center _g_, fig. , to the radial line _g k_, said line passing through the point of contact between the tooth and entrance lip of the cylinder. let us next continue this line on the opposite side of the point _g_, as shown at _g k'_, and we thus bisect the cylinder shell into two equal parts of degrees each. as we previously explained, the entire extent of the cylinder half shell is degrees. we now set our dividers to the radius of any convenient arc which we have divided into degrees, and from _g_ as a center sweep the short arc _l l_, and from the intersection of this arc with the line _g k'_ we lay off sixteen degrees on the said arc _l_ and establish the point _n_, from _g_ as a center draw the radial line _g n'_. take ten degrees from the same parent arc and establish the point _m_, then draw the line _g m'_. now the arc on the circles _h j_ between the lines _g n'_ and _g m_ limits the extent of the exit lip of the cylinder and the arc between the lines _g k'_ and _g m'_ represents the locking surface of the cylinder shell. [illustration: fig. ] to delineate the u arms we refer to fig. . here, again, we draw the arc _a b c_ and delineate a tooth as before. from the point _e_ located at the heel of the tooth we draw the radial line _e e'_. from the point _e_ we lay off on the arc _a_ five degrees and establish the point _p_; we halve this space and draw the short radial line _p' s'_ and _p s_. from the point _e_ on the arc _a_ we lay off twenty-four degrees and establish the point _t_, which locates the heel of the next tooth in advance of _a_. at two and a half degrees to the right of the point _t_ we locate the point _r_ and draw the short radial line _r s_. on the arc _b_ and half way between the lines _p s_ and _r s_, we establish the point _u_, and from it as a center we sweep the arc _v_ defining the curve of the u arms. we have now given minute instructions for drawing a cylinder escapement in all its details except the extent of the banking slot of the cylinder, which is usually made to embrace an angular extent of degrees; consequently, the pillar of the cylinder will not measure more than ninety degrees of angular extent. there is no escapement constructed where carefully-made drawings tend more to perfect knowledge of the action than the cylinder. but it is necessary with the pupil to institute a careful analysis of the actions involved. in writing on a subject of this kind it is extremely perplexing to know when to stop; not that there is so much danger of saying too much as there is not having the words read with attention. as an illustration, let us consider the subject of depth between the cylinder and the escape wheel. as previously stated, degrees of cylinder shell should be employed; but suppose we find a watch in which the half shell has had too much cut away, so the tooth on entering the half shell after parting with the entrance lip does not strike dead on the inside of the shell, but encounters the edge of the exit lip. in this case the impulse of the balance would cause the tooth to slightly retrograde and the watch would go but would lack a good motion. in such an instance a very slight advance of the chariot would remedy the fault--not perfectly remedy it, but patch up, so to speak--and the watch would run. [illustration: fig. ] in this day, fine cylinder watches are not made, and only the common kind are met with, and for this reason the student should familiarize himself with all the imaginary faults which could occur from bad construction. the best way to do this is to delineate what he (the student) knows to be a faulty escapement, as, for instance, a cylinder in which too much of the half shell is cut away; but in every instance let the tooth be of the correct form. then delineate an escapement in which the cylinder is correct but the teeth faulty; also change the thickness of the cylinder shell, so as to make the teeth too short. this sort of practice makes the pupil think and study and he will acquire a knowledge which will never be forgotten, but always be present to aid him in the puzzles to which the practical watchmaker is every day subject. the ability to solve these perplexing problems determines in a great degree the worth of a man to his employer, in addition to establishing his reputation as a skilled workman. the question is frequently asked, "how can i profitably employ myself in spare time?" it would seem that a watchmaker could do no better than to carefully study matters horological, striving constantly to attain a greater degree of perfection, for by so doing his earning capacity will undoubtedly be increased. chapter iii. the chronometer escapement. undoubtedly "the detent," or, as it is usually termed, "the chronometer escapement," is the most perfect of any of our portable time measurers. although the marine chronometer is in a sense a portable timepiece, still it is not, like a pocket watch, capable of being adjusted to positions. as we are all aware, the detent escapement is used in fine pocket watches, still the general feeling of manufacturers is not favorable to it. much of this feeling no doubt is owing to the mechanical difficulties presented in repairing the chronometer escapements when the detent is broken, and the fact that the spring detent could not be adjusted to position. we shall have occasion to speak of position adjustments as relate to the chronometer escapement later on. advantages of the chronometer. we will proceed now to consider briefly the advantages the detent escapement has over all others. it was soon discovered in constructing portable timepieces, that to obtain the best results the vibrations of the balance should be as free as possible from any control or influence except at such times as it received the necessary impulse to maintain the vibrations at a constant arc. this want undoubtedly led to the invention of the detent escapement. the early escapements were all frictional escapements, i.e., the balance staff was never free from the influence of the train. the verge escapement, which was undoubtedly the first employed, was constantly in contact with the escape wheel, and was what is known as a "recoiling beat," that is, the contact of the pallets actually caused the escape wheel to recoil or turn back. such escapements were too much influenced by the train, and any increase in power caused the timepiece to gain. the first attempt to correct this imperfection led to the invention and introduction of the fusee, which enabled the watchmaker to obtain from a coiled spring nearly equal power during the entire period of action. the next step in advance was the "dead-beat escapement," which included the cylinder and duplex. in these frictional escapements the balance staff locked the train while the balance performed its arc of vibration. frictional escapements in high favor. these frictional escapements held favor with many eminent watchmakers even after the introduction of the detached escapements. it is no more than natural we should inquire, why? the idea with the advocates of the frictional rest escapements was, the friction of the tooth acted as a _corrective_, and led no doubt to the introduction of going-barrel watches. to illustrate, suppose in a cylinder watch we increase the motive power, such increase of power would not, as in the verge escapement, increase the rapidity of the vibrations; it might, in fact, cause the timepiece to run slower from the increased friction of the escape-wheel tooth on the cylinder; also, in the duplex escapement the friction of the locking tooth on the staff retards the vibrations. dr. hooke, the inventor of the balance spring, soon discovered it could be manipulated to isochronism, i.e., so arcs of different extent would be formed in equal time. of course, the friction-rest escapement requiring a spring to possess different properties from one which would be isochronal with a perfectly detached escapement, these two frictional escapements also differing, the duplex requiring other properties from what would isochronize a spring for a cylinder escapement. although pocket watches with duplex and cylinder escapements having balances compensated for heat and cold and balance springs adjusted to isochronism gave very good results, careful makers were satisfied that an escapement in which the balance was detached and free to act during the greater proportion of the arc of vibration and uncontrolled by any cause, would do still better, and this led to the detent escapement. faults in the detent escapement. as stated previously, the detent escapement having pronounced faults in positions which held it back, it is probable it would never have been employed in pocket watches to any extent if it had not acquired such a high reputation in marine chronometers. let us now analyze the influences which surround the detent escapement in a marine chronometer and take account of the causes which are combined to make it an accurate time measurer, and also take cognizance of other interfering causes which have a tendency to prevent desired results. first, we will imagine a balance with its spring such as we find in fine marine chronometers. it has small pivots running in highly-polished jewels; such pivots are perfectly cylindrical, and no larger than are absolutely necessary to endure the task imposed upon them--of carrying the weight of the balance and endure careful handling. to afford the necessary vibrations a spring is fitted, usually of a helical form, so disposed as to cause the balance to vibrate in arcs back and forth in equal time, _provided these arcs are of equal extent_. it is now to be taken note of that we have it at our disposal and option to make these arcs equal in time duration, i.e., to make the long or short arcs the quickest or to synchronize them. we can readily comprehend we have now established a very perfect measure of short intervals of time. we can also see if we provide the means of maintaining these vibrations and counting them we should possess the means of counting the flights of time with great accuracy. the conditions which surround our balance are very constant, the small pivots turning in fine hard jewels lubricated with an oil on which exposure to the action of the air has little effect, leaves but few influences which can interfere with the regular action of our balance. we add to the influences an adjustable correction for the disturbances of heat and cold, and we are convinced that but little could be added. antagonistic influences. in this combination we have pitted two antagonistic forces against each other, viz., the elasticity of the spring and the weight and inertia of the balance; both forces are theoretically constant and should produce constant results. the mechanical part of the problem is simply to afford these two forces perfect facilities to act on each other and compel each to realize its full effect. we must also devise mechanical means to record the duration of each conflict, that is, the time length of each vibration. many years have been spent in experimenting to arrive at the best propositions to employ for the several parts to obtain the best practical results. consequently, in designing a chronometer escapement we must not only draw the parts to a certain form, but consider the quality and weight of material to employ. to illustrate what we have just said, suppose, in drawing an escape wheel, we must not only delineate the proper angle for the acting face of the tooth, but must also take cognizance of the thickness of the tooth. by thickness we mean the measurement of extent of the tooth in the direction of the axis of the escape wheel. an escape-wheel tooth might be of the best form to act in conveying power to the balance and yet by being too thin soon wear or produce excessive friction. how thick an escape wheel should be to produce best results, is one of the many matters settled only by actual workshop experience. factors that must be considered. even this experience is in every instance modified by other influences. to illustrate: let us suppose in the ordinary to-day marine chronometer the escape-wheel teeth exerted a given average force, which we set down as so many grains. now, if we should employ other material than hammer-hardened brass for an escape wheel it would modify the thickness; also, if we should decrease the motive power and increase the arc of impulse. or, if we should diminish the extent of the impulse arc and add to the motive force, every change would have a controlling influence. in the designs we shall employ, it is our purpose to follow such proportions as have been adopted by our best makers, in all respects, including form, size and material. we would say, however, there has been but little deviation with our principal manufacturers of marine chronometers for the last twenty years as regards the general principle on which they were constructed, the chief aim being to excel in the perfection of the several parts and the care taken in the several adjustments. before we proceed to take up the details of constructing a chronometer escapement we had better master the names for the several parts. we show at fig. a complete plan of a chronometer escapement as if seen from the back, which is in reality the front or dial side of the "top plate." the chronometer escapement consists of four chief or principal parts, viz.: the escape wheel, a portion of which is shown at _a_; the impulse roller _b_; unlocking or discharging roller _c_, and the detent _d_. these principal parts are made up of sub-parts: thus, the escape wheel is composed of arms, teeth, recess and collet, the recess being the portion of the escape wheel sunk, to enable us to get wide teeth actions on the impulse pallet. the collet is a brass bush on which the wheel is set to afford better support to the escape wheel than could be obtained by the thinned wheel if driven directly on the pinion arbor. the impulse roller is composed of a cylindrical steel collet _b_, the impulse pallet _d_ (some call it the impulse stone), the safety recess _b b_. the diameter of the impulse collet is usually one-half that of the escape wheel. this impulse roller is staked directly on the balance staff, and its perfection of position assured by resting against the foot of the shoulder to which the balance is secured. this will be understood by inspecting fig. , which is a vertical longitudinal section of a chronometer balance staff, the lower side of the impulse roller being cupped out at _c_ with a ball grinder and finished a ball polish. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] it will be seen the impulse roller is staked flat against the hub _e_ of the balance staff. the unlocking roller, or, as it is also called, the discharging roller, _c_, is usually thinner than the impulse roller and has a jewel similar to the impulse jewel _a_ shown at _f_. this roller is fitted by friction to the lower part of the balance staff and for additional security has a pipe or short socket _e_ which embraces the balance staff at _g_. the pipe _e_ is usually flattened on opposite sides to admit of employing a special wrench for turning the discharging roller in adjusting the jewel for opening the escapement at the proper instant to permit the escape wheel to act on the impulse jewel _a_. the parts which go to make up the detent _d_ consist of the "detent foot" _f_, the detent spring _h_, the detent blade _i_, the jewel pipe _j_, the locking jewel (or stone) _s_, the "horn" of the detent _k_, the "gold spring" (also called the auxiliary and lifting spring) _m_. this lifting or gold spring _m_ should be made as light and thin as possible and stand careful handling. we cannot impress on our readers too much the importance of making a chronometer detent light. very few detents, even from the hands of our best makers, are as light as they might be. we should in such construction have very little care for clumsy workmen who may have to repair such mechanism. this feature should not enter into consideration. we should only be influenced by the feeling that we are working for best results, and it is acting under this influence that we devote so much time to establishing a correct idea of the underlying principles involved in a marine chronometer, instead of proceeding directly to the drawing of such an escapement and give empirical rules for the length of this or the diameter of that. as, for instance, in finishing the detent spring _h_, suppose we read in text books the spring should be reduced in thickness, so that a weight of one pennyweight suspended from the pipe _j_ will deflect the detent ¼". this is a rule well enough for people employed in a chronometer factory, but for the horological student such fixed rules (even if remembered) would be of small use. what the student requires is sound knowledge of the "whys," in order that he may be able to thoroughly master this escapement. functions of the detent. we can see, after a brief analysis of the principles involved, that the functions required of the detent _d_ are to lock the escape wheel _a_ and hold it while the balance performs its excursion, and that the detent or recovering spring _h_ must have sufficient strength and power to perform two functions: ( ) return the locking stone _s_ back to the proper position to arrest and hold the escape wheel; ( ) the spring _h_ must also be able to resist, without buckling or cockling, the thrust of the escape wheel, represented by the arrows _p o_. now we can readily understand that the lighter we make the parts _i j k m_, the weaker the spring _h_ can be. you say, perhaps, if we make it too weak it will be liable to buckle under the pressure of the escape wheel; this, in turn, will depend in a great measure on the condition of the spring _h_. suppose we have it straight when we put it in position, it will then have no stress to keep it pressed to the holding, stop or banking screw, which regulates the lock of the tooth. to obtain this stress we set the foot _f_ of the detent around to the position indicated by the dotted lines _r_ and _n_, and we get the proper tension on the detent spring to effect the lock, or rather of the detent in time to lock the escape wheel; but the spring _h_, instead of being perfectly straight, is bent and consequently not in a condition to stand the thrust of the escape wheel, indicated by the arrows _o p_. obtaining the best conditions. now the true way to obtain the best conditions is to give the spring _h_ a set curvature before we put it in place, and then when the detent is in the proper position the spring _h_ will have tension enough on it to bring the jewel _s_ against the stop screw, which regulates the lock, and still be perfectly straight. this matter is of so much importance that we will give further explanation. suppose we bend the detent spring _h_ so it is curved to the dotted line _t_, fig. , and then the foot _f_ would assume the position indicated at the dotted line _r_. we next imagine the foot _f_ to be put in the position shown by the full lines, the spring _h_ will become straight again and in perfect shape to resist the thrust of the escape wheel. little "ways and methods" like the above have long been known to the trade, but for some reason are never mentioned in our text books. a detent spring / " thick and / " wide will stand the thrust for any well-constructed marine chronometer in existence, and yet it will not require half a pennyweight to deflect it one-fourth of an inch. it is a good rule to make the length of the detent from the foot _f_ to the center of the locking jewel pipe _j_ equal to the diameter of the escape wheel, and the length of the detent spring _h_ two-sevenths of this distance. the length of the horn _k_ is determined by the graphic plan and can be taken from the plotted plan. the end, however, should approach as near to the discharging jewel as possible and not absolutely touch. the discharging (gold) spring _m_ is attached to the blade _i_ of the detent with a small screw _l_ cut in a no. hole of a swiss plate. while there should be a slight increase in thickness in the detent blade at _w_, where the gold spring is attached, still it should be no more than to separate the gold spring _m_ from the detent blade _i_. important considerations. it is important the spring should be absolutely free and not touch the detent except at its point of attachment at _w_ and to rest against the end of the horn _k_, and the extreme end of _k_, where the gold spring rests, should only be what we may term a dull or thick edge. the end of the horn _k_ (shown at _y_) is best made, for convenience of elegant construction, square--that is, the part _y_ turns at right angles to _k_ and is made thicker than _k_ and at the same time deeper; or, to make a comparison to a clumsy article, _y_ is like the head of a nail, which is all on one side. some makers bend the horn _k_ to a curve and allow the end of the horn to arrest or stop the gold spring; but as it is important the entire detent should be as light as possible, the square end best answers this purpose. the banking placed at _j_ should arrest the detent as thrown back by the spring _h_ at the "point of percussion." this point of percussion is a certain point in a moving mass where the greatest effort is produced and would be somewhere near the point _x_, in a bar _g_ turning on a pivot at _z_, fig. . it will be evident, on inspection of this figure, if the bar _g_ was turning on the center _z_ it would not give the hardest impact at the end _v_, as parts of its force would be expended at the center _z_. [illustration: fig. ] decisions arrived at by experience. experience has decided that the impulse roller should be about half the diameter of the escape wheel, and experience has also decided that an escape wheel of fifteen teeth has the greatest number of advantages; also, that the balance should make , vibrations in one hour. we will accept these proportions and conditions as best, from the fact that they are now almost universally adopted by our best chronometer makers. although it would seem as if these proportions should have established themselves earlier among practical men, we shall in these drawings confine ourselves to the graphic plan, considering it preferable. in the practical detail drawing we advise the employment of the scale given, i.e., delineating an escape wheel " in diameter. the drawings which accompany the description are one-fourth of this size, for the sake of convenience in copying. with an escape wheel of fifteen teeth the impulse arc is exactly twenty-four degrees, and of course the periphery of the impulse roller must intersect the periphery of the escape wheel for this arc ( °). the circles _a b_, fig. , represent the peripheries of these two mobiles, and the problem in hand is to locate and define the position of the two centers _a c_. these, of course, are not separated, the sum of the two radii, i.e., " + ½" (in the large drawing), as these circles intersect, as shown at _d_. arithmetically considered, the problem is quite difficult, but graphically, simple enough. after we have swept the circle _a_ with a radius of ", we draw the radial line _a f_, said line extending beyond the circle _a_. locating the center of the balance staff. somewhere on this line is located the center of the balance staff, and it is the problem in hand to locate or establish this center. now, it is known the circles which define the peripheries of the escape wheel and the impulse roller intersect at _e e^ _. we can establish on our circle _a_ where these intersections take place by laying off twelve degrees, one-half of the impulse arc on each side of the line of centers _a f_ on this circle and establishing the points _e e^ _. these points _e e^ _ being located at the intersection of the circles _a_ and _b_, must be at the respective distances of " and ½" distance from the center of the circles _a b_; consequently, if we set our dividers at ½" and place one leg at _e_ and sweep the short arc _g^ _, and repeat this process when one leg of the dividers is set at _e^ _, the intersection of the short arcs _g_ and _g^ _ will locate the center of our balance staff. we have now our two centers established, whose peripheries are in the relation of to . to know, in the chronometer which we are supposed to be constructing, the exact distance apart at which to plant the hole jewels for our two mobiles, i.e., escape wheel and balance staff, we measure carefully on our drawing the distance from _a_ to _c_ (the latter we having just established) and make our statement in the rule of three, as follows: as ( ) the diameter of drawn escape wheel is to our real escape wheel so is the measured distance on our drawing to the real distance in the chronometer we are constructing. it is well to use great care in the large drawing to obtain great accuracy, and make said large drawing on a sheet of metal. this course is justified by the degree of perfection to which measuring tools have arrived in this day. it will be found on measurement of the arc of the circle _b_, embraced between the intersections _e e^ _, that it is about forty-eight degrees. how much of this we can utilize in our escapement will depend very much on the perfection and accuracy of construction. [illustration: fig. ] we show at fig. three teeth of an escape wheel, together with the locking jewel _e_ and impulse jewel _d_. now, while theoretically we could commence the impulse as soon as the impulse jewel _d_ was inside of the circle representing the periphery of the escape wheel, still, in practical construction, we must allow for contingencies. before it is safe for the escape wheel to attack the impulse jewel, said jewel must be safely inside of said escape wheel periphery, in order that the attacking tooth shall act with certainty and its full effect. a good deal of thought and study can be bestowed to great advantage on the "action" of a chronometer escapement. let us examine the conditions involved. we show in fig. the impulse jewel _d_ just passing inside the circle of the periphery of the escape wheel. now the attendant conditions are these: the escape wheel is locked fast and perfectly dead, and in the effort of unlocking it has to first turn backward against the effort of the mainspring; the power of force required for this effort is derived from the balance in which is stored up, so to speak, power from impulses imparted to the balance by former efforts of the escape wheel. in actual fact, the balance at the time the unlocking takes place is moving with nearly its greatest peripheral velocity and, as stated above, the escape wheel is at rest. here comes a very delicate problem as regards setting the unlocking or discharging jewel. let us first suppose we set the discharging jewel so the locking jewel frees its tooth at the exact instant the impulse jewel is inside the periphery of the escape wheel. as just stated, the escape wheel is not only dead but actually moving back at the time the release takes place. now, it is evident that the escape wheel requires an appreciable time to move forward and attack the impulse jewel, and during this appreciable time the impulse jewel has been moving forward inside of the arc _a a_, which represents the periphery of the escape wheel. the proper consideration of this problem is of more importance in chronometer making than we might at first thought have imagined, consequently, we shall dwell upon it at some length. how to set the discharging jewel. [illustration: fig. ] theoretically, the escape-wheel tooth should encounter the impulse jewel at the time--instant--both are moving with the same velocity. it is evident then that there can be no special rule given for this, i.e., how to set the discharging jewel so it will free the tooth at exactly the proper instant, from the fact that one chronometer train may be much slower in getting to move forward from said train being heavy and clumsy in construction. let us make an experiment with a real chronometer in illustration of our problem. to do so we remove our balance spring and place the balance in position. if we start the balance revolving in the direction of the arrow _y_, fig. , it will cause the escapement to be unlocked and the balance to turn rapidly in one direction and with increasing velocity until, in fact, the escape wheel has but very little effect on the impulse jewel; in fact, we could, by applying some outside source of power--like blowing with a blow pipe on the balance--cause the impulse jewel to pass in advance of the escape wheel; that is, the escape-wheel tooth would not be able to catch the impulse jewel during the entire impulse arc. let us suppose, now, we set our unlocking or discharging jewel in advance, that is, so the escapement is really unlocked a little before the setting parts are in the positions and relations shown in fig. . under the new conditions the escape wheel would commence to move and get sufficient velocity on it to act on the impulse jewel as soon as it was inside of the periphery of the escape wheel. if the balance was turned slowly now the tooth of the escape wheel would not encounter the impulse jewel at all, but fall into the passing hollow _n_; but if we give the balance a high velocity, the tooth would again encounter and act upon the jewel in the proper manner. experienced adjusters of chronometers can tell by listening if the escape-wheel tooth attacks the impulse jewel properly, i.e., when both are moving with similar velocities. the true sound indicating correct action is only given when the balance has its maximum arc of vibration, which should be about ¼ revolutions, or perform an arc of degrees on each excursion. fig. is a side view of fig. seen in the direction of the arrow _y_. we have mentioned a chariot to which the detent is attached, but we shall make no attempt to show it in the accompanying drawings, as it really has no relation to the problem in hand; i.e., explaining the action of the chronometer escapement, as the chariot relates entirely to the convenience of setting and adjusting the relation of the second parts. the size, or better, say, the inside diameter of the pipe at _c_, fig. , which holds the locking jewel, should be about one-third of a tooth space, and the jewel made to fit perfectly. usually, jewelmakers have a tendency to make this jewel too frail, cutting away the jewel back of the releasing angle (_n_, fig. ) too much. a good form of locking stone. a very practical form for a locking stone is shown in transverse section at fig. . in construction it is a piece of ruby, or, better, sapphire cut to coincide to its axis of crystallization, into first a solid cylinder nicely fitting the pipe _c_ and finished with an after-grinding, cutting away four-tenths of the cylinder, as shown at _i_, fig. . here the line _m_ represents the locking face of the jewel and the line _o_ the clearance to free the escaping tooth, the angle at _n_ being about fifty-four degrees. this angle (_n_) should leave the rounding of the stone intact, that is, the rounding of the angle should be left and not made after the flat faces _m o_ are ground and polished. the circular space at _i_ is filled with an aluminum pin. the sizes shown are of about the right relative proportions; but we feel it well to repeat the statement made previously, to the effect that the detent to a chronometer cannot well be made too light. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the so-called gold spring shown at _h_, figs. and , should also be as light as is consistent with due strength and can be made of the composite metal used for gold filled goods, as the only real benefit to be derived from employing gold is to avoid the necessity of applying oil to any part of the escapement. if such gold metal is employed, after hammering to obtain the greatest possible elasticity to the spring, the gold is filed away, except where the spring is acted upon by the discharging jewel _h_. we have previously mentioned the importance of avoiding wide, flat contacts between all acting surfaces, like where the gold spring rests on the horn of the detent at _p_; also where the detent banks on the banking screw, shown at _g_, fig. . under this principle the impact of the face of the discharging jewel with the end of the gold spring should be confined to as small a surface as is consistent with what will not produce abrasive action. the gold spring is shaped as shown at fig. and loses, in a measure, under the pipe of the locking jewel, a little more than one-half of the pipe below the blade of the detent being cut away, as shown in fig. , where the lines _r r_ show the extent of the part of the pipe which banks against the banking screw _g_. in this place even, only the curved surface of the outside of the pipe touches the screw _g_, again avoiding contact of broad surfaces. we show the gold spring separate at fig. . a slight torsion or twist is given to the gold spring to cause it to bend with a true curvature in the act of allowing the discharging pallet to pass back after unlocking. if the gold spring is filed and stoned to the right flexure, that is, the thinnest point properly placed or, say, located, the gold spring will not continue in contact with the discharging pallet any longer time or through a greater arc than during the process of unlocking. to make this statement better understood, let us suppose the weakest part of the gold spring _h_ is opposite the arrow _y_, fig. , it will readily be understood the contact of the discharging stone _h_ would continue longer than if the point of greatest (or easiest) flexure was nearer to the pipe _c_. if the end _d^ _ of the horn of the detent is as near as it should be to the discharging stone there need be no fear but the escapement will be unlocked. the horn _d^ _ of the detent should be bent until five degrees of angular motion of the balance will unlock the escape, and the contact of discharging jewel _h_ should be made without engaging friction. this condition can be determined by observing if the jewel seems to slide up (toward the pipe _c_) on the gold spring after contact. some adjusters set the jewel _j_, figs. and , in such a way that the tooth rests close to the base; such adjusters claiming this course has a tendency to avoid cockling or buckling of the detent spring _e_. such adjusters also set the impulse jewel slightly oblique, so as to lean on the opposite angle of the tooth. our advice is to set both stones in places corresponding to the axis of the balance staff, and the escape-wheel mobiles. the detent spring. [illustration: fig. ] it will be noticed we have made the detent spring _e_ pretty wide and extended it well above the blade of the detent. by shaping the detent in this way nearly all the tendency of the spring _e_ to cockle is annulled. we would beg to add to what we said in regard to setting jewels obliquely. we are unable to understand the advantage of wide-faced stones and deep teeth when we do not take advantage of the wide surfaces which we assert are important. we guarantee that with a detent and spring made as we show, there will be no tendency to cockle, or if there is, it will be too feeble to even display itself. those who have had extended experience with chronometers cannot fail to have noticed a gummy secretion which accumulates on the impulse and discharging stones of a chronometer, although no oil is ever applied to them. we imagine this coating is derived from the oil applied to the pivots, which certainly evaporates, passes into vapor, or the remaining oil could not become gummy. we would advise, when setting jewels (we mean the locking, impulse and discharging jewels), to employ no more shellac than is absolutely necessary, depending chiefly on metallic contact for security. details of construction. we will now say a few words about the number of beats to the hour for a box or marine chronometer to make to give the best results. experience shows that slow but most perfect construction has settled that , , or four vibrations of the balance to a second, as the proper number, the weight of balance, including balance proper and movable weights, to be about ½ pennyweights, and the compensating curb about - / " in diameter. the escape wheel, / " in diameter and recessed so as to be as light as possible, should have sufficient strength to perform its functions properly. the thickness or, more properly, the face extent of the tooth, measured in the direction of the axis of the escape wheel, should be about / ". the recessing should extend half way up the radial back of the tooth at _t_. the curvature of the back of the teeth is produced with the same radii as the impulse roller. to locate the center from which the arc which defines the back of the teeth is swept, we halve the space between the teeth _a^ _ and _a^ _ and establish the point _n_, fig. , and with our dividers set to sweep the circle representing the impulse roller, we sweep an arc passing the point of the tooth _a^ _ and _u_, thus locating the center _w_. from the center _k_ of the escape wheel we sweep a complete circle, a portion of which is represented by the arc _w v_. for delineating other teeth we set one leg of our dividers to agree with the point of the tooth and the other leg on the circle _w v_ and produce an arc like _z u_. original designing of the escapement. on delineating our chronometer escapement shown at fig. we have followed no text-book authority, but have drawn it according to such requirements as are essential to obtain the best results. an escapement of any kind is only a machine, and merely requires in its construction a combination of sound mechanical principles. neither saunier nor britten, in their works, give instructions for drawing this escapement which will bear close analysis. it is not our intention, however, to criticise these authors, except we can present better methods and give correct systems. tangential lockings. it has been a matter of great contention with makers of chronometer and also lever escapements as to the advantages of "tangential lockings." by this term is meant a locking the same as is shown at _c_, fig. , and means a detent planted at right angles to a line radial to the escape-wheel axis, said radial line passing through the point of the escape-wheel tooth resting on the locking jewel. in escapements not set tangential, the detent is pushed forward in the direction of the arrow _x_ about half a tooth space. britten, in his "hand-book," gives a drawing of such an escapement. we claim the chief advantage of tangential locking to lie in the action of the escape-wheel teeth, both on the impulse stone and also on the locking stone of the detent. saunier, in his "modern horology," gives the inclination of the front fan of the escape-wheel teeth as being at an angle of twenty-seven degrees to a radial line. britten says twenty degrees, and also employs a non-tangential locking. our drawing is on an angle of twenty-eight degrees, which is as low as is safe, as we shall proceed to demonstrate. for establishing the angle of an escape-wheel tooth we draw the line _c d_, from the point of the escape-wheel tooth resting on the locking stone shown at _c_ at an angle of twenty-eight degrees to radial line _c k_. we have already discussed how to locate and plant the center of the balance staff. we shall not show in this drawing the angular motion of the escape wheel, but delineate at the radial lines _c e_ and _c f_ of the arc of the balance during the extent of its implication with the periphery of the escape wheel, which arc is one of about forty-eight degrees. of this angle but forty-three degrees is attempted to be utilized for the purpose of impulse, five degrees being allowed for the impulse jewel to pass inside of the arc of periphery of the escape wheel before the locking jewel releases the tooth of the escape wheel resting upon it. at this point it is supposed the escape wheel attacks the impulse jewel, because, as we just explained, the locking jewel has released the tooth engaging it. now, if the train had no weight, no inertia to overcome, the escape wheel tooth _a^ _ would move forward and attack the impulse pallet instantly; but, in fact, as we have already explained, there will be an appreciable time elapse before the tooth overtakes the rapidly-moving impulse jewel. it will, of course, be understood that the reference letters used herein refer to the illustrations that have appeared on preceding pages. if we reason carefully on the matter, we will readily comprehend that we can move the locking jewel, i.e., set it so the unlocking will take place in reality before the impulse jewel has passed through the entire five degrees of arc embraced between the radial lines _c e_ and _c g_, fig. , and yet have the tooth attack the jewel after the five degrees of arc. in practice it is safe to set the discharging jewel _h_ so the release of the held tooth _a^ _ will take place as soon as the tooth _a^ _ is inside the principal line of the escape wheel. as we previously explained, the contact between _a^ _ and the impulse jewel _i_ would not in reality occur until the said jewel _i_ had fully passed through the arc (five degrees) embraced between the radial lines _c e_ and _c g_. at this point we will explain why we drew the front fan of the escape-wheel teeth at the angle of twenty-eight degrees. if the fan of impulse jewel _i_ is set radial to the axis of the balance, the engagement of the tooth _a^ _ would be at a disadvantage if it took place prior to this jewel passing through an arc of five degrees inside the periphery of the escape wheel. it will be evident on thought that if an escape-wheel tooth engaged the impulse stone before the five-degrees angle had passed, the contact would not be on its flat face, but the tooth would strike the impulse jewel on its outer angle. a continued inspection will also reveal the fact that in order to have the point of the tooth engage the flat surface of the impulse pallet the impulse jewel must coincide with the radial line _c g_. if we seek to remedy this condition by setting the impulse jewel so the face is not radial, but inclined backward, we encounter a bad engaging friction, because, during the first part of the impulse action, the tooth has to slide up the face of the impulse jewel. all things considered, the best action is obtained with the impulse jewel set so the acting face is radial to the balance staff and the engagement takes place between the tooth and the impulse jewel when both are moving with equal velocities, i.e., when the balance is performing with an arc (or motion) of ¼ revolutions or degrees each way from a point of rest. under such conditions the actual contact will not take place before some little time after the impulse jewel has passed the five-degree arc between the lines _c e_ and _c g_. the drop and draw considered. exactly how much drop must be allowed from the time the tooth leaves the impulse jewel before the locking tooth engages the locking jewel will depend in a great measure on the perfection of workmanship, but should in no instance be more than what is absolutely required to make the escapement safe. the amount of draw given to the locking stone _c_ is usually about twelve degrees to the radial line _k a_. much of the perfection of the chronometer escapement will always depend on the skill of the escapement adjuster and not on the mechanical perfection of the parts. the jewels all have to be set by hand after they are made, and the distance to which the impulse jewel protrudes beyond the periphery of the impulse roller is entirely a matter for hand and eye, but should never exceed / ". after the locking jewel _c_ is set, we can set the foot _f_ of the detent _d_ forward or back, to perfect and correct the engagement of the escape-wheel teeth with the impulse roller _b_. if we set this too far forward, the tooth _a^ _ will encounter the roller while the tooth _a^ _ will be free. we would beg to say here there is no escape wheel made which requires the same extreme accuracy as the chronometer, as the tooth spaces and the equal radial extent of each tooth should be only limited by our powers toward perfection. it is usual to give the detent a locking of about two degrees; that is, it requires about two degrees to open it, counting the center of fluxion of the detent spring _e_ and five degrees of balance arc. fitting up of the foot. several attempts have been made by chronometer makers to have the foot _f_ adjustable; that is, so it could be moved back and forth with a screw, but we have never known of anything satisfactory being accomplished in this direction. about the best way of fitting up the foot _f_ seems to be to provide it with two soft iron steady pins (shown at _j_) with corresponding holes in the chariot, said holes being conically enlarged so they (the pins) can be bent and manipulated so the detent not only stands in the proper position as regards the escape wheel, but also to give the detent spring _e_ the proper elastic force to return in time to afford a secure locking to the arresting tooth of the escape wheel after an impulse has been given. if these pins _j_ are bent properly by the adjuster, whoever afterwards cleans the chronometer needs only to gently push the foot _f_ forward so as to cause the pins _j_ to take the correct positions as determined by the adjuster and set the screw _l_ up to hold the foot _f_ when all the other relations are as they should be, except such as we can control by the screw _g_, which prevents the locking jewel from entering too deeply into the escape wheel. in addition to being a complete master of the technical part of his business, it is also desirable that the up-to-date workman should be familiar with the subject from a historical point of view. to aid in such an understanding of the matter we have translated from "l'almanach de l'horologerie et de la bijouterie" the matter contained in the following chapter. chapter iv. history of escapements. it could not have been long after man first became cognizant of his reasoning faculties that he began to take more or less notice of the flight of time. the motion of the sun by day and of the moon and stars by night served to warn him of the recurring periods of light and darkness. by noting the position of these stellar bodies during his lonely vigils, he soon became proficient in roughly dividing up the cycle into sections, which he denominated the hours of the day and of the night. primitive at first, his methods were simple, his needs few and his time abundant. increase in numbers, multiplicity of duties, and division of occupation began to make it imperative that a more systematic following of these occupations should be instituted, and with this end in view he contrived, by means of burning lights or by restricting the flowing of water or the falling of weights, to subdivide into convenient intervals and in a tolerably satisfactory manner the periods of light. these modest means then were the first steps toward the exact subdivisions of time which we now enjoy. unrest, progress, discontent with things that be, we must acknowledge, have, from the appearance of the first clock to the present hour, been the powers which have driven on the inventive genius of watch and clockmakers to designate some new and more acceptable system for regulating the course of the movement. in consequence of this restless search after the best, a very considerable number of escapements have been invented and made up, both for clocks and watches; only a few, however, of the almost numberless systems have survived the test of time and been adopted in the manufacture of the timepiece as we know it now. indeed, many such inventions never passed the experimental stage, and yet it would be very interesting to the professional horologist, the apprentice and even the layman to become more intimately acquainted with the vast variety of inventions made upon this domain since the inception of horological science. undoubtedly, a complete collection of all the escapements invented would constitute a most instructive work for the progressive watchmaker, and while we are waiting for a competent author to take such an exhaustive work upon his hands, we shall endeavor to open the way and trust that a number of voluntary collaborators will come forward and assist us to the extent of their ability in filling up the chinks. problems to be solved. the problem to be solved by means of the escapement has always been to govern, within limits precise and perfectly regular, if it be possible, the flow of the motive force; that means the procession of the wheel-work and, as a consequence, of the hands thereto attached. at first blush it seems as if a continually-moving governor, such as is in use on steam engines, for example, ought to fulfil the conditions, and attempts have accordingly been made upon this line with results which have proven entirely unsatisfactory. having thoroughly sifted the many varieties at hand, it has been finally determined that the only means known to provide the most regular flow of power consists in intermittently interrupting the procession of the wheel-work, and thereby gaining a periodically uniform movement. whatever may be the system or kind of escapement employed, the functioning of the mechanism is characterized by the suspension, at regular intervals, of the rotation of the last wheel of the train and in transmitting to a regulator, be it a balance or a pendulum, the power sent into that wheel. escapement the most essential part. of all the parts of the timepiece the escapement is then the most essential; it is the part which assures regularity in the running of the watch or clock, and that part of parts that endows the piece with real value. the most perfect escapement would be that one which should perform its duty with the least influence upon the time of oscillation or vibration of the regulating organ. the stoppage of the train by the escapement is brought about in different ways, which may be gathered under three heads or categories. in the two which we shall mention first, the stop is effected directly upon the axis of the regulator, or against a piece which forms a part of that axis; the tooth of the escape wheel at the moment of its disengagement remains supported upon or against that stop. in the first escapement invented and, indeed, in some actually employed to-day for certain kinds of timekeepers, we notice during the locking a retrograde movement of the escape wheel; to this kind of movement has been given the name of _recoil escapement_. it was recognized by the fraternity that this recoil was prejudicial to the regularity of the running of the mechanism and, after the invention of the pendulum and the spiral, inventive makers succeeded in replacing this sort of escapement with one which we now call the _dead-beat escapement_. in this latter the wheel, stopped by the axis of the regulator, remains immovable up to the instant of its disengagement or unlocking. in the third category have been collected all those forms of escapement wherein the escape wheel is locked by an intermediate piece, independent of the regulating organ. this latter performs its vibrations of oscillation quite without interference, and it is only in contact with the train during the very brief moment of impulse which is needful to keep the regulating organ in motion. this category constitutes what is known as the _detached escapement_ class. of the _recoil escapement_ the principal types are: the _verge escapement_ or _crown-wheel escapement_ for both watches and clocks, and the _recoil anchor escapement_ for clocks. the _cylinder_ and _duplex escapements_ for watches and the _graham anchor escapement_ for clocks are styles of the _dead-beat escapement_ most often employed. among the _detached escapements_ we have the _lever_ and _detent_ or _chronometer escapements_ for watches; for clocks there is no fixed type of detached lever and it finds no application to-day. the verge escapement. the _verge escapement_, called also the _crown-wheel escapement_, is by far the simplest and presents the least difficulty in construction. we regret that the world does not know either the name of its originator nor the date at which the invention made its first appearance, but it seems to have followed very closely upon the birth of mechanical horology. up to it was employed to the exclusion of almost all the others. in a very large part of the ordinary commercial watches were still fitted with the verge escapement, and it is still used under the form of _recoil anchor_ in clocks, eighty years after the invention of the cylinder escapement, or in . ferdinand berthoud, in his "history of the measurement of time," says of the balance-wheel escapement: "since the epoch of its invention an infinite variety of escapements have been constructed, but the one which is employed in ordinary watches for every-day use is still the best." in referring to our illustrations, we beg first to call attention to the plates marked figs. and . this plate gives us two views of a verge escapement; that is, a balance wheel and a verge formed by its two opposite pallets. the views are intentionally presented in this manner to show that the verge _v_ may be disposed either horizontally, as in fig. , or vertically, as in fig. . [illustration: figs. and ] [illustration: fig. ] let us imagine that our drawing is in motion, then will the tooth _d_, of the crown wheel _r_, be pushing against the pallet _p_, and just upon the point of slipping by or escaping, while the opposite tooth _e_ is just about to impinge upon the advancing pallet _p'_. this it does, and will at first, through the impulse received from the tooth _d_ be forced back by the momentum of the pallet, that is, suffer a recoil; but on the return journey of the pallet _p'_, the tooth _e_ will then add its impulse to the receding pallet. the tooth _e_ having thus accomplished its mission, will now slip by and the tooth _c_ will come in lock with the pallet _p_ and, after the manner just described for _e_, continue the escapement. usually these escape wheels are provided with teeth to the number of , or , and always uneven. a great advantage possessed by this form of escapement is that it does not require any oil, and it may be made to work even under very inferior construction. oldest arrangement of a crown-wheel escapement. [illustration: fig. ] plate shows us the oldest known arrangement of a crown-wheel escapement in a clock. _r_ is the crown wheel or balance wheel acting upon the pallets _p_ and _p'_, which form part of the verge _v_. this verge is suspended as lightly as possible upon a pliable cord _c_ and carries at its upper end two arms, _b_ and _b_, called adjusters, forming the balance. two small weights _d d_, adapted to movement along the rules or adjusters serve to regulate the duration of a vibration. in fig. we have the arrangement adopted in small timepieces and watches: _b_ represents the regulator in the form of a circular balance, but not yet furnished with a spiral regulating spring; _c_ is the last wheel of the train and called the _fourth wheel_, it being that number distant from the great wheel. as will be seen, the verge provided with its pallets is vertically placed, as in the preceding plate. [illustration: fig. ] here it will quickly be seen that regarded from the standpoint of regularity of motion, this arrangement can be productive of but meager results. subjected as it is to the influence of the slightest variation in the motive power and of the least jar or shaking, a balance wheel escapement improvided with a regulator containing within itself a regulating force, could not possibly give forth anything else than an unsteady movement. however, mechanical clocks fitted with this escapement offer indisputable advantages over the ancient clepsydra; in spite of their imperfections they rendered important services, especially after the striking movement had been added. for more than three centuries both this crude escapement and the cruder regulator were suffered to continue in this state without a thought of improvement; even in , when galileo discovered the law governing the oscillation of the pendulum, they did not suspect how important this discovery was for the science of time measurement. galileo's experiments. [illustration: fig. ] galileo, himself, in spite of his genius for investigation, was so engrossed in his researches that he could not seem to disengage the simple pendulum from the compound pendulums to which he devoted his attention; besides, he attributed to the oscillation an absolute generality of isochronism, which they did not possess; nor did he know how to apply his famous discovery to the measurement of time. in fact, it was not till after more than half a century had elapsed, in , to be exact, that the celebrated dutch mathematician and astronomer, huygens, published his memoirs in which he made known to the world the degree of perfection which would accrue to clocks if the pendulum were adopted to regulate their movement. [illustration: fig. ] an attempt was indeed made to snatch from huygens and confer upon galileo the glory of having first applied the pendulum to a clock, but this attempt not having been made until some time after the publication of "huygens' memoirs," it was impossible to place any faith in the contention. if galileo had indeed solved the beautiful problem, both in the conception and the fact, the honor of the discovery was lost to him by the laziness and negligence of his pupil, viviani, upon whom he had placed such high hopes. one thing is certain, that the right of priority of the discovery and the recognition of the entire world has been incontestably bestowed upon huygens. the escapement which galileo is supposed to have conceived and to which he applied the pendulum, is shown in fig. . the wheel _r_ is supplied with teeth, which lock against the piece _d_ attached to a lever pivoted at _a_, and also with pins calculated to impart impulses to the pendulum through the pallet _p_. the arm _l_ serves to disengage or unlock the wheel by lifting the lever _d_ upon the return oscillation of the pendulum. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] a careful study of fig. will discover a simple transposition which it became necessary to make in the clocks, for the effectual adaptation of the pendulum to their regulation. the verge _v_ was set up horizontally and the pendulum _b_, suspended freely from a flexible cord, received the impulses through the intermediation of the forked arm _f_, which formed a part of the verge. at first this forked arm was not thought of, for the pendulum itself formed a part of the verge. a far-reaching step had been taken, but it soon became apparent that perfection was still a long way off. the crown-wheel escapement forcibly incited the pendulum to wider oscillations; these oscillations not being as galileo had believed, of unvaried durations, but they varied sensibly with the intensity of the motive power. the attainment of isochronism by huygens. huygens rendered his pendulum _isochronous_; that is, compelled it to make its oscillations of equal duration, whatever might be the arc described, by suspending the pendulum between two metallic curves _c c'_, each one formed by an arc of a cycloid and against which the suspending cord must lie upon each forward or backward oscillation. we show this device in fig. . in great oscillations, and by that we mean oscillations under a greater impulse, the pendulum would thus be shortened and the shortening would correct the time of the oscillation. however, the application of an exact cycloidal arc was a matter of no little difficulty, if not an impossibility in practice, and practical men began to grope about in search of an escapement which would permit the use of shorter arcs of oscillation. at london the horologist, g. clement, solved the problem in with his rack escapement and recoil anchor. in the interval other means were invented, especially the addition of a second pendulum to correct the irregularities of the first. such an escapement is pictured in fig. . the verge is again vertical and carries near its upper end two arms _d d_, which are each connected by a cord with a pendulum. the two pendulums oscillate constantly in the inverse sense the one to the other. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] another two-pendulum escapement. we show another escapement with two pendulums in fig. . these are fixed directly upon two axes, each one carrying a pallet _p p'_ and a segment of a toothed wheel _d d_, which produces the effect of solidarity between them. the two pendulums oscillate inversely one to the other, and one after the other receives an impulse. this escapement was constructed by jean baptiste dutertre, of paris. fig. shows another disposition of a double pendulum. while the pendulum here is double, it has but one bob; it receives the impulse by means of a double fork _f_. _c c_ represents the cycloidal curves and are placed with a view of correcting the inequality in the duration of the oscillations. in watches the circular balances did not afford any better results than the regulating rods or rules of the clocks, and the pendulum, of course, was out of the question altogether; it therefore became imperative to invent some other regulating system. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] it occured to the abbé d'hautefeuille to form a sort of resilient mechanism by attaching one end of a hog's bristle to the plate and the other to the balance near the axis. though imperfect in results, this was nevertheless a brilliant idea, and it was but a short step to replace the bristle with a straight and very flexible spring, which later was supplanted by one coiled up like a serpent; but in spite of this advancement, the watches did not keep much better time. harrison, the celebrated english horologist, had recourse to two artifices, of which the one consisted in giving to the pallets of the escapement such a curvature that the balance could be led back with a velocity corresponding to the extension of the oscillation; the second consisted of an accessory piece, the resultant action of which was analogous to that of the cycloidal curves in connection with the pendulum. correcting irregularities in the verge escapement. huygens attempted to correct these irregularities in the verge escapement in watches by amplifying the arc of oscillation of the balance itself. he constructed for that purpose a pirouette escapement shown in fig. , in which a toothed wheel _a_ adjusted upon the verge _v_ serves as an intermediary between that and the balance _b_, upon the axis of which was fixed a pinion _d_. by this method he obtained extended arcs of vibration, but the vibrations were, as a consequence, very slow, and they still remained subject to all the irregularities arising from the variation in the motive power as well as from shocks. a little later, but about the same epoch, a certain dr. hook, of the royal society of london, contrived another arrangement by means of which he succeeded, so it appeared to him at least, in greatly diminishing the influence of shock upon the escapement; but many other, perhaps greater, inconveniences caused his invention to be speedily rejected. we shall give our readers an idea of what dr. hook's escapement was like. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] on looking at fig. we see the escape wheel _r_, which was flat and in the form of a ratchet; it was provided with two balances. _b b_ engaging each other in teeth, each one carrying a pallet _p p'_ upon its axis; the axes of the three wheels being parallel. now, in our drawing, the tooth _a_ of the escape wheel exerts its lift upon the pallet _p'_; when this tooth escapes the tooth _b_ will fall upon the pallet _p'_ on the opposite side, a recoil will be produced upon the action of the two united balances, then the tooth _b_ will give its impulse in the contrary direction. considerable analogy exists between this form of escapement and that shown in fig. and intended for clocks. this was the busy era in the watchmaker's line. all the great heads were pondering upon the subject and everyone was on the _qui vive_ for the newest thing in the art. in huygens brought out the first watch having a regulating spring in the form of a spiral; the merit of this invention was disputed by the english savant, dr. hook, who pretended, as did galileo, in the application of the pendulum, to have priority in the idea. huygens, who had discovered and corrected the irregularities in the oscillations of the pendulum, did not think of those of the balance with the spiral spring. and it was not until the close of the year that pierre le roy and ferdinand berthoud studied the conditions of isochronism pertaining to the spiral. an invention that created much enthusiasm. however that may be, this magnificent invention, like the adaptation of the pendulum, was welcomed with general enthusiasm throughout the scientific world: without spiral and without pendulum, no other escapement but the recoil escapement was possible; a new highway was thus opened to the searchers. the water clocks (clepsydræ) and the hour glasses disappeared completely, and the timepieces which had till then only marked the hours, having been perfected up to the point of keeping more exact time, were graced with the addition of another hand to tell off the minutes. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] it was not until that the first _dead-beat escapement_ appeared upon the scene; during the interval of over twenty years all thought had been directed toward the one goal, viz.: the perfecting of the _verge escapement_; but practice demonstrated that no other arrangement of the parts was superior to the original idea. for the benefit of our readers we shall give a few of these attempts at betterment, and you may see for yourselves wherein the trials failed. fig. represents a _verge escapement_ with a ratchet wheel, the pallets _p p'_ being carried upon separate axes. the two axes are rigidly connected, the one to the other, by means of the arms _o o'_. one of the axes carries besides the fork _f_, which transmits the impulse to the pendulum _b_. in the front view, at the right of the plate, for the sake of clearness the fork and the pendulum are not shown, but one may easily see the jointure of the arms _o o'_ and their mode of operation. another very peculiar arrangement of the _verge escapement_ we show at fig. . in this there are two wheels, one, _r'_, a small one in the form of a ratchet; the other, _r_, somewhat larger, called the balance wheel, but being supplied with straight and slender teeth. the verge _v_ carrying the two pallets is pivoted in the vertical diameter of the larger wheel. the front view shows the _modus operandi_ of this combination, which is practically the same as the others. the tooth _a_ of the large wheel exerts its force upon the pallet _p_, and the tooth _b_ of the ratchet will encounter the pallet _p'_. this pallet, after suffering its recoil, will receive the impulse communicated by the tooth _b_. this escapement surely could not have given much satisfaction, for it offers no advantage over the others, besides it is of very difficult construction. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] ingenious attempts at solution of a difficult problem. much ingenuity to a worthy end, but of little practical value, is displayed in these various attempts at the solution of a very difficult problem. in fig. we have a mechanism combining two escape wheels engaging each other in gear; of the two wheels, _r r'_, one alone is driven directly by the train, the other being turned in the opposite direction by its comrade. both are furnished with pins _c c'_, which act alternately upon the pallets _p p'_ disposed in the same plane upon the verge _v_ and pivoted between the wheels. our drawing represents the escapement at the moment when the pin _c'_ delivers its impulse, and this having been accomplished, the locking takes place upon the pin _c_ of the other wheel upon the pallet _p'_. another system of two escape wheels is shown in fig. , but in this case the two wheels _r r_ are driven in a like direction by the last wheel _a_ of the train. the operation of the escapement is the same as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in fig. we have a departure from the road ordinarily pursued. here we see an escapement combining two levers, invented by the chevalier de béthune and applied by m. thiout, master-horologist, at paris in . _p p'_ are the two levers or pallets separately pivoted. upon the axis _v_, of the lever _p_, is fixed a fork which communicates the motion to the pendulum. the two levers are intimately connected by the two arms _b b'_, of which the former carries an adjusting screw, a well-conceived addition for regulating the opening between the pallets. the counter-weight _c_ compels constant contact between the arms _b b'_. the function is always the same, the recoil and the impulsion operate upon the two pallets simultaneously. this escapement enjoyed a certain degree of success, having been employed by a number of horologists who modified it in various ways. various modifications some of these modifications we shall show. for the first example, then, let fig. illustrate. in this arrangement the fork is carried upon the axis of the pallet _p'_, which effectually does away with the counter-weight _c_, as shown. somewhat more complicated, but of the same intrinsic nature, is the arrangement displayed in fig. . we should not imagine that it enjoyed a very extensive application. here the two levers are completely independent of each other; they act upon the piece _b b_ upon the axis _v_ of the fork. the counter-weights _c c'_ maintain the arms carrying the rollers _d d'_ in contact with the piece _b b'_ which thus receives the impulse from the wheel _r_. two adjusting screws serve to place the escapement upon the center. by degrees these fantastic constructions were abandoned to make way for the anchor recoil escapement, which was invented, as we have said, in , by g. clement, a horologist, of london. in fig. we have the disposition of the parts as first arranged by this artist. here the pallets are replaced by the inclines _a_ and _b_ of the anchor, which is pivoted at _v_ upon an axis to which is fixed also the fork. the tooth _a_ escapes from the incline or lever _a_, and the tooth _b_ immediately rests upon the lever _b_; by the action of the pendulum the escape wheel suffers a recoil as in the pallet escapement, and on the return of the pendulum the tooth _c_ gives out its impulse in the contrary direction. with this new system it became possible to increase the weight of the bob and at the same time lessen the effective motor power. the travel of the pendulum, or arc of oscillation, being reduced in a marked degree, an accuracy of rate was obtained far superior to that of the crown-wheel escapement. however, this new application of the recoil escapement was not adopted in france until . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the travel of the pendulum, though greatly reduced, still surpassed in breadth the arc in which it is isochronous, and repeated efforts were made to give such shape to the levers as would compel its oscillation within the arc of equal time; a motion which is, as was recognized even at that epoch, the prime requisite to a precise rating. thus, in , julien leroy occupied himself working out the proper shapes for the inclines to produce this desired isochronism. searching along the same path, ferd. berthoud constructed an escapement represented by the fig. . in it we see the same inclines _a b_ of the former construction, but the locking is effected against the slides _c_ and _d_, the curved faces of which produce isochronous oscillations of the pendulum. the tooth _b_ imparts its lift and the tooth _c_ will lock against the face _c_; after having passed through its recoil motion this tooth _c_ will butt against the incline _a_ and work out its lift or impulse upon it. the gable escapement. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the _gable escapement_, shown in fig. , allows the use of a heavier pendulum, at the same time the anchor embraces within its jaws a greater number of the escape-wheel teeth; an arrangement after this manner leads to the conclusion that with these long levers of the anchor the friction will be considerably increased and the recoil faces will, as a consequence, be quickly worn away. without doubt, this was invented to permit of opening and closing the contact points of the anchor more easily. under the name of the _english recoil anchor_ there came into use an escapement with a _reduced gable_, which embraced fewer teeth between the pallets or inclines; we give a representation of this in fig. . this system seems to have been moderately successful. the anchor recoil escapement in use in germany to-day is demonstrated in fig. ; this arrangement is also found in the american clocks. as we see, the anchor is composed of a single piece of curved steel bent to the desired curves. clocks provided with this escapement keep reasonably good time; the resistance of the recoils compensate in a measure for the want of isochronism in the oscillations of the pendulum. ordinary clocks require considerably more power to drive them than finer clocks and, as a consequence, their ticking is very noisy. several means have been employed to dampen this noise, one of which we show in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] here the anchor is composed of two pieces, _a b_, screwed upon a plate _h_ pivoting at _v_. in their arrangement the two pieces represent, as to distance and curvature, the counterpart of fig. . at the moment of impact their extreme ends recoil or spring back from the shock of the escape teeth, but the resiliency of the metal is calculated to be strong enough to return them immediately to the contact studs _e e_. as a termination to this chapter, we shall mention the use made at the present day of the recoil lever escapement in repeating watches. we give a diagram of this construction in fig. . the lever here is intended to restrain and regulate the motion of the small striking work. it is pivoted at _v_ and is capable of a very rapid oscillatory motion, the arc of which may, however, be fixed by the stud or stop _d_, which limits the swing of the fly _c_. this fly is of one piece with the lever and, together with the stud _d_, determines the angular motion of the lever. if the angle be large that means the path of the fly be long, then the striking train will move slowly; but if the teeth of the escape wheel _r_ can just pass by without causing the lever to describe a supplementary or extended arc, the striking work will run off rapidly. chapter v. putting in a new cylinder. putting in a new cylinder is something most watchmakers fancy they can do, and do well; but still it is a job very few workmen can do and fulfill all the requirements a job of this kind demands under the ever-varying conditions and circumstances presented in repairs of this kind. it is well to explain somewhat at this point: suppose we have five watches taken in with broken cylinders. out of this number probably two could be pivoted to advantage and make the watches as good as ever. as to the pivoting of a cylinder, we will deal with this later on. the first thing to do is to make an examination of the cylinder, not only to see if it is broken, but also to determine if pivoting is going to bring it out all right. let us imagine that some workman has, at some previous time, put in a new cylinder, and instead of putting in one of the proper size he has put one in too large or too small. now, in either case he would have to remove a portion of the escape-wheel tooth, that is, shorten the tooth: because, if the cylinder was too large it would not go in between the teeth, and consequently the teeth would have to be cut or stoned away. if the cylinder was too small, again the teeth would have to be cut away to allow them to enter the cylinder. all workmen have traditions, rules some call them, that they go by in relation to the right way to dress a cylinder tooth; some insisting that the toe or point of the tooth is the only place which should be tampered with. other workmen insist that the heel of the tooth is the proper place. now, with all due consideration, we would say that in ninety-nine cases out of a hundred the proper thing to do is to let the escape-wheel teeth entirely alone. as we can understand, after a moment's thought, that it is impossible to have the teeth of the escape wheel too long and have the watch run at all; hence, the idea of stoning a cylinder escape-wheel tooth should not be tolerated. escape-wheel teeth _vs._ cylinder. it will not do, however, to accept, and take it for granted that the escape-wheel teeth are all right, because in many instances they have been stoned away and made too short; but if we accept this condition as being the case, that is, that the escape-wheel teeth are too short, what is the workman going to do about it? the owner of the watch will not pay for a new escape wheel as well as a new cylinder. the situation can be summed up about in this way, that we will have to make the best we can out of a bad job, and pick out and fit a cylinder on a compromise idea. in regard to picking out a new cylinder, it may not do to select one of the same size as the old one, from the fact that the old one may not have been of the proper size for the escape wheel, because, even in new, cheap watches, the workmen who "run in" the escapement knew very well the cylinder and escape wheel were not adapted for each other, but they were the best he had. chapter ii, on the cylinder escapement, will enable our readers to master the subject and hence be better able to judge of allowances to be made in order to permit imperfect material to be used. in illustration, let us imagine that we have to put in a new cylinder, and we have none of precisely the proper size, but we have them both a mere trifle too large and too small, and the question is which to use. our advice is to use the smaller one if it does not require the escape-wheel teeth to be "dressed," that is, made smaller. why we make this choice is based on the fact that the smaller cylinder shell gives less friction, and the loss from "drop"--that is, side play between the escape-wheel teeth and the cylinder--will be the same in both instances except to change the lost motion from inside to outside drop. in devising a system to be applied to selecting a new cylinder, we meet the same troubles encountered throughout all watchmakers' repair work, and chief among these are good and convenient measuring tools. but even with perfect measuring tools we would have to exercise good judgment, as just explained. in chapter ii we gave a rule for determining the outside diameter of a cylinder from the diameter of the escape wheel; but such rules and tables will, in nine instances out of ten, have to be modified by attendant circumstances--as, for instance, the thickness of the shell of the cylinder, which should be one-tenth of the outer diameter of the shell, but the shell is usually thicker. a tolerably safe practical rule and one also depending very much on the workman's good judgment is, when the escape-wheel teeth have been shortened, to select a cylinder giving ample clearance inside the shell to the tooth, but by no means large enough to fill the space between the teeth. after studying carefully the instructions just given we think the workman will have no difficulty in selecting a cylinder of the right diameter. measuring the heights. the next thing is to get the proper heights. this is much more easily arrived at: the main measurement being to have the teeth of the escape wheel clear the upper face of the lower plug. in order to talk intelligently we will make a drawing of a cylinder and agree on the proper names for the several parts to be used in this chapter. such drawing is shown at fig. . the names are: the hollow cylinder, made up of the parts _a a' a'' a'''_, called the shell--_a_ is the great shell, _a'_ the half shell, _a''_ the banking slot, and _a'''_ the small shell. the brass part _d_ is called the collet and consists of three parts--the hairspring seat _d_, the balance seat _d'_ and the shoulder _d''_, against which the balance is riveted. [illustration: fig. ] the first measurement for fitting a new cylinder is to determine the height of the lower plug face, which corresponds to the line _x x_, fig. . the height of this face is such as to permit the escape wheel to pass freely over it. in selecting a new cylinder it is well to choose one which is as wide at the banking slot _a''_ as is consistent with safety. the width of the banking slot is represented by the dotted lines _x u_. the dotted line _v_ represents the length to which the lower pivot _y_ is to be cut. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] there are several little tools on the market used for making the necessary measurements, but we will describe a very simple one which can readily be made. to do so, take about a no. sewing needle and, after annealing, cut a screw thread on it, as shown at fig, , where _e_ represents the needle and _t t_ the screw cut upon it. after the screw is cut, the needle is again hardened and tempered to a spring temper and a long, thin pivot turned upon it. the needle is now shaped as shown at fig. . the pivot at _s_ should be small enough to go easily through the smallest hole jewel to be found in cylinder watches, and should be about / " long. the part at _r_ should be about / " long and only reduced in size enough to fully remove the screw threads shown at _t_. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] we next provide a sleeve or guard for our gage. to do this we take a piece of hard brass bushing wire about ½" long and, placing it in a wire chuck, center and drill it nearly the entire length, leaving, say, / " at one end to be carried through with a small drill. we show at _f_, fig. , a magnified longitudinal section of such a sleeve. the piece _f_ is drilled from the end _l_ up to the line _q_ with a drill of such a size that a female screw can be cut in it to fit the screw on the needle, and _f_ is tapped out to fit such a screw from _l_ up to the dotted line _p_. the sleeve _f_ is run on the screw _t_ and now appears as shown at fig. , with the addition of a handle shown at _g g'_. it is evident that we can allow the pivot _s_ to protrude from the sleeve _f_ any portion of its length, and regulate such protrusion by the screw _t_. to employ this tool for getting the proper length to which to cut the pivot _y_, fig. , we remove the lower cap jewel to the cylinder pivot and, holding, the movement in the left hand, pass the pivot _s_, fig. , up through the hole jewel, regulate the length by turning the sleeve _f_ until the arm of the escape wheel _i_, fig. , will just turn free over it. now the length of the pivot _s_, which protrudes beyond the sleeve _f_, coincides with the length to which we must cut the pivot _y_, fig. . to hold a cylinder for reducing the length of the pivot _y_, we hold said pivot in a pair of thin-edged cutting pliers, as shown at fig. , where _n n'_ represent the jaws of a pair of cutting pliers and _y_ the pivot to be cut. the measurement is made by putting the pivot _s_ between the jaws _n n'_ as they hold the pivot. the cutting is done by simply filing back the pivot until of the right length. turning the pivots. we have now the pivot _y_ of the proper length, and what remains to be done is to turn it to the right size. we do not think it advisable to try to use a split chuck, although we have seen workmen drive the shell _a a'''_ out of the collet _d_ and then turn up the pivots _y z_ in said wire chuck. to our judgment there is but one chuck for turning pivots, and this is the cement chuck provided with all american lathes. many workmen object to a cement chuck, but we think no man should lay claim to the name of watchmaker until he masters the mystery of the cement chuck. it is not such a very difficult matter, and the skill once acquired would not be parted with cheaply. one thing has served to put the wax or cement chuck into disfavor, and that is the abominable stuff sold by some material houses for lathe cement. the original cement, made and patented by james bottum for his cement chuck, was made up of a rather complicated mixture; but all the substances really demanded in such cement are ultramarine blue and a good quality of shellac. these ingredients are compounded in the proportion of parts of shellac and part of ultramarine--all by weight. how to use a cement chuck. the shellac is melted in an iron vessel, and the ultramarine added and stirred to incorporate the parts. care should be observed not to burn the shellac. while warm, the melted mass is poured on to a cold slab of iron or stone, and while plastic made into sticks about ½" in diameter. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] we show at fig. a side view of the outer end of a cement chuck with a cylinder in position. we commence to turn the lower pivot of a cylinder, allowing the pivot _z_ to rest at the apex of the hollow cone _a_, as shown. there is something of a trick in turning such a hollow cone and leaving no "tit" or protuberance in the center, but it is important it should be done. a little practice will soon enable one to master the job. a graver for this purpose should be cut to rather an oblique point, as shown at _l_, fig. . the slope of the sides to the recess _a_, fig. , should be to about forty-five degrees, making the angle at _a_ about ninety degrees. the only way to insure perfect accuracy of centering of a cylinder in a cement chuck is center by the shell, which is done by cutting a piece of pegwood to a wedge shape and letting it rest on the t-rest; then hold the edge of the pegwood to the cylinder as the lathe revolves and the cement soft and plastic. a cylinder so centered will be absolutely true. the outline curve at _c_, fig. , represents the surface of the cement. the next operation is turning the pivot to the proper size to fit the jewel. this is usually done by trial, that is, trying the pivot into the hole in the jewel. a quicker way is to gage the hole jewel and then turn the pivot to the right size, as measured by micrometer calipers. in some cylinder watches the end stone stands at some distance from the outer surface of the hole jewel; consequently, if the measurement for the length of the pivot is taken by the tool shown at fig. , the pivot will apparently be too short. when the lower end stone is removed we should take note if any allowance is to be made for such extra space. the trouble which would ensue from not providing for such extra end shake would be that the lower edge of the half shell, shown at _e_, fig. , would strike the projection on which the "stalk" of the tooth is planted. after the lower pivot is turned to fit the jewel the cylinder is to be removed from the cement chuck and the upper part turned. the measurements to be looked to now are, first, the entire length of the cylinder, which is understood to be the entire distance between the inner faces of the two end stones, and corresponds to the distance between the lines _v d_, fig. . this measurement can be got by removing both end stones and taking the distance with a boley gage or a douzieme caliper. a convenient tool for length measurement. [illustration: fig. ] a pair of common pinion calipers slightly modified makes as good a pair of calipers for length measurement as one can desire. this instrument is made by inserting a small screw in one of the blades--the head on the inner side, as shown at _f_, fig. . the idea of the tool is, the screw head _f_ rests in the sink of the cap jewel or end stone, while the other blade rests on the cock over the balance. after the adjusting screw to the caliper is set, the spring of the blades allows of their removal. the top pivot _z_ of the cylinder is next cut to the proper length, as indicated by the space between the screwhead _f_ and the other blade of the pinion caliper. the upper pinion _z_ is held in the jaws of the cutting pliers, as shown in fig. , the same as the lower one was held, until the proper length between the lines _d v_, fig. , is secured, after which the cylinder is put back into the cement chuck, as shown at fig. , except this time the top portion of the cylinder is allowed to protrude so that we can turn the top pivot and the balance collet _d_, fig. . the sizes we have now to look to is to fit the pivot _z_ to the top hole jewel in the cock, also the hairspring seat _d_ and balance seat _d'_. these are turned to diameters, and are the most readily secured by the use of the micrometer calipers to be had of any large watchmakers' tool and supply house. in addition to the diameters named, we must get the proper height for the balance, which is represented by the dotted line _b_. the measurement for this can usually be obtained from the old cylinder by simply comparing it with the new one as it rests in the cement chuck. the true tool for such measurements is a height gage. we have made no mention of finishing and polishing the pivots, as these points are generally well understood by the trade. removing the lathe cement. one point perhaps we might well say a few words on, and this is in regard to removing the lathe cement. such cement is usually removed by boiling in a copper dish with alcohol. but there are several objections to the practice. in the first place, it wastes a good deal of alcohol, and also leaves the work stained. we can accomplish this operation quicker, and save alcohol, by putting the cylinder with the wax on it in a very small homeopathic bottle and corking it tight. the bottle is then boiled in water, and in a few seconds the shellac is dissolved away. the balance to most cylinder watches is of red brass, and in some instances of low karat gold; in either case the balance should be repolished. to do this dip in a strong solution of cyanide of potassium dissolved in water; one-fourth ounce of cyanide in half pint of water is about the proper strength. dip and rinse, then polish with a chamois buff and rouge. [illustration: fig. ] in staking on the balance, care should be observed to set the banking pin in the rim so it will come right; this is usually secured by setting said pin so it stands opposite to the opening in the half shell. the seat of the balance on the collet _d_ should be undercut so that there is only an edge to rivet down on the balance. this will be better understood by inspecting fig. , where we show a vertical section of the collet _d_ and cylinder _a_. at _g g_ is shown the undercut edge of the balance seat, which is folded over as the balance is rivetted fast. about all that remains now to be done is to true up the balance and bring it to poise. the practice frequently adopted to poise a plain balance is to file it with a half-round file on the inside, in order not to show any detraction when looking at the outer edge of the rim. a better and quicker plan is to place the balance in a split chuck, and with a diamond or round-pointed tool scoop out a little piece of metal as the balance revolves. in doing this, the spindle of the lathe is turned by the hand grasping the pulley between the finger and thumb. the so-called diamond and round-pointed tools are shown at _o o'_, fig. . the idea of this plan of reducing the weight of a balance is, one of the tools _o_ is rested on the t-rest and pressed forward until a chip is started and allowed to enter until sufficient metal is engaged, then, by swinging down on the handle of the tool, the chip is taken out. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in placing a balance in a step chuck, the banking pin is caused to enter one of the three slots in the chuck, so as not to be bent down on to the rim of the balance. it is seldom the depth between the cylinder and escape wheel will need be changed after putting in a new cylinder; if such is the case, however, move the chariot--we mean the cock attached to the lower plate. do not attempt to change the depth by manipulating the balance cock. fig. shows, at _h h_, the form of chip taken out by the tool _o o'_, fig. . index a acid frosting, "action" drawings, action of a chronometer escapement, acting surface of entrance lip, actions of cylinder escapement, adhesion of parallel surfaces, adjustable pallets, adjusting screw for drawing instruments, analysis of principles involved in detent, analysis of the action of a lever escapement, angle-measuring device, angular extent of shell of cylinder, angular motion, drawing an escapement to show, how measured, of escape wheel, antagonistic influences, arc of degrees, atmospheric disturbances, attainment of isochronism, b balance, how it controls timekeeping, weight and inertia of, balance spring, inventor of, banking slot of cylinder, bankings, effect of opening too wide, bar compasses, barometric pressure, basis for close measurements, c cement chuck, how to use, chronometer detent, importance of light construction, chronometer escapement, , four principal parts of, circular pallets, club-tooth escapement, , club-tooth lever escapement with circular pallets and tangential lockings, crown-wheel escapement, cylinder, drawing a, outer diameter of, putting in a new, cylinder escapement, date of invention, etc., forms and proportions of several parts of, names of various parts, cylinder lips, proper shape of, d dead-beat escapement, , only one true, depth, between cylinder and escape wheel, effect of changing, designing a double roller, detached escapement, detent, functions of the, detent escapement, , faults in, detent spring dimensions, detent springs, width of, discharging jewel, setting the, discharging roller, dividers, making, double pendulum, double-roller escapement, draw defined, drawing-board, drawing instruments, drawings, advantage of large, drop and draw, duplex escapement, , e elasticity of spring, engaging friction, english recoil anchor, entrance lip of cylinder escapement, escapement angles, measuring, escapement error, study of, escapement matching tool, escapement model, balance, balance staff, bridges, , escape wheel, extra balance cock, "frosting", hairspring, jewel for, lower plate, main plate, movement for, pallet staff, pillars, regulator, uses of, wood base for, escapements compared, escapement of dutertre, escape-wheel action, escape-wheel, delineating an, escape-wheel teeth vs. cylinder, escape-wheel tooth in action, delineating an, exit pallet, experiments of galileo, experiments with a chronometer, extent of angular impulse, f "fall" defined, faults in the detent escapement, fixed rules, of little value to student, flexure of gold spring, foot, fitting up the, fork, testing the, fork action, theory of, fork and roller action, formulas for delineating cylinder escapement, frictions, frictional escapement, , frictional surfaces, fusee, g gable escapement, gage, a new, graham anchor escapement, gold spring, guard point, material for, gummy secretion on impulse and discharging stones, h heights in cylinders, how obtained, hole jewels, distance apart, i imaginary faults in cylinders, impulse angle, impulse arc, extent of, impulse jewel set oblique, impulse planes, locating outer angle of, impulse roller, incline of teeth, inertia of balance, inventions of berthoud, béthune, clement, dr. hook, harrison, hautefeuille, huygens, leroy, thiout, j jewel pin, determining size, cementing in, settings, jewel-pin setters, l lathe cement, removing, lever, proper length of, lever fork, horn of, prongs of, lift, real and apparent, lifting angle, lock, amount of, defined, lock and drop testing, locking jewel, moving the, locking stone, good form of, lower plate, circular opening in, m marine chronometer, number of beats to hour, mathematics, measuring tools, metal drawings, advantages of, motion, how obtained, movement holder, n neutral lockings, o original designing, p pallet action, locating the, pallet-and-fork action, , , , pallet stones, how to set, pallets, adjusting to match the fork, paper for drawing, parts, relations of the, passing hollow, perfected lever escapement, pivots, turning, point of percussion, points for drawing instruments, polishing materials, power leaks, power lost in lever escapement, practical problems in the lever escapement, r radial extent of outside of cylinder, ratchet-tooth escape wheel, recoil anchor escapement, recoil escapement, reduced gable escapement, retrograde motion, roller action, why degrees, of double roller, roller diameter, determining the, ruling pen, s safety action, scale of inches, screws, making extra large, screwheads, fancy, selecting new cylinder, shaping, advantages gained in, sheet steel, cutting, short fork, sound as indicator of correct action, spring, elasticity of, staking on a balance, steel, polishing, tempering, study drawings, systems of measurements, t tangential lockings, , test gage for angular movement, theoretical action of double roller, timekeeping, controlled by balance, tool for length measurement, tools, measuring, triangle, t-square, u unlocking action, unlocking roller, v verge escapement, , w weight and inertia of balance, working model of cylinder escapement, * * * * * * the watch adjuster's manual [illustration] a complete and practical guide for watchmakers in adjusting watches and chronometers for isochronism, position, heat and cold. by charles edgar fritts (excelsior), author of "practical hints on watch repairing," "practical treatise on balance spring," "electricity and magnetism for watchmakers," etc., etc. this well-known work is now recognized as the standard authority on the adjustments and kindred subjects, both here and in england. it contains an exhaustive consideration of the various theories proposed, the mechanical principles on which the adjustments are based, and the different methods followed in actual practice, giving all that is publicly known in the trade, with a large amount of entirely new practical matter not to be found elsewhere, obtained from the best manufacturers and workmen, as well as from the author's own studies and experiences. sent postpaid to any part of the world on receipt of $ . ( s. d.) the keystone (sole agent), th and brown streets, philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the art of engraving [illustration] a complete treatise on the engraver's art, with special reference to letter and monogram engraving. specially compiled as a standard text-book for students and a reliable reference book for engravers. this work is the only thoroughly reliable and exhaustive treatise published on this important subject. it is an ideal text-book, beginning with the rudiments and leading the student step by step to a complete and practical mastery of the art. back of the authorship is a long experience as a successful engraver, also a successful career as an instructor in engraving. these qualifications ensure accuracy and reliability of matter, and such a course of instruction as is best for the learner and qualified engraver. the most notable feature of the new treatise is the instructive character of the illustrations. there are over original illustrations by the author. a very complete index facilitates reference to any required topic. bound in silk cloth-- pages and illustrations. sent postpaid to any part of the world on receipt of price, $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the keystone portfolio of monograms [illustration: c.b.r.] [illustration: a.o.u.w] [illustration: i.r.c.] [illustration: g.h.i.] this portfolio contains combination designs. these designs were selected from the best of those submitted in a prize competition held by the keystone, and will be found of value to every one doing engraving. the designs are conceded to be the best in the market, excelling in art and novelty of combination and skill in execution. they are printed from steel plates on stiff, durable paper, and contain sample monograms in a variety of combinations. the portfolio is a bench requirement that no jeweler can afford to be without. it is a necessary supplement to any text-book on letter engraving. price, cents ( s.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the optician's manual vol. i. by c.h. brown, m.d. graduate university of pennsylvania; professor of optics and refraction; formerly physician in philadelphia hospital; member of philadelphia county, pennsylvania state and american medical societies. [illustration] the optician's manual, vol. i., has proved to be the most popular work on practical refraction ever published. the knowledge it contains has been more effective in building up the optical profession than any other educational factor. a study of it is essential to an intelligent appreciation of vol. ii., for it lays the foundation structure of all optical knowledge, as the titles of its ten chapters show: chapter i.--introductory remarks. chapter ii.--the eye anatomically. chapter iii.--the eye optically; or, the physiology of vision. chapter iv.--optics. chapter v.--lenses. chapter vi.--numbering of lenses. chapter vii.--the use and value of glasses. chapter viii.--outfit required. chapter ix.--method of examination. chapter x.--presbyopia. the optician's manual, vol. i., is complete in itself, and has been the entire optical education of many successful opticians. for student and teacher it is the best treatise of its kind, being simple in style, accurate in statement and comprehensive in its treatment of refractive procedure and problems. it merits the place of honor beside vol. ii. in every optical library. bound in cloth-- pages--colored plates and illustrations. sent postpaid on receipt of $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the optician's manual vol. ii. by c.h. brown, m.d. graduate university of pennsylvania; professor of optics and refraction; formerly physician in philadelphia hospital; member of philadelphia county, pennsylvania state and american medical societies. [illustration] the optician's manual, vol. ii., is a direct continuation of the optician's manual, vol. i., being a much more advanced and comprehensive treatise. it covers in minutest detail the four great subdivisions of practical eye refraction, viz: myopia. hypermetropia. astigmatism. muscular anomalies. it contains the most authoritative and complete researches up to date on these subjects, treated by the master hand of an eminent oculist and optical teacher. it is thoroughly practical, explicit in statement and accurate as to fact. all refractive errors and complications are clearly explained, and the methods of correction thoroughly elucidated. this book fills the last great want in higher refractive optics, and the knowledge contained in it marks the standard of professionalism. bound in cloth-- pages--with illustrations. sent postpaid on receipt of $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * skiascopy and the use of the retinoscope [illustration] a treatise on the shadow test in its practical application to the work of refraction, with an explanation in detail of the optical principles on which the science is based. this new work, the sale of which has already necessitated a second edition, far excels all previous treatises on the subject in comprehensiveness and practical value to the refractionist. it not only explains the test, but expounds fully and explicitly the principles underlying it--not only the phenomena revealed by the test, but the why and wherefore of such phenomena. it contains a full description of skiascopic apparatus, including the latest and most approved instruments. in depth of research, wealth of illustration and scientific completeness this work is unique. bound in cloth; contains pages and illustrations and colored plates. sent postpaid to any part of the world on receipt of $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th and brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * physiologic optics ocular dioptrics--functions of the retina--ocular movements and binocular vision by dr. m. tscherning adjunct-director of the laboratory of ophthalmology at the sorbonne, paris authorized translation by carl weiland, m.d. former chief of clinic in the eye department of the jefferson college hospital, philadelphia, pa. this is the crowning work on physiologic optics, and will mark a new era in optical study. its distinguished author is recognized in the world of science as the greatest living authority on this subject, and his book embodies not only his own researches, but those of the several hundred investigators who, in the past hundred years, made the eye their specialty and life study. tscherning has sifted the gold of all optical research from the dross, and his book, as now published in english with many additions, is the most valuable mine of reliable optical knowledge within reach of ophthalmologists. it contains pages and illustrations, and its reference list comprises the entire galaxy of scientists who have made the century famous in the world of optics. the chapters on ophthalmometry, ophthalmoscopy, accommodation, astigmatism, aberration and entoptic phenomena, etc.--in fact, the entire book contains so much that is new, practical and necessary that no refractionist can afford to be without it. bound in cloth. pages, illustrations. price, $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * ophthalmic lenses dioptric formulæ for combined cylindrical lenses, the prism-dioptry and other original papers by charles f. prentice, m.e. a new and revised edition of all the original papers of this noted author, combined in one volume. in this revised form, with the addition of recent research, these standard papers are of increased value. combined for the first time in one volume, they are the greatest compilation on the subject of lenses extant. this book of over pages contains the following papers: ophthalmic lenses. dioptric formulæ for combined cylindrical lenses. the prism-dioptry. a metric system of numbering and measuring prisms. the relation of the prism-dioptry to the meter angle. the relation of the prism-dioptry to the lens-dioptry. the perfected prismometer. the prismometric scale. on the practical execution of ophthalmic prescriptions involving prisms. a problem in cemented bi-focal lenses, solved by the prism-dioptry. why strong contra-generic lenses of equal power fail to neutralize each other. the advantages of the sphero-toric lens. the iris, as diaphragm and photostat. the typoscope. the correction of depleted dynamic refraction (presbyopia). _press notices on the original edition:_ ophthalmic lenses. "the work stands alone, in its present form, a compendium of the various laws of physics relative to this subject that are so difficult of access in scattered treatises."--_new england medical gazette._ "it is the most complete and best illustrated book on this special subject ever published."--_horological review_, new york. "of all the simple treatises on the properties of lenses that we have seen, this is incomparably the best.... the teacher of the average medical student will hail this little work as a great boon."--_archives of ophthalmology, edited by h. knapp, m.d._ dioptric formulÆ for combined cylindrical lenses. "this little brochure solves the problem of combined cylinders in all its aspects, and in a manner simple enough for the comprehension of the average student of ophthalmology. the author is to be congratulated upon the success that has crowned his labors, for nowhere is there to be found so simple and yet so complete an explanation as is contained in these pages."--_archives of ophthalmology, edited by h. knapp, m.d._ "this exhaustive work of mr. prentice is a solution of one of the most difficult problems in ophthalmological optics. thanks are due to mr. prentice for the excellent manner in which he has elucidated a subject which has not hitherto been satisfactorily explained."--_the ophthalmic review_, london. the book contains original diagrams. bound in cloth. price, $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * optometric record book a record book, wherein to record optometric examinations, is an indispensable adjunct of an optician's outfit. the keystone optometric record book was specially prepared for this purpose. it excels all others in being not only a record book, but an invaluable guide in examination. the book contains two hundred record forms with printed headings, suggesting, in the proper order, the course of examination that should be pursued to obtain most accurate results. each book has an index, which enables the optician to refer instantly to the case of any particular patient. the keystone record book diminishes the time and labor required for examinations, obviates possible oversights from carelessness and assures a systematic and thorough examination of the eye, as well as furnishes a permanent record of all examinations. sent postpaid on receipt of $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the keystone book of monograms this book contains designs and over different combinations of two and three letters. is an essential to every jeweler's outfit. it is not only necessary for the jeweler's own use and guidance, but also to enable customers to indicate exactly what they want, thus saving time and possible dissatisfaction. the monograms are purposely left in outline, in order to show clearly how the letters are intertwined or woven together. this permits such enlargement or reduction of the monogram as may be desired, and as much shading, ornamentation and artistic finish as the jeweler may wish to add. this comprehensive compilation of monograms is especially available as a reference book in busy seasons. its use saves time, thought and labor, and ensures quick and satisfactory work. monograms are the fad of the time, and there's money for the jeweler in monogram engraving. the knowledge in this book can be turned into cash. all the various styles of letters are illustrated. price, $ . ( s. d.) published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the keystone record book of watch repairs this book is × inches, has pages, and space for recording sixteen hundred jobs in detail. it is made of linen ledger paper, bound in cloth with leather back and corners. price, $ . ( s. d.), prepaid. no other record book on the market is so complete, and all cost more. published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. * * * * * the keystone book of guarantees of watch repairs this book contains two hundred printed guarantees, and is handsomely bound. each guarantee is ¼ × ½ inches, and most carefully worded. jewelers have discovered that the use of these guarantees is a most effective way to secure and cultivate public confidence. we sell a book of two hundred for $ . ( s. d.), prepaid, which is one-third less than the price charged by others for a similar book. published by the keystone, the organ of the jewelry and optical trades, th & brown sts., philadelphia, u.s.a. contributions from the museum of history and technology: paper the scholfield wool-carding machines _grace l. rogers_ primitive carding the first mechanical cards john and arthur scholfield the newburyport woolen manufactory the scholfield machines [illustration: figure .--an original scholfield wool-carding machine, built by arthur scholfield or under his immediate direction between and , as exhibited in the hall of textiles of the u.s. national museum (_cat. no._ t ). the exhibits in this hall are part of those being prepared for the enlarged hall of textiles in the new museum of history and technology now under construction. (_smithsonian photo_ .)] by grace l. rogers the scholfield wool-carding machines _first to appear among the inventions that sparked the industrial revolution in textile making was the flying shuttle, then various devices to spin thread and yarn, and lastly machines to card the raw fibers so they could be spun and woven. carding is thus the important first step. for processing short-length wool fibers its mechanization proved most difficult to achieve._ _to the united states in came john and arthur scholfield, bringing with them the knowledge of how to build a successful wool-carding machine. from this contribution to the technology of our then infant country developed another new industry._ the author: _grace l. rogers is curator of textiles, museum of history and technology, in the smithsonian institution's united states national museum._ carding is the necessary preliminary step by which individual short fibers of wool or cotton are separated and cleaned of foreign materials so they can be spun into yarn. the thoroughness of the carding determines the quality of the yarn, while the position in which the carded fibers are laid determines its type. the fibers are laid parallel in order to spin a smooth compact yarn, or they are crossed and intermingled to produce a soft bulky yarn. primitive carding the earliest method of carding wool was probably one in which, by use of the fingers alone, the tufts were pulled apart, the foreign particles loosened and extracted, and the fibers blended. fuller's teasels (thistles with hooked points, _dispasacus fullonum_), now better known for raising the nap on woven woolens, were also used at a very early date for carding. the teasels were mounted on a pair of small rectangular frames with handles; and from this device developed the familiar small hand card (see fig. ), measuring about inches by inches, in which card clothing (wire teeth embedded in leather) was mounted on a board with the wire teeth bent and angled toward the handle. the wool was placed on one card and a second card was dragged across it, the two hands pulling away from each other. this action separated the fibers and laid them parallel to the handle, in a thin film. after the fibers had been carded in this way several times, the cards were turned so that the handles were together and once again they were pulled across each other. with the wire teeth now angled in the same direction, the action rolled the carded fibers into a sliver (a loose roll of untwisted fibers) that was the length of the hand card and about the diameter of the finger. this placed the wool fibers crosswise in relation to the length of the sliver, their best position for spinning.[ ] until the mid- th century hand cards were the only type of implement available for carding. [illustration: figure .--hand cards "used on plantation of mary c. purvis," nelson county, virginia, during early 's and now in u.s. national museum (_cat. no._ t ; _smithsonian photo_ ).] [illustration: figure .--the first machine in lewis paul's british patent , issued august , . the treadle moved the card-covered board _b _, in a horizontal direction as necessary to perform the carding operation. with the aid of the needlestick the fibers were removed separately from each of the cards _n_. the carded fibers were placed on a narrow cloth band, which unrolled from the small cylinder _g_, on the left, and was rolled up with the fibers on the cylinder _i_, at the right.] first mechanical cards the earliest mechanical device for carding fibers was invented by lewis paul in england in but not patented until august , . the patent described two machines. the first, and less important, machine consisted of narrow cards mounted on a board; a single card held in the hand performed the actual carding operation (see fig. ). the second machine utilized a horizontal cylinder covered with parallel rows of card clothing. under the cylinder was a concave frame lined with similar card clothing. as the cylinder was turned, the cards on it worked against those on the concave frame, separating and straightening the fibers (see fig. ). after the fibers were carded, the concave section was lowered and the fibers were stripped off by hand with a needle stick, an implement resembling a comb with very fine needlelike metal teeth. though his machine was far from perfect. lewis paul had invented the carding cylinder working with stationary cards and the stripping comb. [illustration: figure .--the patent description of paul's second machine suggested that the fibers be carded by a cylinder action, but be removed in the same manner as directed in the first patent.] [illustration: figure .--illustrations from british patent , issued january , , to daniel bourn for a roller card machine.] [illustration: figure .--the most important single feature illustrated in richard arkwright's british patent of december , , provided "a crank and a frame of iron with teeth" to remove the carded fibers from the cylinder.] another important british patent was granted in to daniel bourn, who invented a machine with four carding rollers set close together, the first of the roller-card type (see fig. ). to produce a practical carding machine, however, several additional mechanical improvements were necessary. the first of these did not appear until more than two decades later, in , when john lees of manchester is reported to have invented a machine featuring "a perpetual revolving cloth, called a feeder," that fed the fibers into the machine.[ ] shortly afterward, the stripper rollers[ ] and the doffer comb[ ] (a mechanical utilization of paul's hand device) were added. both james hargreaves and richard arkwright claimed to be the inventor of these improvements, but it was arkwright who, in , first patented these ideas. his comb and crank (see fig. ) provided a mechanical means by which the carded fibers could be removed from the cylinder. with this, the cylinder card became a practical machine. arkwright continued the modification of the doffing end by drawing the carded fibers through a funnel and then passing them through two rollers. this produced a continuous sliver, a narrow ribbon of fibers ready to be spun into yarn. however, it was soon realized that the bulk characteristic desired in woolen yarns (but not desired in the compact types such as worsted yarns or cotton yarns) required that the wool be carded in a machine that would help produce this. [illustration: figure .--newburyport, massachusetts, in , an engraving from john j. currier's _history of newburyport, massachusetts_, - , vol. , newburyport, - .] in carding wool it was found more effective to omit the flat stationary cards and to use only rollers to work the fibers. the method of preparing the sliver also had to be changed. since it was necessary to remove the wool fibers crosswise in the sliver, a fluted wooden cylinder called a roller-bowl was used in conjunction with an under board or shell. as a given section of the carded wool was fed between the fluted cylinder and the board, the action of the cylinder rolled the fibers into a sliver about the diameter of the finger and the length of the cylinder. although these were only -inch lengths as compared to the continuous sliver produced by the arkwright cotton-carding machine,[ ] wool could still be carded with much more speed and thoroughness than with the small hand cards. this then was the state of mechanical wool carding in england in the 's as two experienced wool manufacturers, john and arthur scholfield, planned their trip to america. john and arthur scholfield the scholfields, however, were not to be the first to introduce mechanical wool carding into america. several attempts had been made prior to their arrival. in east hartford, connecticut, "about elisha pitkin had built a mill on the east side of main street near the old meeting-house and hockanum bridge, which was run by water-power, supplied by damming the hockanum river. here, beside grinding grain and plaster, was set up the first wool-carding machine in the state, and, it is believed, in the country."[ ] samual mayall in boston, about or , set up a carding machine operated by horse power. in he moved to gray, maine, where he operated a shop for wool carding and cloth dressing.[ ] of the machines used at the hartford woolen manufactory, organized in , a viewer reported he saw "two carding-engines, working by water, of a very inferior construction." they were further described as having "two large center cylinders in each, with two doffers, and only two working cylinders, of the breadth of bare sixteen inches, said to be invented by some person there."[ ] but these were isolated examples; most of the woolen mills of this period were like the one built in by john manning in ipswich, massachusetts, where all the work of carding, spinning, and weaving was still performed by hand. the scholfields' knowledge of mechanical wool-processing was to find a welcome reception in this young nation now struggling for economic independence. the exact reason for their decision to embark for america is unknown. however, it may well be that they, like samuel slater[ ] some three years earlier, had learned of the bounties being offered by several state legislatures for the successful introduction of new textile machines. both john and arthur were experienced in the manufacture of woolens. they were the sons of a clothier (during the th century, a person who performed the several operations in finishing cloth) and had been apprenticed to the trade. arthur was and a bachelor; john, a little younger, was married and had six children. arthur and john, with his family, sailed from liverpool in march and arrived in boston some two months later. upon arrival, their immediate concern was to find a dwelling place for john's family. finally they were accommodated by jedediah morse, well-known author of _morse's geography and gazetteer_, in a lodging in charlestown, near bunker hill. in less than a month john began to build a spinning jenny and a hand loom, and soon the scholfields started to produce woolen cloth. the two brothers were joined in the venture by john shaw, a spinner and weaver who had migrated from england with them. morse, being much impressed with some of the broadcloth they produced, was especially interested to find that john and arthur understood the actual construction of the textile machines. morse immediately recommended the scholfields to some wealthy persons of newburyport (see fig. ), who were interested in sponsoring a new textile mill. [illustration: figure .--cross-section of a scholfield wool-carding machine. the wool was fed into the machine from a moving apron, locked in by a pair of rollers, and passed from the taker-in roller to the angle stripper. this latter roller transferred the wool on to the main cylinder and acted as a stripper for the first worker roller. after passing through two more workers and strippers, the wool was prepared for leaving the main cylinder by the fancy, a roller with longer wire teeth set to reach into the card clothing of the large cylinder. then the doffer roller picked up the carded fibers from the main cylinder in -inch widths the length of the roller. these sections were freed by the comb plate, passed between the fluted wooden cylinder and an under board, where they were converted into slivers, and deposited into a small wooden trough.] the newburyport woolen manufactory a newburyport philanthropist, timothy dexter, contributed the use of his stable. there, beginning in december , the scholfields built a -inch, single-cylinder, wool-carding machine. they completed it early in , the first scholfield wool-carding machine in america. the group was so impressed that they organized the newburyport woolen manufactory. arthur was hired as overseer of the carding and john as overseer of the weaving and also as company agent for the purchase of raw wool. a site was chosen on the parker river in byfield parish, newbury, where a building feet long, about half as wide, and three stories high was constructed. to the new factory were moved the first carding machine, two double-carding machines, as well as spinning, weaving and fulling machines. the carding machines were built by messrs. standring, armstrong, and guppy, under the scholfields' immediate direction. all the machinery with the exception of the looms was run by water-power; the weaving was done by hand. the enterprise was in full operation by . john and arthur scholfield (and john's -year-old son, james) worked at the byfield factory for several years. during a wool-buying trip to connecticut in , john observed a valuable water-power site at the mouth of the oxoboxo river, in the town (i.e., township) of montville, connecticut. here, the brothers decided, would be a good place to set up their own mill, and on april , , they signed a -year lease for the water site, a dwelling house, a shop, and acres of land. as soon as arrangements could be completed, arthur, john, and the latter's family left for montville. [illustration: figure .--in the collection of the henry ford museum, dearborn, michigan, is this original scholfield wool-carding machine of the early th century. (_photo courtesy of the henry ford museum._)] the scholfields quite probably did not take any of the textile machinery from the byfield factory with them to connecticut--first because the machines were built while the brothers were under hire and so were the property of the sponsors, and second because their knowledge of how to build the machines would have made it unnecessary to incur the inconvenience and expense of transporting machines the hundred odd miles to montville. however, john scholfield's sons reported[ ] that they had taken a carding engine with them when they moved to connecticut in and had later transferred it to a factory in stonington. the sons claimed that the frame, cylinders, and lags of the machine were made of mahogany and that it had originally been imported from england. however, it would have been most uncommon for a textile machine, even an english one, to have been constructed of mahogany; and having built successful carding machines, the men at byfield would have found it unnecessary to attempt the virtually impossible feat of importing an english one. if it ever existed and was taken to connecticut, therefore, this machine was probably not a carding machine manufactured by the scholfields. it is more probable that the first scholfield carding machine remained in the byfield mill as the property of the newburyport woolen manufactory. [illustration: figure .--an original scholfield wool-carding machine at old sturbridge village, sturbridge, massachusetts. it is now run by electricity. (_photo courtesy of old sturbridge village._)] during the next half century, this mill was held by a number of individuals. william bartlett and moses brown, two of the leading stockholders of the company, sold it in to john lees, the english overseer who succeeded the scholfields, and he continued to operate it for about years. on august , , the mill was purchased at a sheriff's sale by gorham parsons, who sold a part interest to paul moody, a machinist from the textile town of lowell. moody operated the mill for the next years and at his death in his heirs sold their interest back to parsons. in it was leased for years by william n. cleveland and solomon wilde under the name of william n. cleveland & co. following the expiration of the lease in , a portion of the mill was occupied for or years by enoch pearson, believed to have been a descendant of the john pearson who had been a clothier in rowley in , and subsequently various industries occupied other portions and later the entire building, which burned with all its contents on october , . if the first scholfield carding machine remained a part of the property, therefore it must have been lost in that fire. however, the scholfields' importance to american wool manufacture was not contingent on the building of one successful carding machine, regardless of whether it was the first. it was the change in the scope of their business ventures after their move to connecticut that synonymized the name of scholfield with mechanical wool carding in america. john and arthur had built their woolen mill at uncasville, a village in the town of montville, and there arthur remained with his brother until , when he married, sold his interest to john, and moved to pittsfield, massachusetts. john and his sons continued to operate the mill until , when difficulties over water privileges spurred him to purchase property in stonington, connecticut, where he built a new mill containing two double-cylinder carding machines.[ ] in , leaving one son in charge at stonington, john returned to montville and purchased another factory and water privileges. he continued in the woolen manufacture until his death in . arthur, soon after arriving in pittsfield, constructed a carding machine and opened a pittsfield mill. the following advertisement appeared in the _pittsfield sun_, november , : arthur scholfield respectfully informs the inhabitants of pittsfield and the neighboring towns, that he has a carding-machine half a mile west of the meeting-house, where they may have their wool carded into rolls for - / cents per pound; mixed - / cents per pound. if they find the grease, and pick and grease it, it will be cents per pound, and - / cents mixed. they are requested to send their wool in sheets as they will serve to bind up the rolls when done. also a small amount of woolens for sale. the people around pittsfield soon realized that the mechanically carded wool was not only much easier to spin but enabled them to produce twice as much yarn from the same amount of wool. although many brought their wool to be carded at his factory, arthur was not without problems. these were evident in his advertisement of may , in which he stated that if the wool was not properly "sorted, clipped, and cleansed" he would charge an extra penny per pound. he also added that he would issue no credit. shortly after this, recognizing the need for additional carding machines in other localities, arthur scholfield undertook the work of manufacturing such machines for sale. through this venture he was to spread his knowledge of mechanical wool carding throughout the country. the scholfield machines the first record of arthur's sale of carding machines appeared in the _pittsfield sun_ in september . the next year, in may , his advertisement informed the readers that a. scholfield continued to card wool, and also that: he has carding-machines for sale, built under his immediate inspection, upon a new and improved plan, which he is determined to sell on the most liberal terms, and will give drafts and other instructions to those who wish to build for themselves; and cautions all whom it may concern to beware how they are imposed upon by uninformed speculating companies, who demand more than twice as much for machines as they are really worth. scholfield must have felt that some of his competitors were charging much more for their carding machines than they were worth. also, others were producing inferior machines that did not card the wool properly. both factors encouraged arthur to continue the commercial production of wool-carding machines. in april he again advertised: good news for farmers, only eight cents per pound for picking, greasing, and carding white wool, and twelve and a half cents for mixed. for sale, double carding-machines, upon a new and improved plan, good and cheap. and in : double carding machines, made and sold by a. scholfield for $ each, without the cards, or $ including the cards. picking machines at $ each. wool carded on the same terms as last year, viz.: eight cents per pound for white, and twelve and a half cents for mixed, no credit given. with both carpenters and machinists working under his direction, he soon abandoned completely the carding of wool and devoted his full time to producing carding machines. an advertisement in the _pittsfield sun_ shows alexander and elisha ely providing carding service there with a scholfield machine in . scholfield machines were also set up in massachusetts at bethuel baker, jr., & co. in lanesborough in , at walker & worthington in lenox, at curtis's mills in stockbridge, at reuben judd & co. in williamstown, in lee at the falls near the forge, at bairds' mills in bethlehem in , and by john hart in cheshire in . subsequently many more scholfield machines were set up in many other places as far away as manchester, new hampshire, in and mason village, new hampshire, in about . one of the difficulties that arthur encountered in building these early machines was in cutting the comb plates that freed the carded fleece from the cylinder. these plates had to be prepared by hand, the teeth being cut and filed one by one. in james standring, an old friend and co-worker, smuggled into this country a "teeth-cutting machine," which he had procured on a trip to england.[ ] standring kept the machine closely guarded, permitting only scholfield and one other friend to see it. standring used his machine to make new saws of all descriptions and to re-cut old ones as well as to prepare comb plates for the carding machines. but in spite of this new simplified method of producing comb plates scholfield's business did not flourish, for the tremendous influx of foreign fabrics after the war of greatly damaged the domestic textile industries, including the manufacture of carding machines. by scholfield's friends had persuaded him to apply to congress for relief. to his brother john on april , , he wrote: ... i have been advised by my friends to apply to congress by a petition as we were the first that introduced the woolen business by machinery in this country and should that plan be adopted i have but little hopes of success but they say if it does no good it wont doo any harm but at any rate i should like your opinion and advice about it.... apparently john felt the plan would not succeed, for on the following december arthur wrote him again: ... with regard to applying to congress i have given that up for i am of your opinion that it won't succeed what gave me some hopes i was advis'd to it by a member of the senet who is a very influential man in congress but he is now out and i think tis best to drop it.... arthur never applied to congress for the recognition his contemporaries felt he deserved.[ ] several changes in the construction of wool-carding machines took place during this period. as early as john scholfield, jr., was reported to have in his mill in jewett city, connecticut, a double-cylinder carding machine feet wide. and in a worcester, massachusetts, machine maker advertised that he was "constructing carding machines entirely of iron."[ ] although a few of these iron carding machines were sold, they did not become common until years later.[ ] there is no record that arthur scholfield manufactured carding machines of a width greater than inches, or entirely of iron. however, little is known of his last business years except that he remained in pittsfield until his death, march , . only three wool-carding machines attributed to the hands of the scholfields are known to exist today. all are -inch, single-cylinder carding machines of the same general description (see fig. ). they differ only in minor respects that probably result from subsequent changes and additions. one (fig. ), now located in the plymouth carding house, at greenfield village, dearborn, michigan, was discovered in ware, massachusetts. another (fig. ), now at old sturbridge village, sturbridge, massachusetts,[ ] was uncovered in a barn in northern new hampshire. the third (fig. ), is in the u.s. national museum in the collection of the division of textiles. both it and the dearborn machine have in former times been described as "the original scholfield woolen card." it is a romantic but unsubstantiated idea that either of these is the first scholfield carding machine set up in the byfield factory in . the author's opinion is that all three were built by arthur scholfield during his years in the pittsfield factory. examination of the national museum machine supports this opinion. the woods used are all native to the new england region. the frame, the large cylinder and the roller called the fancy are constructed of eastern white pine (the sturbridge machine is also constructed principally of pine). the joints of the main frame are mortised and tenoned. at the doffing end the main frame and cross supports are numbered and matched, i to iiii, and at the feed end they are numbered v to viii but were mis-matched in the original assembly. further rigidity is achieved by means of hand-forged lag screws. the arch of the frame is birch and the arch arm maple. the -inch doffer roller is made of chestnut.[ ] the iron shafts are square and turned down at the bearings. the worker rollers are fitted with sprockets and turned by a hand-forged chain. the comb plate, stamped "standring," is hand filed, and is undoubtedly one of those made before the "teeth-cutting machine" was smuggled from england, for although one-third of the plate is quite regular, the size and pitch of the teeth in the remaining two-thirds are irregular. part of this irregularity might be explained as having been caused by the hand-sharpening of a plate originally cut by machine, but the teeth in one -inch span not only vary in size but have a pitch that would have been impossible to produce after the original plate had been made.[ ] there is no doubt that this carding machine was made by arthur scholfield, or under his immediate supervision, sometime between and . it may well be one of the machines sent to southern new hampshire in or , as it is known to have been run in nashua and jeffrey, new hampshire, in the 's and 's, after which it was run by james townsend in marlboro, new hampshire, from until , when it was exhibited at the mechanics fair in boston. mr. rufus s. frost purchased the machine and owned it until his death in . when the frost estate was settled, the old scholfield wool-carding machine was purchased by the davis & furber machine co., by which in it was presented to the national museum. the disappearance of the original scholfield carding machine is regrettable, but fortunately the scholfields' importance to the american woolen industry does not depend on their having produced this one machine. these brothers, arriving here at a critical time in our nation's history, made important contributions to our economic and to our technological progress--john by his mill operations, arthur by his ultimate work of constructing wool-carding machines for sale. of these two aspects, it is the contribution of arthur that has had the more far-reaching effect, for he spread his expert knowledge of mechanical wool carding, in the form of machines, throughout the new england woolen centers. his machines now stand as monuments to the work of both. footnotes: [ ] the same type of hand cards were also used for cotton in colonial america, but because the cotton fibers were not laid parallel in the sliver only coarse yarns could be spun. in ancient peru the fibers for spinning fine cotton yarns were prepared with the fingers alone. in india the cotton fibers were combed with the fine-toothed jawbone of the boalee fish before the fibers were removed from the seed. (j.f. watson, _the textile manufactures and the costumes of the people of india_, london, , p. .) [ ] edward baines, _history of the cotton manufacture in great britain_, london, , p. . [ ] the wire points of the worker roller pick up the fibers from the faster moving main cylinder, carding the fibers on contact. a stripping action takes place when the wires of the worker roller meet the points of the stripper roller in a "point to back" action. this arrangement is used to remove the wool from the worker and put it back on the wire teeth of the main cylinder. illustrated in w. van bergen and h.r. mauersberger, _american wool handbook_, new york, , p. . [ ] the doffer comb, a serrated metal plate the length of the rollers, removes the carded fibers from the last roller or doffer. [ ] this was no great disadvantage at this time, as wool was still being spun on the spinning wheel. the mechanical spinning of woolen yarns was an obstinate problem that was not solved until - . it then was necessary to piece these -inch slivers together before they could be spun until , when a device for the doffing of carded wool in a continuous sliver was perfected by an american, john goulding, and patented by him. [ ] a.p. pitkin, _the pitkin family of america_, hartford, , p. . [ ] from a letter written in by mayall's son; a.h. cole, _the american wool manufacture_, vol. , cambridge, , p. . [ ] from a report of the visit of henry wansey in , cited by w.r. bagnall, _the textile industries of the united states_, cambridge, , p. . [ ] slater introduced the arkwright system of carding and spinning cotton into america in . bringing neither plans nor models with him from which to build the machines, he relied instead on his detailed knowledge of their construction. england prohibited the export of textile machines, models, and plans, and even attempted to prevent skilled artisans from leaving the country. george s. white, _memoir of samuel slater_, philadelphia, , pp. and . [ ] r.c. taft, _some notes upon the introduction of the woolen manufacture into the united states_, providence, , pp. - . the scholfield sons, of whom three were still living in the 's, were quite elderly at the time taft talked to them; only james, aged , would have been able to remember the connecticut move. [ ] there is no record of the carding machine made of mahogany which john's sons reported had been transferred to the stonington mill. [ ] this is probably the machine that gave rise to stories of a carding machine having been smuggled from england during the early byfield days. j.e.a. smith, _the history of pittsfield, massachusetts, from the year to the year _, springfield, , p. . [ ] u.s. th congress, st and nd sessions, _the debates and proceedings in the congress_, vols. for - ( ). [ ] _worcester spy_, july , . [ ] a natural delay. although the cylinders and the card clothing wore out and had to be replaced, the heavy wooden frames of the early machines remained long in serviceable condition. [ ] once again in use, it is now powered by electricity. a pound of slivers from it (about ) may be purchased for $ . . [ ] the author is indebted to william n. watkins, u.s. national museum curator of agriculture and wood products, smithsonian institution, for the identification of the woods in the specimen. [ ] the author is indebted to mr. don berkebile of the smithsonian's u.s. national museum staff for his examination of the metal teeth on the comb plate of this machine. note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.net/dirs/ / / / / / -h.zip) by frank b. wade diamonds a text-book of precious stones a text-book of precious stones for jewelers and the gem-loving public by frank b. wade, b.s. head of the department of chemistry, shortridge high school, indianapolis, ind. author of "diamonds: a study of the factors that govern their value" illustrated g. p. putnam's sons new york and london the knickerbocker press copyright, by frank b. wade first printing, january, second " march, [device] made in the united states of america preface in this little text-book the author has tried to combine the trade information which he has gained in his avocation, the study of precious stones, with the scientific knowledge bearing thereon, which his vocation, the teaching of chemistry, has compelled him to master. in planning and in writing the book, every effort has been made to teach the fundamental principles and methods in use for identifying precious stones, in as natural an order as possible. this has been done in the belief that the necessary information will thus be much more readily acquired by the busy gem merchant or jeweler than would have been the case had the material been arranged in the usual systematic order. the latter is of advantage for quick reference after the fundamentals of the subject have been mastered. it is hoped, however, that the method of presentation used in this book will make easy the acquisition of a knowledge of gemology and that many who have been deterred from studying the subject by a feeling that the difficulties due to their lack of scientific training were insurmountable, will find that they can learn all the science that is really necessary, as they proceed. to that end the discussions have been given in as untechnical language as possible and homely illustrations have in many cases been provided. nearly every portion of the subject that a gem merchant needs to know has been considered and there is provided for the interested public much material which will enable them to be more intelligent purchasers of gem-set jewelry, as well as more appreciative lovers of nature's wonderful mineral masterpieces. f. b. w. indianapolis, _december , _ introduction because of the rapid increase in knowledge about precious stones on the part of the buying public, it has become necessary for the gem merchant and his clerks and salesmen to know at least as much about the subject of gemology as their better informed customers are likely to know. in many recent articles in trade papers, attention has been called to this need, and to the provision which columbia university has made for a course in the study of gems. the action of the national association of goldsmiths of great britain in providing annual examinations in gemology, and in granting certificates and diplomas to those who successfully pass the examinations, has also been reported, and it has been suggested that some such course should be pursued by jewelers' associations in this country. the greatest difficulty in the way of such formal study among our jewelers and gem merchants is the lack of time for attendance on formal courses, which must necessarily be given at definite times and in definite places. as a diamond salesman was heard to say recently: "the boss said he wanted me to take in that course at columbia, but he didn't tell me how i was going to do it. here i am a thousand miles from columbia, and it was only six weeks ago that he was telling me i ought to take that course. i can't stay around new york all the time." similarly those whose work keeps them in new york might object that their hours of employment prevented attendance on day courses, and that distance from the university and fatigue prevent attendance on night courses. the great mass of gem dealers in other cities must also be considered. it will therefore be the endeavor of this book to provide guidance for those who really want to make themselves more efficient in the gem business, but who have felt that they needed something in the way of suggestion regarding what to attempt, and how to go about it. study of the sort that will be suggested can be pursued in spare moments, on street cars or elevated trains, in waiting rooms, or in one's room at night. it will astonish many to find how much can be accomplished by consistently utilizing spare moments. booker t. washington is said to have written in such spare time practically all that he has published. for the practical study of the gems themselves, which is an absolutely essential part of the work, those actually engaged in the trade have better opportunities than any school could give and, except during rush seasons, there is plenty of time during business hours for such study. no intelligent employer will begrudge such use of time for which he is paying, if the thing be done in reason and with a serious view to improvement. the frequent application of what is acquired, as opportunity offers, in connection with ordinary salesmanship, will help fix the subject and at the same time increase sales. many gem dealers have been deterred from beginning a study of gems because of the seeming difficulties in connection with the scientific determination of the different varieties of stones. now science is nothing but boiled-down common sense, and a bold front will soon convince one that most of the difficulties are more apparent than real. such minor difficulties as exist will be approached in such a manner that a little effort will overcome them. for those who are willing to do more work, this book will suggest definite portions of particular books, which are easily available, for reference reading and study--but the lessons themselves will attempt to teach the essential things in as simple a manner as is possible. perhaps the first essential for the gem merchant is to be able surely to distinguish the various stones from one another and from synthetic and imitation stones. that such ability is much needed will be clear to anyone who in casting a backward glance over his experience recalls the many serious mistakes that have come to his knowledge. many more have doubtless occurred without detection. several times recently the author has come across cases where large dealers have been mistaken in their determination of colored stones, particularly emeralds. only the other day a ring was brought to me that had been bought for a genuine emerald ring after the buyer had taken it to one of the dealers in his city and had paid for an examination of it, which had resulted in its being declared genuine. on examining the stone with a lens of only moderate power, several round air bubbles were noted in it, and on barely touching it with a file it was easily scratched. the material was green glass. now, what was said about the dealer who sold it and the one who appraised it may be imagined. the long chain of adverse influence which will be put in action against those dealers, even though the one who sold the stone makes good the loss, is something that can be ill afforded by any dealer, and all this might have been avoided by even a rudimentary knowledge of the means of distinguishing precious stones. the dealer was doubtless honest, but, through carelessness or ignorance, was himself deceived. our first few lessons will therefore be concerned chiefly with learning the best means of telling the different stones from one another. contents page preface iii lesson i.--how stones are distinguished from one another ii.--refraction iii.--double refraction iv.--absorption and dichroism v.--specific gravity vi.--specific gravity determinations vii.--luster and other reflection effects viii.--hardness ix.--hardness (_continued_) x.--dispersion xi.--color xii.--color (_continued_) xiii.--color (_continued_) xiv.--color (_concluded_) xv.--how to tell scientific stones from natural gems xvi.--how to test an "unknown" gem xvii.--suitability of stones for various types of jewels, as determined by hardness, brittleness, and cleavability xviii.--mineral species to which the various gems belong and the chemical composition thereof xix.--the naming of precious stones xx.--the naming of precious stones (_concluded_) xxi.--where precious stones are found xxii.--how rough precious stones are cut xxiii.--how rough precious stones are cut and what constitutes good "make" (_concluded_) xxiv.--forms given to precious stones xxv.--imitations of precious stones xxvi.--alteration of the color of precious stones xxvii.--pearls xxviii.--cultured pearls and imitations of pearls xxix.--the use of balances and the unit of weight in use for precious stones xxx.--tariff laws on precious and imitation stones bibliography index a text-book of precious stones lesson i how stones are distinguished from one another precious stones distinguished by their _properties_. one precious stone is best distinguished from another just as substances of other types are distinguished, that is to say, by their _properties_. for example, salt and sugar are both _white_, both are _soluble in water_, and both are _odorless_. so far the italicized properties would not serve to distinguish the two substances. but sugar is _sweet_ while salt is _salty_ in taste. here we have a distinguishing property. now, just as salt and sugar have properties, so have all _precious stones_, and while, as was the case with salt and sugar, many precious stones have properties in common, yet each has also some properties which are distinctive, and which can be relied upon as differentiating the particular stone from other stones. in selecting properties for use in distinguishing precious stones, such properties as can be determined by quantity, and set down in numbers, are probably more trustworthy than those that can be observed by mere inspection. those also which have to do with the behavior of light in passing through the stone are extremely valuable. importance of numerical properties. it is because gem dealers so often rely upon the more obvious sort of property, such as color, that they so frequently make mistakes. there may be several different types of stones of a given color, but each will be found to have its own numerical properties such as density, hardness, refractive power, dispersive power, etc., and it is only by an accurate determination of two or three of these that one can be sure what stone he has in hand. it must next be our task to find exactly what is meant by each of these numerical properties, and how one may determine each with ease and exactness. lesson ii refraction explanation of refraction. perhaps the surest single method of distinguishing precious stones is to find out the _refractive index_ of the material. to one not acquainted with the science of physics this calls for some explanation. the term _refraction_ is used to describe the bending which light undergoes when it passes (at any angle but a right angle) from one transparent medium to another. for example, when light passes from air into water, its path is bent at the surface of the water and it takes a new direction within the water. (see fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] ab represents the path of light in the air and bc its path in the water. while every gem stone refracts light which enters it from the air, _each stone has its own definite ability to do this, and each differs from every other in the amount of bending which it can bring about under given conditions_. the accurate determination of the amount of bending in a given case requires very finely constructed optical instruments and also a knowledge of how to apply a certain amount of mathematics. however, all this part of the work has already been done by competent scientists, and tables have been prepared by them, in which the values for each material are put down. the herbert-smith refractometer. there is on the market an instrument called the herbert-smith refractometer, by means of which anyone with a little practice can read at once on the scale within the instrument the _refractive index_, as it is called, of any precious stone that is not too highly refractive. (its upper limit is . . this would exclude very few stones of importance, _i. e._, zircon, diamond, sphene, and demantoid garnet.) those readers who wish to make a more intensive study of the construction and use of the refractometer will find a very full and complete account of the subject in _gem-stones and their distinctive characters_, by g. f. herbert-smith, new york; james pott & co., . chapter iv., pp. - . the herbert-smith refractometer is there described fully, its principle is explained and directions for using it are given. the price of the refractometer is necessarily so high (duty included) that its purchase might not be justified in the case of the smaller retailer. every large dealer in colored stones, whether importer, wholesaler, or retailer, should have one, as by its use very rapid and very accurate determinations of stones may be made, and its use is not confined to unmounted stones, for any stone whose table facet can be applied to the surface of the lens in the instrument can be determined. lesson iii double refraction explanation of double refraction. in lesson ii. we learned what is meant by _refraction_ of light. while glass and a small number of precious stones (diamond, garnet, and spinel) bend light as was illustrated in fig. , practically all the other stones cause a beam of light on entering them to separate, and the path of the light in the stone becomes double, as shown in fig. . this behavior is called _double refraction_. it may be used to distinguish those stones which are doubly refracting from those which are not. for example, in the case of a stone which is doubly refracting to a strong degree, such as a peridot (the lighter yellowish-green chrysolite is the same material and behaves similarly toward light), the separation of the light is so marked that the edges of the rear facets, as seen through the table, appear _double_ when viewed through a lens. a zircon will also similarly separate light and its rear facets also appear double-lined as seen with a lens from the table of the stone. the rarer stones, sphene and epidote, likewise exhibit this property markedly. some colorless zircons, when well cut, so closely resemble diamonds that even an expert might be deceived, if caught off his guard, but this simple test of looking for the doubled lines at the back of the stone would alone serve to distinguish the two stones. [illustration: fig. .] a simple but very valuable test for the kind of refraction of a cut stone. in the case of most of the other doubly refracting stones the degree of separation is much less than in peridot and zircon, and it takes a well-trained and careful eye to detect the doubling of the lines. here a very simple device will serve to assist the eye in determining whether a cut stone is singly or doubly refracting. expose the stone to direct sunlight and hold an opaque white card a few inches from the stone, in the direction of the sun, so as to get the bright reflections _from within the stone_ reflected onto the card. if the material is singly refractive (as in the case of diamond, garnet, spinel, and glass), _single images_ of each of the reflecting facets will appear on the card, but if doubly refracting--even if slightly so--_double images_ will appear. when the stone is slightly moved, these pairs of reflections will travel _together as pairs_ and not tend to separate. the space between the two members of each pair of reflections serves to give a rough idea of the degree of the double refraction of the material if compared with the space between members in the case of some other kind of stone held at the same distance from the card. thus zircon separates the reflections widely. aquamarine, which is feebly doubly refracting, separates them but slightly. it will be seen at once that we have here a very easily applied test and one that requires no costly apparatus. it is, furthermore, a sure test, after a little practice. for example, if one has something that looks like a fine emerald, but that may be glass, all one need to do is to expose it in the sun, as above indicated. if real emerald, double images will be had (very close together, because emerald is but feebly doubly refracting). if glass, the images on the card will be single. similarly, ruby can at once be distinguished from even the finest garnet or ruby spinel, as the last two are singly refracting. so, too, are glass imitations of ruby and ruby doublets (which consist of glass and garnet). this test cannot injure the stone, it may be applied to mounted stones, and it is reliable. for stones of very deep color this test may fail for lack of sufficiently brilliant reflections. in such a case hold the card _beyond_ the stone and let the sunlight shine _through_ the stone onto the card, observing whether the spots of light are single or double. the table below gives the necessary information as to which stones show double and which single refraction. table giving character of refraction in the principal gems _refraction single:_ diamond garnet (all types) spinel opal glass _difference between highest and lowest refractive indices_ _refraction double:_ sphene . zircon . benitoite . peridot or chrysolite . epidote . tourmaline . kunzite . ruby and sapphire . topaz (precious) . amethyst and quartz topaz . emerald and aquamarine . chrysoberyl . the student should now put into practice the methods suggested in this lesson. look first for the visible doubling of the lines of the back facets in peridot (or chrysolite); then in zircon; then in some of the less strongly doubly refracting stones; then try the sunlight-card method with genuine stones and with doublets and imitations until you can tell every time whether you are dealing with singly or doubly refracting material. when a stone of unknown identity comes along, try the method on it and thus assign it as a first step to one or the other class. other tests will then be necessary to definitely place it. differences in refraction due to crystal form. the difference in behavior toward light of the singly and doubly refracting minerals depends upon the crystal structure of the mineral. all gems whose crystals belong in the cubic system are singly refracting in all directions: in the case of some other systems of crystals the material may be singly refracting in one or in two directions, but doubly refracting in other directions. no attention need be paid to these complications, however, when using the sunlight-card method with a cut stone, for in such a case the light in its course within the stone will have crossed the material in two or more directions, and the separation and consequent doubling of image will be sure to result. for those who wish to study double refraction more in detail, chapter vi., pages - , of g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_ will serve admirably as a text. as an alternative any text-book on physics will answer. lesson iv absorption and dichroism cause of color in minerals. in lesson iii. we saw that many gem materials cause light that enters them to divide and take two paths within the material. now all transparent materials _absorb_ light more or less; that is, they stop part of it, perhaps converting it into heat, and less light emerges than entered the stone. if light of all the rainbow colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, violet) is equally absorbed, so that there is the same relative amount of each in the light that comes out as in the light that went into a stone, we say that the stone is a _white_ stone; that is, it is not a _colored_ stone. if, however, only blue light succeeds in getting through, the rest of the white light that entered being absorbed within, we say that we have a blue stone. similarly, the _color_ of any transparent material depends upon its relative degree of absorption of each of the colors in white light. that color which emerges most successfully gives its name to the color of the stone. thus a ruby is red because red light succeeds in passing through the material much better than light of any other color. unequal absorption causes dichroism. all that has been said so far applies equally well to both singly and doubly refracting materials, but in the latter sort it is frequently the case, in those directions in which light always divides, that the absorption is not equal in the two beams of light (one is called the ordinary ray and the other the extraordinary ray). for example, in the case of a crystal of ruby, if white light starts to _cross_ the crystal, it not only divides into an ordinary ray and an extraordinary ray, but the absorption is different in the two cases, and the two rays emerge of different shades of red. with most rubies one ray emerges purplish red, the other yellowish red. it will at once be seen that if the human eye could distinguish between the two rays, we would have here a splendid method of determining many precious stones. unfortunately, the eye does not analyze light, but rather blends the effect so that the unaided eye gives but a poor means of telling whether or not a stone exhibits twin colors, or _dichroism_, as it is called. (the term signifies two colors.) a well-trained eye can, however, by viewing a stone in several different positions, note the difference in shade of color caused by the differential absorption. the dichroscope. now, thanks to the scientific workers, there has been devised a relatively simple and comparatively inexpensive instrument called the _dichroscope_, which enables one to tell almost at a glance whether a stone is or is not dichroic. the construction is indicated in the accompanying drawing and description. [illustration: the dichroscope.] [illustration: fig. . a, simple lens; b, piece of iceland spar with glass prisms on ends to square them up; c, square hole.] [illustration: fig. .] if the observer looks through the lens (a) toward a bright light, as, for example, the sky, he apparently sees two square holes, fig. . what has happened is that the light passing through the square hole (c of fig. ) has divided in passing through the strongly doubly refracting iceland spar (b of fig. ) and two images of the square hole are thus produced. if now a stone that exhibits dichroism is held in front of the square hole and viewed toward the light, two images of the stone are seen, one due to its ordinary ray (which, as was said above, will have one color), and the other due to its extraordinary ray (which will have a different color or shade of color), thus the color of the two squares will be different. with a singly refracting mineral, or with glass, or with a doubly refracting mineral when viewed in certain directions of the crystal (which do not yield double refraction) the colors will be alike in the two squares. thus to determine whether a red stone is or is not a ruby (it might be a garnet or glass or a doublet, all of which are singly refracting and hence can show no dichroism), hold the stone before the hole in the dichroscope and note whether or not it produces twin colors. if there seems to be no difference of shade turn the stone about, as it may have accidentally been placed so that it was viewed along its direction of single refraction. if there is still no dichroism it is not a ruby. (_note._--scientific rubies exhibit dichroism as well as natural ones, so this test will not distinguish them.) a dichroscope may be had for from seven to ten dollars, according to the make, and everyone who deals in colored stones should own and use one. not all stones that are doubly refracting exhibit dichroism. white stones of course cannot exhibit it even though doubly refracting, and some colored stones, though strongly doubly refracting, do not exhibit any noticeable dichroism. the zircon, for example, is strongly doubly refracting, but shows hardly any dichroism. the test is most useful for emerald, ruby, sapphire, tourmaline, kunzite and alexandrite, all of which show marked dichroism. it is of little use to give here the twin colors in each case as the shades differ with different specimens, according to their depth and type of color. the deeper tinted stones of any species show the effect more markedly than the lighter ones. the method is rapid and easy--it can be applied to mounted stones as well as to loose ones, and it cannot injure a stone. the student should, if possible, obtain the use of a dichroscope and practice with it on all sorts of stones. he should especially become expert in distinguishing between rubies, sapphires, and emeralds, and their imitations. the only imitation (scientific rubies and sapphires are not here classed as imitations), which is at all likely to deceive one who knows how to use the dichroscope is the emerald triplet, made with real (but pale) beryl above and below, with a thin strip of green glass between. as beryl is doubly refracting to a small degree, and dichroic, one might perhaps be deceived by such an imitation if not careful. however, the amount of dichroism would be less in such a case than in a true emerald of as deep a color. those who wish to study further the subject of dichroism should see _gem-stones_, by g. f. herbert-smith, chapter vii., pp. - , or see _a handbook of precious stones_, by m. d. rothschild, putnam's, pp. - . lesson v specific gravity the properties so far considered as serving to distinguish precious stones have all depended upon the behavior of the material toward light. these properties were considered first because they afford, to those acquainted with their use, very rapid and sure means of classifying precious stones. density of minerals. we will next consider an equally certain test, which, however, requires rather more time, apparatus, and skill to apply. each kind of precious stone has its own _density_. that is, if pieces of _different_ stones were taken all of the same size, the _weights_ would differ, but like-sized pieces of one and the same material always have the same weight. it is the custom among scientists to compare the densities of substances with the density of water. the number which expresses the relation between the density of any substance and the density of water is called the _specific gravity_ number of the substance. for example, if, size for size, a material, say diamond, is . times as heavy as water, its _specific gravity_ is . . it will be seen that since each substance always has, when pure, the same _specific gravity_, we have here a means of distinguishing precious stones. it is very seldom, if ever, the case that we find any two precious stones of the same specific gravity. a few stones have nearly the same specific gravities, and in such cases it is well to apply other tests also. _in fact one should always make sure of a stone by seeing that two or three different tests point to the same species._ we must next find out how to determine the specific gravity of a precious stone. if the shape of a stone were such that the volume could be readily calculated, then one could easily compare the weight with the volume or with the weight of the same volume of water, and thus get the specific gravity (for a specific gravity number really tells how much heavier a piece of material is than the same volume of water). unfortunately the form of most precious stones is such that it would be very difficult to calculate the volume from the measurements, and the latter would be hard to make accurately with small stones. to avoid these difficulties the following ingenious method has been devised: if a stone is dropped into water it pushes aside, or _displaces_, a body of water exactly equal in volume to itself. if the water thus displaced were caught and weighed, and the weight of the stone then divided by the weight of the water displaced, we would have the specific gravity number of the stone. this is precisely what is done in getting the specific gravity of small stones. to make sure of getting an accurate result for the weight of water displaced the following apparatus is used. [illustration: fig. . a, flask-like bottle; b, indicates ground glass stopper; c, shows hole drilled through stopper.] the specific gravity bottle. a small flask-like bottle (see fig. ) is obtained. this has a tightly fitting _ground_ glass stopper (b). the stopper has a small hole (c) drilled through it lengthwise. if the bottle is filled with water, and the stopper dropped in and tightened, water will squirt out through the small hole in the stopper. on wiping off stopper and bottle we have the bottle _exactly full_ of water. if now the stopper is removed, the stone to be tested (which must of course be smaller than the neck of the bottle) dropped in, and the stopper replaced, exactly as much water will squirt out as is equal in volume to the stone that was dropped in. if we had weighed the full bottle with the stone _on the pan beside it_, and then weighed the bottle with the stone _inside it_ we could now, by subtracting the last weight from the first, find out how much the water, that was displaced, weighed. this is precisely the thing to do. the weight of the stone being known we now have merely to divide the weight of the stone by the weight of the displaced water, and we have the specific gravity number. reference to a table of specific gravities of precious stones will enable us to name our stone. such a table follows this lesson. a sample calculation. the actual performance of the operation, if one is skilled in weighing, takes less time than it would to read this description. at first one will be slow, and perhaps one should read and re-read this lesson, making sure that all the ideas are clear before trying to put them in practice. a sample calculation may help make the matter clearer, so one is appended: weight of bottle + stone (outside) = . carats weight of bottle + stone (inside) = . carats ------------ weight of water displaced = . carat ------------ weight of stone = . carats weight of stone . specific gravity = --------------- = ---- = . sp. g. weight of water . in this case the specific gravity being . , the stone is probably diamond (see table), but might be precious topaz, which has nearly the same specific gravity. it is assumed that the jeweler will weigh in carats, and that his balance is sensitive to . carat. with such a balance, and a specific gravity bottle (which any scientific supply house will furnish for less than $ ) results sufficiently accurate for the determination of precious stones may be had if one is careful to exclude air bubbles from the bottle, and to wipe the outside of the bottle perfectly dry before each weighing. the bottle should never be held in the warm hands, or it will act like a thermometer and expand the water up the narrow tube in the stopper, thus leading to error. a handkerchief may be used to grasp the bottle. table of specific gravities of the principal gem materials beryl (emerald) . chrysoberyl (alexandrite) . corundum (ruby, sapphire, "oriental topaz") . diamond . garnet (pyrope) . " (hessonite) . " (demantoid, known in the trade as "olivine") . " (almandite) . opal . peridot . quartz (amethyst, common topaz) . spinel (rubicelle, balas ruby) . spodumene (kunzite) . topaz (precious) . tourmaline . turquoise . zircon, lighter variety . " heavier variety . for a more complete and scientific discussion of specific gravity determination see _gem-stones_, by g. f. herbert-smith, chapter viii., pp. - ; or see, _a handbook of precious stones_, by m. d. rothschild, pp. - , for an excellent account with illustrations; or see any physics text-book. lesson vi specific gravity determinations weighing a gem in water. in the previous lesson it was seen that the identity of a precious stone may be found by determining its specific gravity, which is a number that tells how much heavier the material is than a like volume of water. it was not explained, however, how one would proceed to get the specific gravity of a stone too large to go in the neck of a specific gravity bottle. in the latter case we resort to another method of finding how much a like volume of water weighs. if the stone, instead of being dropped into a perfectly full bottle of water (which then overflows), be dropped into a partly filled glass or small beaker of water, just as much water will be displaced as though the vessel were full, and it will be displaced _upward_ as before, for lack of any other place to go. consequently its weight will tend to buoy up or float the stone by trying to get back under it, and the stone when in water will weigh less than when in air. anyone who has ever pulled up a small anchor when out fishing from a boat will recognize at once that this is the case, and that as the anchor emerges from the water it seems to suddenly grow heavier. not only does the stone weigh less when in the water, but it weighs exactly as much less as the weight of the water that was displaced by the stone (which has a volume equal to the volume of the stone). if we weigh a stone first in the air, as usual, and then in water (where it weighs less), and then subtract the weight in water from the weight in air we will have the _loss of weight in water_, and this equals the _weight of an equal volume of water_, which is precisely what we got by our bottle method. we now need only divide the weight in air by the loss of weight in water, and we shall have the specific gravity of the stone. [illustration: fig. .] to actually weigh the stone in water we must use a fine wire to support the stone. we must first find how much this wire itself weighs (when attached by a small loop to the hook that supports the balance pan and trailing partly in the water, as will be the case when weighing the stone in water). this weight of the wire must of course be deducted to get the true weight of the stone in water. the beaker of water is best supported by a small table that stands over the balance pan. one can easily be made out of the pieces of a cigar box. (see fig. .) the wire that is to support the stone should have a spiral at the bottom in which to lay the gem, and this should be so placed that the latter will be completely submerged at all times, but not touching bottom or sides of the beaker. example of data, and calculation, when getting specific gravity by the method of weighing in water: weight of stone = . carats ----------- weight of stone (plus wire) in water = . carats weight of wire = . carat ----------- true weight of stone in water = . carats ----------- loss of weight in water = . carat weight of stone . specific gravity = --------------- = ---- = . loss in water . here the specific gravity, . would indicate some corundum gem (ruby or sapphire), and the other characters would indicate at once which it was. the student who means to master the use of the two methods given in lessons v. and vi. should proceed to practice them with stones of known specific gravities until he can at least get the correct result to the first decimal place. it is not to be expected that accurate results can be had in the second decimal place, with the balances usually available to jewelers. when the learner can determine specific gravities with some certainty he should then try unknown gems. the specific gravity method is of especial value in distinguishing between the various colorless stones, as, for example, quartz crystal, true white topaz, white sapphire, white or colorless beryl, etc. these are all doubly refractive, have no color, and hence no dichroism, and unless one has a refractometer to get the refractive index, they are difficult to distinguish. the specific gravities are very different, however, and readily serve to distinguish them. it should be added that the synthetic stones show the same specific gravities as their natural counterparts, so that this test does not serve to detect them. where many gems are to be handled and separated by specific gravity determinations, perhaps the best way to do so is to have several liquids of known specific gravity and to see what stones will float and what ones will sink in the liquids. methylene iodide is a heavy liquid (sp. g. . ), on which a "quartz-topaz," for example, sp. g. . , would float, but a true topaz, sp. g. . , would sink in it. by diluting methylene iodide with benzol (sp. g. . ) any specific gravity that is desired may be had (between the two limits . and . ). specimens of known specific gravity are used with such liquids and their behavior (as to whether they sink or float, or remain suspended in the liquid,) indicates the specific gravity of the liquid. an unknown stone may then be used and its behavior noted and compared with that of a known specimen, whereby one can easily find out whether the unknown is heavier or lighter than the known sample. an excellent account of the detail of this method is given in g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_, pages - , of chapter viii., and various liquids are there recommended. it is doubtful if the practical gem dealer would find these methods necessary in most cases. where large numbers of many different unknown gems have to be determined it would pay to prepare, and standardize, and use such solutions. lesson vii luster and other reflection effects by the term _luster_ we refer to the manner and degree in which light is reflected from the _surface_ of a material. surfaces of the same material, but of varying degrees of smoothness would, of course, vary in the vividness of their luster, but the type of variation that may be made use of to help distinguish gems, depends upon the character of the material more than upon the degree of smoothness of its surface. just as silk has so typical a luster that we speak of it as silky luster, and just as pearl has a pearly luster, so certain gems have peculiar and characteristic luster. the diamond gives us a good example. most diamond dealers distinguish between real and imitation diamonds at a glance by the character of the luster. that is the chief, and perhaps the only property, that they rely upon for deciding the genuineness of a diamond, and they are fairly safe in so doing, for, with the exception of certain artificially decolorized zircons, no gem stone is likely to deceive one who is familiar with the luster of the diamond. it is not to be denied that a fine white zircon, when finely cut, may deceive even one who is familiar with diamonds. the author has fooled many diamond experts with an especially fine zircon, for the luster of zircon does approach, though it hardly equals, that of the diamond. rough zircons are frequently mistaken for diamonds by diamond prospectors, and even by pickers in the mines, so that some care should be exercised in any suspicious case, and one should not then rely solely on the luster. however, in most cases in the trade there is almost no chance of the unexpected presence of a zircon and the luster test is usually sufficient to distinguish the diamond. (zircons are strongly doubly refractive, as was said in lesson iii. on double refraction, and with a lens the doubling of the back lines may be seen.) adamantine luster. the luster of a diamond is called _adamantine_ (the adjective uses the greek name for the stone itself). it is keen and cold and glittering, having a metallic suggestion. a very large per cent. of the light that falls upon the surface of a diamond at any low angle is reflected, hence the keenness of its luster. if a diamond and some other white stone, say a white sapphire, are held so as to reflect at the same time images of an incandescent light into the eye of the observer, such a direct comparison will serve to show that much more light comes to the eye from the diamond surface than from the sapphire surface. the image of the light filament, as seen from the diamond, is much keener than as seen from the sapphire. the same disparity would exist between the diamond and almost any other stone. zircon comes nearest to having adamantine luster of any of the other gems. the green garnet that is called "olivine" in the trade also approaches diamond in luster, hence the name "demantoid," or diamond like, sometimes applied to it. vitreous luster. the other stones nearly all have what is called _vitreous_ luster (literally, glass like), yet owing to difference of hardness, and consequent minute differences in fineness of surface finish, the keenness of this vitreous luster varies slightly in different stones, and a trained eye can obtain clues to the identity of certain stones by means of a consideration of the luster. garnets, for example, being harder than glass, take a keener polish, and a glance at a doublet (of which the hard top is usually garnet and the base of glass) will show that the light is better reflected from the garnet part of the top slope than from the glass part. this use of luster affords the quickest and surest means of detecting a doublet. one can even tell a doublet inside a show window, although the observer be outside on the sidewalk, by moving to a position such that a reflection from the top slope of the stone is to be had. when a doublet has a complete garnet top no such direct comparison can be had, but by viewing first the top luster, and then the back luster, in rapid succession, one can tell whether or not the stone is a doublet. oily luster. certain stones, notably the peridot (or chrysolite) and the hessonite (or cinnamon stone), have an oily luster. this is possibly due to reflection of light that has penetrated the surface slightly and then been reflected from disturbed layers beneath the surface. at any rate, the difference in luster may be made use of by those who have trained their eyes to appreciate it. much practice will be needed before one can expect to tell at a glance when he has a peridot (or chrysolite) by the luster alone, but it will pay to spend some spare time in studying the luster of the various stones. a true, or "precious" topaz, for example, may be compared with a yellow quartz-topaz, and owing to the greater hardness of the true topaz, it will be noted that it has a slightly keener luster than the other stone, although both have vitreous luster. similarly the corundum gems (ruby and sapphire), being even harder than true topaz, take a splendid surface finish and have a very keen vitreous luster. turquoise has a dull waxy luster, due to its slight hardness. malachite, although soft, has, perhaps because of its opacity, a keen and sometimes almost metallic luster. one may note the luster rapidly, without apparatus and without damage to the stone. we thus have a test which, while it is not conclusive except in a very few cases, will supplement and serve to confirm other tests, or perhaps, if used at first, will suggest what other tests to apply. another optical effect that serves to distinguish some stones depends upon the reflection of light from within the material due to a certain lack of homogeneity in the substance. cause of color in the opal. thus the opal is distinguished by the prismatic colors that emerge from it owing to the effect of thin layers of material of slightly different density, and hence of different refractive index from the rest of the material. these thin films act much as do soap-bubble films, to interfere with light of certain wave lengths, but to reflect certain other wave lengths and hence certain colors. again, in some sapphires and rubies are found minute, probably hollow, tube-like cavities, arranged in three sets in the same positions as the transverse axes of the hexagonal crystal. the surfaces of these tubes reflect light so as to produce a six-pointed star effect, especially when the stone is properly cut to a high, round cabochon form, whose base is parallel to the successive layers of tubes. starstones, moonstones, cat's-eyes. in the moonstone we have another sort of effect, this time due to the presence of hosts of small twin crystal layers that reflect light so as to produce a sort of moonlight-on-the-water appearance _within_ the stone when the latter is properly cut, with the layers of twin crystals parallel to its base. ceylon-cut moonstones are frequently cut to save weight, and may have to be recut to properly place the layers so that the effect may be seen equally over all parts of the stone, as set. cat's-eye and tiger's-eye owe their peculiar appearance to the presence, within them, of many fine, parallel, silky fibers. the quartz cat's-eye was probably once an asbestos-like mineral, whose soft fibers were replaced by quartz in solution, and the latter, while giving its hardness to the new mineral, also took up the fibrous arrangement of the original material. the true chrysoberyl cat's-eye also has a somewhat similar fibrous or perhaps tubular structure. such stones, when cut _en cabochon_, show a thin sharp line of light running across the center of the stone (when properly cut with the base parallel to the fibers). this is due to reflection of light from the surfaces of the parallel fibers. the line of light runs perpendicularly to the fibers. in these cases (opals, starstones, moonstones, and cat's-eyes) the individual stone is usually easily distinguished from other kinds of stones by its peculiar behavior towards light. however, it must be remembered that other species than corundum furnish starstones (amethyst and other varieties of quartz, for example), so that it does not follow that any starstone is a corundum gem. also the more valuable chrysoberyl cat's-eye may be confused with the cheaper quartz cat's-eye unless one is well acquainted with the respective appearances of the two varieties. whenever there is any doubt other tests should be applied. for further account of luster and other types of reflection effects see _gem-stones_, by g. f. herbert-smith, chapter v., pp. - , or _a handbook of precious stones_, m. d. rothschild, pp. , . lesson viii hardness another property by means of which one may distinguish the various gems from each other is _hardness_. by hardness is meant the ability to resist scratching. the term "hardness" should not be taken to include toughness, yet it is frequently so understood by the public. most hard stones are more or less brittle and would shatter if struck a sharp blow. other hard stones have a pronounced _cleavage_ and split easily in certain directions. true hardness, then, implies merely the ability to resist abrasion (_i. e._, scratching). now, not only is hardness very necessary in a precious stone in order that it may _receive_ and _keep_ a fine polish, but the degree in which it possesses hardness as compared with other materials of known hardness may be made use of in identifying it. no scale of _absolute_ hardness has ever come into general use, but the mineralogist mohs many years ago proposed the following _relative_ scale, which has been used very largely: mohs's scale of hardness. diamond, the hardest of all gems, was rated as by mohs. this rating was purely arbitrary. mohs might have called it or with equal reason. it was merely in order to represent the different degrees of hardness by numbers, that he picked out the number to assign to diamonds. sapphire (and ruby) mohs called , as being next to diamond in hardness. true topaz (precious topaz) he called . quartz (amethyst and quartz "topaz") was given the number . feldspar (moonstone) was rated , the mineral apatite , fluorspar , calcite , gypsum , and talc . it may be said here that any mineral in this series, that is of higher number than any other, will scratch the other. thus diamond ( ) will scratch all the others, sapphire ( ) will scratch any but diamond, topaz ( ) will scratch any but diamond and sapphire, and so on. it must not be thought that there is any regularity in the degrees of hardness as expressed by these numbers. the intervals in hardness are by no means equal to the differences in number. thus the interval between diamond and sapphire, although given but one number of difference, is probably greater than that between sapphire ( ) and talc ( ). the numbers thus merely give us an order of hardness. many gem minerals are, of course, missing from this list, and most of the minerals from down to are not gem minerals at all. few gem materials are of less hardness than , for any mineral less hard than quartz ( ) will inevitably be worn and dulled in time by the ordinary road dust, which contains much powdered quartz. in testing a gem for hardness the problem consists in finding out which of the above minerals is most nearly equal in hardness to the unknown stone. any gem that was approximately equal in hardness to a true topaz ( ) would also be said to be of hardness . thus spinel is of about the same hardness as topaz and hence is usually rated as in hardness. similarly opal, moonstone, and turquoise are of about the same hardness as feldspar and are all rated . frequently stones will be found that in hardness are between some two of mohs's minerals. in that case we add one half to the number of the softer mineral; thus, peridot, benitoite, and jade (nephrite) are all softer than quartz ( ) but harder than feldspar ( ); hence we say they are - / in hardness. beryl (aquamarine and emerald), garnet (almandine), and zircon are rated - / in hardness, being softer than true topaz but harder than quartz. a table of the hardness of most of the commonly known gem-stones follows this lesson. having now an idea of what hardness means and how it is expressed, we must next inquire how one may make use of it in identifying unknown gems. how to apply the hardness test. in the first place, it is necessary to caution the beginner against damaging a fine gem by attempting to test its hardness in any but the most careful manner. the time-honored file test is really a hardness test and serves nicely to distinguish genuine gems, of hardness or above, from glass imitations. a well-hardened steel file is of not quite hardness , and glass of various types while varying somewhat averages between and . hence, glass imitations are easily attacked by a file. to make the file test use only a _very fine_ file and apply it with a light but firm pressure lengthwise along the girdle (edge) of the unset stone. if damage results it will then be almost unnoticeable. learn to know the _feel_ of the file as it takes hold of a substance softer than itself. also learn the _sound_. if applied to a hard stone a file will slip on it, as a skate slips on ice. it will not take hold as upon a softer substance. if the stone is set, press a sharp corner of a broken-ended file gently against a _back_ facet, preferably high up toward the girdle, where any damage will not be visible from the front, and move the file very slightly along the surface, noting by the _feel_ whether or not it takes hold and also looking with a lens to see if a scratch has been made. do not mistake a line of steel, left on a slightly rough surface, for a true scratch. frequently on an unpolished girdle of real gem material the file will leave a streak of steel. similarly when using test minerals in accordance with what follows do not mistake a streak of powder from the yielding test material, for a true scratch in the material being tested. the safe way is to wipe the spot thus removing any powder. a true scratch will, of course, persist. a doublet, being usually constructed of a garnet top and a glass back, may resist a file at the girdle if the garnet top covers the stone to the girdle, as is sometimes the case, especially in the smaller sizes. in this case the back must be tested. one should never pass a file rudely across the corners or edges of the facets on any stone that may be genuine, as such treatment really amounts to a series of light hammer blows, and the brittleness of most gem stones would cause them to yield, irrespective of their hardness. it should be remembered that some genuine stones are softer than a file, so that it will not do to reject as worthless any material that is attacked by a file. lapis lazuli ( ), sphene ( ), opal ( ), moonstone ( ), amazonite ( ), turquoise ( ), peridot ( - / ), demantoid garnet ( - / ) (the "olivine" of the trade), and jade (nephrite) ( - / ), are all more or less attacked by a file. table of hardness of the principal gem-stones . diamond. - / . (carborundum.) . sapphire and ruby (also all the color varieties of sapphire). - / . chrysoberyl (alexandrite). . true topaz and spinel (rubicelle, balas ruby). - / . emerald, aquamarine, beryl, morganite, zircon (jacinth and true hyacinth and jargoon), almandine garnet. - / . pyrope garnet (arizona ruby, cape ruby), hessonite garnet (cinnamon stone), tourmaline (various colors vary from to - / ), kunzite ( +). . amethyst, various quartz gems, quartz "topaz," jade (jadeite). - / . peridot (chrysolite), demantoid garnet ("olivine"), jade (nephrite). . opal, moonstone, turquoise. . lapis lazuli. lesson ix hardness--_continued_ minerals used in testing hardness. for testing stones that are harder than a file the student should provide himself with the following set of materials: . a small crystal of carborundum. (most hardware stores have specimen crystals as attractive advertisements of carborundum as an abrasive material, or the carborundum co., niagara falls, n. y., will supply one.) . a small crystal of sapphire (not of gem quality, but it should be transparent and compact. a pale or colorless montana sapphire can be had for a few cents of any mineral dealer). . a small _true topaz_ crystal. (the pure white topaz of thomas mountain, utah, is excellent; or white topaz from brazil or japan or mexico or colorado will do. any mineral house can furnish small crystals for a few cents when not of specially fine crystallization.) . a small quartz crystal. (this may be either amethyst or quartz-topaz or the common colorless variety. the fine, sharp, colorless crystals from herkimer county, n. y., are excellent. these are very inexpensive.) . a fragment of a crystal of feldspar. (common orthoclase feldspar, which is frequently of a brownish pink or flesh color, will do.) these five test stones represent the following degrees of hardness: . carborundum is harder than any gem material but diamond. it will scratch sapphire and ruby, which are rated in hardness, hence we may call carborundum - / if we wish. it is, however, very much softer than diamond, and the latter will scratch it upon the slightest pressure. . sapphire, of hardness , scratching any gem material except diamond. . true topaz, of hardness . it is scratched by sapphire (and, of course, ruby), also by chrysoberyl (which is hence rated - / ), but scratches most other stones. spinel (which is also rated as in hardness) is really a bit harder than topaz. . quartz, of hardness , and scratched by all the previous stones but scratching those that were listed above as of less hardness than a file. . feldspar, of hardness , hence slightly softer than a file and yielding to it, but scratching the stones likewise rated as when applied forcibly to them. also scratching stones rated as less than on slight pressure. we must next consider how these minerals may be safely used upon gem material. obviously it would be far safer to use them upon rough gem material than upon cut stones. however, with care and some little skill, one may make hardness tests without particular danger to fine cut material. the way to proceed is to apply the cut stone (preferably its girdle, or if that is so set as not to be available, a corner where several facets meet) gently to the flat surface of one of the softer test stones, drawing it lightly along the surface and noting the _feel_ and looking to see if a scratch results. if the test stone is scratched try the next harder test stone similarly. _do not attempt to use the test stone upon any valuable cut stone._ proceed as above until the gem meets a test stone that it does not attack. its hardness is then probably equal to the latter and perhaps if pressed forcibly against it a slight scratch would result, but it is not advisable to resort to heavy pressure. a light touch should be cultivated in this work. having now an indication as to the hardness of the unknown gem look up in the table of the previous lesson those gems of similar hardness and then by the use of some of the tests already given decide which of the stones of that degree of hardness you have. _never rely upon a single test in identifying a gem._ for further study of hardness and its use in testing gems see _gem-stones_, g. f. herbert-smith, chap. ix., pp. - , and table on p. ; or see _a handbook of precious stones_, rothschild, pp. , , . lesson x dispersion another property which may be made use of in deciding the identity of certain gems is that called _dispersion_. we have seen in lesson ii. that light in entering a stone from the air changes its path (refraction), and in lesson iii. it was explained that many minerals cause light that enters them, to divide and proceed along two different paths (double refraction). now it is further true that light of the various colors (red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet) is refracted variously--the violet being bent most sharply, the red least, and the other colors to intermediate degrees. the cut (fig. ) represents roughly and in an exaggerated manner the effect we are discussing. [illustration: fig. .] now in a cut stone this separation of light of different colors, or dispersion of light, as it is called, results in the reflection of each of the colors separately from the steep sloping back facets of the stone. if almost any clear, colorless facetted stone is placed in the sunlight and a card held before it to receive the reflections, it will be seen that rainbow-like reflections appear on the card. these _spectra_, as they are called, are caused by the dispersion of light. with a diamond the spectra will be very brilliant and of vivid coloring, and the red will be widely separated from the blue. with white sapphire or white topaz, or with rock crystal (quartz), the spectra will be less vivid--they will appear in pairs (due to the double refraction of these minerals), and the red and blue will be near together (_i. e._, the spectra will be short). this shortness in the latter cases is due to the small dispersive power of the three minerals mentioned. paste (lead glass) gives fairly vivid spectra, and they are single like those from diamond, as glass is singly refracting. the dispersion of the heavy lead glass approaches that of diamond. the decolorized zircon (jargoon) has a dispersion well up toward that of diamond and gives fairly vivid spectra on a card, but they are double, as zircon is doubly refracting. sphene (a gem rarely seen in the trade) and the demantoid garnet (a green gem often called "olivine" in the trade) both have very high dispersive power, exceeding the diamond in this respect. as they are both colored stones (sphene is usually yellowish, sometimes greenish or brown), the vividness of their color-play is much diminished by absorption of light within them. so also the color-play of a deeply colored fancy diamond is diminished by absorption. dispersion as a test of the identity of a gem. we may now consider how an acquaintance with the dispersive powers of the various stones can be used in distinguishing them. if a stone has high dispersive power it will exhibit "fire," as it is called--_i. e._, the various colors will be so widely separated within the stone, and hence reflected out so widely separated, that they will fall on the eye (as on the card above) in separate layers, and vivid flashes of red or yellow or other colors will be seen. such stones as the white sapphire (and others of small dispersion), however, while separating the various colors appreciably as seen reflected on a card, do not sufficiently separate them to produce the "fire" effect when the light falls on the eye. this is because the various colors, being very near together in this case, cross the eye so rapidly, when the stone is moved, that they blend their effect and the eye regards the light that thus falls upon it as white. we have here a ready means of distinguishing the diamond from most other colorless gems. the trained diamond expert relies (probably unconsciously) upon the dispersive effect (or "fire") nearly as much as upon the adamantine luster, in telling at a glance whether a stone is or is not a diamond. of all colorless stones, the only one likely to mislead the expert in this respect is the whitened zircon (jargoon), which has almost adamantine luster and in addition nearly as high dispersive power as diamond. however, zircon is doubly refracting (strongly so), and the division of the spectra which results (each facet producing two instead of only one) weakens the "fire" so that even the best zircon is a bit "sleepy" as compared with even an ordinary diamond. in addition to providing a ready means of identifying the diamond, a high degree of dispersion in a stone of pronounced color would lead one to consider sphene, demantoid garnet (if green), and zircon (which might be reddish, yellowish, brown, or of other colors), and if the stone did not agree with these in its other properties one should suspect _glass_. a good way to note the degree of dispersion, aside from the sunlight-card method, is to look at the stone from the back while holding it up to the light (daylight). stones of high dispersive power will display vivid color play in this position. glass imitations of rubies, emeralds, amethysts, etc., will display altogether too much dispersion for the natural gems. in chap. iii., p. , of g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_, a brief account of dispersion is given. college text-books on physics also treat of it, and the latter give an account of how dispersion is measured and what is meant by a coefficient of dispersion. most gem books say little about it, but as we have seen above, a knowledge of the matter can, when supplemented by other tests, be applied practically in distinguishing gems. lesson xi color in reserving to the last the property of _color_, which many dealers in gems use first when attempting to identify a precious stone, i have sought to point out the fact that a determination based solely upon color is very likely to be wrong. so many mineral species are found in so many different colors that to attempt to identify any mineral species by color alone is usually to invite disaster. the emerald, alone among gems, has, when of fine color, a hue that is not approached by any other species. the color of the grass in the springtime fitly describes it. yet even here the art of man has so closely counterfeited in glass the green of the emerald that one cannot be sure of his stone by color alone. as was suggested earlier in these lessons, the writer has several times recently had occasion to condemn as glass imitations stones for which high prices had been paid as genuine emeralds, those who sold them having relied solely upon a trained eye for color. confusion of gems due to similarity of color. the same tendency to rely upon color causes many in the trade to call all yellow stones "topaz" whether the species be corundum (oriental topaz), true topaz (precious topaz), citrine quartz (quartz topaz), heliodor (yellow beryl), jacinth (yellow zircon), or what not. similarly the public calls all red stones ruby. thus we have "cape ruby" and "arizona ruby" (pyrope garnet), "spinel ruby" (more properly ruby spinel), "siam ruby" (very dark red corundum), "ceylon ruby" (pale pinkish corundum), rubellite (pink tourmaline), and lastly burmah ruby (the fine blood-red corundum). while it is true that color, unless skillfully estimated and wisely used in conjunction with other properties, is a most unreliable guide, yet when thus used, it becomes a great help and serves sometimes to narrow down the chase, at the start, to a very few species. to thus make use of it requires an actual acquaintance with the various gem materials, in their usual colors and shades and an eye trained to note and to remember minute differences of tint and shade. the suggestions which follow as to usual colors of mineral species must then be used only with discretion and after much faithful study of many specimens of each of the species. let us begin with the beginning color of the visible spectrum, red, and consider how a close study of shades of red can help in distinguishing the various red stones from each other. in the first place we will inquire what mineral species are likely to furnish us with red stones. omitting a number of rare minerals, we have ( ) corundum ruby, ( ) garnet of various types, ( ) zircon, ( ) spinel, ( ) tourmaline. these five minerals are about the only common species which give us an out-and-out red stone. let us now consider the distinctions between the reds of these different species. the red of the ruby, whether dark (siam type), blood red (burmah type), or pale (ceylon), is more pleasing usually than the red of any of the other species. viewed from the back of the stone (by transmitted light) it is still pleasing. it may be purplish, but is seldom orange red. also, owing to the dichroism of the ruby the red is variable according to the changing position of the stone. it therefore has a certain life and variety not seen in any of the others except perhaps in red tourmaline, which, however, does not approach ruby in fineness of red color. red stones of similar shades. the garnet, on the other hand, when of fire-red hue, is darker than any but the siam ruby. it is also more inclined to orange red or brownish red--and the latter is especially true when the stone is seen against the light (by transmitted light). its color then resembles that of a solution of "iron" such as is given as medicine. the so-called "almandine" garnets (those of purplish-red tint) do not equal the true ruby in brightness of color and when held up to the light show more prismatic colors than the true ruby, owing to the greater dispersion of garnet. the color also lacks variety (owing to lack of dichroism). while a fine garnet may make a fair-looking "ruby" when by itself, it looks inferior and dark when beside a fine ruby. by artificial light, too, the garnet is dark as compared with the true ruby, and the latter shows its color at a distance much more strongly than the garnet. the red zircon, or true hyacinth, is rare. (many hessonite garnets are sold as hyacinths in the trade. these are usually of a brownish red.) the red of the hyacinth is never equal to that of the ruby. it is usually more somber, and a bit inclined to a brownish cast. the dispersion of zircon, too, is so large (about per cent. of that of diamond) that some little "color-play" is likely to appear along with the intrinsic color. the luster too is almost adamantine while that of ruby is softer and vitreous. although strongly doubly refracting, the hyacinth shows scarcely any dichroism and thus lacks variety of color. hence a trained eye will at once note these differences and not confound the stone with ruby. spinels, when red, are almost always more yellowish or more purplish than fine corundum rubies. they are also singly refracting and hence exhibit no dichroism and therefore lack variety of color as compared with true ruby. some especially fine ones, however, are of a good enough red to deceive even jewelers of experience, and one in particular that i have in mind has been the rounds of the stores and has never been pronounced a spinel, although several "experts" have insisted that it was a scientific ruby. the use of a dichroscope would have saved them that error, for the stone is singly refracting. spinels are usually clearer and more transparent than garnets and show their color better at a distance or when in a poor light. tourmaline of the reddish variety (rubellite) is seldom of a deep red. it is more inclined to be pinkish. the dichroism of tourmaline is stronger than that of ruby and more obvious to the unaided eye. the red of the rubellite should not deceive anyone who has ever seen a fine corundum ruby. yellow stones considering next the stones of yellow color, we have the following species to deal with: ( ) diamond, ( ) corundum, ( ) precious topaz, ( ) quartz, ( ) beryl, ( ) zircon, ( ) tourmaline. yellow zircon resembles yellow diamond. here we have less opportunity to judge of the species by the color than was the case with the red stones. the diamond, of course, is easy to tell, not by the kind of yellow that it displays, for it varies greatly in that respect, but rather by its prismatic play blended with the intrinsic color. its luster also gives an immediate clue to its identity. it is necessary, however, to be sure that we are not being deceived by a yellow zircon, for the latter has considerable "fire" and a keen luster. its strong double refraction and its relative softness, as well as its great density will serve to distinguish it. of the other yellow stones, the true or precious topaz is frequently inclined to a pinkish or wine yellow and many such stones lose all their yellow (retaining their pink) when gently heated. the so-called "pinked" topazes are thus produced. the yellow corundum rarely has a color that is at all distinctive. as far as color goes the material might be yellow quartz, or yellow beryl, or yellow zircon, or yellow tourmaline (ceylon type). many of the yellowish tourmalines have a decidedly greenish cast (greenish-yellow chrysoberyl might resemble these also). however, in general if one has a yellow stone to determine it will be safer to make specific gravity or hardness tests, or both, before deciding, rather than to rely upon color. lesson xii color--_continued_ green stones let us first consider what mineral species are most likely to give us green stones. omitting the semi-precious opaque or translucent stones we have: . grass-green beryl (the emerald) which is, of course, first in value among the green stones and first in the fine quality of its color. . tourmaline (some specimens of which perhaps more nearly approach the emerald than any other green stones). . the demantoid garnet (sometimes called "olivine" in the trade). . true olivine (the peridot and the chrysolite of the trade). . bluish-green beryl (aquamarine). . green sapphire (oriental emerald or oriental aquamarine). . chrysoberyl (alexandrite and also the greenish-yellow chrysoberyl). . considering first the emerald, we have as legitimate a use of color in distinguishing a stone as could be selected, for emerald of fine grass-green color is not equaled by any other precious stone in the rich velvety character of its color. we have to beware here, however, of the fine glass imitations, which, while lacking the variety of true emerald, because of lack of dichroism, are nevertheless of a color so nearly like that of the emerald that no one should attempt to decide by color alone as to whether a stone is genuine or imitation emerald. if a hardness test shows that the material is a genuine hard stone and not a paste, then one who is well accustomed to the color of fine emerald can say at once whether a stone is a fine emerald or some other hard green stone. where the color is less fine, however, one might well refuse to decide by the color, even when sure that the material is not glass, for some fine tourmalines approach some of the poorer emeralds in richness of color. the "scientific emerald" fraud. no "scientific" emeralds of marketable size have ever been produced as far as can be learned. many attempts to reproduce emerald by melting beryl or emerald of inferior color have resulted only in the production of a beryl glass, which, while its color might be of desirable shade, was softer and lighter in weight than true emerald. it was also a true glass and hence singly refracting and without dichroism, whereas emerald is crystalline (not glassy or amorphous), is doubly refracting, and shows dichroism. do not be misled, then, into buying or selling an imitation of emerald under the terms "synthetic," "scientific," or "reconstructed," as such terms, when so used, are used to deceive one into thinking that the product offered bears the same relation to the true emerald that scientific rubies and sapphires bear to the natural stones. such is not the case. about the most dangerous imitation of the emerald that is ever seen in the trade is the triplet that has a top and a back made of true but pale beryl (the same mineral as emerald, but not of the right color) and a thin slice of deep emerald green glass laid between. this slice of glass is usually placed behind the girdle so that a file will not find any point of attack. the specific gravity of the triplet is practically that of emerald, its color is often very good, and it is doubly refracting. it is thus a dangerous imitation. (see fig. .) emerald triplets. a careful examination of one of these triplets, in the unset condition, with a good lens, will reveal the thin line of junction of the beryl with the glass. (the surface lusters of the two materials are enough different for the trained eye to detect the margin at once.) such a triplet, if held in the sun, will reflect onto a card two images in pale or white light, one coming from the top surface of the table and the other from the top surface of the glass slice within. in other words, it acts in this respect like a doublet. a true emerald would give only one such reflection, which would come from the top surface of the table. [illustration: fig. .--emerald triplet.] . tourmalines, when green, are usually darker than emeralds and of a more pronounced yellow green, or they may be of too bluish a green, as is the case with some of the finest of the green tourmalines from maine. connecticut green tourmaline tends more to the dark yellowish green, and ceylon tourmaline to the olive green. the stronger dichroism of the tourmaline frequently reveals itself to the naked eye, and there is usually one direction or position in which the color of the stone is very inferior to its color in the opposite direction or position. most tourmalines (except the very lightest shades) must be cut so that the table of the finished stone lies on the side of the crystal, as, when cut with the table lying across the crystal (perpendicular to the principal optical axis) the stones are much too dark to be pretty. hence when one turns the cut stone so that he is looking in the direction which was originally up and down the crystal (the direction of single refraction and of no dichroism) he gets a glimpse of a less lovely color than is furnished by the stone in other positions. with a true emerald no such disparity in the color would appear. there might be a slight change of shade (as seen by the naked eye), but no trace of an ugly shade would appear. by studying many tourmalines and a few emeralds one may acquire an eye for the differences of color that characterize the two stones, but it is still necessary to beware of the fine glass imitation and to use the file and also to look with a high-power glass for any rounding bubbles. the emerald will never have the latter. the glass imitation frequently does have them. the sharp jagged flaws and cracks that so often appear in emerald are likely to appear also in tourmaline as both are brittle materials. the glass imitations frequently have such flaws put into them either by pinching or by striking the material. frequently, too, wisps of tiny air bubbles are left in the glass imitations in such fashion that unless one scrutinizes them carefully with a good lens they strongly resemble the flaws in natural emerald. i have thus gone into detail as to how one may distinguish true emerald from tourmaline and from glass imitations because, on account of the high value of fine emerald and its infrequent occurrence, there is perhaps more need for the ability to discriminate between it and its imitations and substitutes than there is in almost any other case. where values are high the temptation to devise and to sell imitations or substitutes is great and the need for skill in distinguishing between the real and the false is proportionally great. . the demantoid garnet (often unfortunately and incorrectly called "olivine" in the trade) is usually of an olive or pistachio shade. it may, however, approach a pale emerald. the refraction being single in this, as in all garnets, there is little variety to the color. the dispersion being very high, however, there is a strong tendency, in spite of the depth of the body color, for this stone to display "fire," that is, rainbow color effects. the luster, too, is diamond-like as the name "demantoid" signifies. with this account of the stone and a few chances to see the real demantoid garnet beside an emerald no one would be likely to mistake one for the other. the demantoid garnet is also very soft as compared with emerald ( - / as against nearly ). . true olivine (the peridot or the chrysolite of the trade) is of a fine leaf-green or bottle-green shade in the peridot. the chrysolite of the jeweler is usually of a yellower green. frequently an olive-green shade is seen. the luster of olivine (whether of the peridot shade or not) is oily, and this may serve to distinguish it from tourmaline (which it may resemble in color). its double refraction is very large also, so that the doubling of the edges of the rear facets may easily be seen through the table with a lens. the dichroism is feeble too, whereas that of tourmaline is strong. no one would be likely to confuse the stone with true emerald after studying what has preceded. . bluish-green beryl (aquamarine) is usually of a pale transparent green or blue green (almost a pure pale blue is also found). having all the properties of its more valuable variety, emerald, the pale beryl may, by the use of these properties, be distinguished from the pale blue-green topaz which so strongly resembles it in color. . green sapphire seldom even approaches emerald in fineness of color. when it remotely suggests emerald it is called "oriental" emerald to denote that it is a corundum gem. most green sapphires are of too blue a green to resemble emerald. some are really "oriental" aquamarines. in some cases the green of the green sapphire is due to the presence, within the cut stone, of both blue and yellow portions, the light from which, being blended by its reflection within the stone, emerges as green as seen by the unaided eye, which cannot analyze colors. the dark sapphires of australia are frequently green when cut in one direction and deep blue when cut in the opposite direction. the green, however, is seldom pleasing. . chrysoberyl as usually seen is of a yellowish green. the fine gem chrysoberyls known as alexandrites, however, have a pleasing bluish green or deep olive green color by daylight and change in a most surprising fashion by artificial light under which they show raspberry red tints. this change, according to g. f. herbert-smith, is due principally to the fact that the balance in the spectrum of light transmitted by the stone is so delicate that when a light, rich in short wave lengths, falls upon it the blue green effect is evident, whereas when the light is rich in long wave lengths (red end of the spectrum), the whole stone appears red. the strong dichroism of the species also aids this contrast. the chrysoberyls of the cat's-eye type (of fibrous or tubular internal structure) are usually of olive green or brownish-green shades. those who wish to further study color distinctions in green stones are recommended to see the chapters on beryl (pp. - ), peridot (pp. - ), corundum (pp. - ), tourmaline (pp. - ), chrysoberyl (pp. - ), and garnet (demantoid, pp. - ) in g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_. lesson xiii color--_continued_ blue stones the species that furnish blue stones in sufficient number to deserve consideration are, aside from opaque stones: . corundum (sapphire). . spinel. . tourmaline. . topaz. . diamond. . zircon. . of these minerals the only species that furnishes a fine, deep velvety blue stone is the corundum, and fine specimens of the cornflower blue variety are very much in demand and command high prices. the color in sapphires ranges from a pale watery blue through deeper shades (often tinged with green) to the rich velvety cornflower blue that is so much in demand, and on to dark inky blues that seem almost black by artificial light. most sapphires are better daylight stones than evening stones. some of the sapphires from montana, however, are of a bright electric blue that is very striking and brilliant by artificial light. how sapphires should be cut. the direction in which the stone is cut helps determine the quality of the blue color, as the "ordinary" ray (sapphire exhibits dichroism) is yellowish and ugly in color, and if allowed to be conspicuous in the cut stone, its presence, blending with the blue, may give it an undesirable greenish cast. sapphires should usually be cut so that the table of the finished stone is perpendicular to the principal optical axis of the crystal. another way of expressing this fact is that the table should cross the long axis of the usual hexagonal crystal of sapphire, at right angles. this scheme of cutting puts the direction of single refraction up and down the finished stone, and leaves the ugly ordinary rays in poor position to emerge as the light that falls upon the girdle edges cannot enter and cross the stone to any extent. to find out with a finished stone whether or not the lapidary has cut it properly as regards its optical properties one may use the dichroscope, and if there is little or no dichroism in evidence when looking through the table of the stone it is properly cut. where a sapphire shows a poor color and the dichroscope shows that the table was laid improperly, there is some possibility of improving the color by recutting to the above indicated position. however, one must use much judgment in such a case, as sapphires, like other corundum gems, frequently have their color irregularly distributed, and the skillful lapidary will place the culet of the stone in a bit of good color, and thus make the whole stone appear to better advantage. it would not do to alter such an arrangement, as one would get poorer rather than better color by recutting in such a case. while some of the blue stones about to be described may resemble inferior sapphires, none of them approaches the better grades of sapphire in fineness of blue coloration. the scientific sapphire, of course, does approach and even equals the natural sapphire so that one must know how to distinguish between them. this distinction is not one of color, however, and it will be separately considered a little later. . blue spinels are infrequently seen in commerce. they never equal the fine sapphire in their color, being more steely. they, of course, lack dichroism and are softer than sapphire as well as lighter. . blue tourmalines are never of fine sapphire blue. the name indicolite which mineralogists give to these blue stones suggests the indigo-blue color which they afford. the marked dichroism of tourmaline will also help detect it. some tourmalines from brazil are of a lighter shade of blue and are sometimes called "brazilian sapphires." . blue topaz is usually of a pale sky blue or greenish blue and is likely to be confused with beryl of similar color. the high density of topaz ( . ) as compared with beryl ( . ) serves best to distinguish it. "fancy" blue diamonds. . blue diamonds are usually of very pale bluish or violet tint. a few deeper blue stones are seen occasionally as "fancy" diamonds. these are seldom as deep blue as pale sapphires. even the famous hope blue diamond, a stone of about forty-four carats and of great value, is said to be too light in color to be considered a fine sapphire blue. some of the deeper blue diamonds have a steely cast. the so-called blue-white stones are rarely blue in their body color, but rather are so nearly white that the blue parts of the spectra which they produce are very much in evidence, thus causing them to face up blue. there is little likelihood of mistaking a bluish diamond for any other stone on account of the "fire" and the adamantine luster of the diamond. . blue zircon, however, has nearly adamantine luster and considerable fire. the color is usually sky blue. such stones are seldom met with in the trade. for a more detailed account of the various blue stones see g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_, as follows: for sapphires, pp. - , , ; for spinel, pp. , , ; for tourmaline, pp. , , ; for topaz, pp. , , ; for diamond, pp. , , , and for zircon, pp. , . lesson xiv color--_concluded_ pink, purple, brown, and colorless stones pink stones. pink stones are yielded by ( ) corundum (pink sapphire), ( ) spinel (balas ruby), ( ) tourmaline (rubellite), ( ) true topaz (almost always artificially altered), ( ) beryl (morganite), ( ) spodumene (kunzite), and ( ) quartz (rose-quartz). these pink minerals are not easily differentiated by color alone, as the depth and quality of the pink vary greatly in different specimens of the same mineral and in the different minerals. there is dichroism in the cases of pink sapphire, pink tourmaline (strong), pink topaz (strong), pink beryl (less pronounced), and kunzite (very marked and with a yellowish tint in some directions that contrasts with the beautiful violet tint in another direction in the crystal). pink quartz is almost always milky, and shows little dichroism. pink spinel is without dichroism, being singly refracting. hardness and specific gravity tests will best serve to distinguish pink stones from each other. the color alone is not a safe guide. purple stones. among the mineral species that furnish purple stones, ( ) quartz is pre-eminent in the fineness of the purple color. such purple stones are, of course, known as amethysts. after quartz come ( ) corundum (oriental amethyst), ( ) spinel (almandine spinel), ( ) garnet (almandine), and ( ) spodumene (variety kunzite). the purple of the amethyst varies from the palest tints to the full rich velvety grape-purple of the so-called siberian amethysts. the latter are of a reddish purple (sometimes almost red) by artificial light, but of a fine violet by daylight. no other purple stone approaches them in fineness of coloring, so that here we have a real distinction based on color alone. if the purple is paler, however, one cannot be sure of the mineral by its color. purple corundum (oriental amethyst) is seldom as fine in color as ordinary amethyst, and never as fine as the best amethyst. it is usually of a redder purple, and by artificial light is almost ruby-like in its color. purple spinels are singly refracting, and lack dichroism, and hence lack variety of color. almandine garnets also show no dichroism and lack variety of color. the garnets are, as a rule, apt to be more dense in color than the spinels. purple spodumene (kunzite) is pinkish to lilac in shade--usually pale, unless in large masses, and it shows very marked dichroism. a yellowish cast of color may be seen in certain directions in it also, which will aid in distinguishing it from other purple stones. brown stones. ( ) diamond, ( ) garnet, ( ) tourmaline, and ( ) zircon furnish the principal brown stones. diamond, when brown, unless of a deep and pleasing color, is very undesirable, as it absorbs much light, and appears dirty by daylight and dark and sleepy by artificial light. when of a fine golden brown a diamond may have considerable value as a "fancy" stone. such "golden fancies" can be distinguished from other brown stones (except perhaps brown zircons) by their adamantine luster, and their prismatic play or "fire." brown garnet (hessonite or cinnamon stone), sometimes wrongly called hyacinth in the trade, is of a deep reddish-brown color. usually the interior structure, as seen under a lens, is streaky, having a sort of mixed oil and water appearance. brown tourmaline is sometimes very pleasing in color. it is deep in shade, less red than cinnamon stone, and with marked dichroism, which both brown diamond and brown garnet lack. brown zircon, while lacking dichroism, is frequently rich and pleasing in shade, and when well cut is very snappy, the luster being almost adamantine, the dispersion being large, and the refractive index high. it is useless to deny that by the unaided eye one might be deceived into thinking that a fine brown zircon was a brown diamond. however, the large double refraction of the zircon easily distinguishes it from diamond (use the sunlight-card method or look for the doubling of the edges of the rear facets as seen through the table). the relative softness ( - / ) also easily differentiates it from diamond. colorless stones. few colorless stones other than diamond, white sapphire (chiefly scientific), and quartz are seen in the trade. colorless true topaz is sometimes sold and artificially whitened zircon (jargoon) is also occasionally met with. beryl of very light green tint or even entirely colorless may also be seen at times. such colorless stones must of course be distinguished by properties other than color. they are mentioned here merely that the learner may be aware of what varieties of gem minerals occur in the colorless condition, and that all these minerals also occur with color in their more usual forms. this does not even except the diamond, which is rarely truly colorless. lesson xv how to tell scientific stones from natural gems it should be said first that the only true scientific or synthetic stones on the market are those having the composition and properties of corundum, that is to say, the ruby and the several color varieties of sapphire, as blue, pink, yellow, and white. there is also a greenish stone that appears reddish by artificial light, which is called scientific alexandrite but which has, however, the composition and properties of the corundum gems rather than those of true alexandrite. all so-called "scientific emeralds" have proved to be either of paste of one sort or another, or else triplets having a top and a back of some inexpensive but hard stone of pale color, and a central slice of deep green glass, the three pieces being cemented together so skillfully that the junctions frequently escape any but a very careful examination with a lens. all scientific stones are corundum gems. now the fact that all true scientific stones are corundum gems makes their determination fairly simple on the following basis: among the considerable number of corundum gems of nature, whether ruby or sapphire of various colors, there is seldom found one that is entirely free from defects. almost always, even in what are regarded as fine specimens, one will easily find with a glass, defects in the crystallization. moreover these defects are characteristic of the corundum gems. the scientific corundum gems, however, never have these specific defects. hence the surest and simplest way of distinguishing between the two kinds of stones is to acquaint oneself with the typical defects of natural corundum gems, and then to look for such defects in any specimen of ruby or sapphire that is in question. while a description of some of the most common of the typical defects of rubies and sapphires is to follow, the jeweler, who may not yet be familiar with them by actual experience, owes it to himself and to his customers to acquaint himself at first hand with the natural defects of such material, which he is always in a position to do through the courtesy of representatives of houses dealing in precious stones, if he himself does not carry such material in stock. typical defects of natural corundum gems. perhaps the most common of the defects of natural corundum gems is the peculiar appearance known as "silk." this is best seen when a strong light is allowed to stream through the stone at right angles to the observer's line of sight. sets of fine, _straight_, parallel lines will be seen, and these will frequently meet other sets of similar lines at an angle of degrees (like the angle at which the sides of a regular hexagon meet) or the lines may cross each other at that angle or at an angle of degrees (the supplement of degrees). such _straight_ parallel lines are never seen in scientific stones, and their presence may be taken to indicate positively that the stone having them is a natural stone. in fine specimens of natural ruby or sapphire such lines will be few and difficult to find, but in some position or other they will usually be found if the search is even as careful as that which one would habitually employ in looking for defects in a diamond. in the vast majority of cases no such careful search will be required to locate "silk" in natural rubies, and if a stone that is apparently a ruby is free from such defects it is almost a foregone conclusion it is a scientific stone. another common type of defect in corundum gems is the occurrence of patches of milky cloudiness within the material. a little actual acquaintance with the appearance of this sort of defect in natural stones will make it easy to distinguish from the occasional cloudiness found in scientific stones, which latter cloudiness is due to the presence of swarms of minute gas bubbles. these tiny bubbles can be seen under a high power lens, and this suggests a third feature that may be used to tell whether one has a natural stone or not. natural rubies and sapphires, like scientific ones, frequently contain bubbles, but these are always _angular_ in the natural stones, while those of the scientific stones are generally _round_ or rounding, never angular. to sum up the suggestions already presented it may be said that, since natural and scientific corundum gems are composed of essentially the same material, and have identically the same physical and chemical properties, and frequently very closely resemble each other in color, it is necessary to have recourse to some other means of distinguishing between them. the best and simplest means for those who are acquainted with the structural defects common to natural corundum gems is to seek for such defects in any specimen that is in question, and if no such defects can be found, to be very sceptical as to the naturalness of the specimen, inasmuch as perfect corundum gems are very rare in nature, and when of fine color command exceedingly high prices. no jeweler can afford to risk his reputation for knowledge and for integrity by selling as a natural stone any gem which does not possess the minor defects common to practically all corundum gems. structural defects of scientific stones. so far our tests have been mostly negative. it was said, however, that spherical bubbles sometimes appear in scientific gems. another characteristic _structural_ defect of practically every scientific gem may be utilized to distinguish them. as is well known, the rough material is formed in boules or pear-shaped drops under an inverted blowpipe. the powdered material is fed in with one of the gases and passes through the flame, melting as it goes, and then accumulating and crystallizing below as a boule. the top or head of this boule is rounding from the start, and hence the successive layers of material gather in thin curved zones. the color and structure of these successive zones are not perfectly uniform, hence when cut stones are made from the boules these _curving_ parallel layers may be seen within by the use of a good lens, especially if the cut stone is held in a strong crossing light, as was suggested when directions were given above as to the best way to look for "silk" in a natural stone. owing to the shape of a well cut stone it is sometimes difficult to get light through the material, yet by turning the stone repeatedly, some position will be found in which the curving parallel striæ can be seen. they are easily seen in scientific ruby, less easily in dark blue sapphire, but still they can be found on close search. in the light colored stones and in white sapphire, the difficulty is greater, as there are no color variations in the latter case. however, the value of white sapphire is so slight, whether natural or artificial, that it is a matter of but little moment, and what has already been said as to natural defects, applies to white sapphire as well as to the colored varieties, and absolutely clear and perfect natural white sapphire is rare. one more distinguishing mark of the scientific stones may be added to give full measure to the scheme of separation, that no one need be deceived. the surface finish of the scientific stones is rarely as good as that of the natural material and it appears to be more difficult to produce a good polish on scientific stones than on natural ones. the degree of hardness of the scientific stones seems to be slightly variable in different parts of the same piece so that the polishing material removes the surface material unequally, leaving minute streaky marks on the surfaces of the facets. possibly this condition might be remedied by skillful treatment, but hardly at the price obtainable for the product, so that a close study of the surface finish will sometimes help in distinguishing between natural and artificial material. any fine specimen of natural ruby or sapphire will have usually received very expert treatment and a splendid surface finish. in conclusion, then, the points to be remembered in determining the origin of corundum gems are four in number. . expect to find natural defects, such as "silk" or cloudy patches, or _angular_ bubbles in all natural stones. . if bubbles are present in artificial material they will be _round_ or rounding. . artificial material will always have _curving_ parallel striæ within it. . the _surface finish_ of artificial material is seldom or never equal to that of natural material. it ought not to be necessary to add that material from either source may be cut to any shape, and that artificial rubies may be seen in most oriental garb, hence all specimens should have applied to them the above tests regardless of the seeming antiquity of their cut or of their alleged pedigree. lesson xvi how to test an "unknown" gem having now considered separately the principal physical properties by means of which one can identify a precious stone, let us attempt to give as good an idea as the printed page can convey of how one should go about determining to what species a gem belongs. signs of wear in an emerald. to make the matter more concrete, and therefore more interesting, let us consider a real case, the most recent problem, in fact, that the author has had to solve. a lady of some wealth had purchased, for a large sum, a green stone which purported to be an emerald. after a few years of wear as a ring stone she noticed one day that the stone had dulled around the edges of its table, and thinking that that ought not to be the case with a real emerald, she appealed to a dealer in diamonds to know if her stone was a real emerald. the diamond merchant told her frankly that, while he was competent in all matters pertaining to diamonds, he could not be sure of himself regarding colored stones, and advised the lady to see the author. the matter being thus introduced, the lady was at once informed that even a real emerald might show signs of wear after a few years of the hard use that comes to a ring stone. while emerald has, as we saw in the lesson on hardness, a degree of hardness rated as nearly ( - / in the table), it is nevertheless a rather brittle material and the long series of tiny blows that a ring stone is bound to meet with will cause minute yielding along the exposed edges and corners of the top facets. this being announced, the first step in the examination of the stone was to clean it and to give it a careful examination with a ten-power lens. (an aplanatic triplet will be found best for this purpose.) color. the color was, of course, the most obvious property, but, as has already been said, color is not to be relied upon in all cases. in this case the color was a good emerald green but a bit bluer than the finest grass green. a very fine maine tourmaline might approach this stone in color, so it became necessary to consider this possibility. a glass imitation, too, might have a color equal or superior to this. imperfections. while noting the color, the imperfections of the stone claimed attention. they consisted mainly of minute jagged cracks of the character peculiar to brittle materials such as both emerald and tourmaline. so far it will be noted either of the above minerals might have furnished the lady's gem. as glass can be artificially crackled to produce similar flaws the stone might have been only an imitation as far as anything yet learned about it goes. file test. the next step was to test its hardness by gently applying a very fine file to an exposed point at one corner of the girdle. the file slipped on the material as a skate slips on ice. evidently we did not have to do with a glass imitation. refraction. knowing now that we had a true hard mineral, it remained to be determined what mineral it was. on holding the stone in direct sunlight and reflecting the light onto a white card it was seen at once that the material was doubly refracting, for a series of _double_ images of the back facets appeared. these double images might have been produced by tourmaline as well as by emerald. (not however by glass which is singly refracting.) if a direct reading refractometer had been available the matter could have been settled at once by reading the refractive indices of the material, for tourmaline and emerald have not only different refractive indices but have double refraction to different degrees. such an instrument was not available at the time and will hardly be available to most of those who are studying this lesson, so we can go on with our account of the further testing of the green stone. hardness. a test upon the surface of a quartz crystal showed that the stone was harder than quartz (but so is tourmaline). a true topaz crystal was too hard for the ring stone, whose edge slipped over the smooth topaz surface. the green stone was therefore not a green corundum (oriental emerald) as the latter has hardness and scratches topaz. with hardness evidently between and and with double refraction and with the kind of flaws peculiar to rather brittle minerals we had in all probability either a tourmaline or an emerald. dichroism. the dichroscope (which might have been used much earlier in the test but was not at hand at the time) was next tried and the stone was seen to have marked dichroism--a bluish green and a yellowish green appearing in the two squares of the instrument when the stone was held in front of the opening and viewed against a strong light. as either tourmaline or emerald might thus exhibit dichroism (the tourmaline more strongly, however, than the emerald) one more test was tried to finally decide the matter. specific gravity. the stone was removed from its setting and two specific gravity determinations made by means of a specific gravity bottle and a fine chemical balance. the two results, which came closely alike, averaged . which agrees very nearly with emerald ( . ) and which is far removed from the specific gravity of tourmaline ( . ). the stone was now _definitely known_ to be an emerald, as each of several tests agreed with the properties of emerald, namely: color--nearly grass green. imperfections--like those of emerald. hardness-- - / . refraction--double. dichroism--easily noted. specific gravity-- . . while one who was accustomed to deal in fine emeralds might not need to make as detailed an examination of the stone as has just been indicated above, yet for most of us who do not have many opportunities of studying valuable emeralds it is safer to make sure by complete tests. one other concrete example of how to go about testing unknown stones must suffice to conclude this lesson, after which the student, who has mastered the separate lessons preceding this, should proceed to test as many "unknowns" as his time and industry permit in order to really make _his own_ the matter of these lessons. it may be added here that the task of testing a stone is much more rapid than this laborious effort to teach others how to do it might indicate. to one skilled in these matters only a few seconds are required for the inspection of a stone with the lens, the dichroscope, or the refractometer, and hardness tests are swiftly made. a specific gravity test requires more time and should be resorted to only when there remains a reasonable doubt after other tests have been applied. now for our final example. a red stone, cut in the form of a pear-shaped brilliant, was submitted to the writer for determination. it had been acquired by an american gentleman in japan from an east indian who was in financial straits. along with it, as security for a loan, the american obtained a number of smaller red stones, a bluish stone, and a larger red stone. the red stones were all supposed to be rubies. on examination of the larger red stone with a lens it was at once noted that the internal structure was that of _scientific ruby_. testing other stones. somewhat dashed by the announcement of this discovery the owner began to fear that all his gems were false. examination of the small red stones showed abundance of "silk," a peculiar fibrous appearance within the stone caused by its internal structure. the fibers were _straight_ and _parallel_, not _curved_ and _parallel_ as in synthetic ruby. tiny bubbles of angular shape also indicated that the small stones were natural rubies. they exhibited dichroism and scratched topaz and it was therefore decided that they at least were genuine. the pear-shaped brilliant which was first mentioned was of a peculiar, slightly yellowish, red color. it was very pellucid and free from any striæ either of the straight or curved types. it had in fact no flaws except a rather large nick on one of the back surfaces near the girdle. this was not in evidence from the front of the stone and had evidently been left by the oriental gem cutter to avoid loss in weight while cutting the stone. the peculiar yellowish character of the red color led us to suspect ruby spinel. the stone was therefore inspected with the dichroscope and found to possess no dichroism. the sunlight-card test, too, showed that the stone was singly refracting. a test of the hardness showed that the material barely scratched topaz, but was attacked by sapphire. it was therefore judged to be a red spinel. the large bluish stone which the gentleman acquired with the red stones proved to be iolite, sometimes called cordierite or water-sapphire (_saphir d'eau_), a stone seldom seen in this country. it had marked dichroism--showing a smoky blue color in one direction and a yellowish white in another. the difference was so marked as to be easily seen without the dichroscope. lesson xvii suitability of stones for various types of jewels, as determined by hardness, brittleness, and cleavability hard stones not necessarily tough. as was suggested in the lesson on hardness there is prevalent in the public mind an erroneous belief that hardness carries with it ability to resist blows as well as abrasion. now that _it does not follow that because a precious stone is very hard, it will wear well_, should be made plain. some rather hard minerals are seldom or never used as gems, in spite of considerable beauty and hardness, because of their great brittleness. other stones, while fairly hard and reasonably tough in certain directions, have nevertheless so pronounced a cleavage that they do not wear well if cut, and are sometimes very difficult to cut at all. in view of these facts it will be well to consider briefly what stones, among those most in use, are sufficiently tough as well as hard, to give good service in jewels, such as rings, which are subject to rough wear. we may also consider those stones, whose softness, or brittleness, or ready cleavability, requires that they should be reserved for use only in those jewels which, because of their nature, receive less rough usage. in order to deal with the principal gems systematically, let us consider them in the order of their hardness, beginning with the hardest gem material known, which is, of course, diamond. durability of the diamond. fortunately this king of gems possesses in addition to its great hardness, considerable toughness, and although it is readily cleavable in certain directions it nevertheless requires a notable amount of force applied in a particular direction to cause it to cleave. although sharp knocks will occasionally flake off thin layers from diamonds when roughly worn in rings, or even in extreme cases fracture them, yet this happens but seldom and, as the enormous use of the diamond in ring mountings proves, it is entirely suitable for that purpose. it follows that, if a stone can stand ring usage, it can safely be used for any purpose for which precious stones are mounted. the corundum gems. next after the diamond in hardness come the corundum gems, _i. e._, ruby, sapphire, and the series of corundum gems of colors other than red and blue. these stones have no noticeable cleavage and are exceedingly tough, for minerals, as well as very hard. we have only to consider the use of impure corundum (emery) as a commercial abrasive in emery wheels, emery cloth, emery paper, etc., to see that the material is tough. any of the corundum gems therefore may be used in any type of jewel without undue risk of wear or breakage. customers of jewelers should, however, be cautioned against wearing ruby or sapphire rings on the same finger with a diamond ring in cases where it would be possible for the two stones to rub against each other. so much harder than the ruby is the diamond (in spite of the seeming closeness of position in mohs's scale) that the slightest touch upon a ruby surface with a diamond will produce a pronounced scratch. the possessor of diamonds and other stones should also be cautioned against keeping them loose in the same jewel case or other container, as the shaking together may result in the scratching of the softer materials. the arabs are said to have a legend to the effect that the diamond is an _angry_ stone and that it should not be allowed to associate with other stones lest it scratch them. chrysoberyl. passing on to the next mineral in the scale of hardness we come to chrysoberyl, which is rated as - / on mohs's scale. this mineral furnishes us the gem, alexandrite, which is notable for its power to change in color from green in daylight to red in artificial light. chrysoberyl also supplies the finest cat's-eyes (when the material is of a sufficiently fibrous or tubular structure), and it further supplies the greenish-yellow stones frequently (though incorrectly) called "chrysolite" by jewelers. the material is very hard and reasonably tough and may be used in almost any suitable mounting. spinel. after chrysoberyl come the materials rated as about in hardness. first and hardest of these is spinel, then comes true or precious topaz. the various spinels are very hard and tough stones. the rough material persists in turbulent mountain streams where weaker minerals are ground to powder, and when cut and polished, spinel will wear well in any jewel. the author has long worn a ruby spinel in a ring on the right hand and has done many things that have subjected it to hard knocks, yet it is still intact, except for a spot that accidentally came in contact with a fast-flying carborundum wheel, which of course abraded the spinel. topaz. the true topaz is a bit softer than spinel, and the rough crystals show a very perfect basal cleavage. that is, they will cleave in a plane parallel to the bases of the usual orthorhombic crystals. this being the case a cut topaz is very likely to be damaged by a blow or even by being dropped on a hard surface, and it would be wiser not to set such a stone in a ring unless it was to be but little used, or used by one who would not engage in rough work while wearing it. thus a lady might wear a topaz ring on dress occasions for a long time without damaging it, but it would not do for a machinist to wear one in a ring. gems between and in hardness. we now come to a rather long list of gem minerals ranging between and in hardness. of these the principal ones are zircon, almandine garnet, and beryl (emerald and aquamarine) rated as - / in hardness, and pyrope and hessonite garnet rated as - / in hardness. tourmaline and kunzite may also be included in this group as being on the average slightly above in hardness. the above minerals are all harder than quartz, and hence not subject to abrasion by the quartz dust which is everywhere present. in this respect they are suitable for fairly hard wear. the garnets are of sufficient toughness so that they may be freely used in rings--and the extensive use of thin slices of garnet to top doublets proves the suitability of the material for resisting wear. the zircon is rather more brittle and the artificially whitened zircons (known as jargoons) are especially subject to breakage when worn in rings. fortunately jargoons are not commonly sold. the beryl, whether emerald or aquamarine, is rather brittle. emeralds are seldom found in river gravels. the material cannot persist in the mountain streams that bring down other and tougher minerals. the extreme beauty and value of the emerald has led to its use in the finest jewels, and the temptation is strong to set it in rings, especially in rings for ladies. if such rings are worn with the care that valuable jewels should receive they will probably last a long time without any more serious damage than the dulling of the sharp edges of the facets around the table. this slight damage can at any time be repaired by a light repolishing of the affected facets. if an emerald is already badly shattered, or as it is called "mossy" in character, it will not be wise to set it in a ring, as a slight shock might complete its fracture. what has been said about emerald applies equally to aquamarine except that the value at stake is much less and the material is usually much freer from cracks. tourmalines, like emeralds, are brittle, and should be treated accordingly. here, however, we are dealing with a much less expensive material than emerald, and if a customer desires a tourmaline in a ring mounting, while it will be best to suggest care in wearing it, the loss, in case of breakage, will usually be slight. kunzite, like all spodumene, has a pronounced cleavage. it should therefore be used in brooches, pendants, and such jewels, rather than in rings. lapidaries dislike to cut it under some conditions because of its fragility. quartz gems. coming down to hardness we have the various quartz gems and jade (variety jadeite). the principal quartz gems are, of course, amethyst and citrine quartz (the stone that is almost universally called topaz in the trade). as crystalline quartz is fairly tough and lacks any pronounced cleavage, and as it is as hard as anything it is likely to meet with in use, it is a durable stone in rings or in other mountings. in the course of time the sharp edges will wear dull from friction with objects carrying common dust, which is largely composed of powdered quartz itself, and which therefore gradually dulls a quartz gem. old amethysts or "topazes" that have been long in use in rings show this dulling. there is, however, little danger of fracture with amethyst or "topaz" unless the blow is severe and then any stone might yield. the many semi-precious stones which have a quartz basis (such as the varieties of waxy or cryptocrystalline chalcedony which is largely quartz in a very minutely crystalline condition) are often even tougher than the clear crystallized quartz. carnelian, agate, quartz cat's-eye, jasper (containing earthy impurities), and those materials in which quartz has more or less completely replaced other substances, such as silicified crocidolite, petrified wood, chrysocolla quartz, etc., are all nearly as hard and quite as tough as quartz itself, and they make admirable stones for inexpensive rings of the arts and crafts type. jade. jade, of the jadeite variety, which is rarer than the nephrite jade, and more highly regarded by the chinese, is an exceedingly tough material. one can beat a chunk of the rough material with a hammer without making much impression upon it. it is also fairly hard, about as hard as quartz, and with the two properties of toughness and hardness it possesses excellent wearing qualities in any kind of mounting. true jade, whether jadeite or nephrite, deserves a larger use in inexpensive ornaments, as it may be had of very fine green color and it is inexpensive and durable. softer stones. coming next to those minerals whose hardness is or over, but less than , we have to consider jade of the nephrite variety, demantoid garnet ("olivine" of the trade), peridot (or chrysolite, or the olivine of the mineralogist), turquoise, moonstone, and opal. as has already been said of jadeite, the jade of the nephrite variety, while slightly less hard, is about as tough a mineral as one could expect to find. it can take care of itself in any situation. the demantoid garnet (the "olivine" of the trade) is so beautiful and brilliant a stone that it is a pity that it is so lacking in hardness. it will do very well for mounting in such jewels as scarf pins, lavallières, etc., where but little hard wear is met with, but it cannot be recommended for hard ring use. the peridot, too, is rather soft for ring use and will last much better in scarf pins or other mountings little subject to rubbing or to shocks. turquoise, although rather soft, is fairly tough, as its waxy luster might make one suppose, and in addition, being an opaque stone, slight dulling or scratching hardly lessens its beauty. it may therefore be used in ring mountings. however, it should be suggested that most turquoise is sufficiently porous to absorb grease, oil, or other liquids, and its color is frequently ruined thereby. of course, such a change is far more likely to occur to a ring stone than to a turquoise mounted in some more protected situation. the moonstone, being a variety of feldspar, has the pronounced cleavage of that mineral and will not stand blows without exhibiting this property. moonstones are therefore better suited to the less rude service in brooch mountings, etc., than to that of ring stones. however, being comparatively inexpensive, many moonstones, especially of the choicer bluish type, are set in ring mountings. the lack of hardness may be expected to dull their surfaces in time even though no shock starts a cleavage. the opal. there remains the opal, of hardness , to be considered. as is well known opal is a solidified jelly of siliceous composition, containing also combined water. it is not only soft but very brittle and it will crack very easily. many opals crack in the paper in which they are sold, perhaps because of unequal expansion or contraction, due to heat or cold. in spite of this fragility, thousands of fine opals, and a host of commoner ones, are set in rings, where many of them subsequently come to a violent end, and all, sooner or later, become dulled and require repolishing. the great beauty of the opal, rivaling any mineral in its color-play, causes us to chance the risk of damage in order to mount it where its vivid hues may be advantageously viewed by the wearer as well as by others. very soft stones. of stones softer than we have but few and none of them is really fit for hard service. lapis lazuli, - / in hardness, has a beautiful blue color, frequently flecked with white or with bits of fool's gold. its surface soon becomes dulled by hard wear. two more of the softer materials, malachite and azurite, remain to be described. these are both varieties of copper carbonate with combined water, the azurite having less water. both take a good polish, but fail to retain it in use, being only of hardness - / to . lesson xviii mineral species to which the various gems belong and the chemical composition thereof although we have a very large number of different kinds of precious and semi-precious stones, to judge by the long list of names to be found in books on gems, yet all these stones can be rather simply classified on the basis of their chemical composition, into one or another of a comparatively small number of mineral species. while jewelers seldom make use of a knowledge of the chemistry of the precious stones in identifying them, nevertheless such a knowledge is useful, both by way of information, and because it leads to a better and clearer understanding of the many similarities among stones whose color might lead one to regard them as dissimilar. mineral species. we must first consider what is meant by a "mineral species" and find out what relation exists between that subject and chemical composition. now by a "mineral species" is understood a single substance, having (except for mechanically admixed impurities) practically a constant chemical composition, and having practically identical physical properties in all specimens of it. diamond and corundum. a chemist would call a true mineral a _pure substance_, just as sugar and salt are pure substances to the chemist. thus _diamond_ is a "mineral species," as is also _corundum_. there are many different colors of both diamond and corundum, but these different colors are believed to be due to the presence in the pure substance of impurities in small amounts. thus every diamond consists mainly of pure carbon, and all the corundum gems (_ruby_ and the various colors of _sapphire_) consist mainly of pure oxide of aluminum. the properties of all diamonds are practically alike and so are the properties of all the corundum gems whether red (ruby), blue (sapphire), yellow (oriental topaz), green (oriental emerald), or purple (oriental amethyst). thus all diamonds, of whatever color, belong to the one species, diamond, and in this case the usual custom in naming them agrees with the facts. similarly all sapphires, of whatever color, belong to the mineral species "corundum." thus a ruby is a red corundum. the old french traveler and gem merchant, tavernier, tells us that in the seventeenth century, when he visited the mines of pegu, the natives knew of the similarity of the corundum gems and even called all by one name, with other names attached to designate the color. singularly enough, the common name used by them was _ruby_ rather than sapphire, as now. thus they called blue corundum gems blue rubies; yellow corundums, yellow rubies, etc. it is easily seen that if one recognizes the similar nature of all the many colors and shades of corundum that the number of things that one has to remember in order to be well acquainted with these stones is considerably diminished. thus, instead of having a whole series of specific gravities to remember one has only to remember that all the corundum gems have a specific gravity of approximately . similarly they are all of practically the same refractive index ( . - . , being doubly refracting) that they all exhibit dichroism when at all deeply colored, etc. having thus indicated what we mean by mineral species and having illustrated the matter by the cases of diamond and corundum and further having stated that all diamonds are composed of pure carbon (except for traces of impurities) and all corundum gems mainly of oxide of aluminum, we may proceed to consider other mineral species and find out what gems they afford us. carbon, the only element furnishing a gem. it will be noted that the first species considered, diamond, consisted of but a single element, carbon. it is thus exceedingly simple in composition, being not only a pure substance but, in addition, an elementary substance. corundum, the second species considered, was a little more complex, having two elements, aluminum and oxygen, in its make-up, but completely and definitely combined in a new compound that resembles neither aluminum nor oxygen. it is thus a compound substance. no other element than carbon affords any gem-stone when by itself. oxides of metals. there is, however, another oxide, in addition to aluminum oxide, that furnishes gem material. it is _silicon oxide_, containing the two elements silicon and oxygen. silicon itself is a dark, gray, crystalline element that seems half metallic, half non-metallic in its properties. it is never found by itself in nature but about twenty-eight per cent. of the crust of the earth is composed of it in compound forms, and one of the most abundant of these is quartz, which is a mineral species, and which contains just silicon and oxygen. that is, it is oxide of silicon. now quartz is colorless when pure (_rock crystal_), but it is frequently found colored purple (probably by oxide of manganese) and it is then called _amethyst_ by the jeweler. at other times its color is yellow (due to oxide of iron) and then the jeweler is prone to call it "_topaz_," although properly speaking that name should, as we shall soon see, be reserved for an entirely different mineral species. _chalcedony_ too (which when banded furnishes us our _agates_, and when reddish our _carnelian_) is a variety of quartz, and _prase_ is only quartz colored green by fibers of actinolite within it. the common _cat's-eye_ and the _tiger's-eye_ are varieties of quartz enclosing fibrous minerals or replacing them while still keeping the arrangement that they had. "_venus hair stone_" is quartz containing needle-like crystals of rutile, and "_iris_" is quartz that has been crackled within, so as to produce rainbow colors, because of the effects of thin layers of material. _aventurine quartz_ (sometimes called goldstone) has spangles of mica or of some other mineral enclosed in it. the _jaspers_ are mainly quartz with more of earthy impurity than the preceding stones. thus all this long list of stones of differing names can be classified under the one mineral species, quartz. together they constitute the quartz gems. in properties they are essentially alike, having specific gravity . , hardness , slight double refraction, etc., the slight differences that exist being due only to the presence of varying amounts of foreign matter. opal. the _opal_ may be considered along with the quartz gems, because, like them, it is composed mainly of oxide of silicon, but the opal also has water combined with the silicon oxide (not merely imprisoned in it). thus opal is a hydrous form of silica (hydrous comes from the greek word for water). spinel. all our other stones are of more complicated chemical composition than the preceding. coming now to mineral species which have three chemical elements in them we may consider first _spinel_, which has the two metallic elements aluminum and magnesium and the non-metallic element oxygen in it. it is virtually a compound of the two oxides, aluminum oxide and magnesium oxide. the variously colored spinels, like the various corundums, all have the same properties, thus they are all of hardness or a little higher, they all have single refraction, and all have specific gravity . . chrysoberyl. another mineral species which, like spinel, has just three elements in its composition is _chrysoberyl_. this mineral contains the metals aluminum and beryllium combined with the non-metal oxygen. thus it is really to be regarded as a compound of the two oxides, aluminum oxide and beryllium oxide. this species furnishes us _alexandrite_, _chrysoberyl cat's-eye_ and less valuable chrysoberyls of yellowish-green color. all are of the one species, the marked color difference being due to the presence of different impurities. the cat's-eye effect in one of the varieties is due to the internal structure rather than to the nature of the material. the silicates. nearly all of the remaining precious stones belong to a great group of mineral species known as the silicates. these are so called because they consist largely of oxide of silicon (the material above referred to under quartz gems). this oxide of silicon is not free and separate in the silicates but is combined chemically with other oxides, chiefly with metallic oxides. thus there are many different silicates because, in the earth, many different metallic oxides have combined with silicon oxide. also in many cases two or three or even more metallic oxides have combined with silicon oxide to make single new compounds. glass, a mixture of silicates. those who are familiar with glass making may receive some help at this point by remembering that the various glasses are silicates, for they are made by melting sand (which is nearly pure oxide of silicon) with various metallic oxides. with lime (calcium oxide) and soda (which yields sodium oxide) we get soda-lime glass (common window glass). lead oxide being added to the mixture a dense, very brilliant, but soft glass (flint glass) results. cut glass dishes and "paste" gems are made of this flint glass. now the glasses, although they are silicates, are not crystalline, but rather they are _amorphous_, that is, without any definite structure. nature's silicates, on the other hand, are usually crystallized or at least crystalline in structure. (in a few cases we find true glasses, volcanic glass, or obsidian, for example.) having thus introduced the silicates we may now consider which ones among the many mineral silicates furnish us with precious or semi-precious stones. beryl, emerald, and aquamarine. first in value among the silicates is _beryl_, which, when grass green, we call _emerald_. the _aquamarine_ and _golden beryl_ too belong to this same species. beryl is a silicate of aluminum and beryllium. that is, it is a compound in which oxide of silicon is united with the oxides of aluminum and of beryllium. there are thus four chemical elements combined in the one substance and it is hence more complicated in its composition than any of the gems that we have yet considered. it is worthy of note that aluminum occurs in the majority of precious stones, the only species so far considered that lack it being diamond, and the quartz gems. perhaps the silicates that are next in importance to the jeweler, after beryl, are those which form the _garnets_ of various types. there are four principal varieties of garnet (although specimens of garnet frequently show a crossing or blending of the types). garnets. the types are ( ) _almandite_ garnet; ( ) _pyrope_ garnet; ( ) _hessonite_ garnet; and ( ) _andradite_ garnet. these are all silicates, the almandite garnets being silicates of iron and aluminum; the pyrope garnets are silicates of magnesium and aluminum; the hessonite garnets, silicates of calcium and aluminum, and the andradite garnets, silicates of calcium and iron. the so-called almandine garnets of the jeweler are frequently of the almandite class and tend to purplish red. the pyrope garnets are, as the name literally implies, of fire red color, as a rule, but they also may be purplish in color. the hessonite garnets are frequently brownish red and are sometimes called "cinnamon stones." the andradite garnets furnish the brilliant, nearly emerald green demantoids (so often called "_olivine_" by the trade). thus all the garnets are silicates and yet we have these four principal mineral species, which, however, are more closely related to each other in crystal form, in character of composition and in general properties, than is usual among the other silicates. specimens which have any one of the four types of composition unblended with any of the other types would be found to be exactly alike in properties. as was suggested above, however, there is a great tendency to blend and this is well illustrated by the magnificent _rhodolite_ garnets, of rhododendron hue which were found in macon county, north carolina. these had a composition between almandite and pyrope, that is, they had both magnesium and iron with aluminum and silica. the true topaz next calls for consideration as it too is a silicate. the metallic part consists of aluminum, and there are present also the non-metals fluorine and hydrogen. here we have five elements in the one substance. various specimens of this species may be wine yellow, light blue, or bluish green, pink or colorless, yet they all have essentially the same properties. tourmaline is about as complicated a mineral as we have. it is a very complex silicate, containing aluminum, magnesium, sodium (or other alkali metal, as, for example, lithium), iron, boron, and hydrogen. as ruskin says of it in his _the ethics of the dust_, when mary asks "and what is it made of?" "a little of everything; there's always flint (silica) and clay (alumina) and magnesia in it and the black is iron, according to its fancy; and there's boracic acid, if you know what that is: and if you don't, i cannot tell you to-day and it doesn't signify; and there's potash and soda; and on the whole, the chemistry of it is more like a mediæval doctor's prescription, than the making of a respectable mineral." the various tourmalines very closely resemble each other in their properties, the slight differences corresponding to differences in composition do not alter the general nature of the material. moonstone belongs to a species of mineral known as feldspar. the particular feldspar that furnishes most of the moonstone is orthoclase, a silicate of potassium and aluminum. another feldspar sometimes seen as a semi-precious stone is _labradorite_. _amazonite_, also, is a feldspar. _sunstone_ is a feldspar which includes tiny flakes or spangles of some other mineral. the mineral species _olivine_ gives us _peridot_. it is a silicate of magnesium. zircon is itself a species of mineral and is a silicate of zirconium. the names _hyacinth_, _jacinth_, and _jargoon_ are applied to red, yellow, and colorless zircon in the order as given. jade may be of any of several different species of minerals, all of which are very tough. the principal jades belong, however, to one or the other of two species, _jadeite_ and _nephrite_. jadeite is a sodium aluminum silicate and nephrite, a calcium magnesium silicate. leaving the silicates we find very few gem minerals remaining. the phosphates furnish us _turquoise_, a hydrous aluminum phosphate, with copper and iron. _variscite_ is also a phosphate (a hydrated aluminum phosphate). the carbonates give us _malachite_ and _azurite_, both carbonates of copper with combined water, the malachite having more water. lesson xix the naming of precious stones owing to the confusion which may result from a lack of uniformity in the naming of precious stones, it is very desirable that jewelers and stone merchants inform themselves in regard to the correct use of the names of the gems, and that they use care in speaking and in writing such names. as nearly all precious and semi-precious stones are derived from a relatively small number of _mineral species_, as we saw in lesson xviii., and as the science of _mineralogy_ has a very orderly and systematic method of naming the minerals, the best results are had in the naming of gems when we use, as far as is possible, the language of mineralogy. ancient usage. long established custom and usage, however, must be observed, for any system of naming must be generally understood in order to be useful. thus the proper name for blood red, crystallized oxide of aluminum, of gem quality, according to the mineralogical system of naming, would be red _corundum_, but that same material is referred to in the old testament thus (in speaking of wisdom), "she is more precious than _rubies_." it is obviously necessary to keep and to use all such terms as have been for years established in usage, even though they do not agree with the scientific method of naming the particular mineral. it is, however, necessary that any name, thus retained, should be correctly used, and that it should not be applied to more than one material. thus the term _ruby_ should be reserved exclusively for red corundum, and not applied to other red minerals such as garnet, spinel, etc., as is too often done. it will be the purpose of this lesson to attempt to set forth as clearly and as briefly as possible what constitutes good usage in the naming of the principal stones, and also to point out what incorrect usage is most in need of being avoided. to cover the subject systematically we will adopt the order of hardness that we did in discussing mineral species in lesson xviii. fancy diamonds. beginning with the hardest of all gems, the _diamond_, we have no difficulty as regards naming, as all specimens of this mineral, regardless of color, are called diamonds. when it is necessary to designate particular colors or tints, or differences in tint, additional names are used--for example, all diamonds of pronounced and pleasing color are called "fancy" diamonds in the trade. certain of these "fancy" diamonds are still further defined by using a name specifying the color, as, for example, "canary" diamonds (when of a fine bright yellow), or "golden fancies," when of a fine golden brown, or "orange," or "pink," or "absinthe green," or "violet," as the case may be. names of various grades of white diamonds. the great majority of the diamonds which come on the market as cut stones belong, however, to the group which would be spoken of as white diamonds, but many qualifying names are needed to express the degree of approach to pure white possessed by different grades of these diamonds. thus the terms: , _jägers_; , _rivers_; , _blue wesseltons_; , _wesseltons_; , _top crystals_; , _crystals_; , _very light brown_; , _top silver capes_; , _silver capes_; , _capes_; , _yellows_, and , _browns_, describe _increasing_ depth of color, and hence _decreasing_ value in diamonds. popular names. certain more popular names for diamonds of differing degrees of whiteness may next be set forth. the term "blue white" (a much abused expression, by the way) should be applied only to diamonds of such a close approach to pure whiteness of body substance, as seen on edge in the paper that, when faced up and undimmed, they give such a strong play of _prismatic_ blue that any slight trace of yellow in their substance is completely disguised, and the effect upon the eye is notably blue. this would be the case with stones of the grades from through in the list above. grades and might properly be called "_fine white_," and grades , , and simply "_white_." grade is frequently spoken of as "_commercial white_," and grade sometimes as "off color." grade includes all degrees of brownness except the very light shades and the deep, pretty shades of the "fancy" browns. rubies. leaving the naming of the different colors of diamonds we come to the gems furnished us by the mineral known as _corundum_. as we have previously seen, this mineral occurs in many different colors and with wide differences of tint and shade in each of the principal colors. the best practice with regard to naming the corundum gems is to call the red material, when of a good, full red of pleasing shade, _ruby_. the finest shades of blood red are usually called "_burmah rubies_" because more rubies of this quality are found in burmah than anywhere else. any ruby of the required shade would, however, be called a burmah ruby in the trade regardless of its geographical origin. the most desirable tint among burmah rubies is that which is known as "pigeon blood" in color. this color is perhaps more accurately defined as like the color in the center of the red of the solar spectrum. certain slightly deeper red rubies are said to be of "beef blood" color. the english are said to prefer these. those of slightly lighter tint than pigeon blood are sometimes referred to as of "french color," from the fact that they are preferred by french connoisseurs. rubies of dark, garnet-like shade are known as "_siam rubies_," many such being found in that country. light pinkish rubies are called "_ceylon rubies_." it should be clearly kept in mind that all these "rubies" are of red corundum, and that in all their distinctive properties except color they are essentially similar. sapphires. corundum of fine blue color is known as "_sapphire_." the "cornflower blue" seems to be most in favor at present. such sapphires are sometimes called "_kashmir sapphires_" because many fine ones come from that state. "_ceylon sapphires_" are usually paler than the cornflower blue. "_montana sapphires_" are usually of greenish blue or pale electric blue. such fine blue stones as are mined in montana would be sold under another name according to the quality of their color, and not as "montana sapphires." "_australian sapphires_" are of a very deep, inky blue, and do not command a high price. here again, as with rubies, the classification depends upon the color rather than upon the origin, although the geographical names that are used, correctly state the usual source of stones of the particular color. all corundums other than ruby and blue sapphire are usually called by the term "sapphire," with a qualifying adjective designating the color; thus we may have pink sapphire, golden sapphire, green sapphire, etc. when of very fine yellow color the yellow sapphire is sometimes called "_oriental topaz_" by jewelers, the term "_oriental_" as thus used indicating that the material is corundum. we also have "_oriental amethyst_" and "_oriental emerald_" for the purple, and the fine green, and "_oriental aquamarine_" for the light blue-green corundum. the yellow corundum is also sometimes called "_king topaz_," especially in ceylon. inferior sapphires of almost every conceivable color are frequently assorted in lots and sold as "fancy sapphires." such lots, however, almost always need reclassification as they often contain as many as a dozen mineral species besides corundum. sapphires and rubies of minute tubular internal structure frequently display a beautiful six-pointed star when cut to a round-topped cabochon shape and exposed to direct sunlight or to light from any other single source. such stones are named "_star sapphire_" and "_star ruby_." the artificial rubies and sapphires should all be called _scientific ruby_ or _sapphire_, and not "_reconstructed_" or "_synthetic_" as none are made to-day from small, real rubies, and as the process is in no sense a chemical synthesis. chrysoberyl. leaving the corundum gems we come next to chrysoberyl. when the gems furnished by this mineral are of a fine green by daylight, and of a raspberry red by artificial light, as is sometimes the case, they should be called "_alexandrites_" (after the czar alexander ii., in whose dominions, and on whose birthday, the first specimens are said to have been discovered). when chrysoberyl is of fibrous or tubular internal structure it affords cat's-eyes (when cabochon cut), and these should be specifically named as "_chrysoberyl cat's-eye_" to distinguish them from the less beautiful and less valuable quartz cat's-eyes. other varieties of chrysoberyl (most of those marketed are of a greenish-yellow color) are correctly named simply "_chrysoberyls_." such stones are, however, sometimes incorrectly called "_chrysolite_" by the trade, and this practice should be corrected, as the term chrysolite applies correctly only to the mineral _olivine_ which gives us the _peridot_. spinel. next in the order that we have chosen comes "_spinel_." the more valuable spinels are of a red color that somewhat closely approaches the red of some rubies. such red spinels should be called "_ruby spinel_" (and _not spinel ruby_). the stones themselves sometimes get mixed with corundum rubies (they are frequently found in the same gem gravels), and this makes it all the more necessary that both stones and names should be clearly distinguished. some dealers call reddish spinels "_balas ruby_" (rose red), and orange red ones "_rubicelle_." violet red spinel is sometimes called "_almandine spinel_." it is very desirable that the name of the mineral species, _spinel_, should be used, together with a qualifying color adjective, in naming gems of this species, rather than such terms as "rubicelle," "balas ruby," "spinel ruby," etc. topaz. we come now to _topaz_. true, or _precious topaz_, as it is usually called, to distinguish it from the softer and less valuable yellow quartz, is seldom seen in the trade to-day. jewelers almost always mean yellow quartz when they speak of "topaz." this is an unfortunate confusion of terms, and one which will be hard to eradicate. there is seldom any injustice done through this misnaming, as the price charged is usually a fair one for the material offered. considerably higher prices would be necessary if true topaz was in question. an instance from the writer's experience will serve to illustrate the confusion that exists in the trade as to what should be called topaz. a jeweler of more than ordinary acquaintance with gems exhibited some fine brooch stones as specimens of topaz. on remarking that they were of course _citrine quartz_ rather than _true topaz_, the author was met with the statement that the brooch stones were _real_ topaz. in order to make clear to the dealer the difference between the two species, the author asked him if he hadn't some smaller topazes in stock that had cost him considerably more than the brooch stones. the dealer replied that he had some small wine yellow topazes for which he had paid more, and he produced them. the latter stones were true brazilian topazes. most of them had tiny, crackly flaws in them, as is frequently the case, and, as the writer pointed out to the dealer, they had been bought by the _carat_, whereas the large brooch stones had been bought at a certain price per _pennyweight_. in fact the little stones had cost more per carat than the larger ones had per pennyweight. the dealer was then asked if there must not be some difference in the real nature of the two lots to justify paying more per carat for small, imperfect stones than per pennyweight for large perfect ones. he of course acknowledged that it would appear reasonable that such was the case. he was next shown that his small _true topazes_ scratched his large stones easily, but the large ones could get no hold upon the surfaces of the small ones. (it will be remembered that topaz has a hardness of , while quartz has a hardness of .) the explanation then followed that the two lots were from two entirely distinct minerals, topaz and quartz, and that the former was harder, took a somewhat better polish, and was more rare (in fine colors) than quartz. of course the yellow quartz should be sold under the proper name, _citrine quartz_. (from the same root that we have in "_citrus_" as applied to fruits. for example the "california citrus fruit growers' association," which sells oranges, lemons, grape fruit, etc. the color implication is obvious.) if the jeweler still wishes to use the term "topaz" because of the familiarity of the public with that name, then he should at least qualify it in some way. one name that is current for that purpose is "spanish topaz," another is "quartz-topaz." perhaps the latter is the least objectionable of the names that include the word topaz. some of the wine yellow true topazes lose the yellow, but retain the pink component, on being gently heated. the resulting pink stone is rather pretty and usually commands a higher price than the yellow topazes. such artificially altered topazes should be sold only for what they are, and probably the name "pinked topaz," implying, as it does, that something has been done to the stone, is as good a name as any. there is, however, little chance of fraud in this connection, as natural pink topazes are not seen in the trade, being very rare. some bluish-green topaz is said to be sold as aquamarine, and this confusion of species and of names should, of course, be stopped by an actual determination of the material as to its properties. lacking a refractometer, the widely differing specific gravities of the two minerals would easily serve to distinguish them. lesson xx the naming of precious stones (_concluded_) beryl, emerald, aquamarine. coming now to _beryl_ we have first _emerald_, then _aquamarine_, then beryls of other colors to consider. there is too often a tendency among dealers to confuse various green stones, and even doublets, under the name _emerald_. while the price charged usually bears a fair relation to the value of the material furnished, it would be better to offer tourmaline, or peridot (the mineral name of which is olivine), or demantoid garnet (sometimes wrongly called "olivine"), or "emerald doublets," or emerald or "imitation emerald," as the case might be, under their own names. there are no true "synthetic" or "scientific" or "reconstructed" emeralds, and none of these terms should be used by the trade. there has been an effort made in some cases to do business upon the good reputation of the scientific rubies and sapphires, but the products offered, when not out and out glass imitations, have usually been doublets or triplets, consisting partly of some pale, inexpensive, natural mineral, such as quartz or beryl, and a layer of deep green glass to give the whole a proper color. all attempts to melt real emerald or beryl have yielded only a _beryl glass_, softer and lighter than true emerald, and not _crystalline_, but rather glassy in structure. hence the names "reconstructed," "synthetic" and "scientific" should never be applied to emerald. the light green and blue green beryls are correctly called _aquamarines_, the pale sky-blue beryls should be named simply _blue beryl_. yellow beryl may be called _golden beryl_, or it may be called "_heliodor_," a name that was devised for the fine yellow beryl of madagascar. beautiful pink beryl from madagascar has been called "_morganite_," a name that deserves to live in order to commemorate the great interest taken by j. pierpont morgan in collecting and conserving for future generations many of the gems in the american museum of natural history in new york. zircon. we now come to a number of minerals slightly less hard than beryl, but harder than quartz, and _zircon_ is perhaps as hard as any of these, so it will be considered next. red zircon, which is rare, is properly called "_hyacinth_." many hessonite garnets (cinnamon stones) are incorrectly called hyacinths, however. the true hyacinth has more snap and fire owing to its adamantine surface luster and high dispersive power, as well as to its high refractive index. a true hyacinth is a beautiful stone. golden yellow zircons are correctly called "_jacinths_." artificially whitened zircons (the color of which has been removed by heating) are known as "jargoons" or sometimes as "matura diamonds." all other colors in zircon should be named simply zircon, with a color adjective to indicate the particular color as, "brown zircon," etc. tourmaline. tourmaline furnishes gems of many different colors. these are all usually called simply tourmaline, with a color adjective to specify the particular color, as, for example, the "pink tourmaline" of california. red tourmaline is, however, sometimes called "_rubellite_," and white tourmaline has been called "_achroite_." the latter material is seldom cut, and hence the name is seldom seen or used. garnet. we may next consider the _garnets_, as most of them are somewhat harder than quartz. as was said in lesson xviii. in our study of mineral species, there are several types of garnets, characterized by similarity of chemical composition, or at least by analogy of composition, but, having specific differences of property. the names used by jewelers for the several types of garnets ought to be a fairly true indication as to the type in hand in a particular case. at present there is considerable confusion in the naming of garnets. the most common practice is to call all garnets of a purplish-red color "almandines." as many such garnets belong to the mineral species _almandite garnet_, there is little objection to the continuance of this practice. the somewhat less dense, and less hard blood red garnets are properly called "_pyrope garnets_" (literally "fire" garnets). many of the arizona garnets belong in this division. the term "arizona _rubies_" should _not_ be used. as was said under ruby, nothing but red corundum should receive that title. similarly the pyrope garnet of the diamond mines of south africa is incorrectly called "cape ruby." pyrope and almandite garnet tend to merge in composition and in properties, and the beautiful "_rhodolite_" garnets of macon county, north carolina, are between the two varieties in composition, in color, and in other properties. _hessonite garnet_ furnishes yellowish-red and brownish-red stones, which are sometimes also called "cinnamon stones." they are also frequently and incorrectly called jacinth or hyacinth, terms which, as we have seen, should be reserved for yellow and red zircon, respectively. _andradite garnet_ furnishes brilliant green stones, which have been incorrectly named "olivines" by the trade. the name is unfortunate as it is identical with the true name of the mineral which gives us peridot. the name does not even suggest the color of these garnets correctly, as they are seldom olive green in shade. as the scarcity of fine specimens and their great beauty make a fairly high price necessary, the public would hardly pay it for anything that was called "garnet," as garnets are regarded as common and cheap. perhaps the adoption of the name "_demantoid_" might relieve the situation. the stones are frequently referred to as "demantoid garnets" on account of their diamond-like luster and dispersion. the use of "demantoid" alone, if a noun may be made from the adjective, would avoid both the confusion with the mineral olivine, and the cheapening effect of the word garnet, and would at the same time suggest some of the most striking properties of the material. "_spodumene_" furnishes pink to lilac "_kunzite_," named after dr. george f. kunz, the gem expert, and for a time an emerald green variety was had from north carolina which became known as "_hiddenite_," after its discoverer, w. e. hidden. no confusion of naming seems to have arisen in regard to this mineral. the next mineral in the scale of hardness is quartz. (hardness .) when pure and colorless it should be called "_rock crystal_." purple quartz is of course _amethyst_. some dealers have adopted a bad practice of calling the fine deep purple amethyst "oriental" amethyst, which should not be done, as the term "oriental" has for a long time signified a _corundum_ gem. as siberia has produced some very fine amethysts, the term "_siberian amethyst_" would be a good one to designate any especially fine gem. quartz gems. we have already considered the naming of yellow quartz in connection with topaz. "_citrine quartz_" is probably the best name for this material. if it is felt that the name "topaz" must be used, the prefix "quartz" should be used, or perhaps "spanish topaz" will do, but some effort should be made to distinguish it from the true precious topaz. in addition to amethyst and citrine quartz we have the pinkish, milky quartz known as "_rose quartz_." this is usually correctly named. "_cat's-eye_" is a term that should be reserved for the chrysoberyl variety, and the quartz variety should always be called "quartz cat's-eye." "_tiger's-eye_" is a mineral in which a soft fibrous material has been dissolved away, and quartz has been deposited in its place. "_aventurine quartz_" is the correct name for quartz containing spangles of mica. clear, colorless pebbles of quartz are sometimes cut for tourists. such pebbles are frequently misnamed "diamonds" with some prefix, as for example "lake george diamonds," etc. among the minutely crystalline varieties of quartz we have the clear red, which should be called "_carnelian_," the brownish-red "_sard_," the green "_chrysoprase_," the leek green "_prase_," and the brighter green "_plasma_." the last three are not so commonly seen as the first two, and frequently the best-colored specimens are artificially dyed. "_jasper_," a material more highly regarded by the ancients than at present, is mainly quartz, but contains enough earthy material to make it opaque. "_bloodstone_" is a greenish chalcedony with spots of red jasper. "_agates_" are banded chalcedonies, the variety called "_onyx_" having very regular bands, and the "_sardonyx_" being an onyx agate in which some of the bands are of reddish sard. just as we considered opal with quartz (because of its chemical similarity) when discussing mineral species, so we may now consider the proper naming of opals here. "_precious opal_" is distinguished from "_common opal_" by the beauty of its display rather than by any difference in composition. the effect is of course due to the existence of thin films (probably of material of slightly different density), filling what once were cracks in the mass. the rainbow colors are the result of interference of light (see a college text on physics for an explanation of interference). the varying thickness of these films gives varying colors, so different specimens of opal show very different effects. the differences of distribution of the films within the material also cause variations in the effects. hence we have hardly any two specimens of opal that are alike. there are, however, certain fairly definite types of opal and jewelers should learn to apply correct names to these types. most prominent among the opals of to-day are the so-called "_black opals_" from new south wales. these give vivid flashes of color out of seeming darkness. in some positions the stones, as the name implies, appear blue-black or blackish gray. by transmitted light, however, the bluish stones appear yellow. owing to the sharp contrast between the dark background and the flashing spectrum colors, black opals are most attractive stones and fine specimens command high prices. one fine piece, which was on exhibition at the panama-pacific exposition was in the shape of an elongated shield, about - / inches by - / inches in size and rather flat and thin for its spread. it gave in one position a solid surface of almost pure ruby red which changed to green on tipping the stone to the opposite direction; $ , was asked for the piece. "_white opal_" is the name applied to the lighter shades of opal which do not show the bluish-black effect in any position. "_harlequin opal_" has rather large areas of definite colors giving somewhat the effect of a map of the united states in which the different states are in different colors. "_fire opal_" is an orange-red variety. it has some "play" of colors in addition to its orange-red body color. "_opal matrix_" has tiny specks and films of precious opal distributed through a dark volcanic rock and the mass is shaped and polished as a whole. jade. "_jade_" should next receive attention. it is a much abused term. under it one may purchase _jadeite_, _nephrite_, _bowenite_, _amazonite_, or frequently simply _green glass_. the use of the word ought to be confined to the first two minerals mentioned, namely, jadeite and nephrite, for they only possess the extreme toughness together with considerable hardness that we expect of jade. bowenite, while tough, is relatively soft and amazonite is brittle and also easily cleavable, while glass is both soft and brittle. peridot and olivine. the mineral "_olivine_" gives us the "_peridot_" (this name should be kept for the deeper bottle green stones), and the olive green gems of this same mineral may correctly be called "_olivine_" or "_chrysolite_." as was explained under garnet, jewelers frequently use the term "olivine" to designate demantoid garnet. the term chrysolite is also sometimes incorrectly used for the greenish-yellow chrysoberyl. feldspar gems. among the minerals softer than quartz, which are used as gems, we have also "_feldspar_," which gives us "_moonstone_," "_labradorite_," and "_amazonite_." an opalescent form of chalcedony is frequently gathered on california beaches and polished for tourists under the name of "_california moonstone_." this name is unfortunately chosen as the material is not the same as that of true moonstone and the effect is not so pronounced or so beautiful. the polished stones show merely a milky cloudiness without any of that beautiful sheen of the true moonstone. "_labradorite_" is usually correctly named. "_amazonite_" was originally misnamed, as none is found along the river of that name. the term has come into such general use, however, that we shall probably have to continue to use it, especially as no other name has come into use for this bluish-green feldspar. as has already been said, amazonite is sometimes sold as "jade," which is incorrect. malachite, azurite, and lapis lazuli. _malachite_ and _azurite_ are usually correctly named, but "_lapis lazuli_" is a name that is frequently misused, being applied to crackled quartz that has been stained with prussian blue, or some other dye, to an unconvincing resemblance to true lapis. such artificially produced stones are sometimes sold as "_swiss lapis_." they are harder than true lapis and probably wear much better in exposed ornaments, but they are not lapis and are never of equal color, and names should not be misused, and especially is this true in a trade where the public has had to rely so completely upon the knowledge and the integrity of the dealer. with the increase of knowledge about precious stones that is slowly but steadily growing among the public, it becomes more than ever necessary for the jeweler and gem dealer to know and to use the correct names for all precious stones. the student who wishes to learn more about the matter will have to cull his information from many different works on gems. g. f. herbert-smith, in his _gem-stones_, gives a three and one half page chapter on "nomenclature of precious stones" (chap. xiii., pp. - ). the present lesson has attempted to bring together in one place material from many sources, together with some suggestions from the author. lesson xxi where precious stones are found occurrence of diamond. every dealer in precious stones should know something of the sources of the gems that he sells. the manner of the occurrence of the rough material is also a matter of interest. it will therefore be the purpose of this lesson to give a brief account of the geographical sources of the principal gems and of their mode of occurrence in the earth. for the sake of uniformity of treatment we will once more follow the descending order of hardness among the gems and we thus begin by describing the occurrence of diamond. it will be of interest to note first that the earliest source of the diamond was india, and that for many years india was almost the sole source. tavernier tells us that the diamond mining industry was in a thriving state during the years from to , during which time he made six journeys to india to purchase gems. he speaks of borneo as another source of diamonds, but most of the diamonds of that time were furnished by india. "golcondas." indian diamonds were noteworthy for their magnificent steely blue-white quality and their great hardness, and occasionally one comes on the market to-day with an authentic pedigree, tracing its origin back to the old indian mines, and such stones usually command very high prices. one of a little over seven and one half carats in weight, in the form of a perfect drop brilliant, has lately been offered for sale at a price not far from $ , per carat. such diamonds are sometimes called "golcondas" because one of the mining districts from which the fine large indian stones came was near the place of that name. some of the stones from the jägersfontein mine in south africa resemble the golcondas in quality. many of the large historical crown diamonds of europe came from the indian mines. the stones were found in a sedimentary material, a sort of conglomerate, in which they, together with many other crystalline materials, had become imprisoned. their original source has never been determined. they are therefore of the so-called "river" type of stone, having probably been transported from their original matrix, after the disintegration of the latter, to new places of deposit, by the carrying power of river waters. the indian mines now yield very few stones. the united states consular reports occasionally mention the finding of a few scattered crystals but the rich deposits were apparently worked out during the seventeenth century and the early part of the eighteenth century. in and in the few following years the brazilian diamond fields began to supersede those of india. like the latter, the brazilian fields were alluvial, that is, the materials were deposited by river action after having been carried to some distance from their original sources. brazilian diamonds. the diamonds of brazil also resembled those of india in quality, being on the average better than those of the present south african mines. it may be added that even the african diamonds that are found in "river diggings" average better in quality than those of the volcanic pipes which form the principal source of the world's supply to-day. there seems to be a superabundance of iron oxide in the rocks of the african mines and in the diamonds themselves, imparting yellow or brownish tints to the material. the "river" stones seem to have lost this color to a considerable extent, if they ever had it. possibly long extraction with water has removed the very slightly soluble coloring material. whatever the cause of their superiority "river" stones have always been more highly regarded than stones from the volcanic pipes. brazil furnished the world's principal supply of diamonds until the discovery of the african stones in . at present relatively small numbers of brazilian stones reach the world's markets. most of these come from the great bahia district (discovered in ) rather than from the older mines of brazil. the present brazilian stones average of small size. they are, however, of very good quality as a rule. a few green stones are found in brazil and these may be of an absinthe-green or of a pistachio-green tint. australian and american sources. while a few diamonds now come on the market from new south wales, and while an occasional stone is found in the united states (usually in glacial drift in the north central states, or in volcanic material somewhat resembling that of south africa in arkansas) yet the world's output now comes almost entirely from south africa and mainly from the enormous volcanic pipes of the kimberly district and those of the premier co. in the transvaal. south african diamonds. the nature of the occurrence of diamond in the "pipes" of south africa is so well known to all who deal in diamonds to-day that but little space need be devoted to it. the "blue ground," as the rock in which the diamonds are found is called, seems to have been forced up from below, perhaps as the material of a mud volcano, bringing with it the diamonds, garnets, zircons, and the fifty or more other minerals that have been found in the blue ground. the fragmentary character of some of these minerals would indicate that the blue ground was not their original matrix. how the diamonds originally crystallized and where, is still probably a matter for further speculation. while at first the mines were worked, like quarries, from the surface, and while the great premier mine is still so worked, most of the present mines are worked by sinking shafts in the native rock outside of the blue ground and then tunneling into the diamond-bearing rock laterally, removing it to the surface, allowing it to weather on the "floors" until it crumbles, then crushing and washing it and concentrating the heavy minerals by gravity methods. large diamonds are then picked out of the concentrates by hand and small ones and fragments are removed by the "greasers," which are shaking tables heavily smeared with grease over which the concentrates are washed and to which diamond alone, of all the minerals in the concentrate, sticks. the grease is periodically removed and melted, and the diamonds secured. the grease can then be used again. german south west africa furnishes a considerable output of very small diamonds, which are found in dry sand far from any present rivers. these diamonds cut to splendid white melee and the output is large enough to make some difference in the relative price of small stones as compared to large ones. the south west african field seldom yields a stone that will afford a finished quarter-carat diamond. rubies. passing on to the occurrence of the _corundum_ gems we will consider first the _ruby_. most fine rubies come from burmah. the district in which they are found is near mogok. practically all the fine pigeon-blood rubies come from this district. the fashion for red stones being for the time little in evidence rubies are not now in great demand. this cessation of demand can hardly be laid to the competition of the scientific ruby, for the sapphire is now very much in vogue, yet scientific sapphires resemble the natural ones even more closely than do the rubies. siam furnishes a considerable number of dark garnet-like rubies. these do not command high prices. they are, however, sometimes very beautiful, especially when well cut for brilliancy, and when in a strong light. ceylon furnishes a few rubies and a few red corundums have been found in north carolina. the burmese rubies appear to have been formed in a limestone matrix, but most of those obtained are gotten from the stream beds, where they have been carried by water after weathering out from the mother rock. the rubies of ceylon, too, probably originated in a limestone matrix, but are sought in stream gravels. sapphires. fine blue sapphires originate in siam in larger numbers than in any other locality. kashmir, in india, also supplies splendid specimens of large size. ceylon, too, furnishes a good deal of sapphire, but mostly of a lighter color than the kashmir sapphire. the ceylon sapphires are found in the streams, but originate in rock of igneous origin. montana furnishes considerable quantities of sapphire, some of which is of very good color. it is, of course, as good as the oriental if of equal color, being of the same material. the better colored sapphire from montana is mined from the rock. most of the sapphires found in the river gravels near helena, mont., are greenish blue or of other colors, and not of fine blue. queensland and victoria in australia supply considerable quantities of sapphire. when blue the australian sapphire is usually too dark to be very valuable. the golden and other "fancy" sapphires of the trade come largely from the ceylon gravels. siam yields silky brown stones and some fine green ones. some of the australian sapphires when cut in certain directions yield green stones. chrysoberyl. chrysoberyl of the variety alexandrite now comes mainly from ceylon, although formerly from the ural mountains. the cat's-eyes also come chiefly from ceylon. the yellowish-green chrysoberyls (which jewelers sometimes call chrysolite) come both from ceylon and from brazil. they are frequently found in papers of "fancy sapphires" or "fancy color stones," so called. spinel. spinels are found along with ruby in burmah and in siam and they also occur in the gem gravels of ceylon. limestone is the usual matrix of spinel, although it is more often mined in gravels resulting from the weathering of the matrix. topaz. true topaz, of wine-yellow color, comes mostly from brazil. ceylon also furnishes yellow topaz. asiatic russia furnishes fine large blue or blue-green crystals resembling aquamarine in appearance. most of the topaz found in other localities is pale or colorless. several of our western states, notably utah, colorado, and california, furnish colorless topaz. mexico and japan also produce it. it is seldom cut, for, while producing a rather brilliant stone, it has little "fire" and is therefore not very attractive. emerald and aquamarine. beryl of the emerald variety is exceedingly scarce in the earth. most of the best emerald comes from colombia, south america. large crystals of paler color come from the urals. like ruby and spinel, emerald usually originates in limestone. one is tempted to suspect that these stones are of aqueous origin and that sapphires, and beryl, other than emerald, are more likely of igneous origin. beryls of the aquamarine type occur in many places, but usually of too pale a tint, or too imperfect, to be worthy of cutting. fine gem beryl of blue and blue-green tints comes from siberia and from several places in the ural mountains on their asiatic slopes. the minas geraes district of brazil, famous for all kinds of gem stones, furnishes most of the aquamarine of commerce. the pegmatite dikes of haddam neck, conn., of stoneham, me., and of san diego county, cal., have furnished splendid aquamarine and other beryl. these dikes, according to the geological evidence, are the result of the combined action of heat and water. thus both melting and dissolving went on together and as a result many fine gem minerals of magnificent crystallization were formed during the subsequent cooling. the longer the cooling lasted and the more free space for growth the crystals had, the larger and more perfect they got. the author has himself obtained finely crystallized aquamarine and tourmaline from the haddam, conn., locality and the best specimens there occur in "pockets" or cavities in the coarse granite. within, these pockets are lined with crystals of smoky quartz, tourmaline, beryl, and other minerals. sometimes crystals occur in mud or clay masses inside the cavities and such crystals, having been free to grow uninterruptedly in every direction, were perfect in form, being doubly terminated, and not attached anywhere to the rock. madagascar has in recent years furnished the finest pink beryl, which has been named morganite. yellow beryl (heliodor) and aquamarine also occur in madagascar. zircon. zircon comes on the market mainly from ceylon. it deserves to be as much esteemed in this country as it is in ceylon, for its optical properties are such that it is a very snappy stone. some of the colors in which it occurs, such as the golden browns, lend themselves nicely to the matching of gems and garments, and, with the growth of education in such matters, jewelers would do well to get better acquainted with the possibilities of zircon and to introduce it to their customers. the supply from ceylon is sufficient to justify popularizing the stone. small zircons are found in almost every heavy concentrate, as, for example, in the concentrates of the diamond mines of south africa, and in those of gold placers in many places. the rough stones resemble rough diamonds in luster and are sometimes mistaken for diamonds. garnets. garnets of various types are found widely distributed in nature. perhaps the bohemian supply is best known, having furnished a host of small stones which have usually been rose cut for cluster work or made into beads. the bohemian garnets are of the pyrope or fire-red type. relatively few large stones of sufficient transparency for cutting are produced in the bohemian mines. the so-called "cape rubies" of the diamond mines of south africa are pyrope garnets and some large and fine ones are found. the "arizona rubies" are pyrope garnets, and while seldom of notable size, some are of very fine color, approaching deep rubies, and the color remains attractive by artificial light. almandite garnet, the "almandine" of the jeweler is less abundant than pyrope, when of gem quality. ceylon furnishes some and india furnishes perhaps more. brazil, from its prolific gem gravels at minas novas, supplies good almandite, and smaller quantities are found in many different localities. hessonite garnet, the cinnamon stone or "hyacinth" (incorrect) of the trade, comes mainly from ceylon. andradite garnet, of the variety known as demantoid, from its diamond-like properties, and which is usually sold under the misleading name "olivine" in the trade, comes from the western slopes of the ural mountains. tourmaline. gem tourmaline comes from ceylon, from madagascar, from the ural mountains, from brazil, from maine, from connecticut, and from california. the ceylon tourmalines are mostly yellow or yellowish green, sometimes fine olive-green. those from the urals may be pink, blue or green. brazilian tourmalines are usually green, but sometimes red. in fact in many localities several colors of tourmaline are usually found together and it may be that a single crystal will be green in most of its length but red or pink tipped. some crystals have a pink core and a green exterior. the author has found both of the two latter types in the haddam, conn., tourmalines, and on one occasion was surprised to get back a wine-colored tourmaline from a cutter to whom he had sent a green crystal. there was but a thin shell of the green material on the outside of the crystal. some of the madagascar tourmaline is of a fine brownish red, almost as deep as a light garnet, and much clearer than most garnet. would it not be fitting on account of its occurrence in several localities in the united states, for americans to use more tourmaline in their jewels? the quality of some of the tourmalines of maine, and of california especially, is not excelled by tourmaline from any other locality. some of the maine tourmaline is of a delightful, slightly bluish-green tint that almost approaches emerald. kunzite. spodumene, of the variety kunzite, comes from san diego county, california. quartz gems. coming now to the quartz gems we find amethyst and citrine, or golden quartz widely distributed so that only the localities that furnish the better grades of these stones need be mentioned. siberia and uruguay furnish fine amethyst. brazil also furnishes large quantities of very good quality. amethyst. the chief charm of the siberian amethyst lies in its large red component, which enables it to change from a deep grape-purple by daylight to a fine red by artificial light that is rich in red rays, and poor in blue ones. the paler types of amethysts that were once esteemed, probably for lack of the rich deep variety, become gray in appearance and much less lovely under artificial light. india furnishes some amethysts, and papers of "fancy color stones" containing native cut gems from ceylon, frequently contain amethysts, but brazil, uruguay, and siberia furnish the great bulk of the stones that are regarded as choice to-day. yellow quartz. citrine or golden quartz comes mainly from brazil. the "spanish topaz" is sometimes the result of heating smoky quartz from cordova province in spain. our own western mountains furnish considerable yellow and smoky quartz fit for cutting. rose quartz. rose quartz of the finest quality comes from south dakota. bavaria, the ural mountains, and paris, maine, have also furnished it. agate. agates of the finest types, such as carnelian and sard, come principally from brazil and from india. opal. opals now come most largely from australia, the hungarian mines yielding but few stones at present. the fine black opals of new south wales are unsurpassed by any that have ever been found elsewhere. mexico furnishes considerable opal, and is notable for its fine "fire opal" or "cherry opal." jade. most of the jade of the variety nephrite that is obtained to-day comes from several of the provinces of china or from siberia or from turkestan. a dark-green nephrite comes from new zealand. jade of the jadeite variety, which is harder than nephrite and more highly valued, is rare. the best specimens come from upper burmah. it is also found in china and in tibet. peridot. peridot, and the brighter olivine or chrysolite, while of the same mineral species, do not seem to occur together. the darker bottle-green specimens come from the island of st. john in the red sea. it is said that many of the finer peridots now available have been recut from old stones mined many years ago. queensland supplies light-green chrysolite, and arizona a yellowish-green variety. light-green stones have been found near the ruby mines of upper burmah. moonstone. moonstone comes mainly from ceylon. the native cut specimens are sent here and recut, as, when native cut, the direction of the grain is seldom correct to produce the moonlight effect in symmetrical fashion. the native cutters apparently try to retain all the size and weight that is possible, regardless of the effect. turquoise. turquoise of the finest blue and most compact texture (and hence least subject to color change) comes from the province of khorasan in persia. several of our western states supply turquoise of fair quality, notably new mexico, arizona, nevada, and california. lapis lazuli. lapis lazuli comes from afghanistan, from siberia, and from south america. malachite. malachite is found in many copper mines, but principally in those of the ural mountains. azurite. azurite is found in the arizona mines and in chessy, in france (hence the name chessylite, sometimes used instead of azurite). * * * * * references. students who wish to get a fuller account of the occurrence of precious stones should run through g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_ under the different varieties. this work is the most recent authentic work of a strictly scientific character. dr. george f. kunz's _gems and precious stones of north america_ gives a detailed account of all the finds in north america up to the time of publication. many of these are of course of little commercial importance. the _mineral resources of the united states_ contains annually a long account of the occurrences of gem materials in this country. a separate pamphlet containing only the gem portion can be had gratis from the office of the united states geological survey, washington, d. c. lesson xxii how rough precious stones are cut rough precious stones. john ruskin, who had the means to acquire some very fine natural specimens of gem material was of the opinion that man ought not to tamper with the wonderful crystals of nature, but that rather they should be admired in the rough. while one can understand ruskin's viewpoint, nevertheless the art of man can make use of the optical properties of transparent minerals, properties no less wonderful than those exhibited in crystallization, and indeed intimately associated with the latter, and, by shaping the rough material in accordance with these optical properties, greatly enhance the beauty of the gem. no material illustrates the wonderful improvement that may be brought about by cutting and polishing better than diamond. in the rough the diamond is less attractive in appearance than rock crystal. g. f. herbert-smith likens its appearance to that of soda crystals. another author likens it to gum arabic. the surface of the rough diamond is usually ridged by the overlapping of minute layers or strata of the material so that one cannot look into the clear interior any more than one can look into a bank, through the prism-glass windows that are so much used to diffuse the light that enters by means of them. being thus of a rough exterior the uncut diamond shows none of the snap and fire which are developed by proper cutting. as the diamond perhaps shows more improvement on being cut than any other stone, and as the art of cutting the diamond is distinct from that of cutting other precious stones, both in the method of cutting and in the fact that the workers who cut diamonds cut no other precious stones, it will be well to consider diamond cutting separately. before discussing the methods by which the shaping and polishing are accomplished let us consider briefly the object that is in view in thus altering the shape and smoothing the surface of the rough material. how cutting increases brilliancy. primarily the object of cutting a diamond is to make it more brilliant. so true is this that the usual form to which diamonds are cut has come to be called the _brilliant_. the adjective has become a noun. the increased brilliancy is due mainly to two effects: first, greatly increased reflection of light, and second, dispersion of light. the reflection is partly external but principally internal. taking up first the internal reflection which is responsible for most of the white brilliancy of the cut stone we must note that it is a fact that light that is passing through any transparent material will, upon arriving at any polished surface, either penetrate and emerge or else it will be reflected within the material, depending upon the angle at which the light strikes the surface. for each material there is a definite angle outside of which light that is passing as above described, is _totally reflected_ within the material. [illustration: fig. . _ab_ represents the back surface of a piece of diamond. _cd_ is a line perpendicular to _ab_. angle _cde_ is about degrees. dotted line, _fdh_ represents the course taken by a ray of light which is totally reflected at _d_ in such fashion that angle _fda_ equals angle _hdb_. any light proceeding towards _ab_ but between _e_ and _c_, would fail to be totally reflected. most of it would penetrate _ab_.] total reflection. for diamond this _critical angle_, as it is called, is very nearly ° from a perpendicular to the surface. if now, we shape a diamond so that most of the light that enters it from the front falls upon the first back surface that it meets, at an angle greater than ° to a perpendicular to that surface, the light will be totally reflected within the stone. the angle at which it is reflected will be the same as that at which it meets the surface. in other words the angles of incidence and of reflection are equal. see fig. for an illustration of this point. theory of the "brilliant." in the usual "brilliant" much of the light that enters through the front surface is thus totally reflected from the first rear facet that it meets and then proceeds across the stone to be again totally reflected from the opposite side of the brilliant. this time the light proceeds toward the top of the stone. see fig. --(from g. f. herbert-smith's _gem-stones_). the angles of the top of a brilliant are purposely made so flat that the up coming light fails to be totally reflected again and is allowed to emerge to dazzle the beholder. in the better made brilliants the angle that the back slope makes with the plane of the girdle is very nearly ° and the top angle, or angle of the front slope to the plane of the girdle is about °. such well made brilliants when held up to a bright light appear almost black--that is, they fail to pass any of the light through them (except through the tiny culet, which, being parallel to the table above, passes light that comes straight down to it). [illustration: fig. .--course of the rays of light passing through a brilliant.] in other words, instead of allowing the light to penetrate them, well-made brilliants almost totally reflect it back toward its source, that is, toward the front of the stone. the well-cut diamond is a very brilliant object, viewed from the front. we must now consider how the "fire" or prismatic color play is produced, for it is even more upon the display of fire than upon its pure white brilliancy that the beauty of a diamond depends. cause of "fire." as we saw in lesson x. (which it would be well to re-read at this time), white light that changes its course from one transparent medium to another at any but a right angle to the surface involved, is not only refracted (as we saw in lesson ii.) but is dispersed, that is, light of different colors is bent by differing amounts and thus we have a separation of the various colors. if this takes place as the ray of light leaves the upper surface of a brilliant the observer upon whose eye the light falls will see either the red, or the yellow, or the blue, as the case may be, rather than the white light which entered the stone. if instead, the dispersion takes place as the light enters the brilliant the various colored rays thus produced will be totally reflected back to the observer (slightly weakened by spreading, as compared to the direct or unreflected spectra). thus dispersion produces the "fire" in a brilliant. other materials than diamond behave similarly, but usually to a much smaller extent, for few gem materials have so high a refractive power or so great a dispersive power as diamond. having considered the theory of the brilliant we may now take up a study of the methods by which the exceedingly hard rough diamond is shaped and polished. cleaving diamonds. if the rough material is of poor shape, or if it has conspicuous defects in it which prevent its being made into a single stone, it is cleaved (_i. e._, split along its grain). hard as it is, diamond splits readily in certain definite directions (parallel to any of the triangular faces of the octahedral crystal). the cleaver has to know the grain of rough diamonds from the external appearance, even when the crystals, as found, are complicated modifications of the simple crystal form. he can thus take advantage of the cleavage to speedily reduce the rough material in size and shape to suit the necessity of the case. the cleaving is accomplished by making a nick or groove in the surface of the rough material at the proper point (the stone being held by a tenacious wax, in the end of a holder, placed upright in a firm support). a thin steel knife blade is then inserted in the nick and a sharp light blow struck upon the back of the knife blade. the diamond then readily splits. "cutting diamonds." the next step is to give the rough material a shape closely similar to that of the finished brilliant but rough and without facets. this shaping or "cutting" as it is technically called, is done by placing the rough stone in the end of a holder by means of a tough cement and then rotating holder and stone in a lathe-like machine. another rough diamond (sometimes a piece of bort, unfit for cutting, and sometimes a piece of material of good quality which it is necessary to reduce in size or alter in shape) is cemented into another holder and held against the surface of the rotating diamond. the holder is steadied against a firm support. it now becomes a case of "diamond cut diamond," each stone wearing away the other and being worn away itself. the cutting process is fairly rapid and it leaves the stone (which is reversed to make the opposite side) round in form and with a rounding top and cone-shaped back. stones of fancy shape, such as square, or cushion shape, have to be formed in part by hand rubbing or "bruting" as it is called. the facets must now be polished onto the stone. usually the workers who cut do not cleave or polish. "polishing" diamonds. the polisher fixes the cut stone firmly in a metallic holder called a dop, which is cleverly designed to hold the stone with much of one side of it exposed. the holder is then inverted so that the stone is beneath and a stout copper wire attached to the holder is then clamped firmly in a sort of movable vise. the latter is then placed on the bench in such a position that the diamond rests upon the surface of a rapidly revolving horizontal iron wheel or "lap" as it is called. the surface of the latter is "charged" with diamond dust, that is, diamond dust has been pushed into the metal surface which thus acts as a support to the dust. the latter wears away the diamond, producing a flat facet. the lap is kept moistened with oil and from time to time fresh oil and diamond dust are applied. a speed of about , rotations per minute is used. facetting. the making of the facets is rather slow work, especially when, as is usually the case in making the "table" the work has to be done against one of the "hard points" of the crystal. great care has to be taken to place the stone so that the grain lies in a correct position, for diamond cannot be polished against the grain, nor even exactly with it, but only obliquely across it. this requirement, as much as anything, has prevented the use of machines in polishing diamonds. the table is usually first polished on, then the four top slopes, dividing the top surface into quarters, then each of the four ridges thus left, is flattened, making eight facets and finally facets, exclusive of the table, are made upon the top of the brilliant. the stone is then reversed and facets, and the culet, polished on the back. as each facet nears its proper shape the stone is placed upon a particularly smooth part of the lap and a slight vibratory motion given to the holder by the hand. this smooths out any lines or grooves that may have formed because of inequalities of surface of the lap. when completely facetted the brilliant is finished and requires only to be cleaned, when it is ready for sale. lesson xxiii how rough precious stones are cut and what constitutes good "make"--_concluded_ slitting and cleaving. the cutting and polishing of precious stones other than diamond is a trade entirely distinct from diamond cutting. the precious stone lapidary cuts every species of stone except diamond. the methods used by different lapidaries vary somewhat in their details, and there are many trade secrets which are more or less jealously guarded by their possessors, but in general the methods used to reduce the rough materials to the finished gems are as follows: first, the rough material, if of too large size, or if very imperfect, is _slitted_, or, if it possesses a pronounced cleavage, it may be _cleaved_, in order to reduce the size or to remove imperfect parts. _slitting_ is accomplished by means of a circular disc of thin metal which is hammered so that it will be flat and rotate truly, and is then clamped between face plates, much as an emery wheel is held. the smooth edge of the circular disc is then charged with diamond dust and oil, the diamond dust being bedded into the edge of the metal disc by the pressure of some hard, fine-grained material, such as chalcedony, or rolled into the metal by the use of a rotating roller. once charged, and kept freely supplied with oil, a slitting wheel will slice a considerable number of pieces of any precious stone less hard than diamond, and will do so with considerable rapidity. the wheel is, of course, rotated very rapidly for this purpose. the cleaving of certain gem materials, such as true topaz (which splits perfectly across the prism, parallel to its base) is easily accomplished, and it is done in much the same manner as the cleaving of diamond. the feldspar gems, such as moonstone, amazonite, and labradorite, also cleave very smoothly in certain directions. spodumene, of which kunzite is a variety, cleaves almost too easily to be durable. most gem minerals, however, lack such perfect cleavage and when it is desired to remove imperfect parts, or to reduce large pieces to smaller sizes, these materials are slitted as above described. "rubbing down." the material being of nearly the dimensions of the finished piece, the next step is to "rub it down," as it is called, to approximately the shape and size desired. this rubbing down process was formerly done by means of a soft metal lap (sometimes of lead), charged with coarse emery powder and water. carborundum, being harder and sharper than emery, has replaced it very largely. some of the softer materials, such, for example, as turquoise, are rubbed down on a fast flying carborundum wheel of similar type to those used in machine shops for grinding steel tools. these wheels rotate in a vertical plane and are kept wet. the laps before mentioned run horizontally. the carborundum wheels have the grains of carborundum cemented together by means of some binding material and this gradually crumbles, exposing fresh, sharp cutting edges. various sizes of grain, and various degrees of hardness of the binding material, as well as various speeds, are needed to suit the many different materials rubbed down by the lapidary. some lapidaries rub down the harder and more valuable gems such as ruby upon diamond charged laps of brass or other metal. cabochons. the rubbing down process does not leave a facetted surface, but only a coarse roughly rounded or flattened surface. if the material is to be left in some one of the flat-backed, rounded top forms known as cabochon cut, the surfaces need only to be smoothed (by means of very fine abrasives such as fine emery applied by means of laps, or even by fine emery or carborundum cloth), and they are then ready for polishing. facetted stones. if, however, the stone is to be facetted in either the brilliant form, somewhat like the diamond, or step cut or otherwise facetted, it is cemented strongly onto a holder (much like the wooden part of a pen holder). the upper end of the holder is rested in one of a series of holes in what is called a "_ginpeg_" resting in the work-bench near a metal lap, and the stone is pressed upon the rapidly rotating surface of the lap, which is charged with diamond dust or carborundum, according to the hardness of the material to be facetted. a flat facet is thus ground upon the stone. by rotating the holder a series of facets, all in the same set, is produced. the holder is then changed to a new position on the ginpeg and another set of facets laid upon the stone. thus as many as four or five tiers or sets of facets may be applied to one side, say the top of the stone. the latter is then removed from the holder and cemented to it again, this time with the bottom exposed, and several sets of facets applied. the stone is now _cut_ but not _polished_. the facets are flat, but have a rough ground-glass like surface. the polishing is usually done by workers who do not cut stones, but who do nothing but polish them. in small shops, however, the same lapidary performs all the parts of the work. polishing. the polishing of stones, whether cabochon or facetted, is accomplished by the use of very finely powdered abrasives such as corundum powder, tripoli, pumice, putty powder, etc. each gem material requires special treatment to obtain the best results. it is here that most of the trade secrets apply. the troubles of the lapidary in getting the keen polish that is so much admired on fine gems are many. in general, the polishing powder should not be quite as hard as the material to be polished, else it may grind rather than polish. the material should be used with water or oil to give it a creamy consistency. it should be backed by laps of different materials for different purposes. thus, when backed by a fairly hard metal even tripoli, although much softer, will polish sapphire. on a lap of wood, tripoli would fail to polish hard materials, but would polish amethyst or other quartz gem. a change of speed of the lap, too, changes the effect of the polishing material. i have seen a lapidary, who was having no success at polishing an emerald, get very good results by using a stick as a brake and slowing down his lap. the polishing material must be of very uniform size, preferably water floated or oil floated, to give good results. the lap must be kept flat and true and the stone must be properly held, or the flatness of the facets, upon which brilliancy depends in part, will be destroyed during the polishing. the softer materials, such as opal, require treatment more like that accorded cut glass, and soft abrasive powders, such as pumice, suffice to polish them. probably hardly two lapidaries would work exactly alike in their treatment of precious stones, and each guards his secrets, yet all use approximately similar general methods. some have devised mechanical holders which permit the repeated cutting of stones to exactly the same angles, and that, too, with an accurate knowledge of the angles used. these angles can be definitely altered for different materials, according to their refractive indices. other lapidaries produce very fine results by purely hand methods. these details have been gone into to give an idea of the methods of the lapidary and of the many variations in method. in general, however, the _slitting_ or _cleaving_, the _rubbing down_ to shape, the _smoothing out_ of all scratches and the _facetting_ and _polishing_ are done somewhat similarly by all lapidaries. having now had a glimpse of the methods of the lapidaries, let us briefly consider what constitutes good "make" in stones other than diamond. good "make" in colored stones. brilliants, cut from materials having smaller refractive indices than diamond, (and this group includes nearly all stones other than diamonds) should have steeper back angles and higher tops than the best diamond brilliants have. a -degree top angle (the angle between the slope of the top and the plane of the girdle is called the top angle) and a -degree back angle being about ideal for diamond, other gem materials should have more nearly a -degree top angle and a -degree back angle to give the greatest possible brilliancy. however, in the case of colored gems such as ruby, sapphire, etc., where the value depends even more largely upon the color than upon the brilliancy, it is frequently necessary to cut the brilliant thicker or thinner than these proportions in order to deepen or to thin the color. in general, the thicker a stone of a given spread the deeper the color will be. the color may also be deepened by giving to the stone a rounded contour, both above and below the girdle, and facetting it in steps instead of in the brilliant form. increasing the number of steps also serves to slightly deepen the color, as a larger number of reflections is thus obtained within the material, the light thus has to travel a greater distance through the colored mass, and more of the light, of color other than that of the stone, is absorbed. improving color by proper cutting. in addition to the color improvement that can be brought about by changing the shape of the cut stone there are a number of gem materials whose color varies very greatly in different directions, and this fact calls for skillful use in order to obtain the best possible results. thus most tourmalines of deep color must be cut with the top or table, of the finished stone, on the _side_ of the prismatic crystal rather than at right angles to the axis of the prism. if cut the latter way they would be much too dense in color. on the other hand, most blue sapphires should be cut _across_ the prism axis rather than the way that tourmalines should be cut. to cut a sapphire with its table on the side of the prism would be likely to cause it to have a greenish cast because of the admixture of the unpleasing "ordinary ray" of yellowish tint with the blue of the stone as seen up and down the prism. some australian sapphires are of a pronounced green when viewed across the axis of the crystal. rubies if cut, as was recommended for sapphires, give a very pure and very deep red color, but lack somewhat in the display of dichroism given by rubies that are cut with the table on the side of the crystal and parallel to its axis. lapidaries need to know and to make use of such optical relations as these and jewelers might well inform themselves in such matters, especially if they have, or hope to acquire, trade in very fine colored stones. effect of shape on brilliancy. in actual practice it is common to find colored stones poorly cut for brilliancy, especially central brilliancy, and that, too, without the excuse of sacrifice of brilliancy in order to improve color. the fault is usually due to too great a desire to save size and weight. frequently a stone would have greater value if properly cut, even at the expense of some size and weight. when stones are cut too shallow, as is frequently the case, they are sure to leak light in the center and they are thus weak and less brilliant there than they would be if made smaller in diameter and with steeper back slopes approximating degrees. round stones, if their angles are correct, are more brilliant than stones of other contour such as square or cushion shape, or navette or heart shape. it can readily be seen that such odd-shaped stones can hardly have the same top and back angles at every part of their circumference. if the angle from a corner of a square stone is correct then the angle from the middle of one side is obviously a little different. small differences of angle make considerable differences in the brilliancy of cut stones. the prevailing tendency to cut nearly all diamonds round depends largely upon the above facts. in the case of colored stones, however, the added attractiveness which comes with odd or different contour more than makes up for the slight loss of brilliancy that may attend upon the shape selected. such shapes as lend themselves to special designs in mountings also justify any little loss in brilliancy that accompanies the change in shape, provided the proportions retained give a considerable amount of total reflection within the stone and thus light up most of the stone as seen from the front. the test of the "make" of a color stone is its appearance. if it lights up well over most of its surface and if the color is right, one should not criticize the "make" as one would be justified in doing in the case of a diamond. if, however, the effect is less attractive it would many times be advisable to measure the angles of the stone, or its thickness and spread as compared with similar measurements on a stone of fine appearance. frequently one will thus find the reason for the failure of the stone to perform as it might, and recutting should be resorted to in such cases in order to get a smaller but more beautiful and hence more valuable stone. lesson xxiv forms given to precious stones while precious stones are cut to many different forms, there are, nevertheless, but a few general types of cutting. these may be classified as follows: first, the "_cabochon_" (fig. ) type of cutting; second, the old "_rose_" (fig. ) type of cutting; third, the _brilliant_ (fig. ); fourth, the _step cutting_ (fig. ). cabochons. of these the first, or _cabochon_ cutting, is probably the most ancient. the term comes from a french word signifying a bald pate (caboche, from latin cabo, a head). the usual round cabochon cut closely resembles the top of a head in shape. cabochon cut stones usually have a flat base, but sometimes a slightly convex base is used, especially in opals and in moonstones, and some stones of very dense color are cut with a concave base to thin them and thus to reduce their color. the contour of the base may be round, or oval, or square, or cushion shape, or heart shape or of any regular form. the top is always smooth and rounding and unfacetted. the relation of the height or thickness to the length or width may be varied to suit the size and shape of the rough piece or to suit one's ideas of symmetry, provided the material be an opaque one, such as turquoise or lapis lazuli. if, however, the material is transparent the best results in the way of the return of light to the front, and hence in the display of the color of the material, are had if the thickness is about one half the spread. [illustration: fig. .--cabochon cutting.] this relation depends upon the refractive index of the material, but as most color stones are of somewhat similar refractive indices, the above proportions are sufficiently accurate for all. the object in view is the securing of total reflection of as much light as possible from the flat polished back of the stone. cabochon stones are sometimes set over foil or on polished gold to increase the reflection of light. the path of a ray of light through a cabochon cut stone is closely similar to that through a rose cut diamond [see cut (c) of fig. for the latter.] like the rose cut, the cabochon cut does not give much brilliancy as compared to the brilliant cut. cabochon cut stones, however, have a quiet beauty of color which commends them to people of quiet taste, and even fine rubies, sapphires, and emeralds are increasingly cut cabochon to satisfy the growing demand for fine taste in jewels. the east indian has all along preferred the cabochon cut for color stones, but possibly his motives have not been unmixed, as the cabochon cut saves a greater proportion of the weight of the rough stone than the more modern types of cutting. garnets, more than other stones, have been used in the cabochon cut, and when in that form are usually known as _carbuncles_ (from carbunculus, a glowing coal). any other fiery red stone might equally well be styled a carbuncle, especially if cabochon cut. [illustration: fig. .--rose cutting.] scientific rubies look very well in the cabochon cut. fig. shows in (a) and (b) the front and top of the usual round cabochon. cut (c) of the same figure gives the front elevation of a cabochon which will light up better than the usual round-topped design. in the round-topped type the central part of the top is so nearly parallel to the back that light can pass right through as through a window pane. if the sloping sides are brought up to a blunt point, as in cut (c) there is very much less loss of light and greater beauty results. the east indian cabochons are frequently cut in a fashion resembling that suggested. [illustration: fig. .--brilliant cutting.] rose cut stones. it was natural that the earliest cut stones should have the simple rounded lines of the cabochon cutting, for the first thing that would occur to the primitive worker who aspired to improve upon nature's product, would be the rubbing down of sharp edges and the polishing of the whole surface of the stone. perhaps the next improvement was the polishing of flat facets upon the rounded top of a cabochon stone. this process gives us the ancient type of cutting known as the _rose_ cut. the drawings (a) and (b) of fig. show the front elevation and the top and (c) shows the path of a ray of light through a "rose." it will be noted that the general shape resembles that of a round cabochon, but twenty-four triangular facets have been formed upon the top. the well-proportioned rose has a thickness about one half as great as its diameter. diamonds were formerly cut chiefly in the rose form, especially in the days of the east indian mines, and even in the early part of the nineteenth century many people preferred finely made roses to the thick, clumsy brilliants of that day. to-day only very small pieces of diamond are cut to "roses." as the material so used frequently results from the cleaving of larger diamonds, the public has come to know these tiny roses as "chips." the best roses have twenty-four regular facets but small ones frequently receive only twelve, and those are seldom regular in shape and in arrangement. such roses serve well enough for encrusting watch cases and for similar work, as the flat base of the stone can be set in thin metal without difficulty. about the only gem other than diamond that is now cut to the rose form is garnet. large numbers of small bohemian garnets are cut to crude rose form for use in cluster work. [illustration: fig. .--step cutting.] the brilliant cut, as its name implies, gives the most complete return of light of any of the forms of cutting. the theory of the brilliant has already been discussed (lesson xxii. in connection with the cutting of diamond). the shape of the brilliant is too well known to require much description. most brilliants to-day are cut practically round and the form is that of two truncated cones placed base to base. the upper cone is truncated more than the lower, thus forming the large, flat top facet known as the _table_ of the stone [a, fig. , cut (a)]. the truncating of the lower cone forms the tiny facet known as the culet, which lies opposite to the table and is parallel to the latter [see b, fig. , cut (a)]. the edge of meeting of the two cones is the _girdle_ of the brilliant [cd in cut (a), fig. ]. the sloping surface of the upper cone is facetted with thirty-two facets in the full cut brilliant, while the lower cone receives twenty-four. small stones sometimes receive fewer facets, to lessen the cost and difficulty of cutting, but by paying sufficient for them full cut brilliants as small as one hundred to the carat may be had. cut (b) of fig. shows the proper arrangement of the top facets and cut (c) that of the bottom facets. when cutting colored stones in the brilliant cut, especially if the material is very costly and its color in need of being darkened or lightened, the lapidary frequently takes liberties with the regular arrangement and proportions depicted in the cuts. step cutting. the only remaining type of cutting that is in very general use is the _step cut_ (sometimes known as trap cut). fig. , (a), (b), and (c), shows the front elevation, the top and the back of a square antique step cut stone. the contour may be round or completely square or oblong or of some other shape, just as a brilliant may have any of these contours. the distinctive feature of the step cutting is the several series of parallel-edged quadrangular facets above and below the girdle and the generally rounding character of its cross section. this plump, rounding character permits the saving of weight of the rough material, and by massing the color gives usually a greater depth of color than a brilliant of the same spread would have if cut from similar material. while probably never quite as snappy and brilliant as the regular brilliant cut, a well-proportioned step cut stone can be very brilliant. many fine diamonds have recently been cut in steps for use in exclusive jewelry. the mixed cut. the ruby and the emerald are never better in color than when in the full step cut, although rubies are frequently cut in what is known as the _mixed_ cut, consisting of a brilliant cut top and a step cut back. sapphires and many other colored stones are commonly cut in the mixed cut. recently it has become common to polish the tops of colored stones with a smooth unfacetted, slightly convex surface, the back being facetted in either the brilliant or the step arrangement. such stones are said to have a "_buffed top_." they are less expensive to cut than fully facetted stones and do not have the snappy brilliancy of the latter. they do, however, show off the intrinsic color of the material very well. lesson xxv imitations of precious stones "paste" gems. large volumes have been written on paste jewels, especially on antique pastes. contrary to a prevailing belief, the paste gem is not a recent invention. people frequently say when told that their gems are false, "but it is a very old piece, it must be genuine." the great age of a jewel should rather lead to suspicion that it was not genuine than give confidence that a true gem was assured. the egyptians and romans were skillful makers of glass of the sort used in imitating gems and some of the old pastes were very hard or else have become so with age. glass of one variety or another makes the most convincing sort of imitation precious stones. the term "paste" as applied to glass imitations is said to come from the italian _pasta_ meaning dough, and it suggests the softness of the material. most pastes are mainly lead glass. as we saw in lesson xviii., on the chemical composition of the gems, many of them are silicates of metals. now glasses are also silicates of various metals, but unlike gem minerals the glasses are not crystalline but rather amorphous, that is, without definite geometric form or definite internal arrangement. the optical properties of the various glasses vary chiefly with their densities, and the denser the material the higher the refractive index and the greater the dispersion. thus to get the best results in imitation stones they should be made of very heavy glass. the dense flint glass (chiefly a silicate of potassium and lead) which is used for cut glass ware illustrates admirably the optical properties of the heavy glasses. by using even more lead a still denser glass may be had, with even a greater brilliancy. unfortunately the addition of lead or other heavy metals (such as thallium) makes the product very soft and also very subject to attack by gases such as are always present in the atmosphere of cities. this softness causes the stones to scratch readily so that when worn they soon lose their polish and with the loss of polish they lose their beauty. the attack of the gases before mentioned darkens the surfaces of the imitation and further dulls it. when fresh and new a well cut piece of colorless paste has a snap and fire that approaches that of diamond. the surface luster is not adamantine, however, and the edges of the facets cannot be polished so sharply as those on a diamond. moreover the refractive index, while high, is never so high as in a diamond and hence the brilliant cannot be so shaped as to secure the amount of total reflection given by a well-made diamond. hence, the paste brilliant, while quite satisfying as seen from squarely in front, is weak and dark in the center as seen when tilted to one side. by these differences the trained eye can detect paste imitations of diamond at a glance without recourse to tests of specific gravity, hardness, etc. pastes, being amorphous, are singly refracting, as is diamond. this fact helps the appearance of the paste brilliant, for light does not divide within it to become weakened in power. this singleness of refraction, however, betrays the paste imitation when it is colored to resemble ruby, sapphire or emerald, all of which are doubly refracting. the color is imparted to pastes by the addition, during their manufacture, of various metallic oxides in small proportions. thus cobalt gives a blue color, copper or chromium green, copper or gold give red (under proper treatment) and manganese gives purple. by experiment the makers of pastes have become very skillful in imitating the color of almost any precious stone. fine paste emeralds may look better than inferior genuine emeralds. as pastes are singly refracting and hence lack dichroism, the pleasing variety of color of the true ruby cannot be had in a paste imitation, but the public is not critical enough to notice this lack. the expert would, however, note it and could detect the imitation by that difference as well as by the lack of double refraction. the use of direct sunlight and a white card as already explained in the lesson on double refraction (lesson iii.) will serve to expose the singleness of refraction of paste imitations. spinels and garnets are about the only true gems (except diamond) that are single refracting. any other color stone should show double refraction when tested by the sunlight-card method. the file test will also expose any paste imitation as all the very brilliant pastes are fairly soft. doublets. to give better wearing quality to paste imitations the _doublet_ was devised. this name is used because the product is in two parts, a lower or back portion of paste and an upper or top portion of some cheap but hard genuine stone. garnet is probably used for this purpose to a greater extent than any other material, although quartz or colorless topaz will do very well. the usual arrangement of the parts can be seen in fig. , the garnet covering only a part of the upper surface, namely the table part and a small portion of the sloping surface of the top. in high class doublets the hard mineral covers the paste to the girdle. (see fig. .) the color of the garnet does not interfere seriously with that of the paste. [illustration: fig. . one form of cheap doublet.] if a "diamond" doublet is desired the slice of garnet is made nearly as thin as paper and it covers only the table of the brilliant. it is thus practically colorless. a thin slice of red garnet over a green background is not noticeable, as all the red is absorbed in passing through the green material beneath. with a blue base, the red upper layer may give a very slight purple effect. with yellow a slight orange tint results and of course with a red back no perceptible difference would result. [illustration: fig. . another form of doublet.] the two materials are cemented together, by means of a transparent waterproof cement. the _triplet_ has already been described in lesson xii. it is even better than the doublet and more difficult to detect. both the file test and the sunlight-card test serve to detect doublets, as well as paste imitations, except that in the file test with the fully protected doublet the _back_ of the stone must be tested with the file, as the girdle and top are of hard material. in the sunlight-card test of a doublet (the refraction of garnet being single like that of glass), single images of the facets will be had on the card when the sunlight is reflected onto it. a reflection of the lower or inner surface of the garnet top can be seen also and this serves to still further identify a doublet or a triplet. the appearance of this reflection is much like that received on the card from the top of the table. it is larger than the reflections of the smaller facets and is but little colored. tests for doublets. a trained eye can also detect a doublet or a triplet by noting the difference in the character of the surface luster of the garnet part and of the glass part. garnet takes a keener and more resinous luster than glass. by tipping the doublet so that light is reflected to the eye from the sloping top surface, one can see at once where the garnet leaves off and the glass begins. even through a show window one can tell a doublet in this way although here it is necessary to move oneself, instead of the stone, until a proper position is obtained to get a reflection from the top slope of the doublet. if the garnet covers the whole top of the imitation then it is not possible to get so direct a comparison, but even here one can look first at the top surface and then at the back and thus compare the luster. it is also well to closely examine with a lens the region of the girdle, to see if any evidence of the joining of two materials can be seen. frequently the lapidary bevels the edge so as to bring the line of junction between real and false material at the sharp edge of the bevel. boiling a doublet in alcohol or chloroform will frequently dissolve the cement and separate the parts. the dichroscope also serves to detect the false character of doublets and paste imitations, as neither shows dichroism. as rubies, emeralds, sapphires, and in fact most colored stones of value, show distinct dichroism, this test is a sure one against these imitations. triplets and doublets too may be exposed by dipping them _sidewise_ into oil, thus removing the prismatic refraction almost completely, as the oil has about the same refractive index as the stone. one can then look directly through glass and garnet, or other topping material, separately, and each material then shows its proper color. thus zones of color appear in a doublet or triplet when under the oil. a real gem would appear almost uniform in color under these conditions. round gas bubbles can frequently be found in paste, and hence in the paste part of a doublet. also, the natural flaws of the real stone are never found in paste, but may be present in the real stone part of a doublet or a triplet. some imitation emeralds on the market, however, have been made in a way to counterfeit the flaws and faults generally found in this stone. altered stones. in addition to the out and out imitations made of paste, and the doublets, there are numerous imitations current in the trade that are made by staining or by otherwise altering the color of some genuine but inexpensive gem material. for example, large quantities of somewhat porous chalcedony from brazil are stained and sold in imitation of natural agate or sard or other stones. in many cases the staining is superficial, so that the stone has to be shaped before it is stained, then stained and polished. large quantities of slightly crackled quartz are stained to resemble lapis lazuli, and sold, usually with the title "swiss lapis." a file test will reveal the character of this imitation, as it is harder than a file, while true lapis is softer. the color too is never of so fine a blue as that of fine lapis. it has a prussian blue effect. turquoises of inferior color are also sometimes stained to improve them. a better product is made artificially. opals are sometimes impregnated with organic matter, which is then charred, perhaps with sulphuric acid, thus giving them somewhat the appearance of black opal. opals are also imitated by adding oxide of tin to glass, thus imparting a slight milkiness to it. the imitation is then shaped from this glass by molding, and the back of the cabochon is given an irregular surface, which may be set over tinsel to give the effect of "fire." pale stones are frequently mounted over foil, or in enameled or stained settings and thus their color is seemingly improved. diamonds of poor color are occasionally "painted"; often the back of the brilliant is treated with a violet dyestuff, which even in so small an amount that it is difficult to detect, will neutralize the yellow of the stone and make it appear to be of a fine blue-white color. the "painting" is, of course, not permanent, so that such treatment of a diamond with a view to selling it is fraudulent. the painted stone may be detected by washing it with alcohol, when the dye will be removed and the off-color will become apparent. if the stone is unset one can see with a lens a wavery metallic appearance on the surfaces that have been "painted." this effect is due to the action of the very thin film of dye upon the light that falls upon it. besides the staining of genuine materials, they are sometimes altered in color by heat treatment, and this topic will be discussed in the next lesson. lesson xxvi alteration of the color of precious stones many gem minerals change color when more or less strongly heated. extreme heat whitens many colored materials completely. "pinked topaz." john ruskin advises us to "seek out and cast aside all manner of false or dyed or altered stones" but, in spite of his advice, perhaps the most justifiable use of heat treatment is that which alters the color of true topaz from a wine-yellow to a fine pink. it would appear that the wine-yellow is a composite color composed of pink and yellow and that the pink constituent is less easily changed by heat than is the yellow one. if too high a temperature is used both colors disappear and white topaz results. as the latter is abundant in nature and of little value, such a result is very undesirable. pink topaz, however, is very rare, and until recently, when pink tourmaline from california and madagascar, and pink beryl (morganite) from madagascar, became available in quantity, the "pinked" topazes had but few competing gems, and thus commanded a higher price than the natural topazes. of course, care has to be taken in heating a mineral to raise and lower the temperature slowly, in order to avoid sudden and unequal expansion or contraction, which would crack and ruin the specimen, as the writer learned to his sorrow with the first topaz that he tried to "pink." spanish topaz. another material that gains a more valuable color by heat treatment is the smoky quartz of spain, which, on being gently heated, yields the so-called spanish topaz. some amethysts are altered to a yellow color by mild heating. too great a temperature completely decolorizes colored quartz. some dark quartz yields a nearly garnet red product, after heating. zircon. slight increase in temperature causes many of the zircons from ceylon to change markedly in color. an alcohol flame serves admirably to effect the change, care being taken to warm up the stone very gradually and to cool it slowly. drafts should be prevented, as they might suddenly cool the stone and crack it. some zircons become completely whitened by this treatment. at the same time they increase markedly in density and in refractive index and thus become even more snappy and brilliant than when colored. one is tempted to suspect that the "space lattice" of the crystal has had its strata drawn closer together during the heating and left permanently in a closer order of arrangement. other zircons merely become lighter colored and less attractive. some of the whitened stones again become more or less colored on exposure to strong light. ultra-violet light will sometimes restore these to a fine deep color in a short time. the whitened zircon, when finely cut in the brilliant form, with truly flat facets and sharp edges and with a top angle of about degrees and a back angle of about degrees, so closely resembles a diamond that it will deceive almost anyone on casual inspection. the expert, even, may be deceived, if caught off his guard. the writer has a fine specimen of a little over one carat, with which he has deceived many jewelers and pawnbrokers, and even an importer or two. if it is presented as a stone that closely resembles diamond your expert will say: "yes, it is pretty good, but it would never fool me." if, however, you catch him off his guard by suggesting, perhaps, "did you ever see a diamond with a polished girdle?", then he will look at it with interest, remark on its fine color and "make," and never think of challenging its character. the refractive index of the dense type of zircon is so high ( . - . ) that it lights up well over most of the surface of the brilliant when cut, as above indicated, and does not show markedly the weak dark center shown by white sapphire, white topaz, colorless quartz, colorless beryl, and paste, when seen from the side. moreover, the luster of zircon is nearly adamantine, so the expert does not miss the cold metallic glitter as he would with any other white stone. the color dispersion, too, is so high ( % as great as in diamond) that the zircon has considerable "fire," and thus the casual handler is again deceived. a fine white zircon is really prettier than a _poor_ diamond. it cannot compare, however, with a _fine_ diamond. it would never do to let an expert see your zircon beside even a fair diamond. the zircon would look "sleepy." it is only when no direct comparison is possible, and when the expert is not suspicious, that a zircon can deceive him. of course, the use of the scientific tests of the earlier lessons will, at once, detect the character of a whitened zircon. the hardness is but . , the refraction so strongly double that the edges of the back facets appear double-lined when viewed through the table with a lens, and the specific gravity is . . double spots of light appear on the card when the sunlight-card test is applied. hence, it is easy to detect zircon by any of these tests if there is reason to suspect that it has been substituted for diamond. corundum gems. rubies of streaky color are said to be improved by careful heating. usually ruby undergoes a series of color changes on being heated, but returns through the same series in reverse order on being cooled, and finally resumes its original color. strong heating will whiten some yellow sapphire. the author thus obtained a white sapphire from a crystal of light yellow material. it is interesting to note that the corundum gems undergo marked change in color under the influence of radium. a regular series of changes is said to be produced in white sapphire by this means, the final color being yellow. this color may then be removed by heat and the series run through again. it is not stated that a fine red has ever been thus obtained. perhaps nature, by her slower methods, using the faint traces of radio-active material in the rocks, reddens the corundum of burmah at her leisure, and finally arrives at the much sought "pigeon blood" color. it is said that the natives of india have a legend to the effect that the white sapphires of the mines are "ripening rubies," and that one day they will mature. perhaps they are not far wrong. diamond. diamonds of yellowish tint may be improved in color by the use of high-power radium. at present the latter is so rare and costly that there is no evidence of its commercial use for this purpose. scientists have brought about the change to a light blue as an experiment. it is not yet known whether the change will be permanent. perhaps here again nature has anticipated man's discovery and made the fine bluish-violet brazilian diamonds (which fluoresce to a deep violet under an arc light, and which shine for a few moments in the dark after exposure to light) by associating them for ages with radio-active material. some of the african stones also have these characteristics. aside from the change in the color of diamond that may be brought about by means of radium, the mineral is extremely reluctant to alter its color. many experimenters besides the author have tried in vain a host of expedients in the hope of finding some way to improve the color of diamond. about the only noticeable alteration that the author has been able to bring about was upon a brown diamond, the color of which was made somewhat lighter and more ashen by heating it in a current of hydrogen gas to a low red heat. lesson xxvii pearls unlike the gems that have been so far considered, the pearl is not a mineral, but is of organic origin, that is, it is the product of a living organism. there are two principal types of molluscs which yield true pearls in commercial quantities. the best known of the first type is the so-called pearl oyster (_meleagrina margaritifera_). the pearl mussel of fresh water streams is of the second type (_unio margaritifera_). other species of molluscs having pearly linings to their shells may produce pearls, but most of the pearls of commerce come from one or the other of the two varieties mentioned. structure of pearl. the structure and material of the true pearl must be first understood in order to understand the underlying reasons for the remarkable beauty of this gem. pearls are composed partly of the mineral substance calcium carbonate (chemically the same as marble) and partly of a tough, horny substance of organic nature called conchiolin. the shell of the pearl-bearing mollusc is also composed of these two substances. calcium carbonate may crystallize in either of two forms, calcite or aragonite. in marble we have calcite. in the outer portions of the shell of the pearl oyster the calcium carbonate is in the form of calcite, but in the inner nacreous lining and in the pearl itself the mineral is present as aragonite. this is deposited by the mollusc in very thin crystalline layers in the horny layers of conchiolin, so that the lining of the shell is built of approximately parallel layers of mineral and of animal substance. in the normal shell this is all that takes place, but in the case of a mollusc whose interior is invaded by any small source of irritation, such as a borer, or a grain of sand, or other bit of foreign material, a process of alternate deposit of conchiolin and of aragonite goes on upon the invading matter, thus forming a pearl. the pearl is built in layers like an onion. in shape it may be spherical, or pear-shaped, or button-shaped or of any less regular shape than these. the regular shapes are more highly valued. the spherical shape is of greatest value, other things being equal. next comes the drop or pear shape, then the button shape, and after these the host of irregular shapes known to the jeweler as "baroques." the river man who gathers mussels calls these odd-shaped pearls "slugs." let us now attempt to understand how the beautiful luster and iridescence of the pearl are related to the layer-like structure of the gem. in the first place, it should be understood that both conchiolin and aragonite are translucent, that is, they pass light to a certain extent. the layers being exceedingly thin, light can penetrate a considerable number of them if not otherwise deflected from its course. we thus obtain reflections not merely from the outer surface of a pearl, but from layer after layer within the gem and all these reflections reach the eye in a blended reflection of great beauty. the luster of a pearl is then not purely a _surface luster_ in the usual sense of that term, but it is a luster due to many superposed surfaces. it is so different from other types of luster that we describe it merely as _pearly luster_ even though we find it in some other material, as, for example in certain sapphires, in which it is due to a similar layer-like arrangement of structure. orient. the fineness of the luster of a pearl, or as is said in the trade, the _orient_, depends upon the number of layers that take part in the reflection, and this number in turn depends upon the translucency of the material and the thinness of the layers. very fine pearls usually have very many, very thin layers taking part in the reflection. the degree of translucency, considered apart, is sometimes called the "water" of the pearl. in addition to their beautiful luster, many pearls display iridescence, and this is due in part, as in the case of the pearly lining of the shell (mother of pearl) to overlapping of successive layers, like the overlapping of shingles on a roof. this gives rise to a lined surface, much like the diffraction grating of the physicist, which is made by ruling a glass plate with thousands of parallel lines to the inch. such a grating produces wonderful spectra, in which the rainbow colors are widely separated and very vivid. the principal on which this separation of light depends is known as diffraction and cannot be explained here, but a similar effect takes place when light falls on the naturally ruled surface of a pearl and helps produce the play of colors known as iridescence. the thin layers themselves also help to produce the iridescence by interference of light much as in the case of the opal, which has already been discussed. color. having explained the cause of the orient and water of pearls, the _color_ must next be considered. pearls may be had of almost any color, but the majority of fine pearls are white, or nearly so. the fine oriental pearls frequently have a creamy tint. among fresh water pearls the creamy tint is less often seen, but fine pink tints occur. occasionally a black pearl is found and on account of its rarity commands a price nearly as great as that obtainable for a white pearl of similar size and quality. the value of pearls depends upon several different factors and it is far from an easy matter to estimate the value of a fine specimen. it is much easier to grade and estimate the value of diamonds than to do the same for pearls, and it is only by long and intimate acquaintance with the pearls themselves that one can hope to become expert in deciding values. there are, however, several general factors that govern the value of pearls. chief among these are: , _orient_; , _color_; , _texture or skin_; , _shape and size_. factors governing the value of pearls. taking up each of these factors in turn, it may be said of the first that unless a pearl has that fine keen luster known as a fine orient, it is of but limited value. no matter what the size, or how perfect the shape, it is nothing, if dead and lusterless. to have great value the gem must gleam with that soft but lively luster peculiar to fine specimens of pearl. with variations in orient go wide variations in value. as to _color_, the choicest pearls are pure white or delicate rose pink or creamy white. pearls in these shades can be had in numbers and these colors are what might be called _regular_ colors. _fancy-colored_ pearls have peculiar and irregular values, depending a good deal upon rarity and upon the obtaining of a customer for an odd color. fine pink and fine black pearls are examples of the type that is meant here. to be very valuable a pearl must have a smooth even _skin_, that is, the _texture_ of its surface must be even and regular. it must not have pits or scratches or wrinkles, or little raised spots upon it, or any cracks in it. in connection with this topic of "skin," it may be mentioned that it is sometimes true that a pearl of bad skin or of poor luster may be improved markedly by "peeling" it, as the process is called. as was said above, a pearl is built in layers much like an onion, and it can often be peeled, that is, one or more layers can be removed, thus exposing fresh layers beneath, whose texture and luster may be better than those of the original outside layer. "peeling" a pearl. possibly an anecdote of an actual case may serve best to explain the method by which "peeling" is sometimes accomplished. the writer was once at vincennes, ind., on business, and there became acquainted with a pearl buyer who was stopping at that place to buy fresh water pearls and "slugs" from the rivermen who gather the mussels for the sake of their shells. the latter are made into "pearl" buttons for clothing. it happened that the pearl buyer had accumulated some twenty-eight ounces of slugs and a number of pearls and was leaving on the same train with the author, who shared his seat with him. while we were looking over the slugs together the pearl buyer put his hand in his pocket and drew out a five-dollar bill which he unrolled, exposing a pearl of about six grains, well shaped, but of rather dead luster. remarking that he had paid but $ for it and that he had rolled it up in the bill for safe keeping until he got time to peel it, he took out a small penknife, opened one of the blades, put a couple of kid glove finger tips on the thumb and first finger of his left hand and proceeded to peel the pearl on the moving train. holding his two hands together to steady them, he pressed the edge of his knife blade against the pearl until the harder steel had penetrated straight down through one layer. then with a flaking, lateral motion he flaked off a part of the outer skin. bit by bit all of the outer layer was flaked off, and that, too, without appreciably scratching the next layer, so great was the worker's skill. when the pearl was completely peeled it was gently rubbed with three grades of polishing paper, each finer than the previous one, and then the writer was allowed to examine it. the appearance had been much improved, although it was not of extremely fine quality even when peeled. under a high power magnifier scarcely a trace of the peeling could be seen. the value of the $ pearl had been raised to at least $ and not many minutes had been required for the change. a slower and more laborious, but safer, process of "peeling" a pearl, consists in gently rubbing the surface with a very fine, rather soft, abrasive powder until all of the outer skin has been thus worn away. of course, in many such cases no better skin than the outer one could be found and disappointment would result from the peeling of such a pearl. it should be added that it will not do to try to peel a _part_ of a pearl in order to remove an excrescence, for then one would inevitably cut across the layers, exposing their edges, and such a surface looks, when polished, much like a pearl button, but not like a pearl. in this connection may be mentioned the widespread belief on the part of the public that the concretions found in the common edible oyster can be polished by a lapidary, as a rough precious stone can be improved by the latter, and that a fine pearl will result. it is frequently necessary for jewelers to whom such "pearls" are brought, to undeceive the person bringing them and to tell him that only those molluscs that have a beautiful pearly lining to their shells are capable of producing true pearls and that the latter require no assistance from the lapidary. shape. to return to the topic of factors governing the value of pearls, the _shape_ of the pearl makes a vast difference in the value. perfectly spherical pearls are most highly valued and closely following come those of drop or pear shape, as this shape lends itself nicely to the making of pendants. oval or egg-shaped pearls are also good. after these come the button shapes, in which one side is flattened. pearls of irregular shape are much less highly valued. the irregular-shaped pearls are called _baroque_ pearls in the trade. the rivermen engaged in the fresh water pearl fishery call them _slugs_. some of the more regular of these are called "nuggets." others are termed "spikes" because of their pointed shape, and still others are called "wing" pearls on account of their resemblance to a bird's wing. most of the baroques are too irregular in shape to have any special name applying to their form. weight. after orient, color, skin, and shape have been considered, _size_ or _weight_ finally determines the value. pearls are sold by an arbitrary unit of weight known as the _pearl grain_. it is not equal to the grain avoirdupois, but is one fourth of a diamond carat. as the new metric carat is one fifth of a gram and as there are . avoirdupois grains in a gram, it is seen at once that there are but . real grains in a carat rather than four. thus the _pearl grain_ is slightly lighter than the avoirdupois grain. since large, fine pearls are exceedingly rare, the value mounts with size much more rapidly than is the case with any other gem; in fact, the value increases as the _square_ of the weight. for example, let us consider two pearls, one of one grain weight, the other of two grains, and both of the same grade as to quality. if the smaller is worth say $ per grain, then the larger is worth Ã� (the square of the weight) times $ (the _price per grain base_, as it is called in the trade), which totals $ . a four-grain pearl of this grade would be worth Ã� Ã� $ = $ , etc. thus it is seen that the price increases very rapidly with increase in weight. price "per grain base." some of the lower grades of pearls in small sizes are sold by the grain _straight_, that is, the price per grain is merely multiplied by the weight in grains to get the value, just as the price per carat would be multiplied by the number of carats to get the value of a diamond. this method of figuring the value of pearls is used only for the cheaper grades and small sizes, however, and the method first explained, the calculation per grain _base_, is the one in universal use for fine gems. very fine exceptional gems may be sold at a large price _for the piece_, regardless of the weight. it is interesting to note in this connection that tavernier, the french gem merchant of the seventeenth century, tells us that in his day the price of large diamonds was calculated by a method similar to that which we now use for pearls, that is, the weight in carats was squared and the product multiplied by the price per carat. such a method would give far too high a price for diamonds to-day. the high price of fine pearls. this suggests the thought that pearls of fine quality and great size are the most costly of all gems to-day and yet there seems to be no halting in the demand for them. in fact, america is only just beginning to get interested in pearls and is coming to esteem them as they have long been esteemed in the east and in europe. those who have thought that the advance in the prices of diamonds in recent years will soon put them at prohibitive rates should consider the enormous prices that have been obtained and are being obtained for fine pearls. in order to facilitate the calculating of prices of pearls, tables have been computed and published giving the values of pearls of all sizes at different prices _per grain base_, and several times these tables have been outgrown, and new ones, running to higher values, have been made. the present tables run to $ per grain base. there is much justification for the high prices demanded and paid for large and fine pearls. such gems are really exceedingly scarce. those who, as boys, have opened hundreds of river mussels only to find a very few small, badly misshapen "slugs" will realize that it is only one mollusc in a very large number that contains a fine pearl. moreover, like the bison and the wild pigeon, the pearl-bearing molluscs may be greatly diminished in numbers or even exterminated by the greed of man and his fearfully destructive methods of harvesting nature's productions. in fact, the fisheries have been dwindling in yield for some time, and most of the fine pearls that are marketed are _old_ pearls, already drilled, from the treasuries of eastern potentates, who have been forced by necessity to accept the high prices offered by the west for part of their treasures. in india, pearls have long been acceptable collateral for loans, and many fine gems have come on the market after failure of the owners to repay such loans. having considered the factors bearing on the value of pearls, we will next consider briefly their physical properties. the specific gravity is less definite than with minerals and varies between . and . . it may be even higher for pink pearls. physical properties. in hardness pearls also vary, ranging between - / and on mohs's scale. they are thus very soft and easily worn or scratched by hard usage. a case showing the rather rapid wearing away of pearls recently came to the attention of the writer. a pendant in the shape of a latin cross had been made of round pearls which had been drilled and strung on two slender gold rods to form the cross. the pearls were free to rotate on the wires. after a period of some twenty or more years of wear the pearls had all become distinctly cylindrical in shape, the rubbing against the garments over which the pendant had been worn having been sufficient to grind away the soft material to that extent. the luster was still good, the pearls having virtually been "peeled" very slowly by abrasion. care of pearls. this example suggests the great care that should be taken by owners of fine pearls to prevent undue rubbing or wear of these valuable but not extremely durable gems. they should be carefully wiped after being worn to remove dust and then put away in a tightly closed case. pearls should never be allowed to come in contact with any acid, not even weak acids like lemonade, or punch or vinegar, as, being largely calcium carbonate they are very easily acted upon by acids, and a mere touch with an acid might ruin the surface luster. being partly organic in nature, pearls are not everlasting, but must eventually decay, as is shown by the powdery condition of very old pearls that have been found with mummies or in ancient ruins. the organic matter has yielded to bacterial attack and decayed, leaving only the powdery mineral matter behind. as heat and moisture are the conditions most conducive to the growth of bacteria, and hence to decay, it would follow that fine pearls should be kept in a dry cool place when not in use. lesson xxviii cultured pearls and imitations of pearls cultured pearls. like all very valuable gems, pearls have stimulated the ingenuity of man to attempt to make imitations that would pass for genuine. perhaps the most ingenious, as well as the most natural looking product, is the "_cultured pearl_." this is really natural pearl on much of its exterior, but artificial within and at the back. in order to bring about this result the japanese, who originated the present commercial product, but who probably borrowed the original idea from the chinese, call to their assistance the pearl oyster itself. the oysters are gently opened, small hemispherical discs of mother-of-pearl are introduced between shell and mantle and the oyster replanted. the foreign material is coated by the oyster with true pearly layers as usual, and after several years a sufficiently thick accumulation of pearly layers is thus deposited on the nucleus so that the oyster may be gathered and opened and the cultured pearl removed by sawing it out from the shell to which it has become attached. to the base is then neatly cemented a piece of mother-of-pearl to complete a nearly spherical shape, and the portions of the surface that have not been covered with true pearl are then polished. the product, when set in a proper pearl mounting, is quite convincing and really beautiful. as the time during which the oyster is allowed to work upon the cultured pearl is doubtless far less than is required for the growth of a large natural pearl, the number of layers of true pearly material is considerably smaller than the number of layers that take part in the multiple reflections explained in the previous lesson, and hence the "orient" of the cultured pearl is never equal to that of a fine true pearl. it is frequently very good however, and for uses that do not demand exposure of the whole surface of the pearl, the cultured pearl supplies a substitute for genuine pearls of moderate quality and price. the back parts of the cultured pearl, being only polished mother-of-pearl, have the appearance of the ordinary pearl button, rather than that of true pearl. imitations of pearls. aside from these half artificial cultured pearls, the out and out imitations of pearls that have been most successfully sold are of two general types, first "_roman pearls_," and, second, "_indestructible pearls_." the roman pearls are made hollow and afterward wax filled, the indestructible pearls have solid enamel bases. in both types the pearly appearance is obtained by lining the interior, or coating the exterior, with more or less numerous layers of what is known as "_nacre_" or some times as "_essence d'oriente_." this is prepared from the scales of a small fish found in the north sea and in russia. the scales are removed and treated with certain solutions which remove the silvery powder from the scales. the "_nacre_" is then prepared from this powder. the fineness of the pearly effect becomes greater as the preparation ages, so very fine imitations are usually made from old "_nacre_." the effect is also better the larger the number of successive layers used. the artificial pearl thus resembles the true pearl in the physical causes for the beautiful effect. in some cases the roman pearl has a true iridescence which is produced by "burning" colors into the hollow enamel bead. some of the indestructible pearls are made over beads of opalescent glass, thus imparting a finer effect to the finished product. while the cheaper grades of indestructible pearls have but three or four layers of nacre, some of the fine ones have as many as thirty or more. the earlier indestructible pearls were made with a coating material which was easily affected by heat, or by water, or by perspiration, as a gelatine-like sizing was included in it. the more recent product has a mineral binder which is not thus affected, so that the "pearls" are really about as durable as natural ones, and will at least last a lifetime if used with proper care. like fine natural pearls, the fine imitations should be wiped after use and carefully put away. they should also be restrung occasionally, as should real pearls both to prevent loss by the breaking of the string and because the string becomes soiled after a time, and this hurts the appearance of the jewel. the "roman" type of imitation will not stand much heat, as the wax core would melt and run out. testing imitations of pearls. as the making of imitations of pearls is mainly hand-work and as many treatments are required for the best imitations, fairly high prices are demanded for these better products, and the appearance and permanency warrant such prices. the best imitation pearls are really very difficult of detection except by close examination. they will not, of course, stand inspection under a high magnification. artificial pearls may also be detected by their incorrect specific gravity, by their incorrect degree of hardness, and in the case of the hollow pearls by making a tiny ink spot upon the surface of the "pearl" and looking at it through a lens. a reflection of the spot from the _inside_ surface of the bead will appear beside the spot itself if the pearl is of the roman type. the artificial pearls so far described are high class products. some of the very cheap and poor imitations are merely solid, or hollow, glass or enamel beads which have been made slightly pearly, either by adding various materials to the glass or enamel when it was made, or by crudely coating the beads without or within with wax containing cheap "nacre." lesson xxix the use of balances and the unit of weight in use for precious stones as precious stones are almost always sold by weight, and as the value at stake is frequently very great, it is almost as necessary for a gem merchant, as it is for the chemist, to have delicate balances and to keep them in good order and to use them skillfully. a general understanding of the unit of weight in use for precious stones and how it is related to other standard weights is also necessary to the gem dealer. we will therefore consider in this lesson the use and care of balances and the nature and relative value of the unit of weight for precious stones. delicate balances needed. as it is necessary, on account of their great value, to weigh some gems, such as diamonds, emeralds, rubies, etc., with accuracy to at least the one hundredth part of a carat (which is roughly in the neighborhood of / , of an ounce avoirdupois), balances of very delicate and accurate construction are a necessary part of the equipment of every gem merchant. while portable balances of a fair degree of accuracy are to be had, the best and surest balances are substantially constructed and housed in glass cases, much as are those of the analytic chemist, which must do even finer weighing. the case protects the balance from dust and dirt and prevents the action of air currents during the weighing. the balance itself has very delicate knife edges, sometimes of agate, sometimes of hardened steel, and these knife edges rest, when in use, on a block of agate or steel, so that there is a minimum amount of friction. when not in use the balance beam and knife edges are lifted from the block and held firmly by a metal arm, or else, as is the case with some balances, the post supporting the block is lowered, leaving the beam and knife edges out of contact with it. the object of this separation is to prevent any rough contact between the knife edges and the block on which they rest. advantage should always be taken of this device whenever any fairly heavy load is put on or taken off of either pan, as the sudden tipping of the beam might chip the knife edges if not supported. when the load is nearly balanced there may be no harm in carefully adding or removing small weights while the knife edges are resting on the block, but even then it is safer to lower the beam and pans. it should be needless to state that as level and rigid a support should be had for one's balance as circumstances permit. method of use of balances. before using a balance one should see that the pans are clean, that the base of the balance is properly leveled (the better balances have a spirit level attached) and that the pans balance each other without load. when slightly out of balance the defect may be adjusted by _unscrewing_ the little adjusting nut at the end of the beam that is too light, or by _screwing in_ the nut at the opposite end. having seen that the adjustment is perfect the pans should be lowered and the object to be weighed placed on the _left-hand pan_ (because a right-handed person will find it handier to handle his weights on the right-hand pan). one should next guess as nearly as possible the weight of the stone and place well back on the right-hand pan the weight that he thinks comes nearest to that of the stone. if the weight is too heavy the next lighter weight should replace it. smaller weights should be added until a perfect balance is had, the small weights being neatly arranged in the order of their size, in order to more rapidly count them when the stone is balanced. this is the case when the pointer swings approximately equal distances to the right and to the left and there is then no need to wait for it to come to rest in the center. it is well to count the weights as they lie on the pan (which is easily done if they have been arranged in descending order of size as suggested above) then write down the total, and on removing the weights count aloud as they are replaced in the box and note if the total checks that which was written down. it may seem unnecessary to be so careful in this matter, but it is better to be over-careful than to make a mistake where every hundredth of a carat may mean from one to five or six dollars or more. no dealer can afford to have a stone that he has sold prove to be lighter than he has stated it to be. one should be at least within one one-hundredth of a carat of the correct weight. it should be unnecessary to add that accurate weights _should never be handled with the fingers_. ivory tipped forceps are best for handling the weights. the forceps commonly used for handling diamonds will, in time, wear away the weights by scratching them so that they will weigh materially less. unless the weights are of platinum or plated with gold, the perspiration of the hands would cause them to oxidize and gain in weight. it would be well to discard the smaller weights, which are most in use, every few years and obtain new and accurate ones. in case this is not done one should at least have the weights checked against others known to be of standard weight. any chemist will have balances and weights far more accurate than the best in use for precious stones and will gladly check the weights of a gem dealer for a moderate fee. to check the accuracy of your balance, change the stone and weights to opposite pans, in which case they should still balance. one should never overload a balance, both because the balance might be injured and because the relative accuracy decreases as the load increases. if the weight of a parcel of stones heavier than the total of the weights provided with the balance is desired, the parcel should be divided and weighed in parts. while many dealers neglect some of the precautions above suggested and somehow get along, yet it is safer to use care and to have correct technique in the handling of one's balances. having indicated a few of the refinements of method in weighing we will next consider the unit of weight in use for precious stones and see how it is related to other units of weight and in what manner it is subdivided. the unit of weight for precious stones. the present unit for precious stones in the united states is the _metric carat_. most of the more progressive countries have in recent years agreed upon the use of this unit. its use in the united states became general july , . it is by definition exactly one fifth of a _gram_ (the unit of weight of the _metric system_ of weights and measures). its relation to the _grain_ is that there are . + grains in the metric carat. the carat in use in this country up to a few years ago was about - / % heavier than the present metric carat. it was equal to . grams instead of . grams ( / gram). the carats of countries not using the metric carat vary considerably, but yet approximate the metric carat somewhat nearly. thus, that in use in great britain was . g., in amsterdam . g., in berlin . g., in lisbon . g., and in florence . g. the latter was the only one that was under the metric carat. the change to the metric carat was desirable, as it unified the practice of weighing, which not only varied in different countries, but even in the same country. thus there was no very exact agreement among the makers of diamond weights in the united states prior to the adoption of the metric carat. one man's carat was a bit heavier or lighter than another's. with a definite and simple relationship to the standard gram there is now no excuse for any variation in weights. the bureau of standards at washington affords manufacturers every facility for standardizing their weights. the decimal system of subdivision of the carat. with the adoption of the metric carat the custom of expressing parts of a carat in common fractions whose denominators were powers of the number ( / , / , / , / , / , / ) was discarded as awkward and slow for computation and the decimal system of subdivision was adopted. thus the metric carat is divided into tenths and one hundredths. it is customary, however, to sum up the one hundredths and express them as the total number of one hundredths and not to express them as tenths. thus, a stone of . carats is said to weigh "two and fifty-seven hundredths carats." the decimal system of subdivision of the carat makes the figuring of values simpler where no tables are handy. of course, new tables were at once prepared when the new carat was adopted and they afford a rapid means of ascertaining the value of a stone of any weight when the price per carat is known. should it become necessary to convert the weight of a stone from its expression in the old system to that of the new, one need only get . - / % of the old weight. (the old carat was approximately . g., while the new one is . g. hence one old carat . . - / is ---- = -------- = - / % of a new one.) . . method of converting weights. if the old weight has fractions these should first be changed to decimals for convenience. for example, suppose it is wished to change - / / old carats to metric carats. / = . and / = . . hence - / / = . . now get - / % of this: ( . Ã� . = . metric carats). if, for any reason one should need to change from metric carats to old u. s. carats one should multiply by . ( . g. ) ( ------- = . ) ( . g. ) as was said in lesson xxv., pearls are sold by the _pearl grain_, which is arbitrarily fixed at / of a carat. with the change to the metric carat the pearl grain was correspondingly changed and its weight is now / of . g. = . g., as expressed in the metric system. lesson xxx tariff laws on precious and imitation stones since it is necessary for a nation, as well as for an individual, to have an income, and since articles of luxury are more easily taxed than are those of necessity, the traffic in gems and their imitations has frequently been made a source of revenue to our government. usually the per cent. charged as tariff has been comparatively low, especially upon very valuable gems, such as diamonds and pearls, for the reason that too high a tariff would tend to tempt unscrupulous dealers to smuggle such goods into the country without declaring them. when the margin of difference between the values, with and without the tariff, is kept small the temptation is but slight, when the danger of detection and the drastic nature of the usual punishment are taken into account. rough stones have frequently been allowed to enter the country duty free because they were regarded as desirable raw materials which would afford employment to home industry. the tariff laws of october , , made, however, some sweeping changes in the policy of our government toward precious stones and as those laws are still in force (april , ) this lesson will attempt to set forth clearly the exact conditions under the present law. perhaps the paragraph of first importance to the trade is no. which reads as follows. " . diamonds and other precious stones, rough or uncut, and not advanced in condition or value from their natural state by cleaving, splitting, cutting, or other process, whether in their natural form or broken, and bort; any of the foregoing not set, and diamond dust, per centum ad valorem; pearls and parts thereof, drilled or undrilled, but not set or strung; diamonds, coral, rubies, cameos, and other precious stones and semi-precious stones, cut but not set, and suitable for use in the manufacture of jewelry, per centum ad valorem; imitation precious stones, including pearls and parts thereof, for use in the manufacture of jewelry, doublets, artificial, or so-called synthetic or reconstructed, pearls and parts thereof, rubies, or other precious stones, per centum ad valorem." it will be noticed that the chief changes over the previous law are first that which imposes a % duty on rough precious stones, which were formerly free of duty, and second the advance in the duty on cut diamonds and other cut stones from the former % to the present %. this increase in the tariff was regarded as unwise by many conservative importers, as the temptation to defraud the government is made much greater than before. the change was even feared by honest dealers who were afraid that they could not successfully compete with dishonest importers who might smuggle gems into the country. in spite of a rather determined opposition the change was made and our most representative dealers have been making the best of the situation and have been doing all that they could to help prevent smuggling or at least reduce it to a minimum. through their knowledge of the movements of diamond stocks and of prices they are able to detect any unduly large supply or any unwarranted lowness of price and thus to assist the government agents by directing investigation towards any dealer who seems to be enjoying immunity from the tariff. the question of the status of japanese cultured pearls has been settled as follows. paragraph (quoted above) is ruled to cover them and they are thus subject to a % ad valorem tax. carbonadoes--miners' diamonds--are free of duty, under paragraph . crude minerals are also free of duty, paragraph . paragraph declares "specimens of natural history and mineralogy" are free. in case the owner is not prepared to pay the tax on imported merchandise the government holds the goods for a period of three years pending such payments. in case an importer shows that imported merchandise was purchased at more than actual market value, he may deduct the difference at time of entry and pay duty only on the wholesale foreign market value, under section iii., paragraph . on the other hand, if the examiner finds merchandise to be undervalued on the invoice, such merchandise is subject to additional penal duties, but in case of disagreement between the importer and the examiner as to the actual market value, appeal may be taken to the customs court. since the philippine islands are possessions of the united states, pearls from those islands may be admitted free of duty when the facts of their origin are certified to. in the case of precious stones which had their origin in the united states, but which were exported and kept for a time abroad it has been ruled that such stones may be imported into the united states free of duty. when precious or imitation precious stones are imported into the united states and subsequently mounted into jewelry which is then exported, the duty which was paid upon entry may be refunded less a deduction of %. the author wishes to extend his thanks to examiner w. b. treadwell of new york, for his assistance in regard to the subject dealt with in this lesson. bibliography the student of gems will, of course, want to read many books on the subject and the following brief bibliography will enable the beginner to select his reading wisely from the start. much more complete bibliographies will be found in some of the books listed here, one which is notably complete to date of publication is contained in _diamonds and precious stones_, by harry emanuel, f.r.g.s., london, john camden hotten, . this covers many languages. the book which will probably be found most useful by those who have mastered this little text is the work by g. f. herbert-smith, to which frequent reference has been made at the close of many of our chapters. it is thoroughly scientific, yet understandable, and is very complete on the scientific side of the subject. _gem-stones_, g. f. herbert-smith, jas. pott & co., n. y. for another work and one which contains information of trade character as well as scientific information about gems see _precious stones_ by w. r. cattelle, j. b. lippincott & co., phila., or see _a handbook of precious stones_, by m. d. rothschild, g. p. putnam's sons, n. y. _gems and gem minerals_, by oliver cummings farrington, a. w. mumford, publisher, chicago, , is another good general work on gems. its color plates of rough gem minerals are especially good. those who are especially interested in the diamond should see _the diamond_ by w. r. cattelle, the john lane co., n. y., which gives a good account of its subject and is rich in commercial information, or _diamonds: a study of the factors which govern their value_, by the present author, g. p. putnam's sons, n. y., . sir wm. crook's, the _diamond_, harper & bros., n. y., is very interesting, especially in its account of the author's visits to the s. african mines. students of pearls will find _the book of the pearl_, by dr. geo. f. kunz and dr. chas. stevenson, century co., n. y., very complete. a smaller work, yet a good one, on pearls is _the pearl_ by w. r. cattelle, j. b. lippincott & co., phila., . this book is strong on the commercial side. an older work is _pearls and pearling_ by d. edwin streeter, geo. bell & co., london. a work on gems and gem-cutting by a practical cutter is _the gem cutter's craft_, by leopold claremont, geo. bell & sons, london, but it should be said that very few trade secrets will be found exposed in the book. on the subject of scientific precious stones _the production and identification of artificial precious stones_, by noel heaton, b.sc., f.c.s., read before the royal society of arts, apr. , , is very fine. it may be had in the annual report of the smithsonian institution for , p. . it gives one of the best accounts to be had of the history of the artificial production of precious stones, especially of the corundum gems. it also contains a splendid account of how to distinguish scientific from natural gems. most students of gems will need to refer frequently to some good text-book of mineralogy. although old, dana's _mineralogy_ is still a standard work. a newer book and one of a more popular nature is l. p. gratacap's _the popular guide to minerals_, d. van nostrand & co., n. y. among larger and more expensive books on gems may be mentioned _precious stones_, by dr. max bauer. this is an english translation of a german work which is a classic in its field. as it is now out of print in its english edition, a somewhat detailed account of its character may be of value to those who may be inclined to go to the effort to seek a copy at a public library or perhaps to purchase one through second-hand book stores. a popular account of their characters, occurrence and applications, with an introduction to their determination, for mineralogists, lapidaries, jewelers, etc., with an appendix on pearls and coral, by dr. max bauer, privy councillor, professor in the union of marburg. translated from the german by l. j. spencer, m.a. (cantab.), f.g.s., assistant in the mineral department of the british museum. with twenty plates and ninety-four figures in the text. london, chas. griffin & co., ltd.: phila., j. b. lippincott co., . the book is a large one, xv + pages, and is divided into three parts with an appendix on pearls and coral. part i. deals with the general characters of precious stones. . natural characters and occurrence. . applications of precious stones. . classification of precious stones. pages. part ii. systematic description of precious stones, diamond, corundum gems, spinel, etc. pages. part iii. determination and distinguishing of precious stones. pages. appendix, pages. pearls and coral. bauer is exhaustive in his descriptions of the more important precious stones and he also describes briefly very many little known and little used gem minerals. on forms of cutting he is old-fashioned. first pages given to explanation of characters used in identifying stones. good. on the process of cutting. pages - . good account. more practical than most books give. careful accounts of occurrence of precious stones with maps. character of the occurrence of diamond in india, brazil, and africa, quite in detail. the student who wishes to master the subject of gems cannot afford to neglect bauer. for those who read french, the latest, the most complete and thorough book on gems is jean escard's _les pierres précieuses_, h. dunod et e. pinat, paris, . it is a large and finely illustrated work. the author has really outdone bauer. the detail in regard to diamonds especially is very fine. even the use of diamonds in mechanical ways is very completely gone into and also details in regard to cutting diamonds are very completely given. it is to be hoped that an english translation will soon become available. another large and thoroughgoing work is gardner f. williams' _the diamond mines of south africa_, macmillan, n. y. dr. geo. f. kunz's _gems and precious stones of north america_, the sci. pub. co., n. y., , pages, colored plates (excellent ones too), many engravings, is a very complete account of all published finds of precious stones in the united states, canada, and mexico, giving a popular description of their value, history, archeology, and of the collections in which they exist, also a chapter on pearls and on remarkable foreign gems owned in the united states. many rare and little known semi-precious stones are described here. dr. kunz is also the author of several more recent gem books notably _the magic of jewels and charms_ and _the curious lore of precious stones_, lippincott, phila. among books on engraved gems is the old _hand book of gem engraving_ by c. w. king; bell & daldy, london, , and one by duffield osborne; henry holt & co., n. y. another book on this subject is _engraved gems_ by maxwell somerville; drexel biddle, phila. for those who wish still further references the following older works will prove interesting. _precious stones_, by w. r. cattelle; lippincott, phila. _precious stones_, by w. goodchild; d. van nostrand & co., n. y. julius wodiska, of new york, has also written an interesting work on precious stones, _a book of precious stones_, putnam's, . still older works are _precious stones and gems_ by edwin w. streeter; chapman & hall, london, . this is a book of pages with nine illustrations. it contains much of value and was unsurpassed in its day. its first-hand accounts of numerous important, even celebrated diamonds and other precious stones will always make it valuable to the student of gems. another book by the same author is _the great diamonds of the world_; geo. bell & sons, london, ; pages. not illustrated. its title adequately describes its contents. it is an excellent work. the author even traveled in india tracing the history of some of the famous diamonds that he describes. _diamonds and precious stones_, by louis dieulafait published in its english translation by scribner, armstrong & co., n. y., , is another old but interesting work. it has pages and engravings on wood. it gives a fine account of diamond cutting as practiced at that time. there is also an excellent history of the production of artificial precious stones to that date. _the natural history of precious stones and of the precious metals_ by c. w. king, m.a., bell & daldy, london, , is rich in references to classical literature. one or two interesting monographs on precious stones have been written and _the tourmaline_, by augustus c. hamlin is one of these. mr. hamlin became interested in gems because of his accidental discovery of some of the fine tourmalines of maine. his _leisure hours among the gems_ is also very readable. jas. r. osgood & co., boston, . it deals especially with diamond, emerald, opal, and sapphire. he gives a good account of american finds of diamond, and a long account of european regalia. the book is full of interesting comment and contains many references to older authors. _the tears of the heliades_ or _amber as a gem_, by w. arnold buffum, g. p. putnam's sons, n. y., , is as its name implies a monograph on amber. a good work on the history of precious stones and on historical-jewels is _gems and jewels_ by madame de barrera; richard bentley, london, . it deals also with the geography of gem sources. an interesting chapter on "great jewel robberies" is also included. of still greater age but of great interest is john mawe's old work, on diamonds and precious stones. in it the author discusses in a conversational style that is very attractive much of the gem lore of his day and shows a profound knowledge of his subject, a knowledge that was evidently first hand and practical, _a treatise on diamonds and precious stones_, by john mawe, london. nd edition. printed for and sold by the author. for readers of french, jean baptiste tavernier's _voyages_, in six volumes, will be vastly interesting. tavernier made six journeys to india and the east between and as a gem merchant during which time he purchased and brought back to europe many celebrated gems including the famous french blue diamond which he sold to louis xiv. and which was stolen at the robbery of the garde meuble during the french revolution. tavernier describes these famous stones and many others that he was privileged to inspect in the treasuries of the grand mogul. he also describes interestingly and at great length the curious manners and customs of the people of the east. _les six voyages de jean baptiste tavernier_, etc., nouvelle edition, rouen, . pliny's _natural history_, to go much further back, is full of references to gems, and gem students should run through it (it is to be had in english translation) for such interesting bits as that in which he describes the belief that quartz crystal results from the effect of very great cold upon ice, a belief which pliny himself is careful not to subscribe to. he contents himself with relating what others believe in this regard. both the hebrew scriptures and the new testament afford many references to gems with which the eager student of the subject should be familiar. "she is more precious than rubies" (referring to wisdom) is but one of these. in conclusion the author hopes that this little text may lead a few to pursue further this most fascinating theme and that the pursuit may bring much of pleasure as well as of profit. index absorption, adamantine luster, , agate, , , , alexandrite, almandite (_see_ garnet) altered stones, - , - amazonite, amethyst, , , , aquamarine, , azurite, , , , balances, care and use of, - beryl, , , bibliography, bloodstone, blue diamonds, blue-white diamonds, brazilian diamonds, brilliancy, brilliant cut stones, brilliant, theory of the, brittleness of gems, brown stones, bubbles in gems, bubbles in glass, bubbles in scientific stones, burmah rubies, cabochons, , , carbon, carborundum, , , carnelian, , , cat's-eye, - , , chalcedony, chrysoberyl, , , , , , chrysoberyl cat's-eye, , , , chrysolite, "cinnamon stone," citrine quartz, , , , cleaving of diamonds, cleaving of precious stones, color, cause of, in minerals, color of gems, - colorless stones, corundum gems, - , , , , , corundum gems, defects of, cultured pearls, - cutting of diamonds, cutting of precious stones, - demantoid garnet, , , , , , , density of minerals, diamonds, , , , , , - , - dichroism, - , dichroscope, the, - dispersion, - double refraction, doublets, , - emerald, - , , , emerald, wearing qualities of, epidote, extraordinary ray, fancy diamonds, , "fire," cause of, forms of precious stones, - garnet, , , , , , , - , - garnet, almandite, , , garnet, andradite, , , , , garnet, demantoid, , , , , , , garnet, pyrope, , , , glass, , glass imitations, , - "golcondas," "grain base," price of pearls per, hardness, - , - , hardness and wearing qualities, - hardness, mohs's scale of, - hardness, table of, hardness, test of, - , "heliodor," "hope blue" diamond, hyacinth, imitations of precious stones, - imitations of pearls, - imperfections, imperfections in corundum gems, imperfections in glass, imperfections in scientific stones, jacinth, jade, , , , jadeite, , jargoons, jasper, , kunzite, lapis lazuli, , , labradorite, luster, - "make" of diamonds, - "make" of precious stones, malachite, , , , metallic oxides, mineral species, - "mixed cut" stones, mohs's scale of hardness, - moonstone, , , , , , morganite, "nacre," naming precious stones, - , - nephrite, , occurrence of precious stones, - "olivine" (_see_ demantoid garnet) olivine, , onyx, opal, , , , ordinary ray, "orient" of pearls, "oriental" stones, , "paste" gems, , - pearls, - "peeling" pearls, peridot, , , , pink stones, "pinked" topaz, plasma, polishing of diamonds, polishing of precious stones, prase, , properties, definition of, purple stones, quartz, aventurine, quartz, citrine, , , , quartz gems, , , , , reflection, total, refraction, refraction, double, - refraction, double, test for, , refractometer, rhodolite garnet, "roman" pearls, rose cut stones, rose quartz, , rubellite, ruby, , , , , , ruby, scientific, - sapphires, , , , , sard, sardonyx, scientific stones, - scientific stones, defects in, scientific stones, tests for, - siam rubies, silicates, "silk" in rubies, slitting of precious stones, south african diamonds, specific gravity, - , sphene, , , spinels, , , , , , spodumene, , , star stones, , , "step cut" stones, structure of pearls, table, of hardness, table of refraction, - table of specific gravity, tariff laws, - test for double refraction, testing hardness, - , testing imitations of pearls, testing unknown gems, - tiger's-eye, , , topaz, , , , , , , toughness in stones, tourmaline, , , - , , , , "triplets," , turquoise, , , unit of weight, variscite, vitreous luster, wearing qualities of gems, zircon, , , , , , , , , diamonds a study of the factors that govern their value by frank b. wade "i shall speak a little more of the diamonds, that they who know them not may not be deceived by chapmen who go through the country selling them, for whoever will buy the diamond, it is needful that he know them, ..."--chap. xiv., _the voyages and travels of sir john maundeville_. _table of contents_ i.--colour. ii.--flaws. iii.--"make." iv.--repairing and recutting. v.--mounting. vi.--buying the engagement ring. * * * * * g. p. putnam's sons new york london a book of precious stones the identification of gems and gem minerals and an account of their scientific, commercial, artistic, and historical aspects by julius wodiska _ vo. with full-page illustrations and colored plates_ a description, in altogether a new fashion, of gems and gem minerals, their nature and history, comprehensible to every reader, and of prime value to students and to jewelers. the general reader will enjoy the simple descriptions of the origin, development, and treatment of the diamond, sapphire, and other precious stones, as well as of the beautiful semi-precious stones. just enough of the technical has been provided to make the new gem book a _vade mecum_ for students of gem minerals and for the army of jewelers in the united states, as well as their fellow-craftsmen and merchants in all english-speaking places. the art and industry of mounting gems is somewhat elaborately covered, especially as exemplified in the work of students at technical schools and the many unattached workers in jewelry designing and making who form a part of the arts and crafts movement. some of the quaint superstitions about gems in the chapter on folklore have a curious interest. the author takes cognizance of the public desire nowadays for the novel and uncommon in gems, and shows that prospectors, gem miners, mineralogists, and jewelers are co-operating to greatly lengthen the lists of popular semi-precious stones. a chapter is devoted to collections of gems in museums. * * * * * g. p. putnam's sons new york london * * * * * transcriber's note: inconsistent hyphenation and spellings have been standardised, although consistent variants remain as printed. minor typographical errors have been corrected without note, whilst significant changes are listed below. p. , 'indentity' amended to _identity_: '... of unknown identity comes along ...'; p. , 'dischroism' amended to _dichroism_: '... but shows hardly any dichroism.'; p. , 'quart' amended to _quartz_: '... (quartz topaz) ...'; p. , 'saphire d'eau' amended to _saphir d'eau_; pp. , , 'berylium' amended to _beryllium_; pp. , , 'varicite' amended to _variscite_; p. , 'csar' amended to _czar_: '... czar alexander ii., in whose ...'; p. , 'rubelite' amended to _rubellite_: '... sometimes called "_rubellite_," and white ...'; p. , 'minas garaes' amended to _minas geraes_; p. , 'khorassan' amended to _khorasan_: '... province of khorasan in persia ...'; p. , 'caboch' amended to _caboche_; p. , 'uniomargarifer' amended to _unio margaritifera_; p. , 'mechandise' amended to _merchandise_: '... tax on imported merchandise ...'; p. , 'emanual' amended to _emanuel_: '... _diamonds and precious stones_, by harry emanuel ...'; p. , 'hatten' amended to _hotten_: '... john camden hotten ...'; p. , 'streetor' amended to _streeter_: '_precious stones and gems_ by edwin w. streeter ...'; p. , 'epidot' amended to _epidote_. * * * * * a study of the textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament by william h. holmes. sixth annual report of the bureau of ethnology to the secretary of the smithsonian institution, -' , government printing office, washington, , pages - * * * * * contents. page introduction. form in textile art. relations of form to ornament. color in textile art. textile ornament. development of a geometric system within the art. introduction. relief phenomena. ordinary features. reticulated work. superconstructive features. color phenomena. ordinary features. non-essential constructive features. superconstructive features. adventitious features. geometricity imposed upon adopted elements. extension of textile ornament to other forms of art. illustrations. fig. page. . mat or tray with esthetic attributes of form . tray having decided esthetic attributes of form . pyriform water vessel . basket with esthetic characters of form . basket of eccentric form . character of surface in the simplest form of weaving . surface produced by impacting . surface produced by use of wide fillets . basket with ribbed surface . bottle showing obliquely ribbed surface . tray showing radial ribs . combination giving herring bone effect . combination giving triangular figures . peruvian work basket . basket of seminole workmanship . surface effect produced in open twined combination . surface effect produced in open twined combination . surface effect produced by impacting in twined combination . surface effect produced by impacting the web strands in twined combination . surface effect produced by crossing the web series in open twined work . tray with open mesh, twined combination . conical basket, twined combination . example of primitive reticulated weaving . simple form of reticulation . reticulated pattern in cotton cloth . peruvian embroidery . basket with pendent ornaments . basket with pendent ornaments . tasseled peruvian mantle . pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors . pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors . pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors . pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors . base of coiled basket . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled basket with geometric ornament . coiled tray with geometric ornament . coiled tray with geometric ornament . tray with geometric ornament . tray with geometric ornament . ornament produced by wrapping the strands . ornament produced by fixing strands to the surface of the fabric . basket with feather ornamentation . basket with feather ornamentation . piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof . piece of cloth showing use of supplementary warp and woof . example of grass embroidery . example of feather embroidery . figures from the penn wampum belt . figures from a california indian basket . california indian basket . figures from a peruvian basket . figure from a piece of peruvian gobelins . figures from a peruvian vase . figure from a circular basket . figure of a bird from a zuñi shield . figure of a bird woven in a tray . figure of a bird woven in a basket . figures embroidered on a cotton net by the ancient peruvians . figures of birds embroidered by the ancient peruvians . conventional design painted upon cotton cloth . herring bone and checker patterns produced in weaving . herring bone and checker patterns engraved in clay . earthen vase with textile ornament . example of textile ornament painted upon pottery . textile pattern transferred to pottery through costume . ceremonial adz with carved ornament of textile character . figures upon a tapa stamp . design in stucco exhibiting textile characters textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament. by william h. holmes. introduction. the textile art is one of the most ancient known, dating back to the very inception of culture. in primitive times it occupied a wide field, embracing the stems of numerous branches of industry now expressed in other materials or relegated to distinct systems of construction. accompanying the gradual narrowing of its sphere there was a steady development with the general increase of intelligence and skill so that with the cultured nations of to-day it takes an important, though unobtrusive, place in the hierarchy of the arts. woven fabrics include all those products of art in which the elements or parts employed in construction are largely filamental and are combined by methods conditioned chiefly by their flexibility. the processes employed are known by such terms as interlacing, plaiting, netting, weaving, sewing, and embroidering. the materials used at first are chiefly filiform vegetal growths, such as twigs, leaves, roots, and grasses, but later on filiform and then fibrous elements from all the kingdoms of nature, as well as numerous artificial preparations, are freely used. these are employed in the single, doubled, doubled and twisted, and plaited conditions, and are combined by the hands alone, by the hands assisted by simple devices, by hand looms, and finally in civilization by machine looms. the products are, first, individual structures or articles, such as shelters, baskets, nets, and garments, or integral parts of these; and, second, "piece" goods, such as are not adapted to use until they are cut and fitted. in earlier stages of art we have to deal almost exclusively with the former class, as the tailor and the house furnisher are evolved with civilization. in their bearing upon art these products are to be studied chiefly with reference to three grand divisions of phenomena, the first of which i shall denominate _constructive_, the second _functional_, and the third _esthetic_. the last class, with which this paper has almost exclusively to deal, is composed mainly of what may be called the superconstructive and superfunctional features of the art and includes three subdivisions of phenomena, connected respectively with ( ) form, ( ) color, and ( ) design. esthetic features of form are, in origin and manifestation, related to both function and construction; color and design, to construction mainly. in the following study separate sections are given to each of these topics. it is fortunate perhaps that in this work i am restricted to the products of rather primitive stages of culture, as i have thus to deal with a limited number of uses, simple processes, and simple shapes. in the advanced stages of art we encounter complex phenomena, processes, and conditions, the accumulation of ages, through which no broad light can fall upon the field of vision. in america there is a vast body of primitive, indigenous art having no parallel in the world. uncontaminated by contact with the complex conditions of civilized art, it offers the best possible facilities for the study of the fundamental principles of esthetic development. the laws of evolution correspond closely in all art, and, if once rightly interpreted in the incipient stage of a single, homogeneous culture, are traceable with comparative ease through all the succeeding stages of civilization. form in textile art. form in the textile art, as in all other useful arts, is fundamentally, although not exclusively, the resultant or expression of function, but at the same time it is further than in other shaping arts from expressing the whole of function. such is the pliability of a large portion of textile products--as, for example, nets, garments, and hangings--that the shapes assumed are variable, and, therefore, when not distended or for some purpose folded or draped, the articles are without esthetic value or interest. the more rigid objects, in common with the individuals of other useful arts, while their shape still accords with their functional office, exhibit attributes of form generally recognized as pleasing to the mind, which are expressed by the terms grace, elegance, symmetry, and the like. such attributes are not separable from functional attributes, but originate and exist conjointly with them. in addition to these features of form we observe others of a more decidedly superfunctional character, added manifestly for the purpose of enhancing the appearance. in very primitive times when a utensil is produced functional ideas predominate, and there is, perhaps, so far as its artificial characters are concerned, a minimum of comeliness. but as the ages pass by essential features are refined and elements of beauty are added and emphasized. in riper culture the growing pressure of esthetic desire leads to the addition of many superficial modifications whose chief office is to please the fancy. in periods of deadened sensibility or even through the incompetence of individual artists in any period, such features may be ill chosen and erroneously applied, interfering with construction and use, and thus violating well founded and generally accepted canons of taste. in respect to primitive works we may distinguish four steps in the acquisition of esthetic features of form, three of which are normal, the fourth abnormal: first, we have that in which functional characters alone are considered, any element of beauty, whether due to the artist's hand or to the accidents of material, construction, or model, being purely adventitious; second, that in which the necessary features of the utensil appear to have experienced the supervision of taste, edges being rounded, curves refined, and symmetry perfected; third, that in which the functionally perfect object, just described, undergoes further variations of contour, adding to variety, unity, &c., thus enhancing beauty without interfering with serviceability; and, fourth, that in which, under abnormal influences, beauty is sought at the sacrifice of functional and constructive perfection. [illustration: fig. . mat or tray exhibiting a minimum of esthetic attributes of form. moki work-- / .] the exact relations of the various classes of forces and phenomena pertaining to this theme may be more fully elucidated by the aid of illustrations. woven mats, in early use by many tribes of men and originating in the attempt to combine leaves, vines, and branches for purposes of comfort, are flat because of function, the degree of flatness depending upon the size of filaments and mode of combination; and in outline they are irregular, square, round, or oval, as a result of many causes and influences, embracing use, construction, material, models, &c. a close approach to symmetry, where not imposed by some of the above mentioned agencies, is probably due to esthetic tendencies on the part of the artist. the esthetic interest attaching to such a shape cannot be great, unless perhaps it be regarded, as all individuals and classes may be regarded, in its possible relations to preceding, associated, and succeeding forms of art. the varied features observed upon the surface, the colors and patterns (fig. ), pertain to design rather than to form and will receive attention in the proper place. [illustration: fig. . tray having decided esthetic attributes of form. obtained from the apache-- / .] in point of contour the basket tray shown in fig. has a somewhat more decided claim upon esthetic attention than the preceding, as the curves exhibited mark a step of progress in complexity and grace. how much of this is due to intention and how much to technical perfection must remain in doubt. in work so perfect we are wont, however unwarrantably, to recognize the influence of taste. [illustration: fig. . pyriform water vessel used by the piute indians-- / .] a third example--presented in fig. --illustrates an advanced stage in the art of basketry and exhibits a highly specialized shape. the forces and influences concerned in its evolution may be analyzed as follows: a primal origin in function and a final adaptation to a special function, the carrying and storing of water; a contour full to give capacity, narrow above for safety, and pointed below that it may be set in sand; curves kept within certain bounds by the limitations of construction; and a goodly share of variety, symmetry, and grace, the result to a certain undetermined extent of the esthetic tendencies of the artist's mind. in regard to the last point there is generally in forms so simple an element of uncertainty; but many examples may be found in which there is positive evidence of the existence of a strong desire on the part of the primitive basketmaker to enhance beauty of form. it will be observed that the textile materials and construction do not lend themselves freely to minuteness in detail or to complexity of outline, especially in those small ways in which beauty is most readily expressed. modifications of a decidedly esthetic character are generally suggested to the primitive mind by some functional, constructive, or accidental feature which may with ease be turned in the new direction. in the vessel presented in fig. --the work of alaskan indians--the margin is varied by altering the relations of the three marginal turns of the coil, producing a scalloped effect. this is without reference to use, is uncalled for in construction, and hence is, in all probability, the direct result of esthetic tendencies. other and much more elaborate examples may be found in the basketry of almost all countries. [illustration: fig. . vessel with esthetic characters of form. work of the yakama-- / .] in the pursuit of this class of enrichment there is occasionally noticeable a tendency to overload the subject with extraneous details. this is not apt to occur, however, in the indigenous practice of an art, but comes more frequently from a loss of equilibrium or balance in motives or desires, caused by untoward exotic influence. when, through suggestions derived from contact with civilized art, the savage undertakes to secure all the grace and complexity observed in the works of more cultured peoples, he does so at the expense of construction and adaptability to use. an example of such work is presented in fig. , a weak, useless, and wholly vicious piece of basketry. other equally meretricious pieces represent goblets, bottles, and tea pots. they are the work of the indians of the northwest coast and are executed in the neatest possible manner, bearing evidence of the existence of cultivated taste. [illustration: fig. . basket made under foreign influence, construction and use being sacrificed to fancied beauty-- / .] it appears from the preceding analyses that _form_ in this art is not sufficiently sensitive to receive impressions readily from the delicate touch of esthetic fingers; besides, there are peculiar difficulties in the way of detecting traces of the presence and supervision of taste. the inherent morphologic forces of the art are strong and stubborn and tend to produce the precise classes of results that we, at this stage of culture, are inclined to attribute to esthetic influence. if, in the making of a vessel, the demands of use are fully satisfied, if construction is perfect of its kind, if materials are uniformly suitable, and if models are not absolutely bad, it follows that the result must necessarily possess in a high degree those very attributes that all agree are pleasing to the eye. in a primitive water vessel function gives a full outline, as capacity is a prime consideration; convenience of use calls for a narrow neck and a conical base; construction and materials unite to impose certain limitations to curves and their combinations, from which the artist cannot readily free himself. models furnished by nature, as they are usually graceful, do not interfere with the preceding agencies, and all these forces united tend to give symmetry, grace, and the unity that belongs to simplicity. taste which is in a formative state can but fall in with these tendencies of the art, and must be led by them, and led in a measure corresponding to their persistency and universality. if the textile art had been the only one known to man, ideas of the esthetic in shape would have been in a great measure formed through that art. natural forms would have had little to do with it except through models furnished directly to and utilized by the art, for the ideas of primitive men concentrate about that upon which their hands work and upon which their thoughts from necessity dwell with steady attention from generation to generation. relations of form to ornament. it would seem that the esthetic tendencies of the mind, failing to find satisfactory expression in shape, seized upon the non-essential features of the art--markings of the surface and color of filaments--creating a new field in which to labor and expending their energy upon ornament. shape has some direct relations to ornament, and these relations may be classified as follows: first, the contour of the vessel controls its ornament to a large extent, dictating the positions of design and setting its limits; figures are in stripes, zones, rays, circles, ovals, or rectangles--according, in no slight measure, to the character of the spaces afforded by details of contour. secondly, it affects ornament through the reproduction and repetition of features of form, such as handles, for ornamental purposes. thirdly, it is probable that shape influences embellishment through the peculiar bias given by it to the taste and judgment of men prior to or independent of the employment of ornament. color in textile art. color is one of the most constant factors in man's environment, and it is so strongly and persistently forced upon his attention, so useful as a means of identification and distinction, that it necessarily receives a large share of consideration. it is probably one of the foremost objective agencies in the formation and development of the esthetic sense. the natural colors of textile materials are enormously varied and form one of the chief attractions of the products of the art. the great interest taken in color--the great importance attached to it--is attested by the very general use of dyes, by means of which additional variety and brilliancy of effect are secured. color employed in the art is not related to use, excepting, perhaps, in symbolic and superstitious matters; nor is it of consequence in construction, although it derives importance from the manner in which construction causes it to be manifested to the eye. it finds its chief use in the field of design, in making evident to the eye the figures with which objects of art are embellished. color is employed or applied in two distinct ways: it is woven or worked into the fabric by using colored filaments or parts, or it is added to the surface of the completed object by means of pencils, brushes, and dies. its employment in the latter manner is especially convenient when complex ideographic or pictorial subjects are to be executed. textile ornament. development of a geometric system of design within the art. introduction. having made a brief study of form and color in the textile art, i shall now present the great group or family of phenomena whose exclusive office is that of enhancing beauty. it will be necessary, however, to present, besides those features of the art properly expressive of the esthetic culture of the race, all those phenomena that, being present in the art without man's volition, tend to suggest decorative conceptions and give shape to them. i shall show how the latter class of features arise as a necessity of the art, how they gradually come into notice and are seized upon by the esthetic faculty, and how under its guidance they assist in the development of a system of ornament of world wide application. for convenience of treatment esthetic phenomena may be classed as _relieved_ and _flat_. figures or patterns of a relievo nature arise during construction as a result of the intersections and other more complex relations--the bindings--of the warp and woof or of inserted or applied elements. flat or surface features are manifested in color, either in unison with or independent of the relieved details. such is the nature of the textile art that in its ordinary practice certain combinations of both classes of features go on as a necessity of the art and wholly without reference to the desire of the artist or to the effect of resultant patterns upon the eye. the character of such figures depends upon the kind of construction and upon the accidental association of natural colors in construction. at some period of the practice of the art these peculiar, adventitious surface characters began to attract attention and to be cherished for the pleasure they gave; what were at first adventitious features now took on functions peculiar to themselves, for they were found to gratify desires distinct from those cravings that arise directly from physical wants. it is not to be supposed for a moment that the inception of esthetic notions dates from this association of ideas of beauty with textile characters. long before textile objects of a high class were made, ideas of an esthetic nature had been entertained by the mind, as, for example, in connection with personal adornment. the skin had been painted, pendants placed about the neck, and bright feathers set in the hair to enhance attractiveness, and it is not difficult to conceive of the transfer of such ideas from purely personal associations to the embellishment of articles intimately associated with the person. no matter, however, what the period or manner of the association of such ideas with the textile art, that association may be taken as the datum point in the development of a great system of decoration whose distinguishing characters are the result of the geometric textile construction. in amplifying this subject i find it convenient to treat separately the two classes of decorative phenomena--the relieved and the flat--notwithstanding the fact that they are for the most part intimately associated and act together in the accomplishment of a common end. relief phenomena. _ordinary features._--the relieved surface characters of fabrics resulting from construction and available for decoration are more or less distinctly perceptible to the eye and to the touch and are susceptible of unlimited variation in detail and arrangement. such features are familiar to all in the strongly marked ridges of basketry, and much more pleasingly so in the delicate figures of damasks, embroideries, and laces. so long as the figures produced are confined exclusively to the necessary features of unembellished construction, as is the case in very primitive work and in all plain work, the resultant patterns are wholly geometric and by endless repetition of like parts extremely monotonous. in right angled weaving the figures combine in straight lines, which run parallel or cross at uniform distances and angles. in radiate weaving, as in basketry, the radial lines are crossed in an equally formal manner by concentric lines. in other classes of combination there is an almost equal degree of geometricity. when, however, with the growth of intelligence and skill it is found that greater variety of effect can be secured by modifying the essential combinations of parts, and that, too, without interfering with constructive perfection or with use, a new and wide field is opened for the developmental tendencies of textile decoration. moreover, in addition to the facilities afforded by the necessary elements of construction, there are many extraneous resources of which the textile decorator may freely avail himself. the character of these is such that the results, however varied, harmonize thoroughly with indigenous textile forms. to make these points quite clear it will be necessary to analyze somewhat closely the character and scope of textile combination and of the resultant and associated phenomena. we may distinguish two broad classes of constructive phenomena made use of in the expression of relieved enrichment. as indicated above, these are, first, essential or actual constructive features and, second, extra or superconstructive features. first, it is found that in the practice of primitive textile art a variety of methods of combination or bindings of the parts have been evolved and utilized, and we observe that each of these--no matter what the material or what the size and character of the filamental elements--gives rise to distinct classes of surface effects. thus it appears that peoples who happen to discover and use like combinations produce kindred decorative results, while those employing unlike constructions achieve distinct classes of surface embellishment. these constructive peculiarities have a pretty decided effect upon the style of ornament, relieved or colored, and must be carefully considered in the treatment of design; but it is found that each type of combination has a greatly varied capacity of expression, tending to obliterate sharp lines of demarkation between the groups of results. it sometimes even happens that in distinct types of weaving almost identical surface effects are produced. it will not be necessary in this connection to present a full series of the fundamental bindings or orders of combination, as a few will suffice to illustrate the principles involved and to make clear the bearing of this class of phenomena upon decoration. i choose, first, a number of examples from the simplest type of weaving, that in which the web and the woof are merely interlaced, the filaments crossing at right angles or nearly so. in fig. we have the result exhibited in a plain open or reticulated fabric constructed from ordinary untwisted fillets, such as are employed in our splint and cane products. fig. illustrates the surface produced by crowding the horizontal series of the same fabric close together, so that the vertical series is entirely hidden. the surface here exhibits a succession of vertical ribs, an effect totally distinct from that seen in the preceding example. the third variety (fig. ) differs but slightly from the first. the fillets are wider and are set close together without crowding, giving the surface a checkered appearance. [illustration: fig. . surface relief in simplest form of intersection.] [illustration: fig. . surface relief produced by horizontal series crowded together.] [illustration: fig. . surface relief produced by wide fillets set close together.] the second variety of surface effect is that most frequently seen in the basketry of our western tribes, as it results from the great degree of compactness necessary in vessels intended to contain liquids, semiliquid foods, or pulverized substances. the general surface effect given by closely woven work is illustrated in fig. , which represents a large wicker carrying basket obtained from the moki indians. in this instance the ridges, due to a heavy series of radiating warp filaments, are seen in a vertical position. [illustration: fig. . basket showing ribbed surface produced by impacting the horizontal or concentric filaments. moki work-- / .] [illustration: fig. . alternation of intersection, producing oblique or spiral ribs. piute work-- / .] [illustration: fig. . radiating ribs as seen in flat work viewed from above. moki work-- / .] it will be observed, however, that the ridges do not necessarily take the direction of the warp filaments, for, with a different alternation of the horizontal series--the woof--we get oblique ridges, as shown in the partly finished bottle illustrated in fig. . they are, however, not so pronounced as in the preceding case. the peculiar effect of radiate and concentric weaving upon the ribs is well shown in fig. . by changes in the order of intersection, without changing the type of combination, we reach a series of results quite unlike the preceding; so distinct, indeed, that, abstracted from constructive relationships, there would be little suggestion of correlation. in the example given in fig. the series of filaments interlace, not by passing over and under alternate strands, as in the preceding set of examples, but by extending over and under a number of the opposing series at each step and in such order as to give wide horizontal ridges ribbed diagonally. [illustration: fig. . diagonal combination, giving herring bone effect.] [illustration: fig. . elaboration of diagonal combination, giving triangular figures.] this example is from an ancient work basket obtained at ancon, peru, and shown in fig. . the surface features are in strong relief, giving a pronounced herring bone effect. [illustration: fig. . peruvian work basket of reeds, with strongly relieved ridges.] slight changes in the succession of parts enable the workman to produce a great variety of decorative patterns, an example of which is shown in fig. . a good illustration is also seen in fig. , and another piece, said to be of seminole workmanship, is given in fig. . these and similar relieved results are fruitful sources of primitive decorative motives. they are employed not only within the art itself, but in many other arts less liberally supplied with suggestions of embellishment. [illustration: fig. . effects produced by varying the order of intersection. seminole work-- / .] taking a second type of combination, we have a family of resultant patterns in the main distinguishable from the preceding. [illustration: fig. . surface effect in open twined combination.] [illustration: fig. . surface effect of twined, lattice combination in basketry of the clallam indians of washington territory-- / .] fig. illustrates the simplest form of what dr. o.t. mason has called the twined combination, a favorite one with many of our native tribes. the strands of the woof series are arranged in twos and in weaving are twisted half around at each intersection, inclosing the opposing fillets. the resulting open work has much the appearance of ordinary netting, and when of pliable materials and distended or strained over an earthen or gourd vessel the pattern exhibited is strikingly suggestive of decoration. the result of this combination upon a lattice foundation of rigid materials is well shown in the large basket presented in fig. . other variants of this type are given in the three succeeding figures. [illustration: fig. . surface effect in impacted work of twined combination.] the result seen in fig. is obtained by impacting the horizontal or twined series of threads. the surface is nearly identical with that of the closely impacted example of the preceding type (fig. ). the peculiarities are more marked when colors are used. when the doubled and twisted series of strands are placed far apart and the opposing series are laid side by side a pleasing result is given, as shown in fig. and in the body of the conical basket illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . surface effect obtained by placing the warp strands close together and the woof cables far apart.] [illustration: fig. . surface effect obtained by crossing the warp series in open twined work.] in fig. we have a peculiar diagonally crossed arrangement of the untwisted series of filaments, giving a lattice work effect. [illustration: fig. . decorative effects produced by variations in the radiate or warp series in an open work tray. klamath work-- / .] fig. serves to show how readily this style of weaving lends itself to the production of decorative modification, especially in the direction of the concentric zonal arrangement so universal in vessel-making arts. the examples given serve to indicate the unlimited decorative resources possessed by the art without employing any but legitimate constructive elements, and it will be seen that still wider results can be obtained by combining two or more varieties or styles of binding in the construction and the embellishment of a single object or in the same piece of fabric. a good, though very simple, illustration of this is shown in the tray or mat presented in fig. . in this case a border, varying from the center portion in appearance, is obtained by changing one series of the filaments from a multiple to a single arrangement. [illustration: fig. . conical basket of the klamath indians of oregon, showing peculiar twined effect and an open work border-- / .] the conical basket shown in fig. serves to illustrate the same point. in this case a rudely worked, though effective, border is secured by changing the angle of the upright series near the top and combining them by plaiting, and in such a way as to leave a border of open work. now the two types of construction, the interlaced and the twined, some primitive phases of which have been reviewed and illustrated, as they are carried forward in the technical progress of the art, exhibit many new features of combination and resultant surface character, but the elaboration is in all cases along lines peculiar to these types of weaving. other types of combination of web and woof, all tapestry, and all braiding, netting, knitting, crochet, and needle work exhibit characters peculiar to themselves, developing distinct groups of relieved results; yet all are analogous in principle to those already illustrated and unite in carrying forward the same great geometric system of combination. _reticulated work._--a few paragraphs may be added here in regard to reticulated fabrics of all classes of combination, as they exhibit more than usually interesting relievo phenomena and have a decided bearing upon the growth of ornament. in all the primitive weaving with which we are acquainted definite reticulated patterns are produced by variations in the spacings and other relations of the warp and woof; and the same is true in all the higher forms of the art. the production of reticulated work is the especial function of netting, knitting, crocheting, and certain varieties of needlework, and a great diversity of relieved results are produced, no figure being too complex and no form too pronounced to be undertaken by ambitious workmen. in the following figures we have illustrations of the peculiar class of primitive experiments that, after the lapse of ages, lead up to marvelous results, the highest of which may be found in the exquisite laces of cultured peoples. the americans had only taken the first steps in this peculiar art, but the results are on this account of especial interest in the history of the art. an example of simple reticulated hand weaving is shown in fig. . it is the work of the mound builders and is taken from an impression upon an ancient piece of pottery obtained in tennessee. [illustration: fig. . incipient stage of reticulated ornament. fabric of the mound builders.] fig. illustrates a bit of ancient peruvian work executed on a frame or in a rude loom, a checker pattern being produced by arranging the warp and woof now close together and now wide apart. open work of this class is sometimes completed by after processes, certain threads or filaments being drawn out or introduced, by which means the figures are emphasized and varied. in fig. we have a second peruvian example in which the woof threads have been omitted for the space of an inch, and across this interval the loose warp has been plaited and drawn together, producing a lattice-like band. [illustration: fig. . simple form of ornamental reticulation. ancient peruvian work.] [illustration: fig. . reticulated pattern in cotton cloth. work of the ancient peruvians.] in a similar way four other bands of narrow open work are introduced, two above and two below the wide band. these are produced by leaving the warp threads free for a short space and drawing alternate pairs across each other and fixing them so by means of a woof thread, as shown in the cut. examples of netting in which decorative features have been worked are found among the textile products of many american tribes and occur as well in several groups of ancient fabrics, but in most cases where designs of importance or complexity are desired parts are introduced to facilitate the work. _superconstructive features._--these features, so important in the decoration of fabrics, are the result of devices by which a construction already capable of fulfilling the duties imposed by function has added to it parts intended to enhance beauty and which may or may not be of advantage to the fabric. they constitute one of the most widely used and effective resources of the textile decorator, and are added by sewing or stitching, inserting, drawing, cutting, applying, appending, &c. they add enormously to the capacity for producing relievo effects and make it possible even to render natural forms in the round. notwithstanding this fact--the most important section of this class of features--embroidery is treated to better advantage under color phenomena, as color is very generally associated with the designs. [illustration: fig. . open work design embroidered upon a net-like fabric. from a grave at ancon, peru.] one example of lace-like embroidery may be given in this place. it is probably among the best examples of monochrome embroidery america has produced. in design and in method of realization it is identical with the rich, colored embroideries of the ancient peruvians, being worked upon a net foundation, as shown in fig. . the broad band of figures employs bird forms in connection with running geometric designs, and still more highly conventional bird forms are seen in the narrow band. appended ornaments are not amenable to the geometric laws of fabrication to the extent observed in other classes of ornament. they are, however, attached in ways consistent with the textile system, and are counted and spaced with great care, producing designs of a more or less pronounced geometric character. the work is a kind of embroidery, the parts employed being of the nature of pendants. these include numberless articles derived from nature and art. it will suffice to present a few examples already at hand. [illustration: fig. . basket with pendent buckskin strands tipped with bits of tin. apache indians-- / .] fig. illustrates a large, well made basket, the work of the apache indians. it serves to indicate the method of employing tassels and clustered pendants, which in this case consist of buckskin strings tipped with conical bits of tin. the checker pattern is in color. [illustration: fig. . basket with pendants of beads and bits of shell, work of the northwest coast indians.-- / .] fig. illustrates the use of other varieties of pendants. a feather decked basket made by the northwest coast indians is embellished with pendent ornaments consisting of strings of beads tipped with bits of bright shell. the importance of this class of work in higher forms of textiles may be illustrated by an example from peru. it is probable that american art has produced few examples of tasseled work more wonderful than that of which a fragment is shown in fig. . it is a fringed mantle, three feet in length and nearly the same in depth, obtained from an ancient tomb. the body is made up of separately woven bands, upon which disk-like and semilunar figures representing human faces are stitched, covering the surface in horizontal rows. to the center of these rosette-like parts clusters of tassels of varying sizes are attached. the fringe, which is twenty inches deep, is composed entirely of long strings of tassels, the larger tassels supporting clusters of smaller ones. there are upwards of three thousand tassels, the round heads of which are in many cases woven in colors, ridges, and nodes to represent the human features. the general color of the garment, which is of fine, silky wool, is a rich crimson. the illustration can convey only a hint of the complexity and beauty of the original. [illustration: fig. . tassel ornamentation from an ancient peruvian mantle.] we have now seen how varied and how striking are the surface characters of fabrics as expressed by the third dimension, by variation from a flat, featureless surface, and how all, essential and ornamental, are governed by the laws of geometric combination. we shall now see how these are related to color phenomena. color phenomena. _ordinary features._--in describing the constructive characters of fabrics and the attendant surface phenomena, i called attention to the fact that a greater part of the design manifested is enforced and supplemented by color, which gives new meaning to every feature. color elements are present in the art from its very inception, and many simple patterns appear as accidents of textile aggregation long before the weaver or the possessor recognizes them as pleasing to the eye. when, finally, they are so recognized and a desire for greater elaboration springs up, the textile construction lends itself readily to the new office and under the esthetic forces brings about wonderful results without interfering in the least with the technical perfection of the articles embellished. but color is not confined to the mere emphasizing of figures already expressed in relief. it is capable of advancing alone into new fields, producing patterns and designs complex in arrangement and varied in hue, and that, too, without altering the simple, monotonous succession of relievo characters. in color, as in relieved design, each species of constructive combination gives rise to more or less distinct groups of decorative results, which often become the distinguishing characteristics of the work of different peoples and the progenitors of long lines of distinctions in national decorative conceptions. in addition to this apparently limitless capacity for expression, lovers of textile illumination have the whole series of extraordinary resources furnished by expedients not essential to ordinary construction, the character and scope of which have been dwelt upon to some extent in the preceding section. i have already spoken of color in a general way, as to its necessary presence in art, its artificial application to fabrics and fabric materials, its symbolic characters, and its importance to esthetic progress. my object in this section is to indicate the part it takes in textile design, its methods of expression, the processes by which it advances in elaboration, and the part it takes in all geometric decoration. it will be necessary, in the first place, to examine briefly the normal tendencies of color combination while still under the direct domination of constructive elaboration. in the way of illustration, let us take first a series of filaments, say in the natural color of the material, and pass through them in the simplest interlaced style a second series having a distinct color. a very simple geometric pattern is produced, as shown in fig. . it is a sort of checker, an emphasized presentation of the relievo pattern shown in fig. , the figures running horizontally, vertically, and diagonally. had these filaments been accidentally associated in construction, the results might have been the same, but it is unnecessary to indicate in detail the possibilities of adventitious color combinations. so far as they exhibit system at all it is identical with the relievo elaboration. [illustration: fig. . pattern produced by interlacing strands of different colors.] [illustration: fig. . pattern produced by modifying the alternation of fillets.] [illustration: fig. . isolated figures produced by modifying the order of intersection.] assuming that the idea of developing these figures into something more elaborate and striking is already conceived, let us study the processes and tendencies of growth. a very slight degree of ingenuity will enable the workman to vary the relation of the parts, producing a succession of results such, perhaps, as indicated in fig. . in this example we have rows of isolated squares in white which may be turned hither and thither at pleasure, within certain angles, but they result in nothing more than monotonous successions of squares. [illustration: fig. . pattern produced by simple alternations of light and dark fillets. basketry of the indians of british guiana.] additional facility of expression is obtained by employing dark strands in the vertical series also, and large, isolated areas of solid color may be produced by changing the order of intersection, certain of the fillets being carried over two or more of the opposing series and in contiguous spaces at one step, as seen in fig. . with these elementary resources the weaver has very considerable powers of expression, as will be seen in fig. , which is taken from a basket made by south american indians, and in fig. , where human figures are delineated. the patterns in such cases are all rigidly geometric and exhibit stepped outlines of a pronounced kind. with impacting and increased refinement of fillets the stepped character is in a considerable measure lost sight of and realistic, graphic representation is to a greater extent within the workman's reach. it is probable, however, that the idea of weaving complex ideographic characters would not occur to the primitive mind at a very early date, and a long period of progress would elapse before delineative subjects would be attempted. i do not need to follow this style of combination into the more refined kinds of work and into loom products, but may add that through all, until perverted by ulterior influences, the characteristic geometricity and monotonous repetition are allpervading. * * * * * for the purpose of looking still more closely into the tendencies of normal textile decorative development i shall present a series of indian baskets, choosing mainly from the closely woven or impacted varieties because they are so well represented in our collections and at the same time are so very generally embellished with designs in color; besides, they are probably among the most simple and primitive textile products known. i have already shown that several types of combination when closely impacted produce very similar surface characters and encourage the same general style of decoration. in nearly all, the color features are confined to one series of fillets--those of the woof--the other, the warp, being completely hidden from view. in the preceding series the warp and woof were almost equally concerned in the expression of design. here but one is used, and in consequence there is much freedom of expression, as the artist carries the colored filaments back and forth or inserts new ones at will. still it will be seen that in doing this he is by no means free; he must follow the straight and narrow pathway laid down by the warp and woof, and, do what he may, he arrives at purely geometric results. [illustration: fig. . base of coiled basket showing the method of building by dual coiling. the base or warp coil is composed of untwisted fiber and is formed by adding to the free end as the coiling goes on. the woof or binding filament, as it is coiled, is caught into the upper surface of the preceding turn-- / .] [illustration: fig. . coiled basket with simple geometric ornament. work of the northwest coast indians-- / .] i will now present the examples, which for the sake of uniformity are in all cases of the coiled ware. if a basket is made with no other idea than that of use the surface is apt to be pretty uniform in color, the natural color of the woof fillets. if decoration is desired a colored fillet is introduced, which, for the time, takes the place and does the duty of the ordinary strand. fig. serves to show the construction and surface appearance of the base of a coil made vessel still quite free from any color decoration. now, if it is desired to begin a design, the plain wrapping thread is dropped and a colored fillet is inserted and the coiling continues. carried once around the vessel we have an encircling line of dark color corresponding to the lower line of the ornament seen in fig. . if the artist is content with a single line of color he sets the end of the dark thread and takes up the light colored one previously dropped and continues the coiling. if further elaboration is desired it is easily accomplished. in the example given the workman has taken up the dark fillet again and carried it a few times around the next turn of the warp coil; then it has been dropped and the white thread taken up, and again, in turn, another dark thread has been introduced and coiled for a few turns, and so on until four encircling rows of dark, alternating rectangles have been produced. desiring to introduce a meandered design he has taken the upper series of rectangles as bases and adding colored filaments at the proper time has carried oblique lines, one to the right and the other to the left, across the six succeeding ridges of the warp coil. the pairs of stepped lines meeting above were joined in rectangles like those below, and the decoration was closed by a border line at the top. the vessel was then completed in the light colored material. in this ornament all forms are bounded by two classes of lines, vertical and horizontal (or, viewed from above or below, radial and encircling), the lines of the warp and the woof. oblique bands of color are made up of series of rectangles, giving stepped outlines. although these figures are purely geometric, it is not impossible that in their position and grouping they preserve a trace of some imitative conception modified to this shape by the forces of the art. they serve quite as well, however, to illustrate simple mechanical elaboration as if entirely free from suspicion of associated ideas. [illustration: fig. . coiled basket with encircling bands of ornament in white, red, and black, upon a yellowish ground. obtained from the indians of the tule river, california-- / .] in fig. i present a superb piece of work executed by the indians of the tule river, california. it is woven in the closely impacted, coiled style. the ornament is arranged in horizontal zones and consists of a series of diamond shaped figures in white with red centers and black frames set side by side. the processes of substitution where changes of color are required are the same as in the preceding case and the forms of figures and the disposition of designs are the same, being governed by the same forces. [illustration: fig. . coiled basket with ornament arranged in zigzag rays. obtained from the pima indians of arizona-- / .] another choice piece, from the pima indians of arizona, is given in fig. . the lines of the ornament adhere exclusively to the directions imposed by the warp and the woof, the stripes of black color ascending with the turns of the fillet for a short distance, then for a time following the horizontal ridges, and again ascending, the complete result being a series of zigzag rays set very close together. these rays take an oblique turn to the left, and the dark figures at the angles, from the necessities of construction, form rows at right angles to these. a few supplementary rays are added toward the margin to fill out the widening spaces. another striking example of the domination of technique over design is illustrated in fig. . [illustration: fig. . coiled basket with two bands of meandered ornament. obtained from the pima indians of arizona-- / .] two strongly marked, fret-like meanders encircle the vessel, the elements of which are ruled exclusively by the warp and woof, by the radiate and the concentric lines of construction. this is the work of the pima indians of arizona. [illustration: fig. . coiled basket with geometric ornament composed of triangular figures. obtained from the mccloud river indians, california-- / .] i shall close the series with a very handsome example of indian basketry and of basketry ornamentation (fig. ). the conical shape is highly pleasing and the design is thoroughly satisfactory and, like all the others, is applied in a way indicative of a refined sense of the decorative requirements of the utensil. the design is wholly geometric, and, although varied in appearance, is composed almost exclusively of dark triangular figures upon a light ground. the general grouping is in three horizontal or encircling bands agreeing with or following the foundation coil. details are governed by the horizontal and the oblique structure lines. the vertical construction lines have no direct part in the conformation of the design excepting in so far as they impose a stepped character upon all oblique outlines. these studies could be carried through all the types of primitive textile combination, but such a work seems unnecessary, for in all cases the elaboration in design, relieved and colored, is along similar lines, is governed by the same class of forces, and reaches closely corresponding results. * * * * * we have observed throughout the series of examples presented a decided tendency toward banded or zonal arrangement of the ornamentation. now each of these bands is made up of a number of units, uniform in shape and in size and joined or linked together in various suitable and consistent ways. in contemplating them we are led to inquire into the nature of the forces concerned in the accomplishment of such results. the question arises as to exactly how much of the segregating and aggregating forces or tendencies belongs to the technique of the art and how much to the direct esthetic supervision of the human agent, questions as to ideographic influence being for the present omitted. this is a difficult problem to deal with, and i shall not attempt more here than to point out the apparent teachings of the examples studied. the desires of the mind constitute the motive power, the force that gives rise to all progress in art; the appreciation of beauty and the desire to increase it are the cause of all progress in purely decorative elaboration. it appears, however, that there is in the mind no preconceived idea of what that elaboration should be. the mind is a growing thing and is led forward along the pathways laid out by environment. seeking in art gratification of an esthetic kind it follows the lead of technique along the channels opened by such of the useful arts as offer suggestions of embellishment. the results reached vary with the arts and are important in proportion to the facilities furnished by the arts. as i have already amply shown, the textile art possesses vast advantages over all other arts in this respect, as it is first in the field, of widest application, full of suggestions of embellishment, and inexorably fixed in its methods of expression. the mind in its primitive, mobile condition is as clay in the grasp of technique. a close analysis of the forces and the influences inherent in the art will be instructive. for the sake of simplicity i exclude from consideration all but purely mechanical or non-ideographic elements. it will be observed that order, uniformity, symmetry, are among the first lessons of the textile art. from the very beginning the workman finds it necessary to direct his attention to these considerations in the preparation of his material as well as in the building of his utensils. if parts employed in construction are multiple they must be uniform, and to reach definite results (presupposing always a demand for such results), either in form or ornament, there must be a constant counting of numbers and adjusting to spaces. the most fundamental and constant elements embodied in textile art and available for the expression of embellishment are the minute steps of the intersections or bindings; the most necessary and constant combination of these elements is in continuous lines or in rows of isolated figures; the most necessary and constant directions for these combinations are with the web and the woof, or with their complementaries, the diagonals. if large areas are covered certain separation or aggregation of the elements into larger units is called for, as otherwise absolute sameness would result. such separation or aggregation conforms to the construction lines of the fabric, as any other arrangement would be unnatural and difficult of accomplishment. when the elements or units combine in continuous zones, bands, or rays they are placed side by side in simple juxtaposition or are united in various ways, always following the guide lines of construction through simple and complex convolutions. whatever is done is at the suggestion of technique; whatever is done takes a form and arrangement imposed by technique. results are like in like techniques and are unlike in unlike techniques; they therefore vary with the art and with its variations in time and character. all those agencies pertaining to man that might be supposed important in this connection--the muscles of the hand and of the eye, the cell structure of the brain, together with all preconceived ideas of the beautiful--are all but impotent in the presence of technique, and, so far as forms of expression go, submit completely to its dictates. ideas of the beautiful in linear geometric forms are actually formed by technique, and taste in selecting as the most beautiful certain ornaments produced in art is but choosing between products that in their evolution gave it its character and powers, precisely as the animal selects its favorite foods from among the products that throughout its history constitute its sustenance and shape its appetites. * * * * * now, as primitive peoples advance from savagery to barbarism there comes a time in the history of all kinds of textile products at which the natural technical progress of decorative elaboration is interfered with by forces from without the art. this occurs when ideas, symbolic or otherwise, come to be associated with the purely geometric figures, tending to arrest or modify their development, or, again, it occurs when the artist seeks to substitute mythologic subjects for the geometric units. this period cannot be always well defined, as the first steps in this direction are so thoroughly subordinated to the textile forces. between what may be regarded as purely technical, geometric ornament and ornament recognizably delineative, we find in each group of advanced textile products a series of forms of mixed or uncertain pedigree. these must receive slight attention here. [illustration: fig. . coiled basket ornamented with devices probably very highly conventionalized mythological subjects. obtained from the apache-- / .] fig. represents a large and handsome basket obtained from the apache. it will be seen that the outline of the figures comprising the principal zone of ornament departs somewhat from the four ruling directions of the textile combination. this was accomplished by increasing the width of the steps in the outline as the dark rays progressed, resulting in curved outlines of eccentric character. this eccentricity, coupled with the very unusual character of the details at the outer extremities of the figures, leads to the surmise that each part of the design is a conventional representation of some life form, a bird, an insect, or perhaps a man. by the free introduction of such elements textile ornament loses its pristine geometric purity and becomes in a measure degraded. in the more advanced stages of pueblo art the ornament of nearly all the textiles is pervaded by ideographic characters, generally rude suggestions of life forms, borrowed, perhaps, from mythologic art. this is true of much of the coiled basketry of the moki indians. true, many examples occur in which the ancient or indigenous geometric style is preserved, but the majority appear to be more or less modified. in many cases nothing can be learned from a study of the designs themselves, as the particular style of construction is not adapted to realistic expression, and, at best, resemblances to natural forms are very remote. two examples are given in figs. and . i shall expect, however, when the art of these peoples is better known, to learn to what particular mythic concept these mixed or impure geometric devices refer. [illustration: fig. . coiled tray with geometric devices probably modified by ideographic association. moki work-- / .] the same is true of other varieties of pueblo basketry, notably the common decorated wickerware, two specimens of which are given in figs. and . this ware is of the interlaced style, with radially arranged web filaments. its geometric characters are easily distinguished from those of the coiled ware. many examples exhibit purely conventional elaboration, the figures being arranged in rays, zones, checkers, and the like. it is to be expected, however, that the normal ornament of this class of products should be greatly interfered with through attempts to introduce extraneous elements, for the peoples have advanced to a stage of culture at which it is usual to attempt the introduction of mythologic representations into all art. further consideration of this subject will be necessary in the next section of this paper. [illustration: fig. . coiled tray with geometric devices, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work-- / .] [illustration: fig. . tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work-- / .] the processes of pure geometric elaboration with which this section is mainly concerned can be studied to best advantage in more primitive forms of art. [illustration: fig. . tray of interlaced style of weaving, showing geometric ornament, probably modified by ideographic association. moki work-- / .] _non-essential constructive features._--now, all the varied effects of color and design described in the preceding paragraphs are obtained without seriously modifying the simple necessary construction, without resorting to the multiple extraordinary devices within easy reach. the development and utilization of the latter class of resources must now receive attention. in the preceding examples, when it was desired to begin a figure in color the normal ground filament was dropped out and a colored one set into its place and made to fill its office while it remained; but we find that in many classes of work the colored elements were added to the essential parts, not substituted for them, although they are usually of use in perfecting the fabric by adding to serviceability as well as to beauty. this is illustrated, for example, by the doubling of one series or of both warp and woof, by the introduction of pile, by wrapping filaments with strands of other colors, or by twisting in feathers. savage nations in all parts of the world are acquainted with devices of this class and employ them with great freedom. the effects produced often correspond closely to needlework, and the materials employed are often identical in both varieties of execution. the following examples will serve to illustrate my meaning. the effect seen in fig. is observed in a small hand wallet obtained in mexico. the fillets employed appear to be wide, flattened straws of varied colors. in order to avoid the monotony of a plain checker certain of the light fillets are wrapped with thin fillets of dark tint in such a way that when woven the dark color appears in small squares placed diagonally with the fundamental checkers. additional effects are produced by covering certain portions of the filaments with straws of distinct color, all being woven in with the fabric. by other devices certain parts of the fillets are made to stand out from the surface in sharp points and in ridges, forming geometric figures, either normal or added elements being employed. another device is shown in fig. . here a pattern is secured by carrying dark fillets back and forth over the light colored fabric, catching them down at regular intervals during the process of weaving. again, feathers and other embellishing media are woven in with the woof. two interesting baskets procured from the indians of the northwest coast are shown in figs. and . feathers of brilliant hues are fixed to and woven in with certain of the woof strands, which are treated, in the execution of patterns, just as are ordinary colored threads, care being taken not to destroy the beauty of the feathers in the process. the richly colored feathers lying smoothly in one direction are made to represent various figures necessarily geometric. this simple work is much surpassed, however, by the marvelous feather ornamentation of the mexicans and peruvians, of which glowing accounts are given by historians and of which a few meager traces are found in tombs. much of the feather work of all nations is of the nature of embroidery and will receive attention further on. a very clever device practiced by the northwest coast tribes consists in the use of two woof strands of contrasting colors, one or the other being made to appear on the surface, as the pattern demands. [illustration: fig. . ornament produced by wrapping certain light fillets with darker ones before weaving. mexican work.] [illustration: fig. . ornamental effect secured by weaving in series of dark fillets, forming a superficial device. work of the klamath indians.] [illustration: fig. . baskets ornamented with feather work. northwest coast tribes-- / .] [illustration: fig. . baskets ornamented with feather work. northwest coast tribes-- / .] an example from a higher grade of art will be of value in this connection. the ancient peruvians resorted to many clever devices for purposes of enrichment. an illustration of the use of extra-constructional means to secure desired ends are given in figs. and . threads constituting a supplemental warp and woof are carried across the under side of a common piece of fabric, that they may be brought up and woven in here and there to produce figures of contrasting color upon the right side. fig. shows the right side of the cloth, with the secondary series appearing in the border and central figure only. fig. illustrates the opposite side and shows the loose hanging, unused portions of the auxiliary series. in such work, when the figures are numerous and occupy a large part of the surface, the fabric is really a double one, having a dual warp and woof. examples could be multiplied indefinitely, but it will readily be seen from what has been presented that the results of these extraordinary means cannot differ greatly from those legitimately produced by the fundamental filaments alone. [illustration fig. . piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof. ancient peru.] [illustration fig. . piece of cotton cloth showing the use of a supplementary web and woof. ancient peru.] _superconstructive features._--in reviewing the superconstructive decorative features in the preceding section i classified them somewhat closely by method of execution or application to the fabric, as stitched, inserted, drawn, cut, applied, and appended. it will be seen that, although these devices are to a great extent of the nature of needlework, all cannot be classed under this head. before needles came into use the decorative features were inserted and attached in a variety of ways. in open work nothing was needed but the end of the fillet or part inserted; again, in close work, perforations were made as in leather work, and the threads were inserted as are the waxed ends of the shoemaker. the importance of this class of decorative devices to primitive peoples will be apparent if we but call to mind the work of our own indian tribes. what a vast deal of attention is paid to those classes of embroideries in which beads, feathers, quills, shells, seeds, teeth, &c., are employed, and to the multitude of novel applications of tassels, fringes, and tinkling pendants. the taste for these things is universal and their relation to the development of esthetic ideas is doubtless very intimate. needlework arose in the earliest stages of art and at first was employed in joining parts, such as leaves, skins, and tissues, for various useful purposes, and afterwards in attaching ornaments. in time the attaching media, as exposed in stitches, loops, knots, and the like, being of bright colors, were themselves utilized as embellishment, and margins and apertures were beautified by various bindings and borders, and finally patterns were worked in contrasting colors upon the surfaces of the cloths and other materials of like nature or use. no other art so constantly and decidedly suggested embellishment and called for the exercise of taste. it was the natural habitat for decoration. it was the field in which technique and taste were most frequently called upon to work hand in hand. with the growth of culture the art was expanded and perfected, its wonderful capacity for expression leading from mere bindings to pretentious borders, to patterns, to the introduction of ideographs, to the representation of symbols and mythologic subjects, and from these to the delineation of nature, the presentation of historical and purely pictorial scenes. and now a few words in regard to the character of the work and its bearing upon the geometric system of decoration. as purely constructive ornamentation has already been presented, i will first take up that class of superconstructive work most nearly related to it. in some varieties of basketry certain bindings of the warp and woof are actually left imperfect, with the idea of completing the construction by subsequent processes, the intersections being gone over stitch by stitch and lashed together, the embroidery threads passing in regular order through the openings of the mesh. this process is extremely convenient to the decorator, as changes from one color to another are made without interfering with construction, and the result is of a closely similar character to that reached by working the colors in with warp and woof. in a very close fabric this method cannot be employed, but like results are reached by passing the added filaments beneath the protruding parts of the bindings and, stitch by stitch, covering up the plain fabric, working bright patterns. fig. is intended to show how this is done. the foundation is of twined work and the decorating fillets are passed under by lifting, with or without a needle. this process is extensively practiced by our west coast tribes, and the results are extremely pleasing. the materials most used are quills and bright colored straws, the foundation fabric being of bark or of rushes. the results in such work are generally geometric, in a way corresponding more or less closely with the ground work combination. [illustration: fig. . grass embroidery upon the surface of closely impacted, twined basketry. work of the northwest coast indians.] a large class of embroideries are applied by like processes, but without reference to the construction of the foundation fabric, as they are also applied to felt and leather. again, artificially prepared perforations are used, through which the fillets are passed. the results are much less uniformly geometric than where the fabric is followed; yet the mere adding of the figures, stitch by stitch or part by part, is sufficient to impart a large share of geometricity, as may be seen in the buckskin bead work and in the dentalium and quill work of the indians. feather embroidery was carried to a high degree of perfection by our ancient aborigines, and the results were perhaps the most brilliant of all these wonderful decorations. i have already shown how feathers are woven in with the warp and woof, and may now give a single illustration of the application of feather work to the surfaces of fabrics. among the beautiful articles recovered from the tombs of ancon, peru, are some much decayed specimens of feather work. in our example delicate feathers of red, blue, and yellow hues are applied to the surface of a coarse cotton fabric by first carefully tying them together in rows at regular distances and afterwards stitching them down, as shown in fig. . the same method is practiced by modern peoples in many parts of the world. other decorative materials are applied in similar ways by attachment to cords or fillets which are afterwards stitched down. in all this work the geometricity is entirely or nearly uniform with that of the foundation fabrics. other classes of decoration, drawn work, appliqué, and the like, are not of great importance in aboriginal art and need no additional attention here, as they have but slight bearing upon the development of design. [illustration: fig. . feather embroidery of the ancient peruvians, showing the method of attaching the feathers.] attached or appended ornaments constitute a most important part of decorative resource. they are less subject to the laws of geometricity, being fixed to surfaces and margins without close reference to the web and woof. they include fringes, tassels, and the multitude of appendable objects, natural and artificial, with which primitive races bedeck their garments and utensils. a somewhat detailed study of this class of ornament is given at the end of the preceding section. _adventitious features._--ornament is applied to the surfaces of fabrics by painting and by stamping. these methods of decoration were employed in very early times and probably originated in other branches of art. if the surface features of the textile upon which a design is painted are strongly pronounced, the figures produced with the brush or pencil will tend to follow them, giving a decidedly geometric result. if the surface is smooth the hand is free to follow its natural tendencies, and the results will be analogous in character to designs painted upon pottery, rocks, or skins. in primitive times both the texture of the textiles and the habits of the decorator, acquired in textile work, tended towards the geometric style of delineation, and we find that in work in which the fabric lines are not followed at all the designs are still geometric, and geometric in the same way as are similar designs woven in with the fabric. illustrations of this are given in the next section. * * * * * i have dwelt at sufficient length upon the character and the tendencies of the peculiar system of embellishment that arises within textile art as the necessary outgrowth of technique, and now proceed to explain the relations of this system to associated art. in the strong forward tendency of the textile system of decoration it has made two conquests of especial importance. in the first place it has subdued and assimilated all those elements of ornament that have happened to enter its realm from without, and in the second place it has imposed its habits and customs upon the decorative systems of all arts with which the textile art has come in contact. geometricity imposed upon adopted elements of design. at a very early stage of culture most peoples manifest decided artistic tendencies, which are revealed in attempts to depict various devices, life forms, and fancies upon the skin and upon the surfaces of utensils, garments, and other articles and objects. the figures are very often decorative in effect and may be of a trivial nature, but very generally such art is serious and pertains to events or superstitions. the devices employed may be purely conventional or geometric, containing no graphic element whatever; but life forms afford the most natural and satisfactory means of recording, conveying, and symbolizing ideas, and hence preponderate largely. such forms, on account of their intimate relations with the philosophy of the people, are freely embodied in every art suitable to their employment. as already seen, the peculiar character of textile construction places great difficulties in the way of introducing unsymmetric and complex figures like those of natural objects into fabrics. the idea of so employing them may originally have been suggested by the application of designs in color to the woven surfaces or by resemblances between the simpler conventional life form derivatives and the geometric figures indigenous to the art. at any rate, the idea of introducing life forms into the texture was suggested, and in the course of time a great deal of skill was shown in their delineation, the bolder workmen venturing to employ a wide range of graphic subjects. now, if we examine these woven forms with reference to the modifications brought about by the textile surveillance, we find that the figures, as introduced in the cloth, do not at all correspond with those executed by ordinary graphic methods, either in degree of elaboration or in truthfulness of expression. they have a style of their own. each delineative element upon entering the textile realm is forced into those peculiar conventional outlines imposed by the geometric construction, the character of which has already been dwelt upon at considerable length. we find, however, that the degree of convention is not uniform throughout all fabrics, but that it varies with the refinement of the threads or filaments, the compactness of the mesh, the character of the combination, the graphic skill of the artist, and the tendencies of his mind; yet we observe that through all there is still exhibited a distinct and peculiar geometricity. so pronounced is this technical bias that delineations of a particular creature--as, for example, a bird--executed by distant and unrelated peoples, are reduced in corresponding styles of fabric to almost identical shapes. this conventionalizing force is further illustrated by the tendency in textile representation to blot out differences of time and culture, so that when a civilized artisan, capable of realistic pictorial delineation of a high order, introduces a figure into a certain form of coarse fabric he arrives at a result almost identical with that reached by the savage using the same, who has no graphic language beyond the rudest outline. a number of examples may be given illustrating this remarkable power of textile combination over ornament. i select three in which the human figure is presented. one is chosen from iroquoian art, one from digger indian art, and one from the art of the incas--peoples unequal in grade of culture, isolated geographically, and racially distinct. i have selected specimens in which the parts employed give features of corresponding size, so that comparisons are easily instituted. the example shown in fig. illustrates a construction peculiar to the wampum belts of the iroquois and their neighbors, and quite unlike ordinary weaving. it is taken from the middle portion of what is known as the penn wampum belt. the horizontal series of strands consists of narrow strips of buckskin, through which the opposing series of threads are sewed, holding in place the rows of cylindrical shell beads. purple beads are employed to develop the figures in a ground of white beads. if the maker of this belt had been required to execute in chalk a drawing depicting brotherly love the results would have been very different. [illustration: fig. . figures from the penn wampum belt, showing the conventional form imposed in bead work.] my second illustration (fig. ) is drawn from a superb example of the basketry of the yokut indians of california. the two figures form part of a spirally radiating band of ornament, which is shown to good advantage in the small cut. fig. . it is of the coiled style of construction. the design is worked in four colors and the effect is quiet and rich. [illustration: fig. . conventional figures from a california indian basket.] [illustration: fig. . basket made by the yokut indians of california.] turning southward from california and passing through many strange lands we find ourselves in peru, and among a class of remains that bespeak a high grade of culture. the inhabitants of ancon were wonderfully skilled in the textile art, and thousands of handsome examples have been obtained from their ancient tombs. among these relics are many neat little workbaskets woven from rushes. one of these, now in the national museum, is encircled by a decorated belt in which are represented seven human figures woven in black filaments upon a brown ground. the base and rim of the basket are woven in the intertwined combination, but in the decorated belt the style is changed to the plain right angled interlacing, for the reason, no doubt, that this combination was better suited to the development of the intended design. besides the fundamental series of fillets the weaver resorted to unusual devices in order to secure certain desired results. in the first place the black horizontal series of filaments does not alternate in the simplest way with the brown series, but, where a wide space of the dark color is called for, several of the brown strands are passed over at one step, as in the head and body, and in the wider interspaces the dark strands pass under two or more of the opposing strands. in this way broad areas of color are obtained. it will be observed, however, that the construction is weakened by this modification, and that to remedy the defect two additional extra constructive series of fillets are added. these are of much lighter weight than the main series, that they may not obscure the pattern. over the dark series they run vertically and over the light obliquely. [illustration: fig. . conventional human figures from an ancient peruvian basket.] it will be seen that the result, notwithstanding all this modification of procedure, is still remarkably like that of the preceding examples, the figures corresponding closely in kind and degree of geometricity. the fact is that in this coarse work refinement of drawing is absolutely unattainable. it appears that the sharply pronounced steps exhibited in the outlines are due to the great width of the fillets used. with the finer threads employed by most nations of moderate culture the stepped effect need not obtrude itself, for smooth outlines and graceful curves are easily attainable; yet, as a rule, even the finer fabrics continue to exhibit in their decorations the pronounced geometric character seen in ruder forms. i present a striking example of this in fig. , a superb piece of incarian gobelins, in which a gaily costumed personage is worked upon a dark red ground dotted with symbols and strange devices. the work is executed in brilliant colors and in great detail. but with all the facility afforded for the expression of minutely modulated form the straight lines and sharp angles are still present. the traditions of the art were favorable to great geometricity, and the tendencies of the warp and woof and the shape of the spaces to be filled were decidedly in that direction. [illustration: fig. . human figure in peruvian gobelins, showing characteristic textile convention. from chromolithographs published by reiss and stübel in the necropolis of ancon.] [illustration: fig. . human figures from a peruvian vase, done in free hand, graphic style.] in order that the full force of my remarks may be appreciable to the eye of the reader, i give an additional illustration (fig. ). the two figures here shown, although i am not able to say positively that the work is pre-columbian, were executed by a native artist of about the same stage of culture as was the work of the textile design. these figures are executed in color upon the smooth surface of an earthen vase and illustrate perfectly the peculiar characters of free hand, graphic delineation. place this and the last figure side by side and we see how vastly different is the work of two artists of equal capacity when executed in the two methods. this figure should also be compared with the embroidered figures shown in fig. . the tendencies to uniformity in textile ornament here illustrated may be observed the world over. every element entering the art must undergo a similar metamorphosis; hence the remarkable power of this almost universally practiced art upon the whole body of decorative design. [illustration: fig. . human figure modified by execution in concentric interlaced style of weaving-- / .] that the range of results produced by varying styles of weaving and of woven objects may be appreciated, i present some additional examples. coiled wares, for instance, present decorative phenomena strikingly at variance with those in which there is a rectangular disposition of parts. instead of the two or more interlacing series of parallel fillets exhibited in the latter style, we have one radiate and one concentric series. the effect of this arrangement upon the introduced human figure is very striking, as will be seen by reference to fig. , which represents a large tray obtained from the moki indians. the figure probably represents one of the mythologic personages of the moki pantheon or some otherwise important priestly functionary, wearing the characteristic headdress of the ceremony in which the plaque was to be used. the work is executed in wicker, stained in such bright tints as were considered appropriate to the various features of the costume. referring in detail to the shape and arrangement of the parts of the figure, it is apparent that many of the remarkable features are due to constructive peculiarities. the round face, for example, does not refer to the sun or the moon, but results from the concentric weaving. the oblique eyes have no reference to a mongolian origin, as they only follow the direction of the ray upon which they are woven, and the headdress does not refer to the rainbow or the aurora because it is arched, but is arched because the construction forced it into this shape. the proportion of the figure is not so very bad because the moki artist did not know better, but because the surface of the tray did not afford room to project the body and limbs. [illustration: fig. . figure of a bird painted upon a zuñi shield, free hand delineation.] now, it may be further observed that had the figure been placed at one side of the center, extending only from the border to the middle of the tray, an entirely different result would have been reached; but this is better illustrated in a series of bird delineations presented in the following figures. with many tribes the bird is an object of superstitious interest and is introduced freely into all art products suitable for its delineation. it is drawn upon walls, skins, pottery, and various utensils and weapons, especially those directly connected with ceremonies in which the mythical bird is an important factor. the bird form was probably in familiar use long before it was employed in the decoration of basketry. in fig. i present an ordinary graphic representation. it is copied from a zuñi shield and is the device of an order or the totem of a clan. the style is quite conventional, as a result of the various constraints surrounding its production. but what a strange metamorphosis takes place when it is presented in the basketmaker's language. observe the conventional pattern shown upon the surface of a moki tray (fig. ). we have difficulty in recognizing the bird at all, although the conception is identical with the preceding. the positions of the head and legs and the expanded wings and tail correspond as closely as possible, but delineation is hampered by technique. the peculiar construction barely permits the presentation of a recognizable life form, and permits it in a particular way, which will be understood by a comparison with the treatment of the human figure in fig. . in that case the interlaced combination gives relievo results, characterized by wide, radiating ribs and narrow, inconspicuous, concentric lines, which cross the ribs in long steps. the power of expression lies almost wholly with the concentric series, and detail must in a great measure follow the concentric lines. in the present case (fig. ) this is reversed and lines employed in expressing forms are radiate. [illustration: fig. . figure of a bird executed in a coiled moki tray, textile delineation.] the precise effect of this difference of construction upon a particular feature may be shown by the introduction of another illustration. in fig. we have a bird woven in a basket of the interlaced style. we see with what ease the long sharp bill and the slender tongue (shown by a red filament between the two dark mandibles) are expressed. in the other case the construction is such that the bill, if extended in the normal direction, is broad and square at the end, and the tongue, instead of lying between the mandibles, must run across the bill, totally at variance with the truth; in this case the tongue is so represented, the light vertical band seen in the cut being a yellow stripe. it will be seen that the two representations are very unlike each other, not because of differences in the conception and not wholly on account of the style of weaving, but rather because the artist chose to extend one across the whole surface of the utensil and to confine the other to one side of the center. [illustration: fig. . figure of a bird woven in interlaced wicker at one side of the center.] it is clear, therefore, from the preceding observations that the convention of woven life forms varies with the kind of weaving, with the shape of the object, with the position upon the object, and with the shape of the space occupied, as well as with the inherited style of treatment and with the capacity of the artist concerned. these varied forces and influences unite in the metamorphosis of all the incoming elements of textile embellishment. it will be of interest to examine somewhat closely the modifications produced in pictorial motives introduced through superstructural and adventitious agencies. we are accustomed, at this age of the world, to see needlework employed successfully in the delineation of graphic forms and observe that even the indian, under the tutelage of the european, reproduces in a more or less realistic way the forms of vegetal and animal life. as a result we find it difficult to realize the simplicity and conservatism of primitive art. the intention of the primitive artist was generally not to depict nature, but to express an idea or decorate a space, and there was no strong reason why the figures should not submit to the conventionalizing tendencies of the art. i have already shown that embroidered designs, although not from necessity confined to geometric outlines, tend to take a purely geometric character from the fabric upon which they are executed, as well as from the mechanical processes of stitching. this is well shown in fig. , a fine specimen given by wiener in his work pérou et bolive. [illustration: fig. . embroidery upon a cotton net in which the textile combinations are followed step by step. ancient peruvian work.] a life form worked upon a net does not differ essentially from the same subject woven in with the web and woof. the reason is found in the fact that in embroidery the workman was accustomed from the first to follow the geometric combination of the foundation fabric step by step, and later in life delination he pursued the same method. it would seem natural, however, that when the foundation fabric does not exhibit well marked geometric characters, as in compactly woven canvas, the needlework would assume free hand characters and follow the curves and irregularities of the natural object depicted; but such is not the case in purely aboriginal work. an example of embroidery obtained from an ancient grave at ancon, peru, is shown in fig. . a piece of brown cotton canvas is embellished with a border of bird figures in bright colored wool thread. the lines of the figures do not obey the web and woof strictly, as the lines are difficult to follow, but the geometric character is as perfectly preserved as if the design were woven in the goods. [illustration: fig. . embroidery in which the foundation fabric is not followed accurately, but which exhibits the full textile geometricity. ancient peruvian work.] [illustration: fig. . design painted in color upon a woven surface, exhibiting the full degree of geometric convention. ancient peruvian work. copied from the necropolis of ancon.] so habit and association carry the geometric system into adventitious decoration. when the ancient peruvian executed a design in color upon a woven surface (fig. ), using a pencil or brush, the result was hardly less subject to textile restraint. as a matter of course, since there are two distinct styles of decorative design--the textile and the free hand--there exist intermediate forms partaking of the character of both; but it is nevertheless clear that the textile system transforms or greatly modifies all nature motives associated with it, whether introduced into the fabric or applied to its surface. in countries where the textile art is unimportant and the textile system of decoration does not obtrude itself, free hand methods may prevail to such an extent that the geometric influence is but little felt. the haidah indians, for example, paint designs with great freedom and skill, and those applied to woven surfaces are identical with those executed upon skins, wood, and stone, but this art is doubtless much modified by the means and methods of europeans. our studies should be confined wholly to pure indigenous art. extension of textile ornament to other forms of art. i have now dwelt at sufficient length upon the character of the textile system of ornament and have laid especial stress upon the manner in which it is interwoven with the technical constitution of the art. i have illustrated the remarkable power of the art by which decorative elements from without, coming once within the magic influence, are seized upon and remodeled in accordance with the laws of textile combination. pursuing the investigation still further it is found that the dominion of the textile system is not limited to the art, but extends to other arts. like a strong race of men it is not to be confined to its own original habitat, but spreads to other realms, stamping its own habits and character upon whatever happens to come within its reach. its influence is felt throughout the whole range of those arts with which the esthetic sense of man seeks to associate ideas of beauty. it is necessary, before closing this paper, to examine briefly the character and extent of this influence and to describe in some detail the agencies through which the results are accomplished. first and most important are the results of direct transmission. house building, or architecture as it is called in the higher stages, is in primitive times to a great extent textile; as culture develops, other materials and other systems of construction are employed, and the resultant forms vary accordingly; but textile characters are especially strong and persistent in the matter of ornament, and survive all changes, howsoever complete. in a similar way other branches of art differentiated in material and function from the parent art inherit many characters of form and ornament conceived in the textile stage. it may be difficult to say with reference to any particular example of design that it had a textile origin, for there may be multiple origins to the same or to closely corresponding forms; but we may assert in a general way of the great body of geometric ornament that it owes something--if not its inspiration, its modes of expression--to the teachings of the textile system. this appears reasonable when we consider that the weaver's art, as a medium of esthetic ideas, had precedence in time over nearly all competitors. being first in the field it stood ready on the birth of new forms of art, whether directly related or not, to impose its characters upon them. what claim can architecture, sculpture, or ceramics have upon the decorative conceptions of the digger indians, or even upon those of the zuñi or moki? the former have no architecture, sculpture, or ceramics; but their system of decoration, as we have seen, is highly developed. the pueblo tribes at their best have barely reached the stage at which esthetic ideas are associated with building; yet classic art has not produced a set of geometric motives more chaste or varied. these examples of the development of high forms of decoration during the very early stages of the arts are not isolated. others are observed in other countries, and it is probable that if we could lift the veil and peer into the far prehistoric stages of the world's greatest cultures the same condition and order would be revealed. it is no doubt true that all of the shaping arts in the fullness of their development have given rise to decorative features peculiar to themselves; for construction, whether in stone, clay, wood, or metal, in their rigid conditions, exhibits characters unknown before, many of which tend to give rise to ornament. but this ornament is generally only applicable to the art in which it develops, and is not transferable by natural processes--as of a parent to its offspring--as are the esthetic features of the weaver's art. besides the direct transmission of characters and forms as suggested in a preceding paragraph, there are many less direct but still efficacious methods of transfer by means of which various arts acquire textile decorative features, as will be seen by the following illustrations. japanese art is celebrated for its exquisite decorative design. upon superb works of porcelain we have skillful representations of subjects taken from nature and from mythology, which are set with perfect taste upon fields or within borders of elaborate geometric design. if we should ask how such motives came to be employed in ceramic decoration, the answer would be given that they were selected and employed because they were regarded as fitting and beautiful by a race of decorators whose taste is well nigh infallible. but this explanation, however satisfactory as applied to individual examples of modern art, is not at all applicable to primitive art, for the mind of man was not primarily conscious of the beauty or fitness of decorative elements, nor did he think of using them independently of the art to which they were indigenous. now the ceramic art gives rise to comparatively few elements of decoration, and must therefore acquire the great body of its decorative motives from other arts by some process not primarily dependent upon the exercise of judgment or taste, and yet not by direct inheritance, as the techniques of the two arts are wholly distinct. textile and fictile arts are, in their earlier stages, to a large extent, vessel making arts, the one being functionally the offshoot of the other. the textile art is the parent, and, as i have already shown, develops within itself a geometric system of ornament. the fictile art is the offshoot and has within itself no predilection for decoration. it is dependent and plastic. its forms are to a great extent modeled and molded within the textile shapes and acquire automatically some of the decorative surface characters of the mold. this is the beginning of the transfer, and as time goes on other methods are suggested by which elements indigenous to the one art are transferred to the other. thus we explain the occurrence, the constant recurrence of certain primary decorative motives in primitive ceramics. the herring bone, the checker, the guilloche, and the like are greatly the heritage of the textile art. two forms derived from textile surfaces are illustrated in figs. and . in the first example shown, herring bone patterns appear as the result of textile combination, and in the second a triangular checker is produced in the same way. in fig. we see the result of copying these patterns in incised lines upon soft clay. [illustration: fig. . herring bone and checker patterns produced in textile combinations.] [illustration: fig. . herring bone and checker figures in fictile forms transferred from the textile.] again, the ancient potter, who was in the habit of modeling his wares within baskets, seems to have conceived the idea of building his vessels by coiling just as he built his baskets. the surface exhibits coiled ridges like basketry, as shown in fig. , and the textile character was further imposed upon the clay by marking these coils with the thumb and with implements to give the effect of the transverse series of filaments, and the geometric color patterns of the basketry were reproduced in incised lines. when these peoples came to paint their wares it was natural that the colored patterns native to the basketry should also be reproduced, and many more or less literal transfers by copying are to be found. a fine example of these painted textile designs is shown in fig. . it is executed in a masterly style upon a handsome vase of the white ware of ancient tusayan. not only are the details reproduced with all their geometric exactness, but the arrangement of the designs upon the vessel is the same as in the textile original. nine-tenths of the more archaic, pueblo, ceramic, ornamental designs are traceable to the textile art, and all show the influence of textile convention. [illustration: fig. . earthen vase built by coiling, exhibiting decorative characters derived from basketry.] [illustration: fig. . ceramic ornament copied literally from a textile original.] another peculiar class of transfers of a somewhat more indirect nature may be noticed. all the more advanced american nations were very fond of modeling the human form in clay, a large percentage of vessels having some trace of the human form or physiognomy. now, in many cases the costume of the personage represented in the clay is also imitated, and generally in color, the details of the fabrics receiving their full share of attention. such an example, from a sepulcher at ancon, is shown in fig. . here the poncho or mantle thrown across the shoulders falls down upon the body in front and behind and the stripes and conventional fishes are accurately reproduced. in this way both style and matter of the textile decoration are introduced into the ceramic art. [illustration: fig. . textile patterns transferred to pottery through the copying of costume. from the necropolis of ancon, by reiss and stübel, pl. .] it will be seen by these illustrations that there are many natural methods, automatic or semiautomatic in character, by which the one art receives aid from the other; that in the beginning of the transfer of textile ornament to fictile forms the process is purely mechanical, and that it is continued automatically without any very decided exercise of judgment or taste. as a result, these borrowed decorations are generally quite as consistent and appropriate as if developed within the art itself. later in the course of progress the potter escapes in a measure from this narrow groove and elaborates his designs with more freedom, being governed still to a certain extent by the laws of instinctive and automatic procedure. when, finally, intellect assumes to carry on the work independently of these laws, decoration tends to become debased. turning to other branches of art, what traces do we find of the transfer to them of textile features? take, for example, sculpture. in the wood carving of the polynesians we observe a most elaborate system of decoration, more or less geometric in character. we do not need to look a second time to discover a striking likeness to the textile system, and we ask, is it also derived from a textile source? in the first place let us seek within the art a reason for the peculiar forms. in carving wood and in tracing figures upon it with pointed tools the tendency would certainly be towards straight lines and formal combinations; but in this work there would be a lack of uniformity in execution and of persistency in narrow lines of combination, such as result from the constant necessity of counting and spacing in the textile art. in the presentation of natural forms curved lines are called for, and there is nothing inherent in the carver's art to forbid the turning of such lines with the graver or knife. graphic art would be realistic to an extent regulated by the skill and habits of the artist. but, in reality, the geometric character of this work is very pronounced, and we turn naturally toward the textile art to ask whether in some way that art has not exercised an influence. the textile arts of these peoples are highly developed and were doubtless so in a degree from very early times, and must have had a close relation with the various arts, and especially so in the matter of ornament. specific examples may be cited showing the intimacy of wood carving to textilia. bows, spears, arrows, &c. are bound with textile materials to increase their strength. knives and other weapons are covered with textile sheaths and handles of certain utensils are lashed on with twisted cords. in ceremonial objects these textile features are elaborated for ornament and the characteristic features of this ornament are transferred to associated surfaces of wood and stone by the graver. a most instructive illustration is seen in the ceremonial adzes so numerous in museums (fig. ). the cords used primarily in attaching the haft are, after loss of function, elaborately plaited and interwoven until they become an important feature and assume the character of decoration. the heavy wooden handles are elaborately carved, and the suggestions of figures given by the interlaced cords are carried out in such detail that at a little distance it is impossible to say where the real textile surface ceases and the sculptured portion begins. all things considered, i regard it as highly probable that much of the geometric character exhibited in polynesian decoration is due to textile dominance. that these peoples are in the habit of employing textile designs in non-textile arts is shown in articles of costume, such as the tapa cloths, made from the bark of the mulberry tree, which are painted or stamped in elaborate geometric patterns. this transfer is also a perfectly natural one, as the ornament is applied to articles having functions identical with the woven stuffs in which the patterns originate, and, besides, the transfer is accomplished by means of stamps themselves textile. fig. illustrates the construction of these stamps and indicates just how the textile character is acquired. [illustration: fig. . ceremonial adz, with carved ornament imitating textile wrapping. polynesian work.] textile materials are very generally associated with the human figure in art, and thus sculpture, which deals chiefly with the human form, becomes familiar with geometric motives and acquires them. through sculpture these motives enter architecture. but textile decoration pervades architecture before the sculptor's chisel begins to carve ornament in stone and before architecture has developed of itself the rudiments of a system of surface embellishment. textile art in mats, covers, shelters, and draperies is intimately associated with floors and walls of houses, and the textile devices are in time transferred to the stone and plaster. the wall of an ancient pueblo estufa, or ceremonial chamber, built in the pre-esthetic period of architecture, antedating, in stage of culture, the first known step in egyptian art, is encircled by a band of painted figures, borrowed, like those of the pottery, from a textile source. the doorway or rather entrance to the rude hovel of a navajo indian is closed by a blanket of native make, unsurpassed in execution and exhibiting conventional designs of a high order. [illustration: fig. . portion of a tapa stamp, showing its subtextile character. a palm leaf is cut to the desired shape and the patterns are sewed in or stitched on.] [illustration: fig. . design in stucco, exhibiting textile characters.] the ancient "hall of the arabesques" at chimu, peru, is decorated in elaborate designs that could only have arisen in the textile art (fig. ), and other equally striking examples are to be found in other american countries. the classic surface decorations known and used in oriental countries from time immemorial prevailed in indigenous american architecture at a stage of culture lower than any known stage of classic art. it may appear that i have advocated too strongly the claims of the textile art to the parentage of geometric ornament and that the conclusions reached are not entirely satisfactory, but i have endeavored so to present the varied phenomena of the art that the student may readily reach deductions of his own. a correspondingly careful study of other branches of art will probably enable us finally to form a just estimate of the relative importance of the forces and tendencies concerned in the evolution of decoration. * * * * * index alaskan indians, illustration of ornamentation by ancon, peru, examples of ornamentation from graves at , , , , , apache, illustrations of ornamentation by , , british guiana indians, illustrations of ornamentation by chimu, peru, ornamentation of "hall of arabesques" at , clallam indians, illustrations of ornamentation by color in textile art , color phenomena in textile ornament - form in textile art and its relation to ornament, with illustrations from indian work - geometric design, relations of, to textile ornament - holmes, w. h. paper by, on textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament - klamath indians, illustrations of ornamentation by , , mccloud river indians, illustrations of ornamentation by moki, illustrations of ornamentation by , , , , , , northwest coast indians, illustrations of ornamentation by , , , penn wampum belt peruvians, ancient, illustrations of ornamentation by , , , , , , , , , , , pima indians, illustrations of ornamentation by piute indians, illustrations of ornamentation by , polynesian ornamentation, illustrations of , seminole indians, illustrations of ornamentation by textile art in its relation to the development of form and ornament, paper by w. h. holmes on - tule river indians, illustrations of ornamentation by tusayan ornament, illustrations of , wiener, cited yokut indians, illustrations of ornamentation by , zuñi, illustrations of ornamentation by * * * * * history of the american clock business for the past sixty years, and life of chauncey jerome written by himself. barnum's connection with the yankee clock business . [illustration: litho of e.b. & e.c. kellogg, hartford, conn. signature of chauncey jerome] preface. the manufacture of clocks has become one of the most important branches of american industry. its productions are of immense value and form an important article of export to foreign countries. it has grown from almost nothing to its present dimensions within the last thirty years, and is confined to one of the smallest states in the union. sixty years ago, a few men with clumsy tools supplied the demand; at the present time, with systematized labor and complicated machinery, it gives employment to thousands of men, occupying some of the largest factories of new england. previous to the year , most clock movements were made of wood; since that time they have been constructed of metal, which is not only better and more durable but even cheaper to manufacture. many years of my own life have been inseparably connected with and devoted to the american clock business, and the most important changes in it have taken place within my remembrance and actual experience. its whole history is familiar to me, and i cannot write my life without having much to say about "yankee clocks." neither can there be a history of that business written without alluding to myself. a few weeks since i entered my sixty-seventh year, and reviewing the past, many trying experiences are brought fresh into my mind. for more than forty-five years i have been actively engaged in the manufacture of clocks, and constantly studying and contriving new methods of manufacturing for the benefit of myself and fellow-men, and although through the instrumentality of others, i have been unfortunate in the loss of my good name and an independent competency, which i had honorably and honestly acquired by these long years of patient toil and industry, it is a satisfaction to me now to know that i have been the means of doing some good in the world. on the following pages in my simple language, and in a bungling manner, i have told the story of my life. i am no author, but claim a title which i consider nobler, that of a "mechanic." being possessed of a remarkable memory, i am able to give a minute account and even the date of every important transaction of my whole life, and distinctly remember events which took place when i was but a child, three and a half years old, and how i celebrated my fourth birthday. i could relate many instances of my boyhood and later day experiences if my health, and strength would permit. it has been no part of my plan to boast, exaggerate, or misrepresent anything, but to give "plain facts." a history of the great business of clock making has never been written. i am the oldest man living who has had much to do with it, and am best able to give its history. to-day my name is seen on millions of these useful articles in every part of the civilized globe, the result of early ambition and untiring perseverance. it was in fact the "pride of my life." time-keepers have been known for centuries in the old world; but i will not dwell on that. it is enough for the american people to know that their country supplies the whole world with its most useful time-keepers, (as well as many other productions,) and that no other country can compete with ours in their manufacture. it has been a long and laborious undertaking for me in my old age to write such a work as this; but the hope that it might be useful and instructive to many of my young friends has animated me to go on; and in presenting it to the public it is with the hope that it will meet with some favor, and that i shall derive some pecuniary benefit therefrom. new haven, august th, . contents. chapter i.--my early history.--birthplace; nail making; death of my father; leaving home; work on a farm; hard times; the great eclipse; bound out as a carpenter; carry tools thirty miles; work on clock dials; what i heard at a training; trip to new jersey in ; first visit to new york; what i saw there; cross the north river in a scow; case making in new jersey; hard fare; return home; first appearance in new haven; at home again; a great traveller; experiences in the last war; go to new london to fight the british in ; incidents; soldiering at new haven in ; married; hard times again; cottton [sic] cloth $ per yard; the cold summer of ; a hard job; work at clocks. chapter ii.--early history of yankee clock making.--mr. eli terry the father of wood clocks in connecticut; clocks in ; wheels made with saw and jack-knife; first clocks by machinery; clocks for pork; men in the business previous to ; [ ] a new invention; the pillar scroll top case; peddling clocks on horseback; the bronze looking glass clock. chapter iii.--personal history continued.-- to ; work with mr. terry; commence business; work alone; large sale to a southerner; a heap of money; peddle clocks in wethersfield; walk twenty-five miles in the snow; increase business; buy mahogany in the plank; saw veneers with a hand saw; trade cases for movements; move to bristol; bad luck; lose large sum of money; first cases by machinery in bristol; make clocks in mass.; good luck; death of my little daughter; form a company; invent bronze looking glass clock. chapter iv.--progress of clock making.--revival of business; bronze looking glass clock favorite; clocks at the south; $ for a clock; rapid increase of the business; new church at bristol--rev. david l. parmelee; hard times of ; panic in business; no more clocks will be made; wooden clocks and wooden nutmegs; opposition to yankee pedlars in the south; make clocks in virginia and south carolina; my trip to the south; discouragements; "i won't give up;" invent one day brass clock; better times ahead; go further south; return home; produce the new clock; its success. chapter v.--brass clocks--clocks in england.--the new clock a favorite; i carry on the business alone; good times; profits in ; wood clock makers half crazy; competition; prices reduced; can yankee clocks be introduced into england; i send out a cargo; ridiculed by other clock makers; prejudice of english people against american manufacturers; how they were introduced; seized by custom house officers; a good joke; incidents; the terry family. chapter vi.--the career of a fast young man.--incidents; frank merrills; a smart young man; i sell him clocks; his bogus operations; a sad history; great losses; human nature; my experience; incident of my boyhood; samuel j. mills, the missionary; anecdotes. chapter vii.--removal to new haven--fire--trouble.--make cages at new haven; factories at bristol destroyed by fire; great loss; sickness; heavy trouble; human nature; move whole business to new haven; john woodruff; great competition; clocks in new york; swindlers; law-suit; ill-feeling of other clock makers. chapter viii.--the method of manufacturing--the jerome manufacturing company.--benefit of manufacturing by system; a clock case for eight cents; a clock for seventy-five cents; thirty years ago and to-day; more human nature; how the brass clock is made; cost of a clock; the facilities of the jerome manufacturing company; a joint stock company; how it was managed; interesting statements; its failure. chapter ix.--men now in the business.--the new haven clock co.: hon. jas. e. english, h.m. welch, john woodruff, hiram camp, philip pond, charles l. griswold, l.f. root. benedict & burnham company of waterbury: arad w. welton. seth thomas & co. wm. l. gilbert. e.n. welch. beach & hubbell. ireneus atkins. chapter x.--barnum's connection in the clock business.--barnum and the jerome manufacturing co.; terry & barnum; interesting statements; causes of the failure; the results. chapter xi.--effects of the failure on myself.--my prospects; leave new haven; move to waterbury; a frightful accident; a practical story. chapter xii.--another unfortunate partnership.--more misplaced confidence; a dishonest man threatening to imprison me for fraud; every dollar gone; kindness of john woodruff, etc. chapter xiii.--the wooster place church.--reasons for building it, and how it was built; growth of different denominations, etc. chapter xiv.--new haven as a business place.--growth, extensive manufactories, facilities for manufacturing, population, wealth, etc. appendix.--general directions for keeping clocks in order, etc. chapter i. early days.--leaving home.--bound out.--farming.--carpenter.--soldier.-- clock making. i was born in the town of canaan, litchfield county, in the state of connecticut, on the th day of june, . my parents were poor but respectable and industrious. my father was a blacksmith and wrought-nail maker by trade, and the father of six children--four sons and two daughters. i was the fourth child. in january, , he moved from canaan to the town of plymouth, in the same county, and in the following spring built a blacksmith shop, which was large enough for three or four men to work at the nail making business, besides carrying on the blacksmithing. at that time all the nails used in the country were hammered by hand out of iron rods, which practice has almost entirely been done away by the introduction of cut nails. my advantages for education were very poor. when large enough to handle a hoe, or a bundle of rye, i was kept at work on the farm. the only opportunity i had for attending school was in the winter season, and then only about three months in the year, and at a very poor school. when i was nine years old, my father took me into the shop to work, where i soon learned to make nails, and worked with him in this way until his death, which occurred on the fifth of october, . for two or three days before he died, he suffered the most excruciating pains from the disease known as the black colic. the day of his death was a sad one to me, for i knew that i should lose my happy home, and be obliged to leave it to seek work for my support. there being no manufacturing of any account in the country, the poor boys were obliged to let themselves to the farmers, and it was extremely difficult to find a place to live where they would treat a poor boy like a human being. never shall i forget the monday morning that i took my little bundle of clothes, and with a bursting heart bid my poor mother good bye. i knew that the rest of the family had got to leave soon, and i perhaps never to see any of them again. being but a boy and naturally very sympathizing, it really seemed as if my heart would break to think of leaving my dear old home for good, but stern necessity compelled me, and i was forced to obey. the first year after leaving home i was at work on a farm, and almost every day when alone in the fields would burst into tears--not because i had to work, but because my father was dead whom i loved, and our happy family separated and broken up never to live together again. in my new place i was kept at work very hard, and at the age of fourteen did almost the work of a man. it was a very lonely place where we lived, and nothing to interest a child of my age. the people i lived with seemed to me as very old, though they were probably not more than thirty-six years of age, and felt no particular interest in me, more than to keep me constantly at work, early and late, in all kinds of weather, of which i never complained. i have many times worked all day in the woods, chopping down trees, with my shoes filled with snow; never had a pair of boots till i was more than twenty years old. once in two weeks i was allowed to go to church, which opportunity i always improved. i liked to attend church, for i could see so many folks, and the habit which i then acquired has never to this day left me, and my love for it dates back to this time in my youth, though the attractions now are different. i shall never forget how frightened i was at the great eclipse which took place on the th of june, , and which so terrified the good people in every part of the land. they were more ignorant about such operations of the sun fifty-four years ago than at the present time. i had heard something about eclipses but had not the faintest idea what it could be. i was hoeing corn that day in a by-place three miles from town, and thought it certainly was the day of judgment. i watched the sun steadily disappearing with a trembling heart, and not till it again appeared bright and shining as before, did i regain my breath and courage sufficient to whistle. the winter before i was fifteen years old, i went to live with a house carpenter to learn the trade, and was bound to him by my guardian till i was twenty-one years old, and was to have my board and clothes for my services. i learned the business very readily, and during the last three years of my apprenticeship could do the work of a man. it was a very pleasant family that i lived with while learning my trade. in the year my "boss" took a job in torringford, and i went with him. after being absent several months from home, i felt very anxious to see my poor mother who lived about two miles from plymouth. she lived alone--with the exception of my youngest brother about nine years old. i made up my mind that i would go down and see her one night. in this way i could satisfy my boss by not losing any time. it was about twenty miles, and i only sixteen years old. i was really sorry after i had started, but was not the boy to back out. it took me till nearly morning to get there, tramping through the woods half of the way; every noise i heard i thought was a bear or something that would kill me, and the frightful notes of the whippoorwill made my hair stand on end. the dogs were after me at every house i passed. i have never forgotten that night. the boys of to-day do not see such times as i did. the next year, , my boss took a job in ellsworth society, litchfield county. i footed it to and from that place several times in the course of the year, with a load of joiners' tools on my back. what would a boy years old now think to travel thirty miles in a hot summer's day, with a heavy load of joiners' tools on his back? but that was about the only way that we could get around in those days. at that time there were not half a dozen one-horse wagons in the whole town. at that place i attended the church of rev. daniel parker, father of hon. amasa j. parker, of albany, who was then a little boy four or five years old. i often saw him at meeting with his mother. he is a first cousin of f.s. & j. parker of this city, two highly respectable men engaged in the paper business. in the fall of , i made a bargain with the man that i was bound to, that if he would give me four months in the winter of each year when the business was dull, i would clothe myself. i therefore went to waterbury, and hired myself to lewis stebbins, (a singing master of that place,) to work at making the dials for the old fashioned long clock. this kind of business gave me great satisfaction, for i always had a desire to work at clocks. in , when i was fourteen years old, i proposed to my guardian to get me a place with mr. eli terry, of plymouth, to work at them. mr. terry was at that time making more clocks than any other man in the country, about two hundred in a year, which was thought to be a great number. my guardian, a good old man, told me that there was so many clocks then making, that the country would soon be filled with them, and the business would be good for nothing in two or three years. this opinion of that wise man made me feel very sad. i well remember, when i was about twelve years old, what i heard some old gentleman say, at a training, (all of the good folks in those days were as sure to go to training as to attend church,) they were talking about mr. terry; the foolish man they said, had begun to make two hundred clocks; one said, he never would live long enough to finish them; another remarked, that if he did he never would, nor could possibly sell so many, and ridiculed the very idea. i was a little fellow, but heard and swallowed every word those wise men said, but i did not relish it at all, for i meant some day to make clocks myself, if i lived. what would those good old men have thought when they were laughing at and ridiculing mr. terry, if they had known that the little urchin who was so eagerly listening to their conversation would live to make _two hundred thousand_ metal clocks in one year, and _many millions_ in his life. they have probably been dead for years, that little boy is now an old man, and during his life has seen these great changes. the clock business has grown to be one of the largest in the country, and almost every kind of american manufactures have improved in much the same ratio, and i cannot now believe that there will ever be in the same space of future time so many improvements and inventions as those of the past half century--one of the most important in the history of the world. everyday things with us now would have appeared to our forefathers as incredible. but returning to my story--having got myself tolerably well posted about clocks at waterbury, i hired myself to two men to go into the state of new jersey, to make the old fashioned seven foot standing clock-case. messrs. hotchkiss and pierpont, of plymouth, had been selling that kind of a clock without the cases, in the northern part of that state, for about twenty dollars, apiece. the purchasers, had complained to them however, that there was no one in that region that could make the case for them, which prevented many others from buying. these two men whom i went with, told them that they would get some one to go out from connecticut, to make the case, and thought they could be made for about eighteen or twenty dollars apiece, which would then make the whole clock cost about forty dollars--not so very costly after all; for a clock was then considered the most useful of anything that could be had in a family, for what it cost. i entered into an agreement with these men at once, and a few days after, we three started on the th dec., , in an old lumber wagon, with provisions for the journey, to the far off jersey. this same trip can now be made in a few hours. we were _many_ days. we passed through watertown, and other villages, and stopped the first night at bethel. this is the very place where p.t. barnum was born, and at about this time, of whom i shall speak more particularly hereafter. the next morning we started again on our journey, and not many hours after, arrived in norwalk, then quite a small village, situated on long island sound; at this place i saw the salt water for the first time in my life, also a small row-boat, and began to feel that i was a great traveler indeed. the following night we stopped at stamford, which was, as i viewed it, a great place; here i saw a few sloops on the sound, which i thought was the greatest sight that i had ever seen. this was years before a steamboat had ever passed through the sound. the next morning we started again for new york, and as we passed along i was more and more astonished at the wonderful things that i saw, and began to think that the world was very extensive. we did not arrive at the city until night, but there being a full moon every thing appeared as pleasant, as in the day-time. we passed down through the bowery, which was then like a country village, then through chatham street to pearl street, and stopped for the night at a house kept by old mr. titus. i arose early the next morning and hurried into the street to see how a city looked by day-light. i stood on the corner of chatham and pearl for more than an hour, and i must confess that if i was ever astonished in my life, it was at that time. i could not understand why so many people, of every age, description and dress, were hurrying so in every direction. i asked a man what was going on, and what all this excitement meant, but he passed right along without noticing me, which i thought was very uncivil, and i formed a very poor opinion of those city folks. i ate nothing that morning, for i thought i could be in better business for a while at least. i wandered about gazing at the many new sights, and went out as far as the park; at that time the workmen were finishing the interior of the city hall. i was greatly puzzled to know how the winding stone stairs could be fixed without any seeming support and yet be perfectly safe. after viewing many sights, all of which were exceedingly interesting to me, i returned to the house where my companions were. they told me that they had just heard that the ship macedonian, which was taken a few days before from the british by one of our ships, had just been brought into the harbor and lay off down by burling slip, or in that region. we went down to see her, and went on board. i was surprised and frightened to see brains and blood scattered about on the deck in every direction. this prize was taken by the gallant decatur, but a short distance from new york. hastening back from this sickening scene, we resumed our journey. my two companions had been telling me that we should have to cross the north river in a boat, and i did not understand how a boat could be made to carry our team and be perfectly safe, but when we arrived there, i was much surprised to see other teams that were to cross over with us, and a number of people. at that time an old scow crossed from new york city to the jersey shore, once in about two hours. what a great change has taken place in the last forty-seven years; now large steam ferry boats are crossing and recrossing, making the trip in a few minutes. it was the first time that i had ever crossed a stream, except on a bridge, and i feared that we might upset and all be drowned, but no accident happened to us; we landed in safety, and went on our way rejoicing towards elizabethtown. at that place i saw a regiment of soldiers from kentucky, who were on their way to the northern frontier to fight the british. they were a rough set of fellows, and looked as though they could do a great deal of fighting. it will be remembered that this was the time of the last war with england. we passed on through elizabethtown and morristown to dutch valley, where we stopped for the night. we remained at this place a few days, looking about for a cabinet shop, or a suitable place to make the clock cases. not succeeding, we went a mile further north, to a place called schooler's mountain; here we found a building that suited us. it was then the day before christmas. the people of that region, we found, kept that day more strictly than the sabbath, and as we were not ready to go to work, we passed christmas day indoors feeling very lonely indeed. the next day we began operations. a young man from the lower part of new jersey worked with me all winter. we boarded ourselves in the same building that we worked in, i doing all of the house-work and cooking, none of which was very fine or fancy, our principal food being pork, potatoes and bread, using our work-bench for a table. hard work gave us good appetite. we would work on an average about fifteen hours a day, the house-work not occupying much of our time. i was then only nineteen years old, and it hardly seems possible that the boys of the present day could pass through such trials and hardships, and live. we worked in this way all winter. when the job was finished, i took my little budget of clothes and started for home. i traveled the first day as far as elizabethtown, and stopped there all night, but found no conveyance from there to new york. i was told that if i would go down to the point, i might in the course of the day, get a passage in a sailing vessel to the city. i went down early in the morning and, after waiting till noon, found a chance to go with two men in a small sail boat. i was greatly alarmed at the strange motions of the boat which i thought would upset, and felt greatly relieved when i was again on terra firma. i wandered about the streets of new york all that afternoon, bought a quantity of bread and cheese, and engaged a passage on the packet sloop eliza, for new haven, of her captain zebulon bradley. i slept on board of her that night at the dock, the next day we set sail for new haven, about ten o'clock in the forenoon, with a fair wind, and arrived at the long wharf in (that city) about eight o'clock the same day. i stopped at john howe's hotel, at the head of the wharf. this was the first time that i was ever in this beautiful city, and i little thought then that i ever should live there, working at my favorite business, with three hundred men in my employ, or that i should ever be its mayor.--times change. very early the next morning, after looking about a little, i started with my bundle of clothes in one hand, and my bread and cheese in the other, to find the waterbury turnpike, and after dodging about for a long time, succeeded in finding it, and passed on up through waterbury to plymouth, walking the whole distance, and arrived home about three o'clock in the afternoon. this was my first trip abroad, and i really felt that i was a great traveler, one who had seen much of the world! what a great change has taken place in so short space of time. soon after i returned from my western trip, there began to be a great excitement throughout the land, about the war. it was proposed by the governor of connecticut, john cotton smith, of sharon, to raise one or two regiments of state troops to defend it in case of invasion. one company of one hundred men, was raised in the towns of waterbury, watertown, middlebury, plymouth and bethlem, and john buckingham chosen captain, who is now living in waterbury; the other commissioned officers of the company, were jas. m.l. scovill, of waterbury, and joseph h. bellamy, of bethlem. the company being composed of young men, and i being about the right age, had of course to be one of them. early in the summer of , the british fleet run two of our ships of war up the thames river, near new london. their ships being so large could not enter, but lay at its mouth. their presence so near greatly alarmed the citizens of that city, and in fact, all of the people in the eastern part of the state. our regiment was ordered to be ready to start for new london by the first of august. the plymouth company was called together on sunday, which was the first of august, and exercised on the green in front of the church, in the fore part of the day. this unusual occurrence of a military display on the sabbath greatly alarmed the good people of the congregation, but it really was a case of necessity, we were preparing to defend our homes from a foreign foe. in the afternoon we attended church in a body, wearing our uniforms, to the wonder and astonishment of boys, but terrible to the old people. on monday morning we started on a march to hartford, sleeping that night in a barn, in the eastern part of farmington, and reaching hartford the next day, where we joined the other companies, and all started for new london. the first night we slept in a barn in east hartford, and the second one in an old church in marlboro. i remember lying on the seat of a pew, with my knapsack under my head. we arrived at new london on saturday, marching the whole distance in the first week in august, and a hotter time i have never experienced since. we were dressed in heavy woolen clothes, carrying heavy guns and knapsacks, and wearing large leather caps. it was indeed a tedious job. we were whole days traveling what can now be done in less than as many hours, and were completely used up when we arrived there, which would not appear strange. we were immediately stationed on the high ground, back from the river, about half way between the city and the light-house, in plain view of the enemy's ships. they would frequently, when there was a favorable wind, hoist their sails and beat about in the harbor, making a splendid appearance, and practising a good deal with their heavy guns on a small american sloop, which they had taken and anchored a long distance off. the bounding of the cannon balls on the water was an interesting sight to me. the first night after our arrival, i was put on guard near the light-house, and in plain sight of the ships. i was much afraid that the sharp shooters from their barges would take me for a target and be smart enough to hit me; and a heavy shower with thunder and lightning passing over us during the night, did not alleviate my distress. i was but a boy, only twenty years old, and would naturally be timid in such a situation, but i passed the night without being killed; it seems that was not the way that i was to die. i soon became sick and disgusted with a soldier's life; it seemed to be too lazy and low-lived to suit me, and, as near as i could judge, the inhabitants thought us all a low set of fellows. i never have had a desire to live or be anywhere without i could be considered at least as good as the average, which failing i have now as strong as ever. we not having any battles to fight, had no opportunities of showing our bravery, and after guarding the city for forty-five days, were discharged; over which we made a great rejoicing, and returned home by the way of new haven, which was my second visit to this city. the north and centre churches were then building, also, the house now standing at the north-east corner of the green, owned then by david deforest; stopping here over night, we pased [sic] on home to plymouth. i had not slept on a bed since i left home, and would have as soon taken the barn floor as a good bed. this ended my first campaign. after this i went to work at my trade, the joiners business. i was still an apprentice; would not be twenty-one till the next june. the war was not yet over, and in october, , our regiment was ordered by governor smith to new haven, to guard the city. col. sanford, (father of elihu and harvey sanford of this city,) commanded us. on arriving, we were stationed at the old slaughter-house, in the eastern part of the city, at the end of green street. all the land east of academy street was then in farmers' lots, and planted with corn, rye and potatoes now covered with large manufactories and fine dwellings. i little thought then, that i should have the largest clock-factory in the world, within a stone's throw of my sleeping-place, as has since proved. nothing of much importance took place during our campaign at new haven. the british did not land or molest us. we built a large fort on the high grounds, on the east haven side, which commanded the harbor, the ruins of which can now be seen from the city. a good deal of fault was found by the officers and men with the provisions, which were very poor. when this campaign closed i was through with my military glory, and returned to my home, sick and disgusted with a soldier's life. i hope our country will not be disgraced with another war. all of the old people will remember what a great rejoicing there was through the whole country, when peace was declared in february, . i was married about that time to salome smith, daughter of capt. theophilus smith, one of the last of the puritanical families there was in the town; she made one of the best of wives and mothers. she died on the th of march, . we lived together years. a short time after we were married, i moved to the town of farmington, and hired a house of mr. chauncey deming to live in, and went to work for capt. selah porter, for twenty dollars per month. we built a house for maj. timothy cowles, which was then the best one in farmington. i was not worth at this time fifty dollars in the world. , the year after the war, was, probably the hardest one there has been for the last hundred years, for a young man to begin for himself. pork was sold for thirteen dollars per hundred, flour at thirteen dollars per barrel; molasses was sold for seventy-five cents per gallon, and brown sugar at thirty-four cents per pound. i remember buying some cotton cloth for a common shirt, for which i paid one dollar a yard, no better than can now be bought for ten cents. i mention these things to let the young men know what a great change has taken place, and what my prospects were at that time. not liking this place, i moved back to plymouth. i did not have money enough to pay my rent, which however, was not due until the next may, but mr. deming, who by the way, was one of the richest men in the state, was determined that i should not go till i had paid him. i promised him that he should have the money when it was due, if my life was spared, and he finally consented to let me go. when it came due i walked to farmington, fifteen miles, paid him and walked back the same day, feeling relieved and happy. i obtained the job of finishing the inside of a dwelling house, which gave me great encouragement. the times were awful hard and but little business done at anything. it would almost frighten a man to see a five dollar bill, they were so very scarce. my work was about two miles from where i lived. my wife was confined about this time with her first babe. i would rise every morning two hours before day-light and prepare my breakfast, and taking my dinner in a little pail, bid my good wife good-by for the day, and start for my work, not returning till night. about this time the congregational society employed a celebrated music teacher to conduct the church singing, and i having always had a desire to sing sacred music, joined his choir and would walk a long distance to attend the singing schools at night after working hard all day. i was chosen chorister after a few weeks, which encouraged me very much in the way of singing, and was afterwards employed as a teacher to some extent, and for a long time led the singing there and at bristol where i afterwards lived. the next summer was the cold one of , which none of the old people will ever forget, and which many of the young have heard a great deal about. there was ice and snow in every month in the year. i well remember on the seventh of june, while on my way to work, about a mile from home, dressed throughout with thick woolen clothes and an overcoat on, my hands got so cold that i was obliged to lay down my tools and put on a pair of mittens which i had in my pocket. it snowed about an hour that day. on the tenth of june, my wife brought in some clothes that had been spread on the ground the night before, which were frozen stiff as in winter. on the fourth of july, i saw several men pitching quoits in the middle of the day with thick overcoats on, and the sun shining bright at the same time. a body could not feel very patriotic in such weather. i often saw men when hoeing corn, stop at the end of a row and get in the sun by a fence to warm themselves. not half enough corn ripened that year to furnish seed for the next. i worked at my trade, and had the job of finishing the inside of a three-story house, having twenty-seven doors and a white oak matched floor to make, and did the whole for eighty-five dollars. the same work could not now be done as i did it for less than five hundred dollars. such times as these were indeed hard for poor young men. we did not have many carpets or costly furniture and servants; but as winter approached times seemed to grow harder and harder. no work could be had. i was in debt for my little house and lot which i had bought only a short time before, near the center of plymouth, and had a payment to make on it the next spring. i proposed going south to the city of baltimore, to obtain work, and had already made preparations to go and leave my young family for the winter, at which i could not help feeling very sad, when i accidentally heard that mr. eli terry was about to fit up his factory (which was built the year before,) for making his new patent shelf clock. i thought perhaps i could get a job with him, and started immediately to see mr. terry, and closed a bargain with him at once. i never shall forget the great good feeling that this bargain gave me. it was a pleasant kind of business for me, and then i knew i could see my family once a week or oftener if necessary. chapter ii. progress of clock making.--improvements by eli terry and others.--shelf clock. at the beginning of this book i have said that i would give to the public a history of the american clock business. i am now the oldest man living that has had much to do with the manufacturing of clocks, and can, i believe, give a more correct account than any other person. this great business has grown almost from nothing during my remembrance. nearly all of the clocks used in this country are made or have been made in the small state of connecticut, and a heavy trade in them is carried on in foreign countries. the business or manufacture of them has become so systematized of late that it has brought the prices exceedingly low, and it has long been the astonishment of the whole world how they could be made so cheap and yet be good. a gentleman called at my factory a few years ago, when i was carrying on the business, who said he lived in london, and had seen my clocks in that city, and declared that he was perfectly astonished at the price of them, and had often remarked that if he ever came to this country he would visit the factory and see for himself. after i had showed him all the different processes it required to complete a clock, he expressed himself in the strongest terms--he told me he had traveled a great deal in europe, and had taken a great interest in all kinds of manufactures, but had never seen anything equal to this, and did not believe that there was anything made in the known world that made as much show, and at the same time was as cheap and useful as the brass clock which i was then manufacturing. * * * * * the man above all others in his day for the wood clock was eli terry. he was born in east windsor, conn., in april, , and made a few old fashioned hang-up clocks in his native place before he was twenty-one years of age. he was a young man of great ingenuity and good native talent. he moved to the town of plymouth, litchfield county, in , and commenced making a few of the same kind, working alone for several years. about the year , he might have had a boy or one or two young men to help him. they would begin one or two dozen at a time, using no machinery, but cutting the wheels and teeth with a saw and jack-knife. mr. terry would make two or three trips a year to the new country, as it was then called, just across the north river, taking with him three or four clocks, which he would sell for about twenty-five dollars apiece. this was for the movement only. in he bought an old mill in the southern part of the town, and fitted it up to make his clocks by machinery. about this time a number of men in waterbury associated themselves together, and made a large contract with him, they furnishing the stock, and he making the movements. with this contract and what he made and sold to other parties, he accumulated quite a little fortune for those times. the first five hundred clocks ever made by machinery in the country were started at one time by mr. terry at this old mill in , a larger number than had ever been begun at one time in the world. previous to this time the wheels and teeth had been cut out by hand; first marked out with square and compasses, and then sawed with a fine saw, a very slow and tedious process. capt. riley blakeslee, of this city, lived with mr. terry at that time, and worked on this lot of clocks, cutting the teeth. talking with capt. blakeslee a few days since, he related an incident which happened when he was a boy, sixty years ago, and lived on a farm in litchfield. one day mr. terry came to the house where he lived to sell a clock. the man with whom young blakeslee lived, left him to plow in the field and went to the house to make a bargain for it, which he did, paying mr. terry in salt pork, a part of which he carried home in his saddle-bags where he had carried the clock. he was at that time very poor, but twenty-five years after was worth $ , , all of which he made in the clock business. mr. terry sold out his business to seth thomas and silas hoadley, two of his leading workmen, in . this establishment was the leading one for several years, but other ones springing up in the vicinity, the competition became so great that the prices were reduced from ten to five dollars apiece for the bare movement. daniel clark, zenas cook and wm. porter, started clock-making at waterbury, and carried it on largely for several years, but finally failed and went out of the business. col. wm. leavenworth, of the same place, was in the business in , but failed, and moved to albany, n.y. a man by the name of mark leavenworth made clocks for a long time, and in the latter part of his life manufactured the patent shelf clock. two brothers, james and lemuel harrison, made a few before the year , using no machinery, making their wheels with a saw and knife. sixty years ago, a man by the name of gideon roberts got up a few in the old way: he was an excellent mechanic and made a good article. he would finish three or four at a time and take them to new york state to sell. i have seen him many times, when i was a small boy, pass my father's house on horseback with a clock in each side of his saddle-bags, and a third lashed on behind the saddle with the dials in plain sight. they were then a great curiosity to me. mr. roberts had to give up this kind of business; he could not compete with machinery. john rich of bristol was in the business; also levi lewis, but gave it up in a few years. an ives family in bristol were quite conspicuous as clock-makers. they were good mechanics. one of them, joseph ives, has done a great deal towards improving the eight day brass clock, which i shall speak about hereafter. chauncey boardman, of bristol, riley whiting, of winsted, and asa hopkins, of northfield, were all engaged in the manufacture of the old fashioned hang-up clock. butler dunbar, an old schoolmate of mine, and father of col. edward dunbar, of bristol, was engaged with dr. titus merriman in the same business. they all gave up the business after a few years. mr. eli terry (in the year ,) invented a beautiful shelf clock made of wood, which completely revolutionized the whole business. the making of the old fashioned hang-up wood clock, about which i have been speaking, passed out of existence. this patent article mr. terry introduced, was called the pillar scroll top case. the pillars were about twenty-one inches long, three-quarters of an inch at the base, and three-eights at the top--resting on a square base, and the top finished by a handsome cap. it had a large dial eleven inches square, and tablet below the dial seven by eleven inches. this style of clock was liked very much and was made in large quantities, and for several years. mr. terry sold a right to manufacture them to seth thomas, for one thousand dollars, which was thought to be a great sum. at first, terry and thomas made each about six thousand clocks per year, but afterwards increased to ten or twelve thousand. they were sold for fifteen dollars apiece when first manufactured. i think that these two men cleared about one hundred thousand dollars apiece, up to the year . mr. thomas had made a good deal of money on the old fashioned style, for he made a good article, and had but little competition, and controlled most of the trade. in , joseph ives invented a metal clock, making the plates of iron and the wheels of brass. the movement was very large, and required a case about five feet long. this style was made for two or three years, but not in large quantities. in the year , the writer invented a new case, somewhat larger than the scroll top, which was called the bronze looking-glass clock. this was the richest looking and best clock that had ever been made, for the price. they could be got up for one dollar less than the scroll top, yet sold for two dollars more. chapter iii. personal history continued.--commencing business.--sale to a southerner.--removal to bristol.--first serious loss. i must now go back and give a history of myself, from the winter of , to this time ( .) as i said before, i went to work for mr. terry, making the patent shelf clock in the winter of . mr. thomas had been making them for about two years, doing nearly all of the labor on the case by hand. mr. terry in the mean time being a great mechanic had made many improvements in the way of making the cases. under his directions i worked a long time at putting up machinery and benches. we had a circular saw, the first one in the town, and which was considered a great curiosity. in the course of the winter he drew another plan of the pillar scroll top case with great improvements over the one which thomas was then making. i made the first one of the new style that was ever produced in that factory, which became so celebrated for making the patent case for more than ten years after. when my time was out in the spring, i bought some parts of clocks, mahogany, veneers, etc., and commenced in a small shop, business for myself. i made the case, and bought the movements, dials and glass, finishing a few at a time. i found a ready sale for them. i went on in this small way for a few years, feeling greatly animated with my prosperity, occasionally making a payment on my little house. i heard one day of a man in bristol, who did business in south carolina, who wanted to buy a few clocks to take to that market with him. i started at once over to see him, and soon made a bargain with him to deliver twelve wood clocks at twelve dollars apiece. i returned home greatly encouraged by the large order, and went right to work on them. i had them finished and boxed ready for shipping in a short time. i had agreed to deliver them on a certain day and was to receive $ in cash. i hired an old horse and lumber wagon of one of my neighbors, loaded the boxes and took an early start for bristol. i was thinking all the way there of the large sum that i was to receive, and was fearful that something might happen to disappoint me. i arrived at bristol early in the forenoon and hurried to the house of my customer, and told him i had brought the the clocks as agreed. he said nothing but went into another room with his son. i thought surely that something was wrong and that i should not get the wished-for money, but after a while the old gentleman came back and sat down by the table. "here," he says, "is your money, and a heap of it, too." it did look to me like a large sum, and took us a long time to count it. this was more than forty years ago, and money was very scarce. i took it with a trembling hand, and securing it safely in my pocket, started immediately for home. this was a larger sum than i had ever had at one time, and i was much alarmed for fear that i should be robbed of my treasure before i got home. i thought perhaps it might be known that i was to receive a large sum for clocks, and that some robbers might be watching in a lonely part of the road and take it from me, but not meeting any, i arrived safely home, feeling greatly encouraged and happy. i told my wife that i would make another payment on our house, which i did with a great deal of satisfaction. after this i was so anxious to get along with my work that i did not so much as go out into the street for a week at a time. i would not go out of the gate from the time i returned from church one sunday till the next. i loved to work as well as i did to eat. i remember once, when at school, of chopping a whole load of wood, for a great lazy boy, for one penny, and i used to chop all the wood i could get from the families in the neighborhood, moonlight nights, for very small sums. the winter after i made this large sale, i took about one dozen of the pillar scroll top clocks, and went to the town of wethersfield to sell them. i hired a man to carry me over there with a lumber wagon, who returned home. i would take one of these clocks under each arm and go from house to house and offer them for sale. the people seemed to be well pleased with them, and i sold them for eighteen dollars apiece. this was good luck for me. i sold my last one on saturday afternoon. there had been a fall of snow the night before of about eight or ten inches which ended in a rain, and made very bad walking. here i was, twenty-five miles from home, my wife was expecting me, and i felt that i could not stay over sunday. i was anxious to tell my family of my good luck that we might rejoice together. i started to walk the whole distance, but it proved to be the hardest physical undertaking that i ever experienced. it was bedtime when i reached farmington, only one-third the distance, wallowing in snow porridge all the way. i did not reach home till near sunday morning, more dead than alive. i did not go to church that day, which made many wonder what had become of me, for i was always expected to be in the singers' seat on sunday. i did not recover from the effects of that night-journey for a long time. soon after this occurrence, i began to increase my little business, and and employed my old joiner "boss" and one of his apprentices; bought my mahogany in the plank and sawed my own vaneers [sic] with a hand-saw. i engaged a man with a one horse wagon to go to new york after a load of mahogany, and went with him to select it. the roads were very muddy, and we were obliged to walk the whole distance home by the side of the wagon. i worked along in this small way until the year , when i sold my house and lot, which i had almost worshipped, to mr. terry; it was worth six hundred dollars. he paid me one hundred wood clock movements, with the dials, tablets, glass and weights. i went over to bristol to see a man by the name of george mitchell, who owned a large two story house, with a barn and seventeen acres of good land in the southern part of the town, which he said he would sell and take his pay in clocks. i asked him how many of the terry patent clocks he would sell it for; he said two hundred and fourteen. i told him i would give it, and closed the bargain at once. i finished up the hundred parts which i had got from mr. terry, exchanged cases with him for more, obtained some credit, and in this way made out the quantity for mitchell. the next summer i lost seven hundred and forty dollars by moses galpin of bethlem. five or six others with myself trusted this man galpin with a large quantity of clocks, and he took them to louisiana to sell in the fall of . in the course of the winter he was taken sick and died there. one of his pedlars came home the next spring without one dollar in money; the creditors were called together to see what had better be done. the note that he had given me the fall before was due in july, and i as much expected it as i did the sun to rise and set. here was trouble indeed; it was a great sum of money to lose, and what to do i didn't know. the creditors had several meetings and finally concluded to send out a man to look after the property that was scattered through the state. he could not go without money. we thought if we furnished him with means to go and finish up the business, we should certainly get enough to pay the original debt. it was agreed that we should raise a certain sum, and that each one should pay in proportion to the amount of his claim. my part was one hundred dollars, and it was a hard job for me to raise so large a sum after my great loss. when it came fall and time for him to start, i managed in some way to have it ready. this man's name was isaac turner, about fifty years old, and said to be very respectable. he started out and traveled all over the state, but found every thing in the worst kind of shape. the men to whom galpin had sold would not pay when they heard that he was dead. mr. turner was gone from home ten months, but instead of his returning with money for us, we were obliged to pay money that he had borrowed to get home with, besides his expenses for the ten months that he was gone. this was harder for me than any of the others, and was indeed a bitter pill. as it was my first heavy loss i could not help feeling very bad. in the winter and spring of , i built a small shop in bristol, for making the cases only, as all of the others made the movements. the first circular saw ever used there was put up by myself in , and this was the commencement of making cases by machinery in that town, which has since been so renowned for its clock productions. i went on making cases in a small way for a year or two, sometimes putting in a few movements and selling them, but not making much money. the clocks of terry and thomas sold first rate, and it was quite difficult to buy any of the movements, as no others were making the patent clock at that time. i was determined to have some movements to case, and went to chauncey boardman, who had formerly made the old fashioned hang-up movements, and told him i wanted him to make me two hundred of his kind with such alterations as i should suggest. he said he would make them for me. i had them altered and made so as to take a case about four feet long, which i made out of pine, richly stained and varnished. this made a good clock for time and suited farmers first rate. in the spring of , i went into company with two men by the name of peck, from bristol. we took two hundred of these movements and a few tools in two one horse wagons and started east, intending to stop in the vicinity of boston. we stopped at a place about fifteen miles from there called east randolph; after looking about a little, we concluded to start our business there and hired a joiners' shop of john adams, a cousin of j.q. adams. we then went to boston and bought a load of lumber, and commenced operations. i was the case-maker of our concern, and 'pitched into' the pine lumber in good earnest. i began four cases at a time and worked like putting out fire on them. my partners were waiting for some to be finished so that they could go out and sell. in two or three days i had got them finished and they started with them, and i began four more. in a day or two they returned home having sold them at sixteen dollars _each_. this good fortune animated me very much. i worked about fourteen or fifteen hours per day, and could make about four cases and put in the glass, movements and dials. we worked on in this way until we had finished up the two hundred, and sold them at an average of sixteen dollars apiece. we had done well and returned home with joyful hearts in the latter part of june. on arriving home i found my little daughter about five years old quite sick. in a week after she died. i deeply felt the loss of my little daughter, and every th of july it comes fresh into my mind. in the fall of , i formed a company with my brother, noble jerome, and elijah darrow, for the manufacturing of clocks, and began making a movement that required a case about six or eight inches longer than the terry patent. we did very well at this for a year or two, during which time i invented the bronze looking glass clock, which soon revolutionized the whole business. as i have said before, it could be made for one dollar less and sold for two dollars more than the patent case; they were very showy and a little longer. with the introduction of this clock in the year , closed the second chapter of the history of the yankee clock business. chapter iv. the bronze looking glass clock.--church at bristol.--panic of .-- clocks at the south.--the one day brass clock. with the introduction of the bronze looking-glass clock, the business seemed to revive in all the neighboring towns, but more especially in plymouth and bristol. both mr. terry and mr. thomas, did and said much in disparagement of my new invention, and tried to discourage the pedlars from buying of me, but they did as men do now-a-days, buy where they can do the best and make the most money. this new clock was liked very much in the southern market. i have heard of some of these being sold in mississippi and lousianna [sic] as high as one hundred and one hundred and fifteen dollars, and a great many at ninety dollars, which was a good advance on the first cost. mr. thomas gave out that he would not make them any how, he did not want to follow jerome, but did finally come to it, making only a few at first, but running them down in the mean time and praising his old case. he finally gave up making the scroll top and made my new kind altogether. samuel terry, a brother of eli, came to bristol about this time, and commenced making this kind of clock. several others began to make them--geo. mitchell and his brother in-law rollin atkins went into it, also riley whiting of winsted. the business increased very rapidly between and . during these ten years jeromes and barrow made more than any other company. the two towns of plymouth and bristol grew and improved very rapidly; many new houses were built, and every thing looked prosperous. in , a new church was built in bristol, and, it is said, through the introduction of this bronze looking glass clock. jeromes and barrow paid one-third of the cost of its erection. the writer obtained every dollar of the subscription. the hon. tracy peck and myself first started this project, which ended in building this fine church which was finished and dedicated in august, . the rev. david lewis parmelee preached the dedication sermon, and was the settled minister there. i was greatly interested in his preaching for ten years. he has for the last nineteen years preached at south farms now the town of morris. this mr. parmelee was a merchant till he was thirty years old, and was then converted in some mysterious manner, as st. paul was, and left his business to preach the gospel. he proved to be one of the soundest preachers in the land, and i have no doubt but he will be one of the bright and shining lights in heaven. oh! what happy days i saw during those ten years, little dreaming of the great troubles that were before me, or that i should experience in after life, which are now resting so heavily upon me, many times seeming greater than i can bear. but such is life. about this time, also, chauncey and lawson c. ives, two highly respectable men, built a factory in bristol for the purpose of making an eight day brass clock. this clock was invented by joseph ives, a brother of chauncey, and sold for about twenty dollars. the manufacture of these was carried on very successfully for a few years by them, but in , their business was closed up, they having made about one hundred thousand dollars. soon after this, in , came the great panic and break down of business which extended all over the country. clock makers and almost every one else stopped business. i should mention that another company made the eight day brass clock previous to , erastus and harvey case and john birge. their clocks were retailed mostly in the southern market. they made perhaps four thousand a year. the ives co., made about two thousand, but both went out of business in , and it was thought that clock making was about done with in conn. the third chapter, as i have divided it, was now closing up. wood clocks were good for time, but it was a slow job to properly make them, and difficult to procure wood just right for wheels and plates, and it took a whole year to season it. no factory had made over _ten_ thousand in a year; they were always classed with wooden nutmegs and wooden cucumber seeds, and could not be introduced into other countries to any advantage. but this was not the only trouble; being on water long as they would have to be, would swell the wood of the wheels and ruin the clock. here then we had the eight day brass clock costing about twenty dollars; the idea had always been that a brass clock must be an eight day, and all one day should be of wood, and the plan of a brass one day had never been thought of. in , the southern people were greatly opposed to the yankee pedlars coming into their states, especially the clock pedlars, and the licences were raised so high by their legislatures that it amounted to almost a prohibition. their laws were that any goods made in their own states could be sold without licence. therefore clocks to be profitable must be made in those states. chauncey and noble jerome started a factory in richmond va., making the cases and parts at bristol, connecticut, and packing them with the dials, glass &c. we shipped them to richmond and took along workmen to put them together. the people were highly pleased with the idea of having clocks all made in their state. the old planters would tell the pedlars they meant to go to richmond and see the wonderful machinery there must be to produce such articles and would no doubt have thought the tools we had there were sufficient to make a clock. we carried on this kind of business for two or three years and did very well at it, though it was unpleasant. every one knew it was all a humbug trying to stop the pedlars from coming to their state. we removed from richmond to hamburg, s.c., and manufactured in the same way. this was in and ' . there was another company doing the same kind of business at augusta, geo., by the name case, dyer, wadsworth & co., and seth thomas was making the cases and movements for them. the hard times came down on us and we really thought that clocks would no longer be made. our firm thought we could make them if any body could, but like the others felt discouraged and disgusted with the whole business as it was then. i am sure that i had lost, from to this time, more than one hundred thousand _dollars_, and felt very much discouraged in consequence. our company had a good deal of unsettled business in virginia and south carolina, and i started in the fall of for those places. arriving at richmond, i had a strong notion of going into the marl business. i had been down into kent county, the summer before, where i saw great mountains of this white marl composed of shells of clams and oysters white as chalk. i had sent one vessel load of this to new haven the year before. at richmond i was looking after our old accounts, settling up, collecting notes and picking up some scattered clocks. one night i took one of these clocks into my room and placing it on the table, left a light burning near it and went to bed. while thinking over my business troubles and disappointments, i could not help feeling very much depressed. i said to myself i will not give up yet, i know more about the clock business than anything else. that minute i was looking at the wood clock on the table and it came into my mind instantly that there could be a cheap one day brass clock that would take the place of the wood clock. i at once began to figure on it; the case would cost no more, the dials, glass, and weights and other fixtures would be the same, and the size could be reduced. i lay awake nearly all night thinking this new thing over. i knew there was a fortune in it. many a sensible man has since told me that if i could have secured the sole right for making them for ten years, i could easily have made a million of dollars. the more i looked at this new plan, the better it appeared. my business took me to south carolina before i could return home. i had now enough to think of day and night; this one day brass clock was constantly on my mind; i was drawing plans and contriving how they could be made best. i traveled most of the way from richmond by stage. arriving at augusta, geo., i called on the connecticut men who were finishing wood clocks for that market, and told mr. dyer the head man, that i had got up, or could get up something when i got home that would run out all the wood clocks in the country, thomas's and all; he laughed at me quite heartily. i told him that was all right, and asked him to come to bristol when he went home and i would show him something that would astonish him. he promised that he would, and during the next summer when he called at my place, i showed him a shelf full of them running, which he acknowledged to be the best he had ever seen. i arrived home from the south the th of january, and told my brother who was a first-rate clock maker what i had been thinking about since i had been gone. he was much pleased with my plan, thought it a first rate idea, and said he would go right to work and get up the movement, which he perfected in a short time so that it was the best clock that had ever been made in this or any other country. there have been more of this same kind manufactured than of any other in the united states. what i originated that night on my bed in richmond, has given work to thousands of men yearly for more than twenty years, built up the largest manufactories in new england, and put more than a million of dollars into the pockets of the brass makers,--"but there is not one of them that remembers _joseph_." chapter v. success of the new invention.--introduction of clocks in england.--terry family, etc. we went on very prosperously making the new clock, and it was admired by every body. in the year , some of my neighbors and a few of my leading workmen had a great desire to get into the same kind of business. we knew competition amongst yankees was almost sure to kill business and proposed to have them come in with us and have a share of the profits. an arrangement to this effect was made and we went on in this way until the fall of . i found they were much annoyance and bother to me, and so bought them all out, but had to give them one hundred per cent. for the use of their money. some of them had not paid in anything, but i had to pay them the same profits i did the rest, to get rid of them. one man had put in three thousand dollars for which i paid him six thousand. i also bought out my brother noble jerome, who had been in company with me for a long time, and carried on the whole business alone, which seemed to be rapidly improving. i made in , thirty-five thousand dollars clear profits. men would come and deposit money with me before their orders were finished. this successful state of things set all of the wood clock makers half crazy, and they went into it one after another as fast as they could, and of course run down the price very fast--"yankee-like." i had been thinking for two or three years of introducing my clocks into england, and had availed myself of every opportunity to get posted on that subject; when i met englishmen in new york and other places, i would try to find out by them what the prospects would be for selling yankee clocks in their country. i ascertained that there were no cheap metal clocks used or known there, the only cheap timepiece they had was a dutch hang-up wood clock. in , i determined to make the venture of sending a consignment of brass clocks to old england. i made a bargain with epaphroditus peck, a very talented young man of bristol, a son of hon. tracy peck, to take them out, and sent my son--chauncey jerome, jr. with him. all of the first cargo consisted of the o.g. one day brass clocks. as soon as it was known by the neighboring clock-makers, they laughed at me, and ridiculed the idea of sending clocks to england where labor was so cheap. they said that they never would interfere with jerome in that visionary project, but no sooner had i got them well introduced, after spending thousands of dollars to effect it, than they had all forgotten what they said about my folly, and one after another sent over the same goods to compete with me and run down the price. as i have said before, wood clocks could never have been exported to europe from this country, for many reasons. they would have been laughed at, and looked upon with suspicion as coming from the wooden nutmeg country, and classed as the same. they could not endure a long voyage across the water without swelling the parts and rendering them useless as time-keepers; experience had taught us this, as many wood clocks on a passage to the southern market, had been rendered unfit for use for this very reason. metal clocks can be sent any where without injury. millions have been sent to europe, asia, south america, australia, palestine, and in fact, to every part of the world; and millions of dollars brought into this country by this means, and i think it not unfair to claim the honor of inventing and introducing this low-price time-piece which has given employment to so many of our countrymen, and has also, been so useful to the world at large. no family is so poor but that they can have a time-piece which is both useful and ornamental. they can be found in every civilized portion of the globe. meeting a sea captain one day, he told me that on landing at the lonely island of st. helena, the first thing that he noticed on entering a house, was my name on the face of a brass clock. many years ago a missionary (mr. ruggles,) at the sandwich islands, told me that he had one of my clocks in his house, the first one that had ever been on the islands. travelers have mentioned seeing them in the city of jerusalem, in many parts of egypt, and in fact, every where, which accounts could not but be interesting and gratifying to me. it was a long and tedious undertaking to introduce my first cargo in england. mr. peck and my son wrote me a great many times the first year, that they never could be sold there, the prejudice against american manufactures was so great that they would not buy them. although very much discouraged, i kept writing them to 'stick to it.' they were once turned out of a store in london and threatened if they offered their "yankee clocks" again to the english people "who made clocks for the world;" "they were good for nothing or they could not be offered so cheap." they were finally introduced in this way; the young men persuaded a merchant to take two into his store for sale. he reluctantly gave his consent, saying he did not believe they would run at all; they set the two running and left the price of them. on calling the next day to see how they were getting along, and what the london merchant thought of them, they were surprised to find them both gone. on asking what had become of them, they were told that two men came in and liked their looks and bought them. the merchant said he did not think any one would ever buy them, but told them they might bring in four more; "i will see" he says, "if i can sell any _more_ of your yankee clocks." they carried them in and calling the next day, found them all gone. the merchant then told them to bring in a dozen. these went off in a short time, and not long after, this same merchant bought two hundred at once, and other merchants began to think they could make some money on these yankee clocks and the business began to improve very rapidly. there are always men enough who are ready to enter into a business after it is started and looks favorable. a pleasing incident occurred soon after we first started. the revenue laws of england are (or were, at that time) that the owner of property passing through the custom-house shall put such a price on his goods as he pleases, knowing that the government officers have a right to take the property by adding ten per cent. to the invoiced price. i had always told my young men over there to put a fair price on the clocks, which they did; but the officers thought they put them altogether too low, so they made up their minds that they would take a lot, and seized one ship-load, thinking we would put the prices of the next cargo at higher rates. they paid the cash for this cargo, which made a good sale for us. a few days after, another invoice arrived which our folks entered at the same prices as before; but they were again taken by the officers paying us cash and ten per cent. in addition, which was very satisfactory to us. on the arrival of the third lot, they began to think they had better let the yankees sell their own goods and passed them through unmolested, and came to the conclusion that we could make clocks much better and cheaper than their own people. their performance has been considered a first-rate joke to say the least. there will, in all probability, be millions of clocks sold in that country, and we are the people who will furnish all europe with all their common cheap ones as time lasts. all of the spring and eight day clocks have grown out of the one day weight clock. there can now be as good an eight day clock bought for three or four dollars, as could be had for eighteen or twenty dollars before i got up the one day clock. mr. peck, who went to england with my son, died in london on the th, september, ; my son died in this country in july, : so they have gone the way of all the earth, and i shall have to follow them soon. they were instrumental in laying the foundation of a large and prosperous business which is now being successfully carried on. the duties on clocks to england have been recently removed, which will result to the advantage of persons now in the business. the many difficulties which we had to battle and contend with are all overcome. when i invented this one day brass clock, i for the first time put on the zinc dial which is now universally used, and is a great improvement on the wood dial, both in appearance and in cost. this simple idea has been of immense value to all clock-makers. in the year , when i moved to bristol, no one was making clocks in that town; the business had all passed away from there and was carried on in plymouth. the little shop i had put up had no machinery in it at that time. i soon began to make so many cases that i wanted some better way to get my veneers than to saw them by hand. i found a small building on a stream some distance from my shop which i secured, with the privilege of putting a circular saw in the upper part, but which i could not use till night--the power being wanted for the other machinery during the day. i have worked there a great many nights till twelve o'clock and even two in the morning, sawing veneers for my men to use the next day. i sawed my hand nearly off one night when alone at this old mill, and was so faint by the loss of blood that i could hardly reach home. i always worked hard myself and managed in the most economical manner possible. in , we built a small factory on the stream below the shop where i sawed my veneers two or three years before, but there was no road to it or bridge across the stream. i had crossed it for years on a pole, running the risk many times when the water was high, of being drowned, but it seems i was not to die in that way, but to live to help others and make a slave of myself for them. in , we petitioned the town to lay out a road by our factory and build a bridge, which was seriously objected to. we finally told them that if they would lay out the road, we would build the bridge and pay for one half of the land for the road, which, after a great deal of trouble, was agreed to, and proved to be of great benefit to the town. our business was growing very rapidly and a number of houses were built up along the new road and about our factory. i should here mention that mr. eli terry, jr., when i had got the bronze looking-glass clock well a going, moved from plymouth hollow two miles east of plymouth centre, (now the village of terryville,) where he built another factory and went into business. his father retiring about this time, he took all of his old customers. he was a good business man and made money very fast. he was taken sick and died when about forty years old, leaving an estate of about $ , . his brother, silas b. terry, is now living, a christian gentleman, as well as a scientific clock-maker, but he has not succeeded so well as his brother in making money. henry terry of plymouth, who is another son of mr. eli terry, was engaged in the clock business thirty years ago, but left it for the woolen business. i think that he is sorry that he did not continue making clocks. he is a man of great intelligence and understands the principles of a right tariff as well as any man in connecticut. his father was a great man, a natural philosopher, and almost an eli whitney in mechanical ingenuity. if he had turned his mind towards a military profession, he would have made another general scott, or towards politics, another jefferson; or, if he had not happened to have gone to the town of plymouth, i do not believe there would ever have been a clock made there. he was the great originator of wood clock-making by machinery in connecticut. i like to see every man have his due. thomas and many others who have made their fortunes out of his ingenuity, were very willing to talk against him, for they must, of course, act out human nature. seth thomas was in many respects a first-rate man. he never made any improvements in manufacturing; his great success was in money making. he always minded his own business, was very industrious, persevering, honest, his word was as good as his note, and he always determined to make a good article and please his customers. he had several sons who are said to be smart business men. i knew mrs. thomas well when i was a boy, fourteen years old. she is one of the best of women, and is now the widow of one of the richest men in the state. the families of terry and thomas are extensively known, throughout the united states. mr. thomas died two years ago at the age of seventy-five. he was born in west haven, about four miles from new haven, and learned the joiners' trade in wolcott, and worked in that region and in plymouth five or six years, building houses and barns. i waited on him when he built a barn in plymouth, carrying boards and shingles. he soon after went into the clock business in which he remained during life. mr. terry died in , at the advanced age of eighty-one. chapter vi. operations of frank merrills--a sad history.--business troubles, etc. in the fall, of the year , a young man by the name of franklin merrills was introduced to me as one the smartest and likeliest business men in the whole country. it was said that he could trade in horses, cattle, sheep, wool, flour, or any thing else, and make money. he belonged to one of the first families in litchfield county. i thought by his appearance and recommendations that he would be a good customer for me and i sold him a thousand dollars worth of clocks to begin with. he gave me his four months' note which was promptly paid when due. he hired three pedlars and went with them into dutchess county new york, where they sold the clocks very fast. the one-day o.g. brass clock was a new thing to them, first-rate for time, and they readily went off for fifteen and twenty dollars apiece. i sold them to him for six dollars apiece, and it appeared, at this rate, that he could make a fortune in a few years. his credit became established for any amount, and he soon began to want clocks about twice as fast as at first. a man by the name of bates transported them for him in a large two-horse wagon from my place to washington hollow, about twelve miles east of poughkeepsie. mr. bates lived in the same neighborhood where frank was brought up in new hartford, conn. every week or two he would go out with a load. things moved on in this seemingly prosperous way for some time. one day i accidentally heard that parties in new york with whom i had never dealt, were selling my clocks at very reduced prices, and i began to mistrust that frank had been selling to them at less than cost. on seeing him, he told me i was greatly mistaken and smoothed down the matter so that it appeared satisfactory to me. he had at this time got into debt about eighteen thousand dollars. one day he went to hartford and bought seven thousand dollars worth of cotton cloth from a shrewd house in that city, telling them a very fine story that he had a vessel which would sail for south america the next day, and that the cloth must go down immediately on the boat. he told them who his father was, and promised to bring his endorsement in a few days, which was satisfactory to them, and they let him have the goods. but the paper did not come. one of the firm went to new york and there found some of the goods in an auction store, and a part of them sold. he got out a writ and arrested frank. his father was sent for, and settled this matter satisfactorily. i thought i would go up to new hartford and see capt. merrills about frank's affairs--he told me all about them, and said he had been looking over frank's business very thoroughly, and found that a large amount was owing him and that frank had shown him on his book invoices of a large amount of goods that he had shipped to south america, besides several large accounts and notes--one of eight thousand dollars. he told me that he thought after paying me and others whom he owed, there would be as much as twenty thousand dollars left. this was very satisfactory to me, though i knew nothing about the cotton cloth speculation at that time. if i had, it would have saved me a great deal of trouble. this was in february, . there was a note of his lying over, unpaid, in the exchange bank in hartford, of two thousand dollars. i had moved a few weeks before this to new haven. in the latter part of february, i went down to new york to see if he could let me have the two thousand to take up the note; he said he could in a day or two. i told him i would stay till saturday. on that day he was not able to pay me, but would certainly get it monday, and urged me to stay over, which i did. he took me into a large establishment with him, and, as i have since had reason to believe, talked with parties who were interested with him, about consigning to them a large quantity of tallow, beeswax and wool which he owned in the west. he told me that he had some trouble with his business, and that all he wanted was a little help; he said he had a great deal of property in new york state, and that if he could raise some money, he could make a very profitable speculation on a lot of wool which he knew about. he told me that if i would give him my notes and acceptances to a certain amount, he would secure me with the obligations of henry martin, one of the best farmers there was in dutchess county. he also gave the names of several merchants in new york who were acquainted with the rich farmers. i called on them and all spoke very highly of him. i thought, there could be no great risk in doing it, for my confidence in frank was very great. i thought, of course, this would insure my claim of eighteen thousand dollars, but it eventually proved to be a deep-laid plot to swindle me. frank had no notes or accounts that were of any value; they were all bogus and got up to deceive his poor old father and others. he had no property shipped to south america. it was all found out, when too late, that he had ruined himself by gambling and bad company, often losing a thousand dollars in one night. he was arrested, taken before the grand jury of new york, committed to jail for swindling, and died in a few months after. he ruined his father, who was a very cautious man, ruined three rich farmers of dutchess county, and came very near ruining me. it was a sad history and mortifying to a great many. i was advised by my counsel, seth p. staples of new york, to contest the whole thing in law. i had five or six suits on my hands at one time, and it was nine years before i was clear from them. what he owed me for clocks, and what i had to pay on notes and acceptances and the expenses of law, amounted to more than _forty thousand dollars_. nine years of wakeful nights of trouble, grief and mortification, for this profligate young man! there never was a man more honest than i was in my intentions to help him in his troubles, and i am quite sure no man got so badly swindled. every clock maker in the state would have been glad to have sold to him as i did. this young man was well brought up, but bad company ruined him and others with him. this life seems to be full of trials. in latter years i have remembered what an old man often told me when a boy. "chauncey," he says, "don't you know there are a thousand troubles and difficulties?" i told him i did not know there were; "well," he says, "you will find out if you live long enough." i have lived long enough to see ten thousand troubles, and have found out that the saying of the old man is true. i have narrated but a small part of my business troubless [sic] in this brief history. one of the most trying things to me now, is to see how i am looked upon by the community since i lost my property. i never was any better when i owned it than i am now, and never behaved any better. but how different is the feeling towards you, when your neighbors can make nothing more out of you, politically or pecuniarily. it makes no difference what, or how much you have done for them heretofore, you are passed by without notice now. it is all money and business, business and money which make the man now-a-days; success is every thing, and it makes very little difference how, or what means he uses to obtain it. how many we see every day that have ten times as much property as they will ever want, who will do any thing but steal to add to their estate, for somebody to fight about when they are dead. i see men every day sixty and seventy years old, building up and pulling down, and preparing, as one might reasonably suppose, to live here forever. where will they be in a few years? i often think of this. my experience has been great,--i have seen many a man go up and then go down, and many persons who, but a few years ago, were surrounded with honors and wealth, have passed away. the saying of the wise man is true--all is "vanity of vanities" here below. it is now a time of great action in the world but not much reflection. an incident of my boy-hood has just come into my mind. when an apprentice boy, i was at work with my "boss" on a house in torringford, very near the residence of rev. mr. mills, the father of samuel j. mills the missionary. this was in , fifty-one years ago. this young man was preparing to go out on his missionary voyage. how wickedly we are taught when we are young! i thought he was a mean, lazy fellow. he was riding out every day, as i now suppose, to add to his strength. an old maid lived in the house where i did who perfectly hated him, calling him a good-for-nothing fellow. i, of course, supposed that she knew all about him and that it was so. i am a friend to the missionary cause and have been so a great many years. how many times that wrong impression which i got from that old maid has passed through my mind, and how sorry i have always been for that prejudice. the father of samuel j. mills was a very eccentric man and anecdotes of him have been repeatedly told. i attended his church the summer i was in torringford. he was the strangest man i ever saw, and would say so many laughable things in his sermon that it was next to impossible for me to keep from laughing out loud. his congregation was composed mostly of farmers, and in hot weather they appeared to be very sleepy. the boys would sometimes play and make a good deal of noise, and one sunday he stopped in the middle of his sermon and looking around in the gallery, said in a loud voice, "boys, if you don't stop your noise and play, you will certainly wake your parents that are asleep below!" i think by this time the good people were all awake; it amused me very much and i have often seen the story printed. many a time when i think of mr. mills, an anecdote of him comes into my mind, and i presume that a great many have heard of the same. he was once traveling through the town of litchfield where there was at that time a famous law school. two or three of the students were walking a little way out of town, when who should they see coming along the road but old mr. mills. they supposing him to be some old "codger," thought they would have a little fun with him. when they met him one of them asked him "if he had heard the news?" "no," he says, "what is it?" "the devil is dead." "is he?" says mr. mills, "i am sorry for you--poor fatherless children, what will become of you?" i understand that they let him pass without further conversation. he was a good man and looked very old to me, as he always wore a large white wig. chapter vii. removal to new haven.--factory at bristol destroyed by fire.--other troubles, etc. in the winter of , i moved to the city of new haven with the expectation of making my cases there. i had fitted up two large factories in bristol for making brass movements only the year before, and had spared no pains to have them just right. my factory in new haven was fitted up expressly for making the cases and boxing the finished clocks; the movements were packed, one hundred in a box, and sent to new haven where they were cased and shipped. business moved on very prosperously for about one year. on the d of april , about the middle of the afternoon one of my factories in bristol took fire, as it was supposed by some boys playing with matches at the back side of the building, which set fire to some shavings under the floor. it seemed impossible to put it out and it proved to be the most disastrous fire that ever occurred in a country town. there were seven or eight buildings destroyed, together with all the machinery for making clocks, which was very costly and extensive. there were somewhere between fifty and seventy-five thousand brass movements in the works, a large number of them finished, and worth one dollar apiece. the loss was about fifty thousand dollars and the insurance only ten thousand. this was another dark day for me. i had been very sick all winter with the typhus fever, and from christmas to april had not been able to go to bristol. on the same night of the fire, a man came to tell me of the great loss. i was in another part of the house when he arrived with the message, but my wife did not think it prudent to inform me then, but in the latter part of the night she introduced a conversation that was calculated to prepare my mind for the sad news, and in a cautious manner informed me. i was at that time in the midst of my troubles with frank merrills, had been sick for a long time, and at one time was not expected to recover. i was not then able to attend to business and felt much depressed on that account. it was hard indeed to grapple with so much in one year, but i tried to make the best of it and to feel that these trials, troubles and disappointments sent upon us in this world, are blessings in disguise. oh! if we could really feel this to be so in all of our troubles, it would be well for us in this world and better in the next. i never have seen the real total depravity of the human heart show itself more plainly or clearly than it did when my factories were destroyed by fire. an envious feeling had always been exhibited by others in the same business towards me, and those who had made the most out of my improvements and had injured my reputation by making an inferior article, were the very ones who rejoiced the most then. not a single man of them ever did or could look me in the face and say that i had ever injured him. this feeling towards me was all because i was in their way and my clocks at that time were preferred before any others. they really thought i never could start again, and many said that jerome would never make any more clocks. i learned this maxim long ago, that when a man injures another unreasonably, to act out human nature he has got to keep on misrepresenting and abusing him to make himself appear right in the sight of the world. soon after the fire in bristol i had gained my strength sufficiently to go ahead again, and commenced to make additions to my case factory in new haven (to make the movements,) and by the last of june was ready to commence operations on the brass movements. i then brought my men from bristol--the movement makers--and a noble set of men as ever came into new haven at one time. look at john woodruff; he was a young man then of nineteen. when he first came to work for me at the age of fifteen, i believed that he was destined to be a leading man. he is now in congress (elected for the second time,) honest, kind, gentlemanly, and respected in congress and out of congress. look at him, young men, and pattern after him, you can see in his case what honesty, industry and perseverance will accomplish. there was great competition in the business for several years after i moved to new haven, and a great many poor clocks made. the business of selling greatly increased in new york, and within three or four years after i introduced the one day brass clock, several companies in bristol and plymouth commenced making them. most of them manufactured an inferior article of movement, but found sale for great numbers of them to parties that were casing clocks in new york. this way of managing proved to be a great damage to the connecticut clock makers. the new york men would buy the very poorest movements and put them into cheap o.g. cases and undersell us. merchants from the country, about this time, began to buy clocks with their other goods. they had heard about jerome's clocks which had been retailed about the country, and that they were good time-keepers, and would enquire for my clocks. these new york men would say that they were agents for jerome and that they would have a plenty in a few days, and make a sale to these merchants of jerome clocks. they would then go to the printers and have a lot of labels struck off and put into their cheap clocks, and palm them off as mine. this fraud was carried on for several years. i finally sued some of these blackleg parties, samuels & dunn, and sperry & shaw, and found out to my satisfaction that they had used more than two hundred thousand of my labels. they had probably sent about one hundred thousand to europe. i sued samuels & dunn for twenty thousand dollars and when it came to trial i proved it on them clearly. i should have got for damages fifteen thousand dollars, had it not been for one of the jury. one was for giving me twenty thousand, another eighteen, and the others down to seven thousand five hundred. this one man whom i speak of, was opposed to giving me anything, but to settle it, went as high as two thousand three hundred. the jury thought that i had a great deal of trouble with this case and rather than have it go to another court, had to come to this man's terms. the foreman told me afterwards that he had no doubt but this man was bought. new york is a hard place to have a law suit in. this cheat had been carried on for years, both in this country and in europe,--using my labels and selling poor articles, and in this way robbing me of my reputation by the basest means. after this sperry, who was in company with shaw, had been dead a short time, a statement was published in the new york papers that this henry sperry was a wonderful man, and that he was the first man who went to england with yankee clocks. after i had sent over my two men and had got my clocks well introduced, and had them there more than a year, sperry & shaw, hearing that we were doing well and selling a good many, thought they would take a trip to europe, and took along perhaps fifty boxes of clocks. i have since heard that their conduct was very bad while there, and this is all they did towards introducing clocks. there is no one who can claim any credit of introducing american clocks into that country excepting myself. after i had opened a store in new york, we did, in a measure, stop these men from using my labels. i have said that when i got up this one day brass clock in , that the fourth chapter in the yankee clock business had commenced. perhaps seth thomas hated as bad as any one did to change his whole business of clock making for the second time, and adopt the same thing that i had introduced. he never invented any thing new, and would now probably have been making the same old hang-up wood clocks of fifty years ago, had it not been for others and their improvements. he was highly incensed at me because i was the means of his having to change. he hired a man to go around to my customers and offer his clocks at fifty and seventy-five cents less than i was selling. a man by the name of j.c. brown carried on the business in bristol a long time, and made a good many fine clocks, but finally gave up the business. elisha monross, smith & goodrich, brewster & ingraham were all in the same business, but have given it up, and the clock making of connecticut is now mostly done in five large factories in different parts of the state, about which i shall speak hereafter. chapter viii. further improvements in cheap time-keepers. --the process of clock making.-- it would be no doubt interesting to a great many to know what improvements have been made in manufacturing clocks during the past twenty years. i recollect i paid for work on the o.g. case one dollar and seventy-five cents; for the same work in , i paid twenty cents, and many other things in the same proportion. the last thing that i invented, which has proved to be of great usefulness, was the one day timepiece that can be sold for seventy-five cents, and a fair profit at that. i remember well when i was about to give up the job, of asking the man who made the cases for the factory what he would make this case for. he said he could not do it for less than eight cents, i told him i knew he could make them for five cents, and do well, but he honestly thought he could not. he was to make two thousand per month--twenty-four thousand a year. after getting the work well systematized, i told him if he could not make them at that price, i would make it up to him at the end of the year. when the time was up, he told me that it was the best part of his job, and that he would make them the next year for four cents; it will be well understood that this was for the work alone, the stock being furnished. when i got up this new time-keeper, as usual all the clock-makers were down on me again; jerome was going to ruin the business, and this cheap thing would take the place of larger ones. i told them there were ten thousand places where this cheap time-piece would be useful, and where a costly striking one would never be used. there is a variety of places where they are as useful as if they struck the hour, and there are now more of the striking clocks wanted than there were when i got up this one day time-piece. when i first began to make clocks, thousands would say that they could not afford to have a clock in their house and they must get along without, or with a watch. this cheap timepiece is worth as much as a watch that would cost a hundred dollars, for all practical purposes, as far as the time of day or night is concerned. since i began to make clocks, the price has gradually been going down. suppose the cheap time-keeper had been invented thirty years ago, when folks felt as though they could not have a clock because it cost so much, but must get along with a watch which cost ten or fifteen dollars, what would the good people have thought if they could have had a clock for one dollar, or even less? this cheap clock is much better adapted to the many log cabins and cheap dwellings in our country than a watch of any kind, and it is not half so costly or difficult to keep in order. i can think of nothing ever invented that has been so useful to so many. we do not fully appreciate the value of such things. i have often thought, that if all the time-pieces were taken out of the country at once, and every factory stopped making them, the whole community would be brought to see the incalculable value that this yankee clock making is to them. the little octagon marine case which is seen almost every where, was originated and first made by me. i think it is the cheapest and best looking thing of the kind in the market, and all the work on the case of that clock costs but eight cents. all of the large hang-up octagons and time-pieces were made at our factory two or three years before any other parties made them at all. as usual, after finding that it was a good thing and took well, many others began to make them. i will say here a little more about human nature and what i have seen and experienced. during the last forty-five years. let an ingenious, thinking man invent something that looks favorable for making money, and one after another will be stealing into the same business, when they know their conduct is very mean towards the originator who may be one of the best men in the community; still, nine out of ten of those who are infringing on his improvement will begin to hate and abuse him. i have seen this disposition carried out all my life-time. forty-five years ago, mr. eli terry was the great man in the wood clock business. as i have said before, he got up the patent wood shelf clock and sold a right to make it to seth thomas for one thousand dollars. after two or three years, mr. terry made further improvements and got them patented. mr. thomas then thought as he had paid a thousand dollars, he would use these improvements; so he went on making the new patent. mr. terry sued him and the case was in litigation for several years. the whole thomas family, the workmen and neighbors, felt envious towards mr. terry, and i think they have never got entirely over it. there was a general prejudice and hatred towards mr. terry amongst all the clock-makers at that time, and for nothing only because they knew they were infringing on his rights; and to act out human nature, they must slander and try to put him down. this principle is carried out very extensively in this world, so that if a man wants to live and have nothing said against him, he must look out for, and help no one but himself. if he succeeds in making money, it matters but little in what way he obtains it, whether by gambling or any other unlawful means; while on the other hand, if he has been doing good all his life, and by some mishap is reduced to poverty in his old age, he is despised and treated with contempt by a majority of the community. it may not be uninteresting to a great many to know how the brass clocks at the present day are made. it has been a wonder to the world for a long time, how they could possibly be sold so cheap and yet answer so good a purpose. and, indeed, they could not, if every part of their manufacture was not systematized in the most perfect manner and conducted on a large scale. i will describe the manner in which the o-g. case is made, (the style has been made a long time, and in larger numbers than any other,) which will give some idea with what facility the whole thing is put through. common merchantable pine lumber is used for the body of the case. the first workman draws a board of the stuff on a frame and by a movable circular saw cuts it in proper lengths for the sides and top. the knotty portions of it are sawed in lengths suitable for boxing the clocks when finished, and but little need be wasted. the good pieces are then taken to another saw and split up in proper widths, which are then passed through the planeing machine. then another workman puts them through the o-g. cutter which forms the shape of the front of the case. the next process is the glueing on of the veneers--the workman spreads the glue on one piece at a time and then puts on the veneer of rosewood or mahogany. a dozen of these pieces are placed together in hand-screws till the glue is properly hardened. the o-g. shapes of these pieces fit into each other when they are screwed together. when the glue is sufficiently dry, the next thing is to make the veneer smooth and fit for varnishing. we have what is called a sand paper wheel, made of pine plank, its edge formed in an o-g. shape, and sand-paper glued to it. when this wheel is revolving rapidly, the pieces are passed over it and in this way smoothed very fast. they are then ready to varnish, and it usually takes about ten days to put on the several coats of varnish, and polish them ready for mitering, which completes the pieces ready for glueing in shape of the case. the sides of the case are made much cheaper. i used to have the stuff for ten thousand of these cases in the works at one time. with these great facilities, the labor costs less than twenty cents apiece for this kind of case, and with the stock, they cost less than fifty cents. a cabinet maker could not make one for less than five dollars. this proves and shows what can be done by system. the dials are cut out of large sheets of zinc, the holes punched by machinery, and then put into the paint room, where they are painted by a short and easy process. the letters and figures are then printed on. i had a private room for this purpose, and a man who could print twelve or fifteen hundred in a day. the whole dial cost me less than five cents. the tablets were printed in the same manner, the colors put on afterwards by girls, and the whole work on these beautiful tablets cost less than one and a half cents: the cost of glass and work was about four cents. every body knows that all of these parts must be made very cheap or an o-g. clock could not be sold for one dollar and a half, or two dollars. the weights cost about thirteen cents per clock, the cost of boxing them about ten cents, and the first cost of the movements of a one-day brass clock is less than fifty cents. i will here say a little about the process of making the wheels. it will no doubt, astonish a great many to know how rapidly they can be made. i will venture to say, that i can pick out three men who will take the brass in the sheet, press out and level under the drop, there cut the teeth, and make all of the wheels to five hundred clocks in one day; there are from eight to ten of these wheels in every clock, and in an eight-day clock more. this will look to some like a great story, but is one of the wonders of the clock business. if some of the parts of a clock were not made for almost nothing, they could not be sold so cheap when finished. the facilities which the jerome manufacturing company had over every other concern of the kind in the country, and their customers in this and foreign countries, are worth to the present company more than one hundred thousand dollars. their method of making dials, tablets and brass doors was a saving of more than ten thousand dollars per year over any other company doing the same amount of business; and i know that the present company would not give up the customers of the jerome manufacturing company for ten thousand dollars per year: they could not afford to do it. the workmen who came with me from bristol, were an uncommonly energetic and ingenious set of men. many years they had large and profitable jobs in the different branches, which encouraged them to invent and get up improvements for doing the work fast, and in a great many things they far surpass the workmen in similar establishments--all of which have resulted to the benefit of the present manufacturing company of new haven. in the year , i was induced by a proposition from the benedict & burnham co., of waterbury, to enter into a joint-stock company at my place in new haven, under the name of the jerome manufacturing co. they were to put in thirty-five thousand dollars, and i was to furnish the same amount of capital. we did so, and went on very prosperously for a year or two, making a great many clocks, and selling about one hundred and fifty thousand dollars worth per year in england, at a profit of twenty thousand dollars. they were very thorough in looking into the affairs of the company, which was all right of course, but did not suit all of the interested parties. my son was secretary and financial manager of the company. he seemed to have a desire to keep things to himself a little too much, which also did not suit many of the interested parties. my son told me he thought we had better buy the company out, and said that we could do so without difficulty, and he thought it would be a great advantage to us. some were willing to sell, and others were not. mr. burnham made an offer what he would sell for, which the secretary accepted, others of the stock-holders made similar propositions and the bargain closed, we paying them the capital they had advanced and twenty-one per cent. profits, and buying, in the mean time, seventy-five thousand dollars worth of brass--the profits on which were not less than twenty thousand dollars, which they had the cash for in the course of the year. about this time a man by the name of lyman squires bought stock in the company, and took a great interest in the business. a wealthy brother of his bought, i think, ten thousand dollars worth of stock. the stock was increased in this way to two hundred thousand dollars. the financial affairs were managed by the secretary, mr. squires, and a man by the name of bissell. they made a great many additions to the factory which i thought quite unnecessary, enlarging the buildings, putting in a new engine and a great deal of costly machinery. they laughed at me because i found fault with these things and called me an old fogy. i was not pleased with the management at all times, and although i had retired from active busines [transcriber's note: sic], i felt a deep interest in the affairs of the company, and owned a large amount of the stock. the secretary thought i was always looking on the dark side and prophesying evil, because i frequently remonstrated with him on the many extravagancies which were constantly being added to the establishment. i frequently told him that if the company should fail, i should have to bear the whole blame, because my name was known all over the world. he always told me in the strongest terms that i need give myself no uneasiness about that, as the company was worth a great deal of money. things went on in this way till the year , and while i was absent from the state, p.t. barnum was admitted as a member of our company. within six months from that time, the jerome manufacturing company failed, the causes of which, and the results, i have clearly and truthfully narrated in another part of this book. the causes were not fully understood by me at that time. i have found them out since, and deem it an act of justice to myself to make them public. i was hopelessly ruined by this failure. the company had used my name as endorser to a large amount, many times larger than i had any idea of. chapter ix. the new haven clock company, and other clock manufacturers in connecticut. i will here give a brief account of the firms carrying on this important business in connecticut. the new haven clock company, which succeeded the jerome manufacturing company, are now making more clocks than any three other makers in the state. as i speak of the different manufactories, i will give the outlines and standing of the men connected with them. as their goods go all over the world, it is natural and pleasant for men who are dealing in their goods to know what kind of men they are at home, and what the community think of them. the new haven company is a joint-stock company. the head man in this concern, is the hon. james english, who is second to no business man in the state-- high minded, clear sighted, and very popular with all who deal with him. he was, when a boy, remarkable for industry, prudence and good behavior. he was an apprentice at the house-joiner trade, but soon got into other business which gave him a greater chance to develope and become more useful to himself and the community. he began in life without a dollar, but is now said to be worth three hundred thousand dollars. his age at this time is about forty-eight. he is a democrat in politics; has been elected to many important offices, and has been the first select man of new haven for many years; he has been elected state senator for three years in succession, and all of these offices he has filled with ability. in the spring of , he was nominated as candidate for lieutenant governor on a ticket with col. thomas h. seymour of hartford, for governor, which made the most popular democratic ticket that has ever been run in the state. had it not been for the great anti-slavery feeling there was at this canvass, mr. english would have been triumphantly elected. many of the opposing party would been glad to have seen him elected, and would have voted for him, had it not been for the influence they thought it would have on the presidential election. we heard many republicans say this in new haven, and many did vote that ticket. h.m. welch, who has for a long time been connected with mr. english in business, is largely interested in this clock company. he gives most of his attention to other kinds of manufacturing, in which messrs. english and welch, are very extensively engaged. mr. welch is one of the most intelligent, upright, and kind hearted business men in the whole state, and is admired as such by all who know him. he is also a democrat in politics, very popular in his party, and is well qualified for any offices. he would make a good candidate for governor or member of congress. he is about forty-six years old, worth perhaps, two hundred thousand dollars; he has held many important offices, has been a representative to the state legislature for many years, and state senator a number of times. he has recently been elected mayor of the city, and has filled all of these offices with much talent. john woodruff, a member of congress, elected for the second time from this district, is the next largest owner in this great brass clock business. he commenced to work at clocks with me when a boy only fifteen years old. he was a very uncommon boy, and is now an uncommon man, very popular among his fellow workmen, popular with democrats, popular with republicans, popular every where, and can be elected to congress when there is five hundred majority against his party in his district. hiram camp who is the next largest stock-holder in this clock company, is forty-nine years old. he commenced making clocks with me at the age of seventeen, and is now president of the company. he is a republican in politics, and has been chosen representative from new haven to the legislature of the state. at this time he is chief engineer of the fire department, is very popular with his workmen, and highly respected by the whole community in which he lives. many others who hold prominent positions in this great business in new haven, first came here with me when i moved from bristol. i should mention philip pond, an excellent man who left the business two or three years since, on account of his health, but who is now connected in the wholesale grocery business of the firm of pond, greenwood & lester, in this city. also charles l. griswold, now a bit and augur maker in the town of chester, who began to work for me twenty years ago, when a boy. he was once a poor boy, but now is a talented and superior man. he has been a member of the legislature, and has held many offices of trust. l.f. root, now a leading man in new haven, came to work with me when quite young, nearly twenty years ago. he also has held many offices of trust, and filled them with great ability. i could mention many others, but cannot in this brief work speak of them as their merits deserve. it gives me pleasure to know that the business of the jerome manufacturing company has fallen into such good hands. the benedict and burnham company, now making clocks in the city of waterbury, under the name of the waterbury clock company, is composed of a large number of the first citizens of that place. in politics nearly all of them are republicans. the oldest man of the company is deacon aaron benedict, now about seventy-five years old--a real "old puritan, christian gentleman." he has been representative and state senator many times--mr. burnham of new york, another member of this company, is well known to almost every body as one of the richest men in [transcriber's note: probable missing word 'the' here] whole country. my brother, noble jerome, who is an excellent mechanic and as good a brass clock maker as can be found, is now making the movements for this company, and edward church, a first rate man and an excellent workman, is making their cases. he worked with me seventeen years at case making, and can do a good job. i cannot pass without speaking about another man of this company, arad w. welton esq. he was one of my soldier companions in capt. john buckingham's company, which went to fight the british in , at new london, and in at new haven. he stood very near me in the ranks. i shall never forget what pluck and courage he showed one night when the news was brought into camp that the enemy were landing from their ships. our whole regiment was mustered in fifteen minutes, and on the way to pitch battle with the british and defend our shores. this mr. welton, who is now an old man, as stout and large as gen. cass, and looking something like him, was then a young man nineteen years old, and without exception the funniest and drollest fellow that i ever saw. he kept us all laughing while we were going down to fight that awful battle, which, however, proved to be bloodless. this incident occurred at new london, and i have often thought of it in latter days. mr. welton is said to be a great business man, and the company with which he is connected is doing a good business. the next clock company which i shall speak of, is that of seth thomas & co., of plymouth hollow, connecticut. as i have mentioned before, the senior thomas is not living. the business is carried on by a company, the members of which are all republicans in politics and respectable men. fifty years ago this spring, heman clark built the factory which seth thomas, two or three years afterwards, bought, and in which he carried on business until his death, about two years since. it was never mr. thomas' practice to get up any thing new. he never would change his patterns or mode of manufacturing, until he was driven to it to keep his customers. at the time when i invented the one-day brass clock in , he said much against it, that it was not half so good as a wood clock, and that he never would take up any thing again that jerome had adopted; but he was compelled to, in a year or two, to keep his customers. he sent his foreman over to bristol, where i was then carrying on business, to get patterns of movements and cases and take all the advantage he could of my experience, labors, and improvements which i had been studying upon so long. i allowed my foreman to spend more than two days with his, giving him all the knowledge and insight he could of the business, knowing what his object was. a friend asked me why i was doing this, and said that if i should send my man to thomas' factory he would be kicked out immediately. i told him i knew that perfectly well, but that if mr. thomas set out to get into the business, he certainly would find out, and that the course i was taking was wisest and more friendly. i have thought since how quickly such kind treatment as i showed towards his man can be forgotten; yes; this company have all forgotten the service that i rendered them twenty years ago, and as i have said before, would probably have been making the old wood clock to this day, had it not been for other parties. there always has been a great deal of jealousy among the yankee clock-makers, and they all seemed to hate the one who took the lead. the next establishment of which i shall speak, is that of william l. gilbert, of winsted, connecticut. he is said to be miserly in feeling, and is quite rich; not very enterprising, but has made a great deal of money by availing himself of the improvements of others. the next one in the business to whom i shall allude is e.n. welch, of bristol, connecticut. he is about fifty years of age, and has been in many kinds of business. he was deeply interested in the failure of j.c. brown a few years ago, and succeeded him in the clock business. he is a leading man in the baptist church, and has a great tact for making money; but he says that all he wants of money is to do good with it. he is a democrat in politics, and never wants an office from his party. these five companies which i have named, make nearly all of the clocks manufactured in connecticut; though movements are made by three other companies. beach and hubbell of bristol, are largely engaged in manufacturing the movements of brass marine clocks. also two brothers by the name of manross, in bristol, are engaged in the same business. noah pomeroy of bristol, is also engaged in making pendulum movements for other parties. i should, however, mention ireneus atkins, of bristol, who is making a first-rate thirty-day brass clock, and i am told there is no better one for time in the country. the movement for this kind of clock was invented by joseph ives, who has spent most of his time for the last twenty-five years in improving on springs and escapements for clocks, and who has done a great deal for the advancement of this business. mr. atkins, who is making this thirty-day time-piece, is an excellent man to deal with. the five large companies which i have named, manufacture about a half a million clocks per annum; the new haven company about two hundred thousand; and the others about three hundred thousand between them. chapter x. barnum's connection with the jerome clock co.--causes and results of its failure. the connection of barnum with the jerome manufacturing company of new haven, and the failure of the company have been the subject of much speculation to the whole world, and has never been clearly understood. barnum claimed that he was cheated and swindled by this company, robbed of his property and name, and reduced to poverty. but before giving any statements, i call attention to the following article taken from the new york daily _tribune_, of march th, : the great showman.--p.t. barnum, "the great american showman," as he loves to hear himself called, who furnishes more amusement for a quarter of a dollar than any other man in america, is, we are happy to announce, himself again. he has disposed of the last of those villainous clock notes, re-established his credit up on a cash basis, and once more comes forward to cater for the public amusement at the american museum. to day, between the acts of the play, mr. barnum will appear upon his own stage, in his own costly character of the yankee clockmaker, for which he qualified himself, with the most reckless disregard of expense, and will "give a brief history of his adventures as a clockmaker, showing how the clock ran down, and how it was wound up; shadowing forth in the same the future of the museum." of course, barnum's benefit will be a bumper. next week the museum will be closed for renovation and repairs, and the week after it will reopen under the popular p.t.b., once more. i will now give the true statement of facts and particulars of his connection with the jerome manufacturing company--which, however, was not his first experience in clock-making. some time before this, he was interested in a company located in the town of litchfield, connecticut, and, i believe, owned about ten thousand dollars worth of stock. they made a very poor article which was called a marine clock, if i am rightly informed. that company failed, and barnum took the stock as security for endorsing and furnishing them with cash. i do not suppose the whole of the effects were worth transporting to bridgeport, although estimated by him at a large amount. about this time theodore terry's clock factory, at ansonia, was destroyed by fire. a large portion of the stock was saved, though in a damaged condition, much of which was worth nothing--the tools and machinery being but little better than so much old iron. terry knowing that barnum was largely interested in real estate in east bridgeport, and anxious to have it improved, thought he could make a good arrangement with him for building a factory there for the manufacture of clocks, and did so. terry had a large quantity of old clocks in a store in new york--many of them old-fashioned and unsaleable, and thousands of these were not worth fifty cents apiece. terry and barnum now proposed forming a joint-stock company, putting in their old rubbish as stock, and estimating it, most likely, at four times its value in cash. they built a factory in east bridgeport, and made preparations for manufacturing. terry knew ten times as much about the business as barnum did, and knowing, also, that the old stock was comparatively worthless, held back while barnum was urging him to push ahead with the manufacturing. terry made a great bluster, saying that he was going to hire men and do a great business, while, unknown to barnum, he was trying to sell the stock he held in the company. they finally cooked up a plan to sell their new york store and the bridgeport factory and machinery, if they could, to the jerome manufacturing company, taking stock in that company for pay, and--the jerome company stock being issued to the owners of the terry & barnum stock--thus merge the two companies into one. this transaction was made and closed without my knowledge, (i being at the time from the state,) though the "old man" has had to bear all the blame. as i afterwards found out, barnum told my son, the secretary of the company, that terry & barnum owed about twenty thousand dollars: this was the amount terry had drawn for on the new york store. they made a written agreement with the jerome manufacturing company, to this effect;--that our company should assume the liabilities of their old company, which were stated at twenty thousand dollars, and barnum was to endorse to any extent for the jerome company. it afterwards proved that the entire debts of terry & barnum amounted to about seventy-two thousand dollars, which the jerome company were obliged to assume. the great difference in the real and supposed amount of their indebtedness and the unsaleable property turned in as stock were enough to ruin any company. it is a positive fact that the stock of the jerome company was not worth half as much, three months after barnum came into the concern as it was before that time. some of the stock-holders did not like to have terry own stock, and barnum to satisfy them, bought him out, paying him twelve thousand dollars in cash--he in the end, making a grand thing out his ansonia remains. it is well known that the jerome manufacturing company failed in the fall of , to the wonder and astonishment of myself and of every body else. the true causes of this great failure never have been made public. i myself did not know them at that time, but have found them out from time to time since, and i now propose to make them public, as it has been the general impression almost every where that barnum and myself were associated in defrauding the community. _i wish to have it understood that i never saw p.t. barnum_, while he was connected with the company of which i was a member, have never seen him but once since, and that was in february after the failure. about this time law suits were being brought against him, and as some supposed, by his friends. he was called upon, or offered himself as a witness, and i believe testified that he was worth nothing. the natural effect of this testimony was to depreciate the paper which his name was on. at the time when i saw him, he told me that the museum was his just as much as it ever was, and that he received the profits, which had never been less than twenty-five thousand and were sometimes thirty thousand dollars per annum; and yet, he was publicly stating that he was worth nothing! he also, as i supposed, held securities of the jerome manufacturing company, to a large amount, (as i suppose about one hundred thousand dollars,) for i know that such papers had been in his hands. there were many persons who were interested in the revival of the business, who were in some way flattered into the belief that barnum would re-purchase the whole clock establishment and put them back into the business again. several men were sent by some one to examine the property and estimate its value, and those persons who were anxious for a restoration of the business were in some way led to believe that barnum intended to re-commence the business of clock-making. for myself, i do not suppose that barnum ever seriously contemplated any such thing; but the belief that he did, made some men quiet who might otherwise have been active and troublesome. the manner in which this matter has been represented would reflect dishonesty upon the secretary, which would be untrue. no one who knows him will, or can accuse him of dishonesty. i love truth, honesty and religion; i do not mean, however, the religion that barnum believes in: (i believe that the wicked are punished in another world.) i ask the reader to look at my situation in my old age. i think as much of a good name, as to purity of character and honesty at heart, as any man living; and very often reading in the new york papers of speeches that barnum has made, alluding to his being defrauded by the jerome manufacturing company, i wish the world to know the whole facts in the case, and what my position was in the company which bore my name. after many years-- years of very active business life--i had retired from active duty in the company, although i took a deep interest in every thing connected with it, and also a great pride, as it was a business that i had built up and had been many years in perfecting. the manufacturing had been systematized in the most perfect manner and every thing looked prosperous to me. i owned stock as others did, but did not know of its financial standing, and was always informed that it was all right, and that i should be perfectly safe in endorsing. i wish to have it understood that i did not sign my name to any of this paper, it being done by the secretary himself, that therefore i could not know of the amounts that were raised in that way, that i did not find out till after the failure, and then the large amounts overwhelmed me with surprise. it will be remembered that barnum made two or three trips to europe to provide in some way for the support of his "poor and destitute" family, which as he claimed, had been robbed and ruined by the connecticut clock-makers. at one time he was stopped on a pier in new york, just as he was starting for europe, by a suit brought against him. thus the news went abroad that poor barnum was hunted and troubled on every side with these clock notes. it was reported that he was quite sick in england and could not live, and, at another time, that being much depressed and discouraged on account of his many troubles, he had taken to drinking very hard, and in all probability would live but a short time; while at the same time, he was lecturing on temperance to the english people, and was in fact a total-abstinence man. these stories were extensively circulated; the value of his paper was depreciated in the market, and was, in several instances bought for a small sum. since writing the foregoing with regard to his coming into the company, and, as he states, being ruined by it, i have ascertained to my own satisfaction, that our connection with him was the means of ruining the company. a few days since i was talking with a man who has been more familiar than myself with the whole transaction, and he told me it was his opinion that if we had never seen barnum we should still have been making clocks in that factory. it was a great mystery to me, and to every body else, how the company could run down so rapidly during the last year. i think i have found out, and these are my reasons. instead of having an amount of twenty thousand dollars to cancel of the terry & barnum debts and accounts (which the secretary foolishly agreed to do.) it eventually proved to be about seventy thousand; (this i have found out since the failure.) this great loss the secretary kept to himself, and it involved the company so deeply that he became almost desperate; for knowing by this time that he had been greatly embarrassed, he was determined to raise money in any way that he could, honestly, and get out of the difficulty if possible. he had, as he thought, got to keep this an entire secret, because if known it would ruin the credit of the company. when these extra drafts and notes of terry & barnum were added to the debts of the company, he was obliged to resort to various expedients to raise money to pay them. this led him to the exchange of notes on a large scale, which proved to be a great loss, as many of the parties were irresponsible. there was a loss of thirty thousand dollars by one man, and i am sure that there must have been more than fifty thousand dollars lost in this way. he was also obliged to issue short drafts and notes and raise money on them at fearful rates. the terry & barnum stock which was taken in at par, was not worth twenty-five per cent, which had a tendency to reduce the value of the stock of our company, though i have recently heard that the secretary bought stock at par for the jerome company of some former owners in the terry & barnum company, in bridgeport, only a short time before the failure. to show the confidence the secretary had in the standing of the company, he recommended one of his own brothers, not more than one month before the company failed, to buy five thousand dollars worth of the stock, which he did. it was owned by a bridgeport man and he paid par value for it in good gold and silver watches at cash prices. all of these transactions were made without my knowledge, and i have found them out by piece-meal ever since. i do fully believe that if the secretary had been worth half a million of dollars, he would have sacrificed every dollar, rather than have had the company failed under his management as it did. it has been publicly stated that mr. barnum endorsed largely on blank notes and drafts and that he was thus rendered responsible to a far greater extent than he was aware of; such, however, was not the case. the troubles that have grown out of the failure of this great business, have left me poor and broken down in spirit, constitution and health. i was never designed by providence to eat the bread of dependence, for it is like poison to me, and will surely kill me in a short time. i have now lost more than forty pounds of flesh, though my ambition has not yet died within me. chapter xi. effects of the failure on myself--removal to waterbury and ansonia-- unfortunate business connections. after saying so much as i have about my misfortunes in life, i must say a few words about what has happened and what i have been through with during the last four years. when the jerome manufacturing company failed, every dollar that i had saved out of a long life of toil and labor was not enough to support my family for one year. it was hard indeed for a man sixty-three years old, and my heart sickened at the prospect ahead. perhaps there never was a man that wanted more than i did to be in business and be somebody by the side of my neighbors. there never was a man more grieved than i was when i had to give up those splendid factories with the great facilities they had over all others in the world for the manufacture of clocks both good and cheap, all of which had been effected through my untiring efforts. no one but myself can know what my feelings were when i was compelled, through no fault of my own, to leave that splendid clustre [sic] of buildings with all its machinery, and its thousands of good customers all over this country and europe, and in fact the whole world, which in itself was a fortune. and then to leave that beautiful mansion at the head of the new haven bay, which i had almost worshipped. i say to leave all these things for others, with that spirit and pride that still remained within me, and at my time of life, was almost too much for flesh and blood to bear. what could have been the feelings of my family, and my large circle of friends and acquaintances, to see creditors and officers coming to our house every day with their pockets full of attachments and piles of them on the table every night. if any one can ever begin to know my feelings at this time, they must have passed through the same experience. yet mortified and abused as i was, i had to put up with it. thank god, i have never been the means of such trouble for others. i had to move to waterbury in my old age, and there commence again to try to get a living. i moved in the fall of , and as bad luck would have it, rented a house not two rods from a large church with a very large steeple attached to it, which had been built but a short time before. in one of the most terrific hurricanes and snow storms that i ever knew in my life, at four o'clock in the morning of january th, , this large steeple fell on the top of our house which was a three story brick building. it broke through the roof and smashed in all the upper tier of rooms, the bricks and mortar falling to the lower floor. we were in the second story, and some of the bricks came into our room, breaking the glass and furniture, and the heaviest part of the whole lay directly on our house. it was the opinion of all who saw the ruins that we did not stand one chance in ten thousand of not being killed in a moment. i heard many a man say he would not take the chances that we had for all the money in the state. one man in the other part of the house was so frightened that he was crazy for a long time. timbers in this steeple, ten inches square, broke in two directly over my bed and their weight was tremendous. i now began to think that my troubles were coming in a different form; but it seems i was not to die in that way. the business took a different shape in the spring, and i moved (another task of moving!) to ansonia. here i lived two years, but very unfortunately happened to get in with the worst men that could be found on the line of rail-road between winsted and bridgeport. in another part of this book i have spoken of them; i do not now wish to think of them, for it makes me sick to see their names on paper. i had worked hard ever since i left new haven--one year at waterbury, and two at this place (ansonia,)--but got not one dollar for the whole time. i was robbed of all the money which mr. stevens, (my son-in-law,) had paid me for the use of my trade- mark in england, for the years -' . this advantage was taken of me, because i could collect nothing in my own name. i should consider my history incomplete, unless i went back for many years to speak of the treatment which i received from a certain man. i shall not mention his name, and my object in relating these circumstances, is to illustrate a principle there is in man, and to caution the young men to be careful when they get to be older and are carrying on business, not to do too much for one individual. if you do, in nine cases out of ten, he will hate and injure you in the end. this has been my experience. many years ago, i hired two men from a neighboring town to work for me. it was about the time that i invented the bronze looking-glass clock, which was, at that time, decidedly the best kind made. after a while these two men contrived a plan to get up a company, go into another town, and manufacture the same kind of clock. this company was formed about six months before i found it out, and much of their time was spent in making small tools and clock-parts to take with them. this was done when they were at work for me on wages. they induced as many of my men as they could to go with them, and took some of them into company. when they had finished some clocks, they went round to my customers and under-sold me to get the trade. this is the first chapter. when i invented the thirty-hour brass clock in , one of these men had returned to bristol again, and was out of business; but he had some money which he had made out of my former improvements. i had lost a great deal of money in the great panic of . after i had started a little in making this new clock, he proposed to put in some money and become interested with me, and as i was in want of funds to carry on the business, i told him that if he would put in three thousand dollars, he should have a share of the profits. i went on with him one year, but got sick of it and bought him out. i had to pay six thousand dollars to get rid of him. he took this money, went to a neighboring town, bought an old wood clock factory, fitted it up for making the same clock that i had just got well introduced, and induced several of my workmen to go with him, some of whom he took in company with him. as soon as i had the clock business well a going in england, he sent over two men to sell the same patterns. he has kept this up ever since, and has made a great deal of money. after the failure of the jerome manufacturing company, as i have already stated, i went to waterbury to assist the benedict & burnham company. after i had been there six or eight months, and had got the case-making well started, (my brother, noble jerome, had got the movements in the works the year before.) this same man i have been speaking about, came to me and made me a first-rate offer to go with him into a town a short distance from waterbury, and make clocks there. i accepted his offer, but should not have done so, had it not been for the depressed condition to which i had been brought by previous events. i accordingly moved to the town where he had hired a factory. he was carrying on the business at the same time in his old factory, and came to this new place about twice a week. my work was in the third story, and it was very hard for an old man to go up and down a dozen times a day. about this time i obtained a patent on a new clock case, and as i was to be interested in the business, i let the company make several thousand of them. we could make forty cents more on each clock than we could on an o-g. clock. as i was favorably known throughout the world as a clockmaker, this company wanted to use my label as the clocks would sell better in some parts of the country than with his label. they were put upon many thousands. soon after we commenced, i told him i would make out a writing of our bargain because life was uncertain. he said that was all right, and that he would attend to it soon. as he always seemed to be in a hurry when he came, i wrote one and sent it to him, so that he might look it over at his leisure and be ready to sign it when he came down again. the next time i saw him, i asked him if the writing was not as we agreed; he said he supposed it was, but that he had no time to look it over and sign it then, but would do so when he had time. i paid into the business about one thousand nine hundred dollars in small sums, as it was wanted from time to time, and worked at this man for eight months to get a writing from him, but he always had an excuse. he had agreed to give the case-maker a share of the profits if he would make the cases at a certain price, but put him off in the same way. we both became satisfied that he did not mean to do as he had agreed, and i therefore left him. the money which i had paid in was what i had received for the use of my name in england. i had the privilege of paying it in as it was wanted, working eight months, keeping the accounts which i did evenings, and giving this man a home at my house whenever he was in town. all of this which i had done, he refused to give me one dollar for, and it was with great difficulty that i got my money back. i had to put it into another man's hands, as his property, to recover it. this man, probably, had two objects in view when he went to waterbury to flatter me away. he did not want me to be there with my name on the movements and cases, and therefore he made me a first-rate offer. i had been broken up in all my business, and felt very anxious to be doing something again. i was a little afraid when he made the offer, but knew that he had made a great deal of money out of my improvements and was very wealthy, and i did think he would be true to me, knowing as he did my circumstances. look at this miser, with not a child in the world, and no one on earth that he cares one straw about, and yet so grasping! oh! what will the poor creature do in eternity! chapter xii. more misplaced confidence--another unfortunate partnership. before closing the history of the many trials and troubles which i have experienced during my life, i will here say that i have never found, in all my dealings with men for more than forty years, such an untruthful and dishonest a man as ---- of a certain town in connecticut. in , he induced me to come into his factory to carry on a little business. my situation was such, in consequence of the failure of the jerome manufacturing company, that i could do nothing in my own name, as he knew. i had a little money that had been paid me for the use of my trademark in england, and i felt very anxious, as old as i was, to make a little money so that i could pay some small debts which my family had made a short time before the company failed. i had also two children who looked to me for some help. this man said to me, "you may have the use of my factory for 'so much,' and you may carry on the business for one year in my name for so 'much.'" this was agreed to by both parties. in a few days he came to me and said that he had been talking with his nephew about having the business carried on in his name "& co.;" ---- being the "company" and he was to keep his nephew harmless, as he had nothing for the use of his name. the nephew came into the factory a short time after, and i asked him if he had agreed to what ---- had stated to me; he said that he had, and that i could go on with the business in the name of himself & co.; he was quite sure that his uncle would keep him harmless. i went on with the business in this name from may to december, both of those men knowing all the while just as much about the business as i did, and they never said but that it was all right as we had agreed. i paid in my money from time to time as it was wanted. late in the fall, i paid in at one time, one thousand nine hundred dollars, through a firm who owed me that amount, and who gave their notes to ---- on short time, which notes were paid. a short time after this, knowing that i had no more money to put into the business, he undoubtedly thought it time to do what he had intended to do at a suitable time from the beginning. one day when i was unwell and confined to the house, a man who had a claim against the company, called on ---- to make a settlement. before this time he had made two payments on this same account, but he now told this man that there never had been such a company, and that he would never pay it--while at the same time, he had the same property which the man offered to take back but which he had refused to give up, and said that i had no right to use the name of ---- & co. this was after he had been using the name for me in drafts and notes, and all other business transactions, for more than eight months. he said that he would have me arrested for fraud and put in the state prison. this treatment was rather hard towards a man who had never before been accused of dishonesty, and who had done business on a large scale with thousands of men for more than forty years. he at one time requested me to borrow a note for him from one of my friends, which i did, and which he paid promptly when due. he did this, as i now suppose, because the business was not in as good shape for him as it might be in another three months; so he wished me to get the favor renewed, which i did. when it became due, he denied that it was a borrowed note, declared that i was owing him, and had handed this note to him as one that was good and would be paid. one of his best friends has since told me that there was more honor among horse-thieves than this man had shown towards me. i put into the business between four and five thousand dollars, worked hard almost a year, and have received about five hundred dollars. ---- is trying to scare me by threatening to sue me for perjury; so that if he could make me fool enough to pay the debts of ---- & co., he would have just so much more to put into his own pocket. when he can get a grand jury to find a true bill against me for fraud or perjury, i will promise to go to wethersfield and stay there the remainder of my life, without any further trial. after all that i have said, i think of him just as all his neighbors do; for they have told me that it was the common talk among them, when i first went into his factory, that he would in some way cheat me out of every dollar that i put into his hands. it would take just about as much evidence to prove that young crows would be black when their feathers are grown, as it would to satisfy the community that these statements are true, especially where he is known. for knavery, untruthfulness, and wickedness, i have never seen anything, in all my business experience of forty years, that will compare with this. he would not have taken such a course with me once, but he took advantage of my age and misfortunes to commit these frauds, thinking that i could not defend myself, and that he could defraud and crush me. i had paid every dollar of my money into this business which i had at that time, and had nothing to live on through the winter. but john woodruff in his kindness, raised money enough for me to live on through the winter, and the following spring i moved to new haven. chapter xiii. the wooster place church.--growth of the different denominations in new haven. in order to have my history complete i must give my reason for building the wooster place church, as my motives have been misconstrued by many persons, i will make a short statement of what i know to be true. it is well known that with the exception of one, all the congregational churches in new haven, were located west of the centre of the city. the majority of the inhabitants lived in the eastern section. meeting after meeting was called by the different churches to consider the importance of building a church in the eastern part. it was strongly advocated by the ministers and many others, that this part of the city was rapidly filling up, a great deal of manufacturing was carried on there, and the strangers who were constantly coming in would fall into other denominations. i heard their speeches advocating this course with great pleasure, as i lived in the eastern part of the city, had a long distance to go to attend church, and nearly all the workmen in my employ lived in the same section. the church which i have mentioned as the only one located east of the centre, was in a very prosperous condition. by the talent, popularity and piety of its minister, as his church and congregation believed, he had filled the church to overflowing. there were no slips to be bought in that church. we heard this minister say that he could spare thirty families from his congregation to build up a new church. in view of all the facts, i started a subscription paper, in as good faith as i ever did anything in my life, for the raising of funds to build an edifice. the subscription was headed by myself with five thousand dollars and many large sums were added to it. a number of wealthy men lived near the contemplated place of building the new church, who belonged to other churches. it was supposed, by what their ministers had said in public and in private, that they would use their influence in advancing this good work, and to have some of their members join in it; but for some reason they changed their minds. i heard that the minister of the church located in the eastern section (which i mentioned before,) had got up a subscription paper to raise ten or twelve thousand dollars to beautify the front of his church, raise a higher steeple, and make some other alterations that he thought important. i was told that he called on the men who lived in the locality where we proposed erecting the new church, with his subscription, and that they subscribed to carry out his plans. some of those who had subscribed to build the new church, after he had made these calls, wrote me that they wished their names crossed off from my paper--others came and told me the same thing, and wished their names erased. i began at this time to understand that there were influences working against our enterprise and that this way of building a church must be given up. i however, went forward myself, as is very well known, and built a church second to none in new england. i should have built one that would not have cost one half of the money, had i acted on my own judgement, but i was influenced by a few others differently. i paid more than twenty thousand dollars out of my own pocket into this church. public opinion in the community was, that if the several ministers had given their influence in favor of this matter, a church would have been built by subscription. they could very easily have influenced their friends in that part of the city to unite in this enterprise without detriment to their own congregation. had this course been taken, it is evident that by this time it would have been a large and prosperous church. a correspondent of the independent in writing upon the growth of congregationalism, in new haven, had a great deal to say about the wooster place church--calling the man that built it, "a sagacious mechanic, who built it on speculation etc." yet; added "if they had called a young man for its pastor from new england, it might have succeeded after all." it is well known that the congregational denomination has made but very small advancement compared with others for the last twenty years. it is supposed that the inhabitants of new haven have doubled in number during that time; but only one small mission church has been added to the congregational churches. four episcopal churches have been built, and filled with worshipers, many of whom formerly belonged to congregational families. the methodists have built two large churches, and more than trebled in number. the baptists have more than doubled, and now own and occupy the wooster place church. and to have kept pace with the others, the congregational denomination should now have as many as three more large churches. chapter xiv. new haven as a business place--growth--extensive manufactories, etc. for many years i have extensively advertised throughout every part of the civilized world, and in the most conspicuous places, such a city as new haven connecticut, u.s.a., and its name is hourly brought to notice wherever american clocks are used, and i know of no more conspicuous or prominent place than the dial of a clock for this purpose. more of these clocks have been manufactured in this city for the past sixteen years than any other one place in this country, and the company now manufacturing, turn out seven hundred daily. i now propose to give a brief description of new haven and its inhabitants in the words of a business man who loves the town. new haven, is to-day a city of more than forty thousand inhabitants, remarkable as the new englanders generally are for their ingenuity, industry, shrewd practical good sense, and their large aggregate wealth; and with forty thousand such people it is not strange that new haven is now growing like a city in the west. it was settled in , and incorporated as a city in . its population in , was less than eleven thousand, and in , but little more than fourteen thousand, its increase from to , was about eight thousand, and from to , the population has nearly doubled. the assessed value of property in , amounted to about two and a half millions. the amount at the present time is estimated at over twenty seven millions. new haven is situated at the head of a fine bay, four miles from long island sound, and seventy-six miles from new york, on the direct line of rail-road, and great thoroughfare between that city and boston, and can be reached in three hours by rail-road and about five by water from new york. new haven has long been known as the city of elms, and it far surpasses any other city in america in the number and beauty of these noble elm trees which shade and adorn its streets and public squares. it is a place of large manufacturing interests, the persevering genius and enterprise of its people having made new haven in a variety of ways, prominent in industrial pursuits. mr. whitney, the inventor of the cotton gin, mr. goodyear of india rubber notoriety, and many other great and good men who by their ingenuity and perseverance have added millions to the wealth of mankind, were citizens of new haven. nearly every kind of manufactured article known in the market, can here be found and bought direct from the manufactory--such as carriages and all kind of carriage goods, firearms, shirts, locks, furniture, clothing, shoes, hardware, iron castings, daguerrotype-cases, machinery, plated goods, &c., &c. the manufacture of carriages is here carried on, on a grand scale, and its yearly productions are probably larger than of any other city in the union. there are more than sixty establishments in full operation at the present time, many of them of great extent and completeness, and turn out work justly celebrated for its beauty and substantial value wherever they are known. i live in the immediate vicinity of the largest carriage manufactury in the world, which turns out a finished carriage every hour; much of the work being done by machinery and systematized in much the same manner as the clock-making. american carriages are fast following american clocks to foreign countries, to the west indies, australia and the sandwich islands, mexico and south america, and i believe the day is not far distant when they will be exported to europe in large quantities, and the present prospect seems far more favorable for them than it did for me when i introduced my first cargo of clocks into england. when i first saw this city in , its population was less than five thousand, and it looked to me like a country town. i wandered about the streets early one morning with a bundle of clothes and some bread and cheese in my hands little dreaming that i should live to see so great a change, or that it ever would be my home. i remember seeing the loads of wood and chips for family use lying in front of the houses, and acres of land then in cornfields and valued at a small sum, are now covered with fine buildings and stores and factories in about the heart of the city. when i moved my case making business to new haven, the project was ridiculed by other clock-makers, of going to a city to manufacture by steam power, and yet it seems to have been the commencement of manufacturers in the country, coming to new haven to carry on their business. numbers came to me to get my opinion and learn the advantages it had over manufacturing in the country, which i always informed them in a heavy business was very great, the item of transportation alone over-balancing the difference between water and steam power. the facilities for procuring stock and of shipping, being also an important item. not one of the good citizens will deny that this great business of clock-making which i first brought to new haven has been of immense advantage and of great importance to the city. through its agency millions of money has been brought here, adding materially to the general prosperity and wealth, besides bringing it into notice wherever its productions are sent. i have been told that there is nothing in the eastern world that attracts the attention of the inhabitants like a yankee clock. it has this moment come into my mind of several years ago giving a dozen brass clocks to a missionary at jerusalem; they were shipped from london to alexandria in egypt, from there to joppa, and thence about forty miles on the backs of camels to jerusalem, where they arrived safe to the great joy of the missionary and others interested, and attracted a great deal of attention and admiration. i also sent my clocks to china, and two men to introduce them more than twenty years ago. i will here say what i truly believe as to the future of this business; there is no place on the earth where it can be started and compete with new haven, there are no other factories where they can possibly be made so cheap. i have heard men ask the question, "why can't clocks be made in europe on such a scale, where labor is so cheap?" if a company could in any part of the old world get their labor ten years for nothing, i do not believe they could compete with the yankees in this business. they can be made in new haven and sent into any part of the world for more than a hundred years to come for less than one half of what they could be made for in any part of the old world. i was many years in systematizing this business, and these things i know to be facts, though it might appear as strong language. no man has ever lived that has given so much time and attention to this subject as myself. for more than fifty years, by day and by night, clocks have been uppermost in my mind. the ticking of a clock is music to me, and although many of my experiences as a business man have been trying and bitter, i have the satisfaction of knowing that i have lived the life of an honest man, and have been of some use to my fellow men. appendix. general directions for keeping clocks in order. pendulum clocks are the oldest style, and are more generally introduced than any other kind. i will give a few simple suggestions essential for keeping this clock in good order as a time-keeper. in the first place, a clock must be plumb (that is level;) and what i mean by plumb, is not treing up the case to a level, but it is to put the case in a position so that the beats or sounds of the wheel-teeth striking the verge are equal. it is not necessary to go by the sound, if the face is taken off so that you can see the verge. you can then notice and see whether the verge holds on to the teeth at each end the same length of time; or (in other words) whether the vibrations are equal as they should be. clocks are often condemned because they stop, or because they do not keep good time, while these points and others are not in beat, the vibrations are not regular; hence it will not divide the time equally, and it is called a poor time-keeper, when the difficulty may be that it is not properly set up. a clock which will run when it is much out of beat, is a very good one, and it must run very easily, because it has a great disadvantage to overcome, viz: a greater distance from a perpendicular line one way than the other in order that the verge may escape the teeth. a clock may be set up in perfect beat, but the shelf is liable to settle or warp, and get out of beat so gradually, that it might not be remarked by one not suspecting it, unless special notice was taken of it. this matter should be looked to when the clock stops. i have explained the mode of setting up a clock with reference to putting it in beat, etc. another essential point to be attended to is that the rod should hang in the centre or very near the centre of the loop in the crutch wire which is connected with the verge, and for this reason, if it rubs the front or back end of the loop, the friction will cause it to stop. to prevent this, set the clock case so that it will lean back a little or forward, as it requires. it sometimes happens that the dial (if it is made of zinc) gets bent in, and the loop of the crutch wire rubs as it passes back and forth. this should be attended to. it should be noticed also, whether the crutch wire gets misplaced so that it rubs any kind of a dial; the least impediment here will stop a clock. the centre of the dial should next be noticed. it sometimes happens that the warping moves it from its place, so that the sockets of the pointers rub, and many times it is the cause of the clock's stopping; this can be remedied by pareing out the centre on the side required. soft verges are no uncommon cause of clocks stopping, and those who travel to repair clocks generally overlook this trouble. a clock with a soft verge will run but a short time, because the teeth will dent into the face of the verge and cause a roughness that will certainly stop it. the way to ascertain this, is to try a file on the end of the verge; if you can file it it is soft; they are intended to be so hard that a file will not cut them. they can be hardened without taking off the brass ears or crutch wires, if you are careful in heating them; but the roughness on the faces caused by the teeth must be taken out in finishing. they must be polished nicely, and the polish lines should run parallel with the verge: this may not seem to some necessary, but if the polished lines run crosswise you can hear it rub distinctly and it would cause it to stop. it is very common to hear a clock make a creaking noise, and this leads inexperienced persons to think it has become dry inside. this is not so, and you will always find it to be caused by the loop of the crutch wire where it touches the rod; apply a little oil and it will cure it. some think that a clock must be cleaned and oiled often, but if the foregoing directions are carefully pursued it is not necessary. i could show the reader several thirty-four hour brass clocks of my first and second years' manufacture (about twenty-two years since) which have been taken apart and cleaned but once--perhaps some of them twice. i have been told that they run as well as they did the first year. now these are the directions which i should lay down for you to save your money, and your clocks from untimely wearing out. if you see any signs of their stopping--such as a faint beat, or if on a very cold night they stop, take the dial off, and the verge from the pin, wipe the pin that the verge hangs on, the hole in the ears of the verge, and the pieces that act on the wheel; also the loop of the verge wire where it connects with the rod, and the rod itself where the loop acts. previous to taking off the verge, oil all the pivots in front; let the clock be wound up about half way, then take off the verge, and let it run down as rapidly as it will, in order to work out the gummy oil: then wipe off the black oil that has worked out and it is not necessary to add any more to the pivots. then oil the parts as above described connected with the verge and be very sparing of the oil, for too little is better than too much. i never use any but watch oil. you may think that the other oils are good because you have tried them; but i venture to say that all the good they effected was temporary and after a short time the clock was more gummed up than it was before. watch oil is made from the porpoise' jaw, and i have not seen anything to equal it. you may say why not oil the back pivots? they do not need it as often as the front ones, because they are not so much exposed, and hence, they do not catch the dust which passes through the sash and through the key holes that causes the pivots to be gummy and gritty. the front pivot holes wear largest first. a few pennys' worth of oil will last many years. it is necessary to occasionally oil the pulleys on the top of the case which the cord passes over. if this is not done the hole becomes irregular, and a part of the power is lost to the clock. common oil will answer for them. with regard to balance-wheel clocks, it is more difficult to explain the mode of repairing, to the inexperienced. with reference to oiling, use none but watch oil. the story of the invention of steel pens with a description of the manufacturing process by which they are produced by henry bore london in these days of public schools and extended facilities for popular education it would be difficult to find many people unaccustomed to the use of steel pens, but although the manufacture of this article by presses and tools must have been introduced during the first quarter of the present century, the inquirer after knowledge would scarcely find a dozen persons who could give any definite information as to when, where, and by whom this invention was made. less than two decades ago there were three men living who could have answered this question, but two of them passed away without making any sign, and the third--sir josiah mason--has left on record that his friend and patron--mr. samuel harrison--about the year , made a steel pen for dr. priestley. this interesting fact does not contribute anything toward solving the question, who was the first manufacturer of steel pens by mechanical appliances? in the absence of any definite information, the balance of testimony tends to prove that steel pens were first made by tools, worked by a screw press, about the beginning of the third decade of the present century, and the names associated with their manufacture were john mitchell, joseph gillott, and josiah mason, each, in his own way, doing something toward perfecting the manufacture by mechanical means. the earliest references to pens are probably those in the bible, and are to be found in judges v. , st kings xxi. , job xix. , psalm xlv. ., isaiah viii. , jeremiah viii. and xvii. . but these chiefly refer to the iron stylus, though the first in jeremiah--taken in reference to the mention of a penknife, xxxvi. --would seem to imply that a reed was in use at that period. there is a reference to "pen and ink" in the d epistle of john xiii. , which was written about a.d. , and as pens made in brass and silver were used in the greek and roman empires at that time, it is probable that a metallic pen or reed was alluded to. pens and reeds made in the precious metals and bronze appear to have been in use at the commencement of the present era. the following are a few notable instances: "the queen of hungary, in the year , had a silver pen bestowed upon her, which had this inscription upon it: _'publii ovidii calamus,'_ found under the ruins of some monument in that country, as mr. sands, in the life of ovid (prefixed to his metamorphosis) relates. --_"humane industry; or, a history of mechanical arts," by thos. powell, d.d.: london, , page ._" this was probably a silver reed, and, from the locality in which it was found, was once the property of the poet ovid. publius ovidius naso was born in the year b.c., and died a.d. he was exiled at the age of to tomi, a town south of the delta of the danube. this at present is in modern bulgaria, but at the period mentioned was in the ancient kingdom of hungary. from "notes and queries," in birmingham _weekly post_, we take the following: "early metallic pens.---metallic pens are generally supposed to have been unknown before the early part of the last century, when gold and silver pens are occasionally referred to as novel luxuries. i have, however, recently found a description and an engraving of one found in excavating pompeii, and which is now preserved in the museum at naples. it is described in the quarto volume 'les monuments du musee national de naples, graves sur cuivre par les meillures artistes italienes. texte par domenico monaco, conservateur du meme musee, naples, ,' and is in the catalogue: "' plate i (v) plume en bronze, taillee parfaitement a la facon de nos plumes . cent. "' plate i (y) plume en roseau [reed] trouvee pres d'un papyrus a herculaneum.' "the former (v) is engraved to look like an ordinary reed pen, as now used universally in the east; and the other (y) has a spear shape, or almond shape (like many modern metallic pens), but with a sort of fillet or ring on the stem, which indicates that the 'y' example is not a reed, but a metallic stylus, or pen, while the 'v' example is shown clearly as a 'reed.' the two are, however, certainly older than a.d. , when pompeii and herculaneum were buried by the eruption of vesuvius." according to father montfaucon, the patriarchs of constantinople, under the greek empire, were accustomed to sign their allocutions with tubular pens of silver, similar in shape to the reed pens which are still used by oriental nations. the following are translated from the french "notes and queries "-- l'intermediare:_ "a metallic pen in the fourteenth century.--m. reni de bellwal, in a very learned volume which he has published recently, on the first campaign of edward iii. in france, says (p. ) with respect to the fictitious pieces (documents) fabricated by robert d'artois, that a clerk of jeanne wrote the deeds, and made use of a bronze pen to enable him the better to disguise his writing. this plainly refers to a pen, and not to a stylus. is there any record of the use of metallic pens at any period anterior to the fourteenth century? it is very satisfactory, however, to establish (as the french used to say) _'les preuves de .'"--l'intermediare. in the _vieux-neuf_ of m. ed. fournier (vol. ii., p. , note) there is mentioned--according to the documents used in the prosecution of robert d'artois, which are in the archives--'the bronze pen' with which the forgers in the pay of the count wrote the false papers which he required. m. fournier also quotes from 'montfaucon' 'the silver reeds' with which the constantinople patriarchs used to write their letters."--cuthbert, _l'intermediare,_ st june, . "metallic pens (xv., ).-writing was done in the middle ages sometimes with a metal _stylus,_ or perhaps with a metal pen; with the former on wax, and with the pen on parchment or vellum. 'at trinity college, cambridge, is a manuscript illustration of eadwine, a monk of canterbury, and at the end the writer is represented with a metal pen in his hand.' (see bibliomania in the middle ages, p. ). i have in my possession a metal pen of dutch manufacture, dating certainly from the year , mounted on the same pencilholder, with a piece of solid plumbago, in a memorandum book of the same year."--sam: timmins. "mr. le chauvine gal, prior of the collegiate of st. peter and st. bars at aosta, had in his collection of roman antiquities a bronze pen, slit, found in a tomb, among a number of lamps and lachrymatory vases. m. aubert has given a drawing and description of it in a work on aosta. it was subsequently stolen from him by a collector."--- chambery, un savoyard, _l'intermediare,_ th may, . "metallic pens,--in a precious volume (an account of the books of the decretalia) preserved in the library of saint antoine, of padua, the following notice is to be found at the bottom of the last page: 'this work is fashioned and by diligence finished for the service of god, not with ink of quill nor with brazen reed, but with a certain invention of printing or reproducing by john fust, citizen of mayence, and peter schoeiffer, of gernsheim, dec. th, , a.d.' here, then, we have a document proving the existence of metallic pens in the middle ages. but has any such pen come down to us? if so, could a detailed description of it be obtained? on the other hand, i am curious to know if it is possible that platinum was used in the eighteenth century in the manufacture of pens, or whether it is necessary to attribute a peculiar meaning to the 'platinum pen' in the following passage of the system of shorthand by bertin (edit. of the year iv., p. ) ( ). 'those of steel and platinum are most convenient; these latter have the advantage of all others, in that they hold the ink a long time, and run over the paper easily, and are not liable to corrosion by any simple acid.' i am ignorant of what the same author means when he mentions the endless pen, which would certainly be the best. "'--j. camus, _l'intermediare._ "metallic pens were used before the fifteenth century; they were in use at the court of augustus." see _l'intermed._ (i. , , ; ii. .) consult also _le vieux-neuf_ ed. fournier.--a.d. the following extracts show there have been several claimants, on the continent, who profess to have invented metallic pens, made from steel, in the early part of the eighteenth century; but the reader had better suspend his judgment until he has read the notes that follow them: "a manuscript, entitled 'historical chronicle of aix-la-chapelle, second book, ,' places on record the claims of johann janssen, a magistrate of that place, as the inventor of steel pens. 'just at the meeting of the congress [after the austrian war] i may without boasting, claim the honour of having invented a new pen. it is, perhaps, not an accident that god should have inspired me at the present time with the idea of making steel pens, for all the envoys here assembled have bought the first that have been made; therewith, as may be hoped, to sign a treaty of peace, which, with god's blessing, shall be as permanent as the hard steel with which it is written. of these pens, as i have invented them, no man hath before seen or heard. if kept clean and free from rust and ink, they will continue fit for use for many years. indeed, a man may write twenty reams of paper with one, and the last line would be written as well as the first. they are now sent into every corner of the world as a rare thing--to spain, france, england and holland. others will no doubt make imitations of my pens, but i am the man who first invented and made them. i have sold a great number of them at home and abroad at s. each, and i dispose of them as quickly as i can make them."' in an article on writing instruments, which appeared in the berlin _paper zeitung,_ on the th of may, , the author says: "a school teacher of koningberg, named burger, in the year , made pens from metal, but he got poor by his trials. after this time, and probably imitating the pens of burger, the english began to take in hand the manufacture of pens; _especially perry,_ he having perfected the pens, as he did not restrict himself to the simple straight slit, but he made cuts in the sides of different kinds." in a pamphlet upon the manufacture of steel pens, published in paris, in , the writer says: "the invention of the metallic pen is due to a french mechanic-- arnoux--who lived in the eighteenth century, who made as far back as a number of metallic pens as a curiosity. this invention did not have any immediate result in france but spread to england, and became in birmingham, about , a very prosperous industry. a very curious fact about this trade is that, in england, it does not exist out of birmingham, where there are about ten manufactories. in france it has become localized in boulogne." there is also the "nameless sheffield artisan," who so frequently figures in newspaper paragraphs as the inventor of steel pens; and william gadsby, a mathematical instrument maker, who for his own use constructed a clumsy article from the mainspring of a watch; but it is not till the beginning of the eighteenth century that we get anything authentic respecting the making of metallic pens. "este," writing in "local notes and queries" _(birmingham weekly post)_ mentions a remarkable little volume supplied to the members of the states general of holland, in the possession of mr. w. bragge, of sheffield, dated . it contained a silver pencil case, in two parts, one holding a piece of plumbago, mounted like a crayon, and the other a _metallic pen._ we have seen this unique book (now the property of mr. sam: timmins). the pen is of the barrel shape, apparently silver, and it must be regarded as the earliest authentic metallic pen. of the date there can be no doubt, as the pen is made to pass through loops in the cover of the volume to keep it closed, after the manner of pocket books, and the book bears the date, printed on the title page, . pope, about the same time, received from lady frances shirley a present of a standish, containing a steel and a gold pen. in acknowledging the receipt of this present, the poet wrote an ode, in which the following lines occur: "take at this hand celestial arms; secure the radiant weapons wield; this _golden_ lance shall guard desert, and, if a vice dares keep the field, this _steel_ shall stab it to the heart. awed, on my bended knees i fell, received the weapons of the sky, and dipped them in the sable well-- the fount of fame or infamy. what well? what weapon? flavia cries, a standish, _steel and golden pen!_ it came from _bertrand's,_* not the skies, i gave it you to write again." *_bertrand_ kept a fancy shop in bath. he died in . his wife is mentioned by horace walpole, in his letter to george montague, may th, , which letter is printed in his correspondence. in no. of the _spectator,_ bearing the date of october , , steele, mentioning the conspicuous manner in which a certain lady conducted herself in church, says: "for she fixed her eyes upon the preacher, and as he said anything she approved, with one of charles mather's fine tablets, she set down the sentence, at once showing her fine hand, the _gold pen,_ her readiness in writing, and her judgments in choosing what to write." edmund waller, about the middle of the seventeenth century, acknowledged the receipt of a _silver pen_ from a lady, in the following verses: "madam! intending to have try'd, the silver favour which you gave, in ink the shining point i dy'd, and drench'd it in the sable wave when, grieved to be so foully stained, on you it thus to me complained. so i, the wronged pen to please, made it my humble thanks express unto your ladyship, in these, and now 'tis forced to confess that your great self did ne'er indite nor that to me more noble write." mr. g. a. lomas, writing to the _scientific american,_ november , , says: "i write to inquire if you can give me information concerning the manufacture of metal pens in this country. i may be vain in the supposition, but i am persuaded that my people--the shakers--were the originators of metal pens. i write this to you with a silver pen, one slit, that was made in the vear , at this village, by the shakers. two or three years previously to the use of silver pens, our people used brass plates for their manufacture, but soon found silver preferable. some people sold these pens in the year , at this village, for twenty-five cents, and disposed of all that could be made." the writer further says the metal was made from silver coins. this communication called forth the following from another correspondent: "the letter in the _scientific american,_ november , , with regard to the early manufacture of steel pens, reminds me of the following note which appeared in the _boston mechanic,_ for august, . 'the inventor of steel pens,' says the _journal of commerce,_ was an american and a well-known resident of our city (new york), mr. peregrine williamson. in the year , mr.w., then a working jeweler, at baltimore, while attending an evening school, finding some difficulty in making a quill pen to suit him, made one of steel. it would not write well, however, for want of flexibility. after a while he made an additional slit on each side of the main one, and the pens were so much improved that mr. w. was called to make them in such numbers as to eventually occupy his whole time, and that of a journeyman. at first the business was very profitable and enabled mr. w. to realize for the labor of himself and journeyman a clear profit of six hundred dollars per month. the english soon borrowed the invention, and some who first engaged in the business realized immense fortunes."' we do not know how much reliance may be placed upon this statement, but, if the last assertion "that those who first engaged in the business realized immense fortunes" may be taken as a test, the whole must be received with a grain of salt. the letter appeared in the _boston mechanic,_ in , and at that date there were penmakers who had made a modest competence, but in no case were they possessed of immense fortunes. in london _notes and queries,_ the following appears respecting early steel pens: "the first steel pen.--( th s., iii., .) ten years before dr. priestley was born steel pens were in use. there are references to them in the diary of john byrom, who required them when writing short-hand. in a letter to his sister phoebe, dated august, , he mentions them as follows: 'alas! alas! i cannot meet with a steel pen, no manner of where i believe i have asked at places, but that which i have is at your service, as the owner himself always is."' (remains, vol. i., .) mr. ralph n. james, writing to _notes and queries,_ gives the following extract from the very amusing "journey to paris," by dr. martin lister, : "there was one thing very curious, and that was a _writing lnstrument_ of thick and strong silver wire, bound up like a hollow button or screw, with both ends pointing one way, and at a distance, so that a man might easily put his forefinger betwixt the two points, and the point divided in two, just like _our steel pens."_--_london notes and queries,_ vol. iii., page . this note caused another writer, mr. c.a. ward, to send the following: "steel pens.--the extract given from dr. m. lister's, by mr. ralph n. james, is very interesting. the doctor there speaks of _'our steel pens,'_ as if they were not at all uncommon. when the poet churchill's effects were sold up, after his death, nov. , , they fetched extravagant prices; 'a common steel pen' brought l. ." --_london notes and queries,_ vol iii., page . the following extract from _london notes and queries_ gives very plausible reasons against placing confidence in the preceding and other notices of ancient steel pens: "steel pens. ( th s., vol. iii., pp. , .) may i ask whether, in giving the interesting references to the use of _steel pens_ before the time of priestley (one reference even going so far back as the seventeenth century) your correspondents have carefully considered what is meant by the terms. for my own part (of course i maybe quite wrong) i should naturally have anticipated _steel pens_ in these references to mean not the modern steel nib for ordinary penmanship, but the ancient steel pen for drawing lines or ruling circles, such as is contained in every box of mathematical instruments. this would explain (to some extent) the great price fetched for a good one of churchill's; a mere old steel nib would scarcely enter into a sale at all. it would explain, too, why a special process of hardening should be applied to a quill, in order to make it do duty for the steel instrument. one would scarcely think of hardening a quill in order to enable it to compete with a steel nib in some of the least desirable qualities, though one often wishes one could accomplish the reverse process, and soften or supple a steel 'stick frog,' so as to give it the elasticity of the grey goose quill. "--v. h. i. l. l. c. iv. (iv., , th s., _london notes and queries._) mr. r. prosser, author of "birmingham inventors and inventions," in writing to the compiler of this work, says: "it has often occurred to me that some of the very early references to metallic pens may perhaps mean the draughtsman's 'ruling pen,' and not an instrument made after the fashion of a quill pen with a slit in it. that it is possible to write with such an instrument this paragraph will show, but i must admit that it is not equal to one of perry's j's." from an entry in "pepys' diary," october , , _drawing pens_ appear to have been in use in london, at the time of the restoration: "to mr. lilly's, where, not finding mr. spong, i went to mr. greatorex, where i met him, and where i bought a _drawing pen._" in london _notes and queries_ ( th s., xi., ), the rev. e. smedley, editor of the _encyclopoedia metropolitana,_ writing to his friend, mr. h. hawkins, april , , says: "the process of nibbing and shaving is one which i always abominated, and for years past i have taken refuge under the _perryian_ pens. the one with which i now write has been in use daily, and all day long, for more than a fortnight, and i consider that it still owes me quite as much worth as it has already furnished. every packet contains nine pens, and on an average two out of that number fail to suit my hand, but the remaining seven are faithful servants, and their price is s." in _london notes and queries_ ( th s., xii., ) a writer says: "i bought my first steel pen from bramah, piccadilly, in . the price was s. d. it was very thick and hard, with very little elasticity. in i read advertised in the _times,_ steel pens, with holder, s. per dozen, at kendal's, in holborn. they were hand made, and much easier to write with than bramah's. soon after the price fell, and steel pens became common." in _london notes and queries ( th s., x., ), october , , mr. william bates, speaking of a visit he paid to an old lady, at studley (worcestershire) about , says that he saw an exquisitely-finished inkstand of pure gold, the gift of one of the earls of plymouth to her father, years before. the inkstand was provided with a jointed gold penholder, terminating in a barrel (one slit) pen, resembling the metallic pen of the present day, except that he found that it would not write. in "local notes and queries," published in the _birmingham journal and weekly post,_ there have appeared a number of contributions relating to the early manufacture of steel pens. we reproduce them here. a correspondent writing on june , , says: "daniel fellows, of sedgley, made steel pens about ." another writer, on the same date, says, "the first makers of steel pens were john edwards, hill street, and francis heeley, mount street, birmingham." respecting, the former of these, in _wrightson's birmingham directory, , the following advertisement appears: "john edwards, manufacturer of improved gold, silver, and _elastic sleel pens,_ mounted in all kinds of cases, and desk handles, no. hill street. n.b.--the pens are warranted to write exceedingly fine and free." this advertisement contained engravings of a barrel and "nibbed" or "slip" pen. j. sargent, writing from tettenhall, june , , says: "a journeyman blacksmith, named fellows, of sedgley, was the first originator of steel pens. i resided at sedgley in , when sheldon, fellows's apprentice, made some of these pens. he made two for me. i wrote very well with them. sheldon himself told me that mr. gillott commenced making the pen from seeing some of his (sheldon's) make." some one writing under the _nom de plume_ of "un qui sait," says: "i distinctly recollect, about the year , being at fellows's home in sedgley, and there seeing thomas sheldon, his apprentice, making steel pens. he knew of an entry in his books of pens bought from fellows in . he paid sheldon l. in . he believed fellows made pens in . beilby and knott (birmingham stationers) sold these pens in considerable quantities from to . sheldon continued the trade until it was destroyed through inability to compete with the machine-made pens of mitchell and gillott." another writer, "t. s.," says: "in , an uncle of mine used to purchase these pens from sheldon, of sedgley. the price was eighteen shillings per dozen, ten per cent. for cash. they were barrel shape. b. smith and co. had in their pattern book of engravings of steel toys a drawing of one of these pens, which were sold at thirty shillings per dozen; also one in a bone handle, the top of which screwed off, for carrying in the pocket, at thirty-six shillings per dozen." another correspondent, writing on july , , mentions (on authority of the late mr. alderman yates) that an old man named spittle made steel pens before any of the present makers. in note this man spittle is mentioned by another writer, who says: "a man named spittle, one of the earliest makers of steel pens, lived in chequers' walk, bath row, birmingham. he made steel pens for sale, and charged one shilling each for them. they were made with a tube to fit on a quill. i bought one from him forty-five years ago ( )." "e.w.," writing in , says: "in there was a b. smith, steel toy maker, st. paul's [mary's] square, birmingham. he had a book of engravings of steel toys, among which were steel pens, made to screw on and off. this pattern book might have been one hundred years old. i sold his pens in ." the editor of "notes and queries" says "smith's pattern book was probably fifty years old," and further remarks that steel pens must have been a regular article of manufacture before they appeared in a steel toy maker's pattern book. "c.j.," in note , says: "the pattern book of john barnes, eagle works, wolverhampton, contains engravings of early steel pens." mr. robert griffin says: "in i wrote very much with a steel pen made under the direction of james perry--a pen that lasted about eight or nine weeks, writing eight hours a day." in note , "anon" says he remembered his father (who had premises in water street, birmingham), in the summer of , bringing a tall, quiet, respectable man to the manufactory. he had a piece of iron, or steel, which he required to be cut up into strips of about two inches wide. the man said he was going to get the strips rolled to make into steel pens. he gave the writer of the note sixpence and a barrel pen for his trouble. in answer to inquiries the writer put to his father, the latter stated he did not know the man's name nor where he lived, but "that he met with him in a smoke room, where he (the father) sometimes spent his evenings." the writer further remarks: "where the man had got his ideas from which induced him to try his hand at making steel pens i do not know, but i have an impression that there were several experimenters in existence at that time; and very soon afterward mr. william (joseph) gillott, with whom my father was on terms of intimacy, came into notice as a maker of steel pens." this is a very important statement, as it fixes a date respecting pens being made from sheet steel. one of the oldest toolmakers in the trade has informed us that, about the year or , he was frequently taken by his father to visit an uncle named clulee, who rented power at the water street mill. on these occasions his father and uncle would talk about the visits of gillott to the latter, and the hopeful manner in which he spoke of the experiments he was then making. gillott rented power at the water street mill, and was engaged in grinding and finishing penknife blades, which were inserted in one end of a silver pencil case, which his relative--mitchell--was then making. now, who was this "tall, quiet, respectable man?" it could not have been gillott, as he was not tall and the father of "anon" knew him; and mitchell was also a short man. we have failed to trace him, and his identity is lost among the "sowers" who failed to reap the harvest of their inventions. mr. george wallis, speaking of steel pens, remarks: "i wrote with one when a boy ( to ), having found several in a stock of old steel waste in the warehouse of a relative, a retired ornamental steel worker, at wolverhampton. these pens were made (so i was told) for the london market, late in the last or early in the present century. certainly they were made fifteen or, perhaps, twenty years, when i found them, as the manufactory in which they had been produced had been closed the former number of years. they consisted of a holder of steel, with flutings and facets. one was solid and tapered to lighten it; the other had a barrel with an internal screw. the pen had two screws; one was used to screw the pen into the barrel for use, and the other to secure it when turned inwards as a protection when not in use, or to carry in the pocket." the following letter from mr. alderman manton to mr. sam: timmins makes us acquainted with another manufacturer of steel pens: "the metal pens of .--in a badly-constructed and unsanitary manufactory (mr. james collins's), at the back of suffolk street, (birm.), i witnessed the process of making silver and _steel_ pens. as both metals were manufactured in the same manner, one description will serve. it will be remembered by a few that at that time there was a patent silver pencil case somewhat extensively manufactured, which in addition to the pencil, had a penknife, _pen_ and toothpick provided. the penknife was supplied by two brothers--_joseph and william gillott_--who at that time rented a small shop in a corner of the yard belonging to the rolling mill of george and p.f. muntz, water street, and from whose engine they obtained the small amount of steam power needed. the process of making the pens was as follows: two narrow strips were cut from a sheet of silver or steel; they were then, by the help of the hammer and a lead cake, or piece of hard wood, curved. afterwards the two strips were placed opposite to each other on a well-polished steel wire, and drawn through a draw-plate, the wire and plate being supplied by wm. billings, a celebrated tool manufacturer, occupying premises near the top of snow hill (birm.). by the aid of a press, a small hole was made at a distance of half an inch or five-eighths from the end, the slit was then made by a fine saw made of watch springs. a bent pair of shears was used for cutting the end of strip into the shape of a pen; and a half-round file or smooth was used for finishing the pen. the pen was then sawn off the strip by the same saw which was used for slitting the pen. the only hardening process was the friction of the draw-plate and steel wire. i not only witnessed the process, but was a manipulator. the cost of making at that time, by a journeyman, was d. each; by an apprentice, about one-third of that amount. within less than thirty years of that time, in a manufactory adjoining my own, pens were made and sold (wholesale) at d. per gross, and a box containing them into the bargain." _(signed)_ henry manton, september , . mr. t. vary writes that james perry began making steel pens in manchester, and quotes the _saturday magazine_ to show that metallic pens were given by him as rewards of merit in schools as far back as . mr. james cocker, writing in the _sheffield daily telegraph,_ in , says: "that he rolled steel wire for james perry for penmaking in ." the death of mr. gillott seems to have revived the discussion of the origin of steel pens, and a correspondent in the sheffield _daily telegraph,_ in the issue of january , , in the following letter, puts forth a claim on behalf of a sheffield man: "the well-written and well-merited memoir of the late mr. gillott, the birmingham steel pen maker, which has just appeared in the newspapers, affords a curious and instructive illustration of the success which not seldom attends the combined action of ingenuity, industry, shrewdness, and integrity among our labouring classes. born in the humblest rank of our local workmen, a steady scholar in our boys' lancasterian school, and apprenticed to a scissors grinder, the deceased worked his way upwards into a position of influence and opulence as a manufacturer, which entitled him to take social rank with the merchant princes of the land. and if his name has long since ceased to be familiar among his once contemporary workmen in sheffield, and is not even mentioned in the directory, it has for several years past been recognized and respected by the visitors at the annual exhibitions of our school of art, in connection with the many rare and valuable pictures lent by him on those occasions. the printed _fac-simile_ of the autograph appeared in the 'advertising columns' of almost every newspaper in the world, and perhaps, as an expert might have said, was characteristic. in the admirable account of his life above referred to stress is laid upon one prominent and praiseworthy feature of his character, viz., his readiness to acknowledge the obscurity of his origin and the steps of his industrial success. in those details no mention is made of his sheffield master and predecessor in the ingenious art of steel pen making. and as the notice alluded to is without dates, it is difficult to furnish information on the material point of priority, though the fact of supremacy in the trade is clear enough. in one of the columns of lardner's cyclopedia, published in , the names of perry, heeley, and skinner are mentioned as steel pen makers. with the latter, who if he did not make wealth, certainly earned a wide reputation for the low price and excellent temper of his 'steel nibs,' mr. gillett was a workman, in nursery street, sheffield, having gone with his master from the scissors grinding stone to the making of polished steel ornaments for ladies' work, then fashionable. how much, in what way, or whether at all, he was indebted to his experience in mr. skinner's establishment may be questionable, but that he learnt and first saw practised in sheffield the art that ultimately enriched him in birmingham, he would probably be the last to deny. it is well remembered by a worthy dealer in almost every useful article, from a mouse-trap to a railroad wagon, that gillott, soon after his establishment in birmingham, came into our townsman's shop, and seeing on the counter a model steam engine of half-horse power, at once purchased and carried it off to give motion to some part of his pen machinery. brass pens were made in sheffield before the close of the last century. they mostly accompanied an 'inkpot,' called from its users an 'exciseman.' the writer of this paragraph himself made hundreds of dozens of them, which, however, be never used, nor steel ones either, as long as he could get a 'goose quill,' good, bad or indifferent. the matter of slitting the nib was kept secret by skinner, and the double slit of gillott more than doubled the value of his old master's invention; but a 'four-slit' pen, _i.e., with five points,_ if possible to make, would be useless. the earliest experimenter in form and material was perry, flexibility being the great desideratum; but it is curious to see how world-wide a currency gillott's name and trade have given to the simplest shape; and still more curious to note how the makers of writing ink and paper have conformed these articles to the requirements of the uses of the steel pen. it is always gratifying, and not unprofitable, to contrast the small and feeble beginnings of any manufacturing enterprise with a large and well-merited success." this communication appears to have caused a mr. william levesley to call upon the writer of the preceding epistle, and the following which appeared in the _sheffield daily telegraph,_ january , , was written: "i have to thank you for the insertion of my queries as to the early connection of sheffield with steel pen making. in consequence of the appearance of my letter in the _telegraph,_ a cutlery manufacturer of the name of william levesley, called upon me, and informed me that he was not only an early associate with the late mr. gillott, of birmingham, but the first person who made a steel pen out of london. stress has been laid upon gillott's ability 'to forge and grind a knifeblade.' it is not likely he ever used the hammer on hot steel, but he was when young, and working with father, accounted an excellent penknife grinder; skinner being a scissors grinder, and levesley a workboard hand for the same master. a man of the name of mitchell having married gillott's mother, went to birmingham, and began the cutlery business, the latter removing thither to grind for his father- in-law. his brother had also gone thither, and commenced making an article that had some run, and may be said to have united the ingenious handicrafts of birmingham, viz., the insertion of a penknife blade at the end of a silver pencil case. meanwhile, about the year , levesley saw a steel pen, made by perry, of london, in ridge's shop window, in high street. he bought it for one shilling, and immediately set about making tools to imitate and improve upon it. he spent, he said, l. in not unsuccessful, though unremunerative, experiments. the flypress was at least as well known in sheffield as in birmingham, and its power was at once brought into requisition to work the tools for shaping, bending, and slitting the pens which were made out of sheet steel, perry's being made out of thick wire, rolled flat, by cocker, in nursery street. in , levesley was making pens for sale, and that year is said to be the earliest date of actual sales in skinner's ledger. in he was doing a considerable business in sheffield, and making experiments upon the article, as appears from specimens before me bearing his name. stress has been laid upon the improvement of the double slit, introduced by gillott, but if levesley's statement is to be taken literally, he was the inventor of a specialty upon which, even more than on excellence of material, the merit of a steel pen is found to depend, viz., the grinding of a small hollow at the back of the nib, and about the eighth of an inch from the point. my informant described not only the beneficial action of this thinning of the metal, as well in yielding the gradual flow of the ink as in flexibility of writing, but the pleasure with which he took a specimen to birmingham to show gillott, and the surprise of the latter at so great and so beneficial an effect, provided by so small a cause. he at once adopted an improvement of which every pen made by him bears evidence; and when his friend visited him he told him he had fifty women employed in grinding pen points. it is pleasant to add that gillott never visited sheffield without calling to see his old friend levesley, while the latter spoke of his early and later life with respect and commendation, especially in his domestic relations. it is pleasing to review a life of such humble beginnings, culminating in opulence and usefulness like that of the late joseph gillott, of birmingham; nor is it less to name in connection therewith, as an early experimenter in steel pen making, our worthy townsman, william levesley, to whose ingenious improvement every writer is so much indebted, and of whose verbal communication to me the foregoing is an imperfect sketch." now, in this statement, there are some dales given, but others are omitted, and that is a very unfortunate circumstance. levesley told the writer of the article in the _sheffield daily telegraph_ that he made use of the fly press for working tools for shaping, bending, and slitting pens. if the writer had only given the date of this it would have been a valuable contribution toward a history of the invention. the claim of levesley to having invented the process of grinding pens and teaching gillott seems, to say the least, curious, because the latter was a sheffield grinder, and the idea would certainly be quite as likely to occur to gillott as levesley. besides, why did levesley communicate the idea to gillott in preference to skinner, with whom he had business relations? the statement that gillott had fifty girls employed when levesley* called upon him on his next visit to birmingham looks like a mistake. fifty girls would grind on an average seven thousand gross of pens in a week, and as this correspondence appears to refer to the early part of gillott's career, it is scarcely possible that such a number of pens were produced weekly at that period. besides, as a matter of fact, boys were, in the first instance, employed to grind pens. * mr. sam: timmins says, "that levesley told him that gillott started in birmingham as a jobbing cutler; that mitchell had the secret of pen making; that mitchell sent for gillott to come to birmingham, and that he (j.g.) first lived at the top of water street; that gillott began to make pens in bread street; that perry made pens from flattened steel wire, the breadth of the pen (the steel was s. d. per lb., and drawn at old ford); that he had seen cross grinding (at gillott's) in newhall street, and fifty women at work; and that pens had double slits and cut holes. levesley certainly knew all the gillott family, personally, in sheffield, and he (s. t.) had a long interview with him shortly before his death, when he mentioned all the facts given here." herr ignaz nagel, in his "report on writing, drawing, and painters' requisites," at the vienna exhibition, , says: "from careful inquiries that we made in birmingham, we learned that a knife cutler, of sheffield, was the first man who had the idea of making pens of steel, and that a tinman of the name of skipper [skinner], of sheffield, afterwards manufactured the pens in great quantities. his son developed the idea still further. this, according to our informant, was fifty years ago. a steel pen artisan, working in birmingham, remembers perfectly well reading the announcement in a window of the high street, in sheffield, : 'steel pens are repaired here at sixpence apiece.' there was a man named spittle, in birmingham, who used to make steel pens by hand. he was succeeded by the brothers john and william mitchell, who were manufacturers of steel pens, wholesale and by machinery, about forty- five years ago. perry came afterwards, and took out a patent for the first steel pens, and after him gillott, who had learnt the business with the mitchells." a writer in _herbert's encyclopoedia_ published in , says "the first decided attempt to introduce metallic pens to general use was made by mr. wise, whose perpetual pens will doubtless be remembered by many of our readers. the name of wise was rendered conspicuous in most of our stationers' shops some twenty-five or thirty years since, as the original inventor and general manufacturer of the steel pens." we stated at the beginning of this article that of three men-- mitchell, gillott, and mason--who might have done something toward fixing the date of the invention of manufacturing pens by the adaptation of tools worked by the screw press, only one--mason--made a statement: "the first making of steel pens that i know of was about the year , by my late friend mr. harrison, for dr. priestley. he took sheet steel, made a tube of it, and the part joined formed the slit of the pen. he then filed away the barrel and formed the pen. i found some of the identical pens amongst other articles and used them for a long time. "the second mode of making pens was by punching a rough blank out of thin sheet steel. this blank formed the well-known barrel pen. it was brought into the barrel shape by rounding, but before rounding it had to be filed into a better form about the nib, and when rounded in the soft state, a sharp chisel was used to mark the inside of the pen which became the slit, after hardening. before tempering, this mark was 'tabbered' with a small hammer, and it would crack where the inside mark was made. then it was tempered and underwent grinding, and shaping the nib until a point suitable for fine or broad, as required. "i made barrel pens in , and 'slip' pens for perry in , and the first lot of at _one time_ was sent november , . frequently, lots of or gross were sent between and , and in i sent pens to perry amounting to l. , s. d. "perry certainly never made a pen as they are now made, viz., the _slit cut _with press tools; all he made were _cracked_ slit. "i made steel barrel pens some time before i made 'slip' pens for perry. "it is doubtful when metal pens were made. the first i know of were made by mr. harrison, for dr. priestley. perry was certainly not the first maker of steel pens, but i have no doubt that he was the first steel _slip pen_ maker, and no doubt the first to use a _goose quill_ for a pen holder, hence the slip pen. "the first stick pen holders i made for perry in , and for gillott in , and sold sticks to gillott in --l. s. d." mason claimed to have made barrel pens for perry, of london, in , and "slip or nibbed" pens in ; but he does not appear to have made any claim to priority of invention over mitchell and gillott. now, although mitchell made no claim himself, on the death of mr. gillott the following letter appeared in the _daily post:_ "the remarks which have appeared in a local paper upon the death of mr. j. gillott, that the steel pen owes its existence to him, and that the adaptation of machinery to the manufacture of metallic pens was his invention, lead the public to wrong conclusions. it is due to the memory of my late father--john mitchell--that i should state that he not only made steel pens, but used machinery in their production, for some time before mr. gillott commenced in that branch of business." --henry mitchell, january , . in october, , mr. henry mitchell writes to _aris's gazette,_ and says: "you review, in your impression of the d inst., a work entitled 'british manufacturing industries--the birmingham trades,' in which the history of steel pens forms a prominent chapter. i beg to point out that my late father's name--john mitchell--is certainly mentioned in a list of the manufacturers of the article, and, to my great surprise, simply so. in a part of the work the author states that 'the early history of steel pens is involved in obscurity.' my object in writing to you is to remove that obscurity, as i am satisfied you will be equally desirous of giving honor to whom honor is due. i claim that honor for my late father--john mitchell--who was the first to introduce the making of steel pens by means of tools, which were purely his own invention, and i will leave it to an enlightened public to judge if it is not one of the greatest benefits conferred on any civilized community. whatever others may have done does not remove the fact that the inventor i have named was my father; and it is only due to him that posterity should know who originated the means whereby millions of human beings of the present time, and generations yet unborn are, and will be, enabled to communicate their thoughts to each other with a facility they otherwise would not have had. for, unless the steel pen had been manufactured by tools and machinery, that useful article would virtually be at a prohibitory price. the date of the invention i believe to be or thereabouts." this is very emphatic; but how far may it be taken as an unprejudiced statement of facts? well, it has never been contradicted; and gillott never made a claim on his own behalf, as having made pens before mitchell. mason gave the year as the date when he commenced making pens, so that the evidence is in favor of mitchell. we have heard this statement of henry mitchell confirmed by a man who worked for mitchell, as a boy, and who remembered pens being made for sheldon by mitchell. it is probable at this early period the pens were made for a few dealers, and the general public was unacquainted with the names of the manufacturers. this circumstance has no doubt contributed to involve in obscurity the early operations of mitchell and gillott. in a notice in _lardner's cyclopoedia_ (written by mr. john holland, of sheffield), published in , the names of three penmakers only are given--perry, heeley, and skinner. from this it might be supposed that there were no other penmakers at this date; but gillott had taken out a patent in , and the names of both mitchell and gillott appeared as penmakers in _wrightson's birmingham directory_ for . it cannot be supposed that mr. holland wilfully omitted to mention the names of mitchell and gillott, for this writer was an impartial and painstaking collector of facts, but it is probable the notice was written some time before it was published; and, like many little masters, mitchell and gillot were only known as penmakers to the wholesale dealers in birmingham, upon whom they depended for orders, consequently mr. holland would be ignorant of their existence. in speaking of the demand for steel pens, the writer in lardner's says: "the rage originated chiefly, if not altogether, in the successful speculations of mr. james perry, of london, whose pens, however short their merits may fall of the praise of the inventor, are certainly superior to most others composed of a like material. perry began to make steel pens, in manchester, in , and in london in ." the press and tools with which these pens were made are still in the possession of perry and co., at their warehouse in the holburn viaduct. this fact tends to confirm the statement that mr. james perry was one of the earliest experimenters in the manufacture of the article. levesley says he bought one of perry's pens, which he saw in a shop window in sheffield, in , and he took it to his workshop and improved upon it. this is somewhat similar to the account given by mason of his first experiment in pen making. mason saw a pen of perry's in the window of a bookseller named peart, in bull street, birmingham, in , which he purchased and took home. finding he could produce a better article, which could be sold at a cheaper rate, he made some and sent them to mr. james perry, in, london, and that gentleman shortly after waited upon josiah mason, at his place of business in lancaster street, and the interview resulted in mason beginning to make pens for perry. it will be remembered that the writer in the _sheffield daily telegraph_ stated that the earliest experimenter in form and material was perry. leaving the honor of having originated the application of labor-saving machinery for the manufacture of steel pens to mitchell, it would appear that the merit of having popularized the article is due to perry. in , mr. james perry issued a circular containing a series of engravings of metallic pens, showing the improvements he had patented in their manufacture. in this circular it is stated: "till about six months ago the public had heard little of metallic pens. at present, it would seem that comparatively few of any other kind are in the hands of any class of the community. this sudden transition may clearly be traced to the announcement of the patent perryian pens in various periodicals, about six months ago, and to the general demand which ensued for that pen in every part of the empire," although this might be regarded as an _ex-parte_ statement, it is confirmed by independent testimony that perry popularized the article. the _saturday magazine,_ , says: "about twelve years ago ( ), the celebrated perryian pens first appeared. mr. perry may be regarded in the light of a great improver; many of his pens are ingenious and original in construction. he arranges his pens into _genera_ and _species._ mr. perry first overcame the rigidity complained of in steel pens by introducing apertures between the shoulder and point of the pen, thus transferring the elasticity of the pen to a position below instead of above the shoulder. this was the subject of his patent in ." mr. sam: timmins, in , writes: "no skill in manufacture, however, could conquer the prejudice against any metallic pen, and to mr. james perry the world is much indebted for persevering advocacy of the steel pen, and for one of the most important improvements in its form. mr. perry, with his characteristic energy, almost forced the steel pen into use, and was supplied with pens of a first-class quality by mr. josiah mason, of this town." furthermore, it is certain that about this time, steel pens began rapidly to supersede the use of quills,* and the trade was recognized as a rising industry. it is true that it still retained the secretive character with which its operations were conducted in its earlier days, which indeed in some respects distinguish it at the present time. its activity or dullness seldom troubles the writers of the "trade reports" in the local press, although they sometimes inform their readers about good orders having been placed for mousetraps, stove screws, snuffer trays, candle extinguishers, and sad irons. *in a humorous article, "the web-footed interests," which appeared in tait's edinburgh magazine, vol. iii., page ( ), there is a petition to the house of commons, from ganders, geese & goslings, setting forth the evils likely to ensue from the use of metallic pens. it prognosticates depression in agriculture and manufactures consequent upon a diminution in the amount of grain consumed, and a falling off in the demand for penknives; and draws an alarming picture of the possible failure of the supply of iron ware, and the total extinction of literature, likely to ensue through a stoppage in the supply of steel pens,--the web-footed interest being supposed to have ceased to exist. the petition concludes with a prayer that the manufacture of metallic pens be prohibited. to the writers of the present generation, who can purchase fairly-good pens at one shilling or one shilling and sixpence per gross, it seems hard to realize that people once gave one shilling each for substitutes for quills. it is true that quills could then be bought for a halfpenny and penny each, but how difficult it was to acquire the art of successfully manipulating the same into a pen the following anecdote from "edwards' life of rowland hill" will testify: "mrs. sinkinson, of jamaica row, birmingham, tells me she went to a school in hurst street, and that she remembered that old mr. hill came one day a week to teach arithmetic, and rowland [sir rowland hill] on another to teach writing. in those days there were no steel pens, and rowland couldn't mend a pen, so that whenever he came he was accompanied by his brother, matthew davenport, whose office it was to mend the pens used by the pupils the preceding week." sir josiah mason used to relate a similar circumstance in his own life, when at kidderminster, that he accompanied his brother richard, who was a sunday-school teacher, to mend the pens. comparing the crude specimens of early steel pens with the finished productions of the present day, we may be inclined to think that some praise was due to the people who persevered in the use of them; but that the purchasers of these early productions did appreciate them we have the testimony of mr. robert griffin, who says that he wrote for eight weeks, eight hours a day, with a pen made by perry, in . now, the old _"scribes,"_ as the law stationers' writers were called, were generally allowed one quill a day, and as the work of the day usually wore out the longest quill, a considerable amount of time must have been occupied in the renovation of the article.* this would be a serious inconvenience to those who could manufacture a quill into a pen, but as this was by no means an universal accomplishment, we can form an idea how even these clumsy substitutes found purchasers at such high prices. *the writer recollects the tedious waiting for the patient usher, who from desk to desk with his penknife, mending pens, and paying very little attention to anything else; also the wonder felt and expressed at the first sight of steel nibs, and how they dug into the paper. tom hood, in his "whims and oddities," gives some idea of the pre-steel-pen era: "in times begone, when each man cut his quill, with little perryian skill; what horrid, awkward, bungling tools of trade appeared the writing instruments, home made! what pens were sliced, hewed, hacked, and haggled out, slit or unslit, with many a various snout, aquiline, roman, crooked, square, and snubby, humpy and stubby; some capable of ladye-billets neat, some only fit for ledger-keeping clerk, and some to grub down, peter stubbs, his mark, or smudge through some illegible receipt, others in florid caligraphic plans, equal to ships, and wiggy heads, and swans! to try in any common inkstands then, with all their miscellaneous stocks, to find a decent pen, was like a dip into a lucky-box; you drew, and got one very curly, and split like endive in some hurly-burly; the next unslit, a square at end, a spade; the third, incipient pop-gun, not yet made; the fourth a broom; the fifth of no avail, turned upwards, like a rabbit's tail; and last, not least, by way of a relief, a stump that master richard, james, or john had tried his candle cookery upon, making 'roast beef!'" these early pens were at first made from a piece of steel formed into a tube, and filed into the shape of a pen by hand, the joint of the two edges forming the slit. afterward a blank was roughly punched out, filed into shape, and the slit marked out with a chisel while the blank was in a soft state. it was then shaped, hardened, tempered, ground, and the slit cracked through by means of a hammer and tool at the place where the mark had been made. the engravings of the pens by edwards, which appeared in _wrightson's directory,_ , seem to indicate that the piercing, side cutting and slitting were executed by mechanical appliances. possibly, edwards was not a manufacturer himself, but had his pens made for him by mitchell. in the pre-steel-pen era there were many attempts made to supersede quills. in "peveril of the peak," mistress chiffinch speaks of her _diamond pen._ there was a pen the nibs of which were of ruby, set in gold, made by doughty. dr. wollaston made gold pens tipped with, rhodium. during the time the early makers of steel pens were perfecting the article, several experimenters were offering to the public writing instruments made from various materials. bramah patented _"quill nibs,"_ made by splitting quills and cutting the semi-cylinders into sections, which were shaped into pens, and adapted to be placed in a holder. hawkins and mordan, in , made use of horn and tortoise- shell, which was cut into "nibs," softened in water, and small pieces of ruby and other precious stones were then embedded in by pressure. in this way they insured durability and great elasticity. in order to give stability to the nib thin pieces of gold or other metal were affixed to the tortoise-shell. looking back at the early operations of the trade, and considering that steel pens were made by hand at the beginning of the present century, we can scarcely understand why the idea of cheapening the production by the application of labor-saving contrivances did not occur to those inventive geniuses, the proprietors of soho. boulton had expended some time in perfecting the manufacture of steel buttons. that local admirable crichton, humphrey jefferies, does not appear to have ever directed his attention to the manufacture of this article, which has now become a prime necessity of civilization. yet we hear of his success in the improvement of buttons, and button-makers must have used the screw press and tools for cutting out the blank and shaping it into form; and the process of slitting had been anticipated, for printers had a brass rule-cutting machine in use, the cutters of which bore a strong resemblance to those now used for slitting steel pens. like most of the pioneers in the path of invention, the majority of the early makers of pens were men whose business pursuits gave them no special facilities for entering upon the manufacture of steel pens. the progress of the trade from (with the exception of the period when perry and gillott first commenced advertising) had been gradual, but satisfactory. in one of gillott's early advertisements, he stated that he made , gross in , and , in . this was an advance by leaps and bounds which has not since been maintained. although mason commenced making pens for perry in the year , yet it was not till that his name became known in england as a steel-pen maker. many merchants in birmingham and wolverhampton, who purchased steel rings from him, had no idea that he was a maker of pens; yet on the continent of europe pens bearing his name were eagerly sought after. subsequent to he was associated with perry, until, in , the trade-marks, patents, etc., were purchased by a limited liability company, who now, under the name of "perry & co.," have become the largest manufacturers of pens in the world. at the present time ( ) there are thirteen firms engaged in the trade in birmingham, and they make up about twenty-four tons of steel per week into pens and penholder tips. making due allowance for the material used in the latter article, this consumption would probably represent a weekly average production of , grosses of pens. the birmingham penmakers employ about , women and girls, and men and boys; and besides these the number of women and girls working at making paper boxes, in which the pens are packed, would probably exceed . in addition to this there are several mills where steel is rolled for those firms who have not sufficient power on their own premises, but there is a difficulty in stating the number of hands employed. the wages of the females range from four shillings to fifteen shillings; those of the boys from five shillings to ten shillings. the unskilled workmen earn from twelve shillings to twenty-four shillings; and skilled men, or toolmakers, command wages varying from twenty-five shillings to three pounds. most of the females work upon the piece-work system, but the men are paid weekly wages. in , upon the authority of a writer in the _mechanics' magazine,_ two tons two hundred weight of steel were used weekly in the manufacture of pens. mr. sam: timmins made an approximate estimate that six and a half tons of steel were used per week for steel pens in , and again, in , he gives the amount of steel as having increased to ten tons. it is at all times difficult to form an accurate estimate of the quantity of material used, but we believe we are within the mark in putting down the present consumption of steel at twenty-two tons weekly. from this it would appear that the trade has doubled its production during the last twenty years. besides these birmingham houses there are some four or five manufactories on the continent, and two in the united states, but their productions have not increased in the same ratio as that of their english rivals. during the last twenty years a great improvement has taken place in the style of boxes and labels in which the pens are packed. formerly (with the exception of the goods issued by gillott and sommerville) most of the pens were sold in boxes of the plainest description; now the covers or labels are printed in a number of colors from elaborate designs, by first-class artists, and in some cases the boxes are ornamented with well-executed portraits of royal, political, literary, or artistic celebrities. there are many peculiarities connected with the public taste as manifested in the demand for pens. the germans use a greater variety of patterns than any other nation. the english taste is more restricted, and is generally confined to articles of the plainer shapes. autocratic russia and democratic america make use of the fewest patterns. by a regulation of the imperial government, pens in boxes, bearing portraits of the russian royal family are prevented from entering the country, and in america public taste does not favor a demand for portrait boxes. by a law which came into operation the st of january, , no pens can be imported into russia bearing the name of a russian firm. the probable purpose of this law was to encourage the establishment of a russian manufactory. at present there are no pen works in russia. an attempt was made in moscow, in - , to manufacture steel pens, but the experiment proved a failure. the germans and french are the largest buyers of first-class pens, but the italians are content with articles of the commonest character. the chief demand for three-pointed pens comes from spain. at present the demand for steel pens is chiefly confined to european nations and their descendants. the great asiatic nations still write with pens made from reeds, or camel-hair pencils. a few of the natives of india and japan, and some of the subjects of the sultan and khe'dive are beginning to make use of steel pens adapted to the peculiarities of their writing. from this it would appear that the possibilities of the progress of the trade in the future are very favorable; but in the meantime its productions are scattered over the globe, and even in some of the darkest corners of the earth pioneers of civilization are to be found transcribing the results of their experience with the aid of that great factor of nineteenth-century progress--an english steel pen. the manufacturing processes of steel pens. the steel from which the greater part of the metallic pens are manufactured comes from sheffield. notwithstanding the many names given by the venders of steel pens to the material from which they are manufactured there are but two sorts--good and bad--and therefore peruvian, damascus, amalgam, and silver steel are but fancy names. as a matter of fact, where a number of prefixes are used to describe the quality of an article it is generally found to have no claim to any of them. the raw material is received from sheffield in sheets six feet in length, one foot five inches in width, and or birmingham wire-gauge in thickness. the first operation is the cutting of these sheets into strips of convenient width. they are then packed in an oblong iron box, placed with the open top downward in another box of the same material, and the interstices are filled up with a composition to exclude the air. the boxes are placed in a muffle, where they remain until they have gradually attained a dull red heat, and the muffle is allowed to gradually cool, or else the boxes are placed in a cooling chamber. when the boxes have been reduced to a temperature which will admit of their being handled, the contents (technically called a charge) are emptied out. now, it will be found that the strips of steel are covered with bits of small scale, sticking to them like a loose skin, and if this were not removed before the next process--rolling--the steel, instead of being perfectly smooth, would be marked with a number of indentations, rendering it very unsightly. in order to get rid of this excrescence, the strips are immersed in a bath of diluted sulphuric acid, which loosens the scale, and are then placed in wood barrels to which broken pebbles and water are added. the barrels are kept revolving until the whole of the scaly substance has been removed and the strips have assumed a silver-gray appearance. the steel is now ready for manipulation in the rolling mill, where it is passed between successive pairs of rolls until it has been reduced to the required gauge, and this operation has to be performed with such nicety that a variation of one thousand part of an inch in the thickness of the strip would make such an alteration in the flexibility of the pens made from it as to cause considerable dissatisfaction to the purchasers of the article. the steel on leaving the mill is conveyed to the gauging room, and it will be found to have increased to three times its original length, and now appears with a bright surface. hitherto the operations have been conducted by men and boys; but now, in the course of manufacture, the pens will enter on a series of processes in which the quick and delicate fingers of women and girls play an important part. the strips of steel are now given out to the cutters. the _toolmaker,_ who, as a rule, both makes and sets the tools, has placed in what is known as a bolster a die, having a hole perforated through it of the exact shape of the blank to be cut; and attached to the bottom of the screwed bolt of the press is a punch, also bearing the exact shape of the blank. the girl with her left hand introduces one of the strips of steel at the back of the press, and, pulling the handle toward her with the right hand, the screw descends, driving the punch into the bed, and in so doing has perforated the strip of steel with a scissors-like cut, making a blank which falls through the opening in the die into a drawer below. now, with her left hand she pulls the strip toward her until it is stopped by a little projection called a guide; and again the right hand moves the handle, the screw descends, and another blank is cut. the operation is continued until the whole of one side of the strip is perforated; it is then reversed and the other side treated in a similar way. if you were to hold up the strip thus manipulated--now called scrap--you would find that in some particular part the perforations approach so nearly to each other as to form a slight bar, which breaks easily between the thumb and finger. this is rendered necessary from the fact that steel scrap is worth only one-fifth of the value of the raw material, and, as under the most favorable conditions, the scrap averages one-third the original weight given out for cutting, it behooves the manufacturer to reduce the scrap as much as practicable. if these blanks are examined, a small v-shaped indentation, looking like a defect, will be found upon the upper edge of that part inserted in the holder. this small mark plays an important part in the succeeding processes. to a casual observer there does not appear much difference between the two sides of the blank; but, however well the tools are made, that side of the blank which is uppermost in cutting out will be rougher than the under side. this mark enables the operator to distinguish at a glance the smooth side, and by always keeping the rough side upward the burr is polished off in a later process. the blanks are now ready to be passed to the next process--_marking._ this operation is performed by a female, with the aid of a stamp. the precise mark required is cut upon a piece of steel, and, being placed in the hammer of the stamp, the girl puts her right foot into a stirrup attached to a rope, which is passed round a pulley, and, pressing downward, causes the hammer to ascend. taking a handful of blanks with her left hand, by a dexterous motion she makes a little train of them between the thumb and finger in parallel order, presenting the first in the most ready position to be passed to the other hand. the right hand is brought toward the left, and, taking a blank, places it with the point toward the worker in a guide upon the bed of the stamp, then by suddenly letting the hammer descend a blow is struck upon the blank, which gives an impression of the name cut upon the punch. the quick fingers of the operator pass backward and forward with such rapidity that a skillful girl will mark from two hundred to two hundred and fifty gross per day. if the mark required is unusually large, the marking process is deferred until after the pen has been pierced, in order that the blank may be annealed (or softened), which takes the impression more readily than the hard steel. now, in order to make a metallic pen suitable for writing it is necessary to consider some means of producing elasticity, and also to devise some method by which the smooth steel shall cause the ink to attach itself to the pen. this is brought about by the next process-- _piercing._ in this operation the tools are of a very delicate character, and as the center pierce (the aperture in which the slit terminates) is frequently of an ornamental design the tools, being small, have to be made with great precision. the piercing punch and bed having been fixed in a screw press, and an ingenious arrangement of guides fastened thereto, the girl selects a blank from a tray on her left hand, and, placing it in its proper position by the aid of the guides, pushes the fly of the press from her, the screw descends, driving the punch into the bed, and the operation of piercing is completed. the blanks are still moderately hard, and before they can be made to take the shape of a pen it is necessary that they should be softened, which is effected by the process called _annealing._ the blanks having been freed from the dust and garbase that has become attached to them are carefully placed in round iron pots, which are again inclosed in larger ones and covered over with charcoal dust to prevent the entrance of gases, and put into the muffle, heated to a dull red, and then allowed to cool. the blanks are now soft and pliable, readily taking the various shapes into which pens are made by the next process, called _raising._ this operation is performed by the aid of a punch and die fitted into a screw-press. the punch is fitted into a contrivance called a false nose, fixed in the bottom of the screw of the press; and the die or bed is placed in a cylindrical piece of steel (called a bolster) with a groove cut for the reception of the die, the bolster being fastened to the bottom of the press by a screw underneath. the punch and die being fixed so as to exactly fit each other, the toolmaker places a small piece of tissue paper between them, takes an impression, examines it, and proceeds to rectify any inequality in the pressure, so as to insure perfection in the shape. this being accomplished, the toolmaker fixes four pieces of steel (called guides) to the bolster in such positions that the operator is enabled to slide the blank into the bed, where it is held by the guides till the punch descends, forces the blank into the bed, and gives the pen its shape. the article is now narrower than it was in its blank form, and the girl pushes it through the tools with a small stick held in the hand with which she works the press handle, while with the other hand she places another blank in its position in the bed. the pen is now shaped or raised, but it is still soft, and consequently another process is necessitated--_hardening._ this is effected by placing the pens in thin layers in round pans with lids. they are placed in the muffle for a period varying from twenty to thirty minutes, during which time they have acquired a bright red heat. the workman then withdraws them and empties the contents into a large bucket immersed in a tank of oil. the bucket is perforated at the bottom, and being elevated, the oil drains off. the pens are next placed in a perforated cylinder, which, being set in motion, revolves and drains off the remainder of the oil. the pens are still greasy, and as brittle as glass; and in order to free them from the grease they are again placed in perforated buckets and immersed in a tank of boiling soda water. after they are freed from the grease the pens are put into an iron cylinder, which is kept revolving over a charcoal fire until they are softened or tempered down to the special degree required. in this process the workman is guided by the color, which indicates the varying temperature of the metal of which the articles are made. brittleness has given place to pliability, but the pens are black in color and scratch at the point, and to remedy this defect they are subjected to the next process--_scouring._ in order to do this the pens are dipped in a bath of diluted sulphuric acid--called pickle--which frees the articles from any extraneous substances they may have acquired in the hardening and tempering processes. this requires to be done with great care, or the acid would injure the steel. the pens are then placed in iron barrels with a quantity of water and small pebbly-looking material. this latter material is composed of annealing pots broken and ground fine enough to pass readily through a fine riddle. the barrel being set in motion, the pens are scoured for periods varying from five to eight hours, and are placed again in barrels with dry pot for about the same period, after which they are put into other barrels together with a quantity of dry sawdust. on being taken out of these barrels the body of the pen has acquired a bright silver color, and the point has been rounded. the article has now the shape and appearance of a finished pen, and yet it possesses none of its characteristics, and, if tried, will be found to have no more action than a lead pencil, as it is deficient in that important part of a writing instrument--the slit. before being slit the pen is ground between the centre pierce and the point. this process is performed by girls, with the aid of what is called a "bob" or "glazer." the "bob" is a circular piece of alder wood about ten and a half inches in diameter and half an inch in width. round this a piece of leather is stretched and dressed with emery. a spindle is driven through the centre, and the two ends placed in sockets. the "bob" is set in motion by means of a leather band, and the girl holding a pen firmly, with a light touch grinds off a portion of the surface. this operation being completed, the last and most important mechanical operation has to be performed--_slitting._ the tools with which this process is effected are two oblong pieces of steel about an inch and a half long, three-eighths of an inch thick, and an inch and a quarter wide. these are called the cutters, and upon the preparation and setting of these the successful issue of the process depends. the edges of these cutters are equal in delicacy to the cutting edge of a razor, but the shape is more suggestive of a portion cut from the thickest part of a large pair of shears. the cutter being fixed in the press, a pair of guides are screwed on either side, and a small tool called a table, or rest, being attached to the contrivance called a bolster, which holds the bottom cutter, the operator takes a pen, places it on the table, pushes the point up toward the guide, pulls the handle, the upper cutter descends, meets the lower one, and the process of slitting is completed. now, although this operation completes the mechanical processes of pen making, the article is by no means finished. if you examine the pen now you will find that the outer edge of each point is smooth, while the inside edges which have just been made by the slit are sharp and scratch. to remove this defect the operation of "barreling" has to be again resorted to. the pens are again placed in the iron barrels with pounded pot, kept revolving from five to six hours, and finally polished in sawdust. the pens are now of a bright silver-steel color and perfectly smooth, but as they are required in various tints, they are colored and afterward varnished to prevent rust. to accomplish the first of these results the articles are placed in a copper or iron cylinder and kept revolving over a coke fire until the requisite tint is obtained, the color depending upon the temperature of the cylinder. if the pens are intended to be lacquered they are placed in a solution of shellac dissolved in methylated spirits. the spirit is drained off, and the pens are placed in wire cylinders and kept revolving until the action of the air dries the lacquer. they are then scattered upon iron trays, inserted in an oven, and the heat diffuses the lacquer equally over the surface of the pens, so that when they have cooled down they have a glossy appearance, which gives to them an air of finish and prevents rust. the pen is now finished as far as manufacturing processes are concerned, yet before it can be offered to the public it has to undergo a rigid examination called _"looking over."_ this is performed by trained girls, and when the defective ones have been sorted out the good pens are sent to the finished warehouse to be put up into boxes. these boxes are of various descriptions, adapted to suit the markets for which they are intended. in many instances the labels which form the covers of the boxes are elaborately printed from first-class designs, and some of them have highly-finished steel engravings of royal personages and celebrities in the scientific, literary, musical, and political world. the quantities contained in these boxes vary with the countries for which they are intended; for the manufacturers study the wants of their customers, and do not offer articles counted in dozens to people who reckon by tens. we have now traced the manufacture of this little article from its beginning as a plain piece of steel through all its stages until it has developed into that indispensable requisite of daily life--a pen. history of the perryian pen works. the firm of messrs. perry & co., london, was founded in the year by mr. james perry, who carried on business originally in manchester, then in london. mr. james perry died in the year . mr. stephen perry, who conducted the business afterward in partnership with mr. hayes and others, died in the year , and was succeeded by his sons, messrs. joseph john and lewis henry perry. the firm of perry & co. was known all over europe as the house which first introduced to the commercial world steel pens of a superior quality, and in many countries steel pens are now known under the general denomination of _"perry pens."_ the first pens were manufactured by perry & co. in london, principally from flattened or ribbon steel wire, and in the year mr. josiah, afterward sir josiah, mason, _then a manufacturer of steel split rings,_ produced steel pens so much superior to the pens made up to that period that messrs. perry & co. entered into contracts with him for the sole supply of all the pens they might require; this connection continued up to the time of the formation of this company. in the meantime, messrs. perry & co. had also introduced the sale of elastic bands and pencil cases; the production of the latter was confided to mr. w.e. wiley, who, in the year , began the manufacture first of gold pens, afterward of pencil cases. messrs. perry & co. also contracted with mr. wiley for the purchase of all the pencil cases they might dispose of, and thus mr. wiley's works assumed gigantic proportions. mr. alfred sommerville, who had been connected with the steel-pen trade since its infancy, established the firm of a. sommerville & co. in the year . although he, in the year , began manufacturing steel pens in connection with a partner, he likewise contracted with mr. josiah mason for a superior class of steel pens, principally intended for the continental markets, and many of which were either his own invention or suggested by him. mr. sommerville desiring to retire from business, sir josiah mason purchased his trade in the year , but continued to carry it on under the old style of a. sommerville & co. these four businesses being so intimately connected and dependent upon each other, some gentlemen of eminence in the manufacturing town of birmingham decided, in conjunction with some of the leading proprietors, to establish a limited company, for the purpose of uniting and amalgamating inseparably the various establishments, and thus the company of _"perry & co., limited,"_ was formed. on the spot forming the principal entrance to the works, mr. samuel harrison, in the year , founded a manufactory in which he carried on his invention of steel split rings; but mr. harrison, who was an ingenious mechanic, also manufactured mathematical instruments, some of which were used by dr. priestley in his researches, and on one occasion he made a steel pen for dr. priestley, probably the first steel pen ever produced. mr. josiah mason succeeded to the business of mr. harrison in , and in began the manufacture of steel pens. for several years he gave his whole attention to improvements in the manufacture of steel pens, and mr. perry took out several most important patents for the improvement of steel pens, many of which have not been surpassed in ingenuity or in utility, and the principal among them, the so-called "double patent," is universally applied by the pen trade to a great number of pens to this very day. in mr. mason's attention was absorbed by the process of electroplating and gilding, at that time invented and carried on by mr. elkington, in partnership with whom he founded the great firm of elkington, mason & co. for some years the production of pens flagged, but in a nephew of sir josiah mason, mr. isaac smith (deceased in ), gave a new stimulus to the manufacture of pens, and from that time the production gradually increased until it assumed its present proportions. the manufactory now covers nearly two acres; it occupies a whole square and fronts four streets. in the building fronting lancaster street (five stories high) the offices, warehouses and storerooms of finished goods are distributed. the underground floor forms a huge machine shop, in which all the presses, rolls, and general iron and machine work employed throughout the manufactory are produced by skillful mechanics. behind the front building there are several courtyards and quadrangles, in the largest of which are placed in a row five double-flue boilers, each feet long by feet diameter, working at a pressure of more than lb. to the square inch, supplying the steam power both for propelling the steam engines and for heating the manufactory. in the rolling mill, measuing by feet, three double-cylinder engines, working up to indicated horsepower, give motion to pairs of rolls, rolling four to six tons of steel per week. the largest workshops are the slitting and grinding rooms, by feet, the latter feet high. in the slitting room girls apply the last mechanical process to the manufacture of steel pens, in slitting them by presses of ingenious construction. in the grinding room more than girls are busily employed cross and straight grinding steel pens on wood cylinders covered with emery. the room in which the finished pens are placed in boxes measures by feet, and in it alone are employed girls boxing and labeling steel pens, or fitting penholder tips on handles of various materials, principally of cedar. in that part of the building having a frontage on corporation street there is a dining room feet inches long by feet wide, fitted up with tables to accommodate people. here the employees are served with a warm dinner at prices varying from d. to d. at one end of the room there is a stage, where dramatic entertainments and concerts are given in the winter season by the workpeople. at the other end there is a library, in a glazed partition, containing about , volumes of standard works. these books are issued to the hands employed by the firm free. one of the important features of this manufactory is the employment of muffles heated by gas produced from siemens's gas generators. these muffles allow the heat to be regulated to a nicety, and enable the company to carry on the process of annealing and hardening to very great perfection. the manufacture of steel pens employs in all about workpeople, the weekly production is , gross, which quantity will shortly be increased to , gross, per week. six smaller steam engines are employed independently of those already mentioned in various parts of the works. the manufacture of penholder sticks is carried on in two separate buildings. penholder sticks were produced by mr. mason as far back as , but their manufacture had lapsed; it was only resumed eight years ago, since which time, by new and ingenious machinery, principally the inventions of mr. w. e. wiley, the managing director, it has assumed proportions of great magnitude. the pencil case and solitaire works carried on by mr. wiley, first alone, and then in co-partnership with his son in graham street, have now been transferred to lancaster street. pencil cases, first introduced by messrs. mordan & lund, in london, have undergone various changes and improvements, the principal of which was a lead holder passing through the point of the pencil case, which was slit for that purpose. this invention was patented by mr. wiley in the year , and created a complete revolution in the pencil-case trade, as it enabled the manufacturers to use a thicker and longer lead, which could be propelled and withdrawn at will and would last in daily use more than six months. this patented mechanism was introduced into cases made from hard wood, bone and ivory, but since the year a composition called aluminium gold, so resembling gold that it cannot be distinguished from it, and resisting the effects of oxidation, consequently free from tarnish, made a further revolution in the pencil-case trade, enabling the million to possess an elegant and highly-wrought pencil case at a very moderate price. messrs. perry & co., of london, gave to this manufacture publicity in every part of europe, and the quantities produced and sold are incredible. in a new patent was added to the many inventions for which this establishment was famous. its purpose was to produce a solitaire stud made in two parts, so as to enable its ready application without the trouble of passing a button of large diameter through a small buttonhole. a self-acting steel spring is fixed in the upper part of the stud, and snaps as soon as inserted into the lower part, where a slight pressure on two projections releases the springs and permits the separation of the two parts. these solitaires are manufactured of gold, silver, and a variety of other metals, the principal of which is gold plate. there are now more than five hundred patterns in existence, and this useful manufacture grows daily in extension. perry & co.'s paper binders, an article now universally used for fastening together loose papers, cloth patterns, etc., are produced in infinite styles and sizes, principally by self-acting machinery. the total number of workpeople employed in the company's manufactories exceeds , . the business of perry & co. was carried on for more than forty years at red lion square, london, but the increase of business and the reconstruction of london required that a more central position should be found for the development of the commercial department of the company. large and handsome warehouses having been constructed on the holborn viaduct, the company transferred their london depot to a building five stories high on the side fronting the holborn viaduct and eight stories high at the back. in this immense warehouse are stored not only the produce of the manufactories of this company, but also special articles for which this firm has been famous for the last thirty years, principally the elastic or endless bands, patented by mr. daft and mr. stephen perry, and originally introduced by perry & co. in conjunction with mcintosh & co., afterward in conjunction with warne & co. perry's royal aromatic bands are now an indispensable article, and may be procured in every city of the world. every fancy article required by stationers can be found in these vast stores. an illustrated price current which appears monthly, and which numbers more than pages, gives fair idea of the variety of articles of which samples and stock can be found ready for daily delivery. the increase of business has been so rapid that the company found it necessary to lease the adjoining premises, which is stored with some of the two thousand articles forming the staple trade of the london depot, and the principal of which are the following: american letter files, clips (now manufactured in lancaster street), marking and other inks, aromatic bands, audascript pens, bostonite goods, cigar lighters, copying ink and copying ink powder, copying ink pencils, copying presses, corrugated imperial bands, essence of ink, grease extractors, india rubber for erasing, ink and pencil erasers, ink extractors, patent and other inkstands in every variety, key rings, letter clips, letter files, metallic books, paper binders, pencil point protectors, pencils and pencil cases, penholders, pen knives, pen racks, gold pens, portfolios, presses, scotch tartan fancy goods, solitaires or sleeve links, etc., etc., etc. this establishment is under the exclusive management of mr. joseph j. perry, managing director. _[the illustrations in this work are engraved from pen-and-ink sketches executed by walter langley with a perry's no. pen.]_ http://www.archive.org/details/frictionlubricat lewi transcriber's note: text enclosed by tilde characters is in bold face (~bold~). text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). friction, lubrication and the lubricants in horology. by w. t. lewis, prest. philadelphia horological society. illustrated with half-tones and drawings by the author. chicago: geo. k. hazlitt & co. . copyrighted , by w. t. lewis. copyrighted , by geo. k. hazlitt & co. contents. page. introduction, chapter i. lubricants in horology--their source and methods of refinement, chapter ii. elementary physics relating to friction and lubrication, chapter iii. friction--its nature and theory, chapter iv. application of the laws of friction and lubrication in horology, chapter v. the properties and relative values of lubricants in horology, introduction. many books have been written on the various escapements, describing their action, construction and proportion, and the laws governing the same; learned writers have contributed much valuable information on adjusting; excellent attachments for the various lathes have been invented; and factories have expended fortunes to produce machinery of wonderful construction to finish all the parts of a watch in the most approved manner; but all this scientific research, all this painstaking effort, all this care and labor, are rendered abortive by the maker or repairer of a time piece if he does not thoroughly understand and apply the physical laws which govern the science of lubrication. many a watch, or chronometer, most excellent in all other respects, has come to an untimely end by an almost criminal neglect on the part of its maker to provide against wear in its various parts by such construction as would retain the oil at the places needed. how often the repairer--clean he his work as well as he may--replace he the broken or worn part to put the time piece in as good condition as new--finds that its rate changes, that is loses time before long, and, at the end of one year is badly out of repair, solely the result of lack of knowledge, or negligence, in properly lubricating, or on account of an oil having been used which was not suitable. the object of this paper is to present in concise form the best of that which is furnished by the literature of the profession, together with that which has been written on friction and lubrication in general (so far as it may be applicable), by those not connected with this particular vocation; as well as the result of the practical experience of the manufacturers of time pieces in this country most of whom have furnished much useful data in answer to queries on the subject. the manufacturers of oils have also assisted by contributing valuable information. the result of the author's experience, observation and experiments will also be incorporated; and he will be grateful to any who may read this work, who will call attention, through the trade papers, to any errors of omission or commission that they may find therein. chapter i. lubricants in horology--their source and method of refinement. ~ . as but little~ is to be found on the subject in the literature accessible to most of the craft, a few remarks concerning the source and general methods of refining the oils used in horology will, no doubt, be of interest. a mechanic who would work intelligently should possess a thorough knowledge of the materials constantly used, and oil is used on every horological mechanism. in order that this paper may be of maximum benefit and interest, the author has spared no pains in procuring useful data. ~ . porpoise jaw oil and black fish melon oil~ ( ) have become widely known and justly celebrated in all parts of the world, as they were found to be better adapted for the purpose of lubricating fine and delicate machinery than any substance _previously_ used. ~ . blackfish-melon oil~[ ] "derives its name from the mass taken from the top of the head of the animal reaching from the spout hole to the end of the nose, and from the top of the head down to the upper jaw, from which it is extracted. when taken off in one piece this mass represents a half watermelon, weighing about twenty-five pounds ordinarily. when the knife is put into the center of this melon the oil runs out more freely than the water does from a very nice watermelon. porpoise jaw oil and blackfish melon oil are worth from $ to $ per gallon, according to supply. they are not only used in horology, but by manufacturers of fine firearms, philosophical apparatus, and in government lighthouses for the clocks of revolving lights." ~ . the blubber~, or fat, taken from the jaw of the porpoise or the head of the blackfish was formerly rendered in iron pots over a fire, but the modern method of extracting the oil by steam is said to be much superior. the oil is washed with water by thorough agitation, after which it is allowed to stand for several days, when it is drawn off and the last traces of water removed by distillation. the oil is then subjected to a very cold temperature and pressed through flannel cloths, by which process the "oleine" is separated from the "stearine," the resulting oil being more or less limpid as the former or latter constituent predominates. ~ . john wing~, of new bedford, mass., son-in-law of, and successor to, the late ezra kelley, states in answer to inquiries, that their supply of oil comes from the porpoise and blackfish taken during the summer months on the coast of africa, above the equator; and that they find that this oil contains less glutinous matter than that obtained in and about the st. lawrence river, which fact he attributes to the difference in the food of the fish, which in turn affects the oil. ~ . d. c. stull~, of provincetown, mass., in answer to inquiries on the subject, has kindly furnished the following information and series of views: [illustration: _fig. .--buying a porpoise from a fisherman._] "the supply of porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil comes mostly from massachusetts bay, the trap and gill net fishermen bringing them into provincetown, sometimes alive, as shown at fig. . the capture of fifteen hundred blackfish, fig. , by the people of provincetown, truro and wellsfleet, was one of the most exciting scenes in the annals of coast fishery. the fish were attracted to these shores by the large quantity of squid and herring, on which they feed. it is estimated that the catch was worth $ , , some of the fish weighing two tons each. the relative size of a blackfish and a man is shown at fig. . seafaring men and whaling captains who catch the porpoise at sea, extract the oil from the head and jaw only, and bring it to the factories to be manufactured. "fig. is a good view of a modern factory. the fat is cut from the head and jaw, (fig. ,) washed in fresh water and put into covered tin cans, then into iron retorts, (fig. .) these retorts are then closed, screwed up tightly, and live steam turned on from the boiler. the fat is cooked by steam for five hours, with ten pounds pressure, at ° f. by this means the crude oil is extracted from the fat." ~ . sperm oil~ is the best known of all the lubricants and is, for general purposes, one of the most excellent. the large cavity in the head of the sperm whale contains oil and solid fat, from which the former is separated, without heating, by pressure and crystalization. as it is not at present used to any great extent in horology, a more lengthy description of the method of refining will be omitted. ( .) ~ . bone oil~ is made from the fat obtained by boiling the bones of animals. the finest quality is obtained from the leg bones of recently killed, healthy, young cattle, and the best method of treatment is given as follows[ ]: "fill a bottle one third full of the oil to be purified. then pour clarified benzine in small portions upon the oil, close the bottle and shake until the benzine has disappeared. by again adding benzine and shaking, a complete solution of the fat is finally effected. that this has actually taken place is recognized by the contents of the bottle not separating after long standing. the bottle is then exposed to a low temperature for several hours, a solid fat deposits on the bottom, and the lower the temperature the greater is the deposit. alongside the bottle containing the oil, place another bottle with a funnel, the lower end of which is closed by a cotton stopper; after thoroughly shaking the bottle with oil, pour the contents into the funnel; the fluid portion runs into the bottle, while the solid portion is retained in the funnel by the cotton stopper. the clear solution of bone oil in benzine collected in the bottle is then brought into a small retort which is connected with a thoroughly cooled receiver. place the retort in a tin vessel filled with water and apply heat. the benzine readily distills off, leaving the purified bone oil in the retort." ( .) ~ . neat's-foot oil~ is largely used in the arts, being one of the best of lubricants. the best oil, viz.: that used for clocks etc., is extracted by placing the thoroughly cleaned feet of cattle in a covered vessel near the fire or in the sun. the oil thus obtained is clarified by standing before bottling. ( .) it was the practice of many olden time watchmakers to allow a large bottle of neat's-foot oil to stand in a position exposed to the direct rays of the sun in summer and to the extreme cold of the winter. then after two or three years, on a very cold winter day, to pour off such oil as still remained fluid which was preserved for use. ~ . olive oil~ has been used as a lubricant since the early days of horology, the older writers giving many methods of treating it. it is obtained from the fruit of the _olea europea_, one of the jasmines, which grows throughout southern europe and northern africa and other tropical countries. [illustration: _fig. .--a $ , catch of blackfish._] for the preparation of the finest oils, known as "virgin oil," only the pulp of olives picked by hand is used. the pulp is packed in strong linen and the oil is expressed by twisting the linen together. the pulp sometimes contains as high as per cent of oil. its last traces of adhering acid are removed by rigorous and repeated shaking with one hundredth part of their weight of caustic soda lye. after the mixture has stood for several days a large quantity of water is added and the oil floating on the top is poured off. though the oil is now free from acid, it still contains coloring matter and other substances which would prove injurious. it is then mixed with very strong alcohol, ten parts of the former to two of the latter, and thoroughly mixed by shaking. the bottle containing the mixture is then placed in the sun and the mixture shaken several times a day. in the course of two or three weeks the oil will have become white as water, when it is withdrawn from the alcohol, on the surface of which it floats. the purified oil is placed in small bottles, tightly corked, and kept in a dark, cool place. ( .) [illustration: _fig. .--relative size of a blackfish and man._] [illustration: _fig. .--d. c. stull's watch oil factory, provincetown, mass._] ~ . mineral oils~ have of late years taken immense strides in the popular and merited estimation of consumers, for general lubricating purposes. their application in horology will be discussed in another part of this volume. they are obtained from the residuum of petroleum distillation, and vary so greatly in their properties that many of them are not applicable to delicate mechanism; but as the lighter varieties seem to fulfill all the necessary conditions, the writer will here consider their source and method of treatment. ~ . petroleums~ are obtained from many different localities, being fluid, bituminous oils, all having the same general characteristics and origin. they are all hydrocarbons, and contain little or no oxygen. as their origin is thoroughly discussed in many works on that subject, and as there is such a diversity of opinion regarding it, the reader is referred to such works.[ ] ~ . paraffine~, both liquid and solid, is obtained by the distillation of crude petroleum by means of superheated steam. when the heavier hydrocarbons begin to come over the receiver is changed and the butyraceous distillate is filtered through a long column of well dried animal charcoal. the first portion of the percolate is colorless or nearly so. the distillate is made water white by some refiners by an acid treatment, followed by a water-and-alkali washing. on exposing this mass to a low temperature it becomes thick, somewhat like "cosmoline" but white. ( .) it is then shoveled into cotton bags of very strong material and subjected to powerful pressure by means of a hydraulic press. this operation divides the paraffine into two parts: the solid paraffine wax from which candles, etc., are made remaining in the bags, while that which is expressed is paraffine oil. if the operation is carefully performed the oil will be free from crystaline paraffine at a very low temperature. [illustration: _fig. .--extracting oil from the head of a porpoise._] ~ . neutral oils~[ ] "are refined paraffine oils varying in specific gravity from . to . . for the purpose for which these oils are employed it is especially necessary that they be thoroughly deodorized. they are largely used for the purpose of mixing with animal and vegetable oils. it is said that a mixture of per cent of a good neutral oil of the right gravity, and per cent of sperm oil, has been sold for pure sperm. ordinary inspection as to the odor and general appearance would fail to detect the adulteration. having been subjected to the usual process for the extraction of crystaline paraffine, they will stand a very low cold test, and having been passed through bone black cylinders, they are free from odor and have but little color. they are usually exposed for a few days in open shallow tanks for the purpose of removing the flurescence of petroleum oils. unmixed with heavier oils they are too light in body (especially the lighter varieties) to be employed as spindle or machinery oils, but when mixed with such oils in the proper proportions they form admirable lubricating compounds for general lubricating purposes when very high speed is not required." ( - .) [illustration: _fig. .--rendering room in d. c. stull's factory._] footnotes: [ ] brannt. animal and vegetable fats and oils. [ ] brannt. animal and vegetable fats and oils. [ ] crew; practical treatise on petroleum. lesquereaux; transactions american philosophical society. winchell; sketches of creation. henry; early and later history of petroleum. [ ] crew. practical treatise on petroleum. chapter ii. elementary physics relating to friction and lubrication. ~ .~ most of those who may read this work, are no doubt familiar with the laws of elementary physics; but as _all_ may not be, for a better understanding of that which follows, it may be well to treat briefly of some of the physical laws bearing on the subject. ~ . the molecule.~[ ] _every visible body of matter is composed of exceedingly small particles called molecules._ this is the basis of the theory of the constitution of matter which physicists have usually adopted. it is estimated that if we should attempt to count the number of molecules in a pin's head, counting at the rate of , , per second, we should require , years. ~ . porosity.~ the term _pore_ in physics is restricted to the invisible space that separates molecules. all matter is porous; thus dense gold will absorb ( ) liquid mercury, much as chalk will water; but the cavities to be seen in a sponge are not pores. ~ . gravitation.~ _that attraction which is exerted on all matter, at all distances, is called gravitation._ gravitation is universal, that is, every molecule of matter attracts every other molecule of matter in the universe. the whole force with which two bodies attract one another is the sum of the attraction of their molecules, and depends upon the number of molecules the two bodies collectively contain, and the mass of each molecule. hence, all bodies attract, and are attracted by, all other bodies. in a ball suspended from the ceiling by a thread an attraction exists between the ball and the ceiling, but on account of a greater attraction existing between the ball and the earth, if we cut the thread the ball will move toward the earth, or in the direction of the greater attraction. ~ . the effect of distance.~ _gravitation varies inversely with the distance by which two bodies are separated._ as the sun is many times greater than the earth, the attraction between the ball ( ) and the sun would cause the ball to leave the earth and move toward the sun were it not for the fact that the ball is so much _nearer_ to the earth than to the sun. ~ . cohesion.~ _the attraction which holds the molecules of the same substance together so as to form larger bodies is called cohesion._ it acts only at insensible distances and is strictly a molecular force. it is that force which prevents solid bodies from falling apart. liquids like molasses and honey possess more cohesive force among the molecules of which they are composed than limpid liquids like water and alcohol. the former are said to be viscous, or to possess _viscosity_. ~ . adhesion.~ _that force which causes unlike substances to cling together is called adhesion._ it is that force which keeps nails, driven into wood, in their places. you can climb a pole because of the adhesion between your hands and the pole. we could not pick anything up if it were not for adhesion. glue, when dry, possesses both cohesion and adhesion to a great degree. ~ . capillarity.~ examine the surface of water in a vessel. you find the surface level, except around the edge next the glass, as at a (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] [illustration: fig. .] . thrust vertically into water three glass tubes, a, b and c (fig. ), open at both ends. you notice the water ascends in each to a different height, and that _the ascension varies inversely as the diameter of the bore_; i. e., the smaller the bore, the higher the water ascends. . seal one of the tubes at its upper end. the water enters but little, as shown at d (fig. ), on account of the resistance of the air pressure within the tube. . thrust vertically two plates of glass into water, and gradually bring the surfaces near to each other. soon the water rises between the plates, and rises higher as the plates are brought nearer. if their surfaces be mutually parallel and vertical, the water rises to the same height at all points between the plates, as shown at a (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .] . if the plates be united by a hinge, and form an angle, the height to which the water ascends increases as the _distance_ between the plates decreases up to their line of junction, where it attains a maximum, as shown at b (fig. .) . decrease the _angle_ between the plates, and the water ascends higher, as shown at c (fig. .) thus it is seen that _the ascension varies inversely with the angle between the plates_; i. e., the smaller the angle, the higher the water ascends. . when a drop of oil is placed between two glass plates arranged as shown at a (fig. ), if the surfaces are not too far distant, and if the oil touches both surfaces, it will be seen to work its way to the junction of the plates; showing that _oil between surfaces has a tendency to flow towards the apex of the angle_. [illustration: fig. .] . place a drop of oil on a taper piece of metal, as shown at b (fig. ). the oil will gradually recede from the point to a place where there is more metal, showing that _oil on surfaces has a tendency to flow towards the largest part_. [illustration: fig. .] . when a drop of oil is placed between two watch glasses arranged with flat and convex sides adjacent, as at a (fig. ), or with convex sides adjacent, as at b (fig. ), if the glasses are rigidly fixed in their relative positions the drop of oil can be shaken from its location only with great difficulty; the oil at c holding its place with greater tenacity than the oil at d. the foregoing phenomena are called _capillary action_, or _capillarity_. capillary action is due to the forces of cohesion ( ), and to the forces of adhesion ( .) ~ . centrifugal force.~--_the tendency of a body rotating round a point to escape from that point is called centrifugal force._ place a small quantity of oil on the arm of a balance, near the arbor. rotate the wheel rapidly. the oil is seen to flow towards the rim of the wheel. ~ . absorption of gases by liquids~ depends on molecular attraction and motion. water at a temperature of ° cen. ( ° f.), is capable of condensing in its _pores_ ( ) six hundred times its own bulk of ammonia gas. the absorption of oxygen from the air causes some oils to become more viscous, to eventually become solid, without losing in weight, in fact sometimes gaining. other oils dry up, or _evaporate_, leaving little or no residue. ~ . force.~--_force is that which can produce, change or destroy motion._ we see a body move; we know there must be a cause; that cause we call force. we see a body in motion come to rest; this effect must have had a cause; that cause we attribute to force. the forces acting in machines are distinguished into _driving_ and _resisting_ forces. that component of the force which does the work is called the "_effort_." ~ . friction~ is usually a resisting ( ) force, tending to destroy motion; but it is sometimes the means of the transmission of motion. ~ . work~ is the result of force acting through space. when force produces motion, the result is work. _work is measured by the product of the resistance into the space through which it is overcome._ ~ . energy~, which is defined[ ] as the capacity for doing work, is either _actual_ or _potential_. _actual_ or _kinetic energy_ is the energy of an actually moving body, and is measured by the work which it is capable of performing while being brought to rest under the action of a retarding force. _potential energy_ is the capacity for doing work possessed by a body in virtue of its position, of its condition, or of its intrinsic properties. a bent bow or a coiled spring has potential energy, which becomes actual in the impulsion of the arrow or is expended in the work of the mechanism driven by the machine. a clock weight, condensed air and gunpowder are examples. this form of energy appears in every moving part of every machine and its variations often seriously affect the working of machinery. ( .) footnotes: [ ] this and some of the definitions that follow are adapted from "elements of physics" by a. p. gage. [ ] thurston. "friction and lost work in machinery," from which excellent work much of the next chapter is adapted. chapter iii. friction--its nature and theory. ~ . friction.~ the relative motion of one particle or body in forced contact with another is always retarded, or prevented, by a resisting force called friction. friction manifests itself in three ways: between solids it is called _sliding_ and _rolling friction_; between the particles of liquids, or of gasses, when they move in contact with each other, or with other bodies, it is called _fluid friction_. quite different laws govern these three kinds of friction, as they are quite different in character. friction can never of itself produce or accelerate motion, being always a resisting force, acting at the surfaces of contact of the two particles, or masses, between which it occurs, and in the direction of their common tangent, resisting relative motion in whichever direction it may be attempted to produce it. the greatest loss of energy in a timepiece in which all the parts are rigid enough to prevent permanent distortion, is that occurring through friction. another source of loss of energy is the reduction in elasticity of springs caused by a rise of temperature. ~ . the cause of sliding friction~ is the interlocking of the asperities of one surface with those of another; and only by the riding of one set over the other, or by a rubbing down or tearing off of projecting parts, can motion take place. it follows, then, that roughness is conducive to friction; and that the smoother the surface the less the friction will be. ~ . the cause of rolling friction~ is the irregularity and lack of symmetry of the surfaces between which it occurs. it acts as a resisting, or retarding, force when a smoothly curved surface rolls upon another surface, plane or curved. motion is prevented, or retarded, by the irregular variation of the distance between the center of gravity and the line of motion in the common tangent of the two bodies at the point of contact, caused by the irregularity of form, or of surface, in the one or the other body. rolling friction is small where hard, smooth, symmetrical surfaces are in contact, and increases as the surfaces are soft, rough or irregular. in a knife edge support, seen in some forms of pendulums, is exhibited a form of rolling friction. ~ . solid friction~, either sliding or rolling, could be overcome if it were possible to produce _absolutely_ smooth surfaces. it is evident, then, that the character of the material, as well as the form of their surfaces, determines the amount of friction. in all time-keeping mechanism both sliding and rolling friction manifest themselves; the former principally between the surfaces of pivots and bearings and in the escapements, the latter mainly between the surfaces of the teeth of wheels, and to some extent in some of the pivots, and sometimes in parts of escapements. it is not the intention of the author to treat of the proper shape of the teeth of wheels, leaves of pinions, or the proportions of the escapements, the nature and scope of this work not permitting of it; but he will confine his remarks principally to the parts that involve lubrication. ~ . the laws of sliding friction~, as given by thurston,[ ] with solid, unlubricated surfaces, are, up to the point of abrasion, as follows: . the direction of frictional resisting forces is in the common tangent plane of the two surfaces, and directly opposed to their relative motion. . the point, or surface, of application of this resistance is the point, or the surface, on which contact occurs. . the greatest magnitude of this resisting force is dependent on the character of the surfaces, and is directly proportional to the force with which two surfaces are pressed together. . the maximum frictional resistance is independent of the area of contact, the velocity of rubbing, or any other conditions than intensity of pressure and condition of surfaces. . the friction of rest or quiescence, "statical friction," is greater than that of motion, or "kinetic friction." he further states that these "laws" are not absolutely exact, as here stated, so far as they affect the magnitude of frictional resistance. it is found that some evidence exists indicating the continuous nature of the friction of rest and of motion. when the pressure exceeds a certain amount, fixed for each pair of surfaces, abrasion of the softer surface or other change of form takes place, the resistance becomes greater and is no longer wholly frictional. when the pressure falls below a certain other and lower limit the resistance may be principally due to adhesion, an entirely different force, which may enter into the total resistance at all pressures, but which does not always appreciably modify the law at high pressures. this limitation is seldom observable with solid, unlubricated surfaces, but may often be observed with lubricated surfaces, the friction of which, as will presently be seen ( ), follows different laws. the upper limit should never be approached in machinery. the coefficient of friction is that quantity which, being multiplied by the total pressure acting normally to the surfaces in contact, will give the measure of the maximum frictional resistance to motion. ~ . sliding friction is proportional to pressure~ according to the third law quoted above. this is easily demonstrated by ascertaining what force is necessary to produce, or continue, motion in a body lying on a plane surface; double the weight of the body and the force required to produce, or continue, motion, will have to be doubled. the converse is also true ( ). ~ . sliding friction is independent of the area of contact~, the pressure remaining the same (law , ). this is accounted for by the fact that if, for example, the area of contact be doubled, though twice the number of asperities will present themselves, each individual retarding force is only half of what it was previously, and the general effect is the same ( ). ~ . the intensity of sliding friction is independent of velocity.~ (law , .) this is explained by the fact that the interlocking of the asperities on each surface has a shorter time to take place in increased speed, and consequently cannot be so effective as with slow speed. but with high speed more asperities are presented than in low speed, so the effect is the same in both cases. _the above ( - ) are not exact, being the statement of experimental laws, and admit of considerable modification when applied in horological science, as will be shown ( - .)_ [illustration: fig. .] ~ . the effect of a loose bearing~ is an increase of friction, and consequently a loss of energy, resulting in the wear of _one_ or _both_ surfaces in contact, according to conditions. in fig. , a is a loose bearing, b a journal at rest and c the point of contact. if the journal be now turned in the direction of the arrow by the motive force, it will have a tendency to roll over a short arc of the bearing to a new point of contact, as at d, when it begins to slide; so long as the coefficient of friction is unchanged it retains this position; but approaches or retreats from the point c, as the coefficient of friction diminishes or increases, continually finding new conditions of equilibrium. the arc of contact is thus too small to withstand the pressure without abrasion of one or both surfaces. it will thus be seen that the journal, or pivot, should fit its bearing closely; but it should be borne in mind that no tendency to "bind" should be produced, the fitting being such that the wheel will turn readily with a minimum pressure. the film of oil which must be interposed between the bearing surfaces of the journal, or pivot, and its bearing, will also occupy _some_ space; and this must be remembered, particularly in the case of pivots in the escapement. ~ . the laws of rolling friction~ are not as yet definitely established, because of the uncertainty of the results of experiments, as to the amount of friction due to ( ) roughness of surface, ( ) irregularity of form, ( ) distortion under pressure. the first and second of these quantities vary inversely as the radius; and the third depends upon the character of the material composing the two surfaces in contact. it follows, then, that in such minute mechanical contrivances as are used in horology, as the motive force is in some cases very light, the horologist should endeavor to produce, where rolling friction takes place, the maximum--smoothness of surface--regularity of form--adaptation of surfaces ( .) there are many other points on which the writer would like to dwell, as engaging and disengaging friction, internal friction, etc., etc., but the scope of this paper will not permit. ~ . the friction of fluids~ in horology is of grave importance. it is subject to quite different laws from those met with in the motion of solids in contact. when a fluid moves in contact with a solid the resistance to motion experienced is due to relative motion of layers of fluid moving in contact with each other. at surfaces of contact with a solid the fluid lies against the solid without appreciable relative motion; as the distance from the surface is increased by layer upon layer of the fluid, the relative velocity of the solid and the fluid becomes greater. _fluid friction is, therefore, the friction of adjacent bodies of fluid in relative motion._ while fluid friction acts as a retarding force in mechanism it converts the mechanical energy required to produce it into its heat equivalent, thus raising the temperature of the mass in a greater or lesser degree. the resisting property which thus effects this conversion, and which is the cause of fluid friction, is called _viceosity_. it is thus apparent that a _variation of the viceosity_ of the oil used on a watch would cause a variation of fluid friction and consequently a variation of the effort ( ), _and would seriously interfere with the rate of the watch_. this will be discussed ( ) more thoroughly in another paragraph. ~ . the laws of fluid friction~ are: . fluid friction is independent of the pressure between the masses in contact. . fluid friction is directly proportional to the surfaces between which it occurs. . this resistance is proportional to the square of the relative velocity at moderate and high speeds, and to the velocity nearly at very low speeds. . it is independent of the nature of the surfaces of the solid against which the stream may flow, but it is dependent to some extent upon the degree of roughness of those surfaces. . it is proportional to the density of the fluid and is related in some way to its viscosity. ~ . the compound friction of lubricated surfaces~, as thurston terms it, or friction due to the action of surfaces of solids partly separated by a fluid, is observed in all cases in which the rubbing surfaces are lubricated. the solids, in such instances, though partly supported by the layer of lubricant which is retained in place by adhesion ( ) and cohesion ( ), usually rub on each other more or less, as they are usually not completely separated by the liquid film interposed between them. wear is produced by the rubbing together of the two solids; and the rate at which the lubricant becomes discolored and charged with abraded metal indicates the amount of wear. the journal and bearing are forced into close contact in the case of heavy pressures and slow speeds, as is shown by their worn condition; while the journal floats on the film of fluid which is continually interposed between it and the bearing, in the case of very light pressures, and high velocities; in the latter instance _the friction occurs between two fluid layers_, one moving with each surface. with heavy machinery, as the hardness and degree of polish of the surfaces cannot be increased in proportion to their weight, the solid friction is so great that while the interposition of a lubricant between the surfaces adds fluid friction, it also reduces the solid friction; and as the fluid friction is so insignificant as compared to the solid friction, the former is almost completely masked by the latter. in this case the laws of solid friction are more nearly applicable. but in a delicate machine like a watch, especially in the escapement, where the power is so light, and where the rubbing surfaces are so hard, smooth and regular, the solid friction is so minute as compared to the fluid friction, that the former is relatively very slight, as compared with the latter. the laws of fluid friction are more nearly applicable in this instance. there are thus, evidently, two limiting cases between which all examples of satisfactorily lubricated surfaces fall; the one limit is that of purely solid friction, which limit being passed, and sometimes before, abrasion ensues; the other limit is that at which the resistance is entirely due to the friction of the film of fluid which separates the surfaces of the solids completely. ~ . the laws of friction of lubricated surfaces~ are evidently neither those of solid friction nor those of fluid friction, but will resemble more nearly the one or the other, as the limits described in the previous paragraph are approached. the value of the coefficient of friction varies with every change of velocity, of pressure, and of temperature, as well as with the change of character of the surfaces in contact. for _perfectly_ lubricated surfaces, were such attainable, assuming it practicable with complete separation of the surfaces, the laws of friction, according to thurston, would become: . the coefficient is inversely as the intensity of the pressure, and the resistance is independent of the pressure. . the friction coefficient varies as the square of the speed. . the friction varies directly as the area of the journal bearing. . the friction varies as the temperature rises, and as the viscosity of the lubricant is thus decreased ( ). ~ . the methods of reducing waste of energy caused by friction~ in time keeping mechanisms are based upon a few simple principles. it is evident that to make the work and power so lost a minimum, it is necessary to adopt the following precautions: . proper choice of materials for rubbing surfaces ( - ). . smooth finish and symmetrical shape of surfaces in contact ( - and ). . the use of a lubricant the viscosity of which is adapted to the pressure between the bearing surfaces ( ). . the best methods for retaining the lubricant at the places required, and for providing for a continual supply of the lubricant. . the bearing surfaces of such proportions that the lubricant will not be expelled at normal pressure. . the reducing of the diameters of all journals, shoulders and pivots, to the smallest size compatible with the foregoing conditions, and with the stresses they are expected to sustain, thus reducing the space, through which the fluid friction acts, to a minimum ( ); as well as reducing the distance from the axis of the arbor or pinion at which the friction, both solid and fluid, acts. the work done is independent of the length of the journal; except as it may modify pressure, and thus the coefficient of friction. . proper fitting of bearing surfaces ( ). . the reducing of the rubbing surfaces in escapements as much as the nature of the materials will allow without abrasion in the course of time ( ). ~ . friction between surfaces moving at very slow speed~, has been investigated by fleming jenkin and j. a. ewing. a contrivance, which would be very excellent with some improvement, for the determination of the amount of friction under such conditions, is given in a paper[ ] read before the royal society of london. the arrangement employed by them was composed of a cast iron disk two feet in diameter and weighing pounds. this disk, being turned true on its circumference, was supported by a spindle terminating in pivots . c. m. in diameter, the pivots resting in small rectangular bearings composed of the material the friction of which with steel is to be determined. a tracing of ink was produced on a strip of paper which surrounded the disk, the ink being supplied by a pen actuated electrically by a pendulum, as in the syphon recorder. as the traces thus left on the paper were produced without in any way interfering with the freedom of motion of the disk, they afforded a means of determining the velocity of rotation. the relative velocities of the pivot to the bearing surfaces varied from . c. m. to . c. m. per second, being the velocities met with in the various parts of time keeping devices. experiments were made with the bearing surfaces successively in three different conditions: viz. , dry; , wet with water; and , wet with oil; and gave the following results: table i. --------------------------------------------------------- surfaces. | coefficient of friction. ------------------------------|-------------------------- journal. | bearing. | dry. | water. | oil. -------------|----------------|--------|--------|-------- steel | steel | . | . | . " | brass | . | . | . " | polished agate | . | . | . --------------------------------------------------------- several facts of great interest to the horologist are here shown. [ ] edward rigg has this to say in regard to the apparatus of jenkin and ewing. "the friction, then, is true sliding friction without any rolling, and it will be evident that if the bearing were a circular hole just large enough to admit the pivot freely, the character of the friction would be in no way changed. in both a watch and clock the pivots are pressed against the sides of the pivot holes, either by the motive force or by gravity. there is no rolling round the pivot holes, so that the friction is all of the first kind. jenkin's experiments are, then, _strictly applicable to the case of pivots_,[ ] and they constitute, so far as i am aware, the first scientific determination of the friction that occurs in time-keepers, and even in these experiments, the pressure, due to the weight of pounds, is evidently too great, and thus too little regard is paid to the influence of adhesion." e. rigg further states that, reverting to the preceding table, we notice the following points of interest:-- . "when the oil has dried up, the friction of a steel pivot in brass is actually less than in agate. . "a greater diminution of friction, by the application of oil, is effected when steel is used with steel, than where steel is used with brass or agate; although the fluid friction is probably equal in the three cases, when oil is used. . "with a perfect, non-drying, non-oxidizing lubricant, steel bearings for pivots would be preferable to brass bearings. hence, with anything short of an approximately perfect oil, the brass is most serviceable. . "brass pivot holes are much less affected by the drying of the oil than agate holes would be; and, in the absence of experiment, we must assume that this would be the case with ruby or other jewels. . "when the oil is perfectly fresh, agate and steel have a very low coefficient of friction." how much these results would be altered by the use of a disk of such weight, and pivots of such proportionate size, as to meet the actual requirements in horology, remains to be ascertained. certainly the experiments of jenkin, are _not_ applicable to the pivots of a watch, as stated by e. rigg; especially are they not applicable to the friction of pivots in the escapement, where the laws of fluid friction are more nearly applicable; and when it is remembered that the weight of the disk was pounds, and the pivots . c. m. in diameter, (or about the size of pivot of a large barrel arbor,) it is evident that the solid friction produced was much in excess of that produced in even the heavy part of the train of a watch. furthermore, even jenkin and ewing, in their paper, state "that, owing to the very great intensity of the pressure on the small bearing surfaces of the axle, the lubricants must have been to a great extent forced out." in a properly made watch, with a good lubricant, this does not occur. but there can be no doubt that if the apparatus above described were so constructed as to meet the actual conditions in time recording instruments, very valuable data could be thereby secured. this could be done by reducing the weight of the disk, so as to make the weight bear the proper relation to the size of the pivots. footnotes: [ ] thurston. friction and lost work in machinery. [ ] philosophical transactions, , vol. clxvii., p. . [ ] the horological journal, apr., . vol. xxiii., page . [ ] the writer has italicised this phrase. chapter iv. application of the law of friction and lubrication in horology. ~ .~ the scope of this work will not permit the discussion of the proper size, shape and construction of each and every part of all the various kinds of time-keeping mechanisms which have been produced. however a number of _representative_ cases of friction and lubrication will be considered, and the laws applying to the same will be demonstrated. practical methods of obtaining the best results will be shown and mistakes to be avoided will be pointed out. the knowledge of what we ought not to do is sometimes of vastly greater importance than it is usually considered to be. ~ . the proportions of pivots, shoulders and bearings~, where the bearings are not capped jewels, should be such that the coefficient ( ) of the combined solid and fluid friction will be a minimum, and such that the lubricant will not be expelled at normal pressure, while the "fit" ( ) must be good. . _the diameters of all pivots_ should be of the smallest size compatible ( , ) with the foregoing condition, and with the stresses which they are expected to sustain. . _the length of bearing surfaces_ is regulated by the pressures which may occur ( ) between them, and by the nature of the materials of which they may be composed. . given the diameter and the pressure, the length of the bearing surfaces can be so proportioned as to prevent abrasion and to present surfaces, between which the film of oil is interposed, of such magnitude that the lubricant will not be expelled at normal pressure. [illustration: fig. .] . in fig. the length of bearing surface of the pivot is equal to its diameter, but the proportion must be varied according to conditions. . the barrel arbor pivots are sometimes necessarily of large diameter, and the bearing surfaces can be made shorter in proportion, as the surfaces will then be great enough to give good results as well as to retain ( ) the oil. . in the center pinion ( ) where the diameter of the the pivots is made small for reasons explained ( , ), the length of the bearing surfaces must be such that abrasion will not occur, and that the oil will not be expelled. . the rest of the train is subject to the same laws. the length of the bearing surfaces of the pivots remote from the motive force can be made shorter in proportion. . the diameter of the shoulder s, fig. , is reduced to as small a size as will properly sustain the "end thrust," thus reducing the friction, both solid and fluid, to a minimum, at the same time reducing the distance from the center of the arbor ( , ) at which the friction acts. . the above proportions vary with the nature of the material; where jewels are employed a shorter bearing surface may be used, if it be desired to reduce friction, but the pressure on the oil is the same with jewel as with brass bearings, so that it must not be made so short that the oil will be expelled. ~ . the shape of pivots, shoulders and bearings~, where the bearings are not capped jewels, should be such as to produce as little friction as possible. they should be hard, symmetrical, and smooth ( ). _the construction should be such that a considerable amount of oil may be applied without having a tendency to spread._ the advantages of the construction shown at fig. are: . the oil sink _o_ is deep and narrow, rather than wide and flat--thus causing the oil to be drawn towards the apex of the angle, i. e. towards the pivot, with greater force ( , ) than if the oil sink were wide and shallow, in which case the oil would have a tendency to spread, as too often occurs. . the total length of the pivot is to the length of its bearing surface as is to , thus further reducing the angle, which produces a greater tendency ( , ) in the oil to stay in the oil-sink. . a circular groove g is cut around the oil sink, which produces a still greater tendency on the part of the oil to stay in the sink, by removing metal which would otherwise exert an attraction ( ) on the oil. . the beveled portion p is comparatively large--while the shoulder s is relatively small--thus forming the angle o´ of about ° with the flat surface of the bearing. this will cause the oil to have a tendency to flow towards the pivot, for the reason given in considering the oil-sink. . the boss b is made to diminish the liability of the oil to spread, by a reduction ( - ) of the amount of metal which would otherwise cause it. . the back taper t is made for the same reason. some watchmakers (?) seem to think this is added only for ornament, but it is a very important factor in producing longevity of the oil. . the slight chamfer c, in the bearing, serves two purposes; it becomes a reservoir for oil and removes any burr that might otherwise exist in a metal bearing, without in any way altering its effectiveness. . it will thus be seen that the oil reservoirs o, o´ and c are made to contain, and retain, the maximum amount of oil, and the supply of the lubricant is thus increased to a maximum length of time. the application of these principles to each part to which they relate will be considered. ~ . the barrel arbor~, with its bearing, should be so constructed that the oil will not spread to the contiguous parts. the oil sink, with circular groove cut around the outside ( - ), both in the barrel and its cover, should not be neglected. it is well to apply oil to the bottom and on the cover of the barrel, as well as on the coils of the spring; and before putting on the cover, a small amount applied on the arbor nut at the shoulders will assist greatly in causing the oil to be at once drawn to its proper place. care must be exercised while and after cleaning the mainspring, in order that it may come in contact with the fingers as little as possible, as the acids contained in perspiration are liable to be transferred to the spring and so work serious injury by contaminating the oil. a part frequently neglected is the point of contact of the click spring with the click. if this part be not oiled rust is likely to form, and many instances have occurred where rust has found its way all through the movement from this cause. in fact, this may be said of the point of contact of all springs, with few exceptions, both in plain and complicated work. if the watch has a chain and fusee, these both should be looked after; the former can be well oiled, and the surplus wiped off so as to leave a minute quantity in the interstices of the links; while the latter should have oil on its clicks, as well as on the arbor where it passes through the wheel. if the ratchet of the maintaining power be of brass it should not be oiled; while if it is of steel oil should be applied. its click should have the pivots of its arbor oiled, while what was said of clicks in general will apply here. ~ . the center pinion pivots~, with their bearings, should be very carefully constructed, as this is the vulnerable point of most watches. with proper precautions ( - ) these parts can be made so as to wear as long as the rest of the watch. in a high-priced watch the bearings should be jewels; but in a cheap watch, where the price will not warrant correct work and careful fitting, the bearings are preferably of brass or some other metal. where the bearings of the center pinions are of brass or nickel, there is little difficulty experienced in making them perfectly "upright"--a condition necessary to produce a minimum amount of friction--while, if the bearings are jewels which are not upright, the friction, and consequent wear, will be increased. properly jeweled bearings produce a maximum durability, as they cause the least friction; while the coefficient of friction is subject to much less fluctuation on account of the harder, smoother surface of the jewel, ( , , and ). where there is a brass bearing for the lower pivot, in watches having a solid center arbor on which the cannon pinion revolves in setting, the length of the bearing may be profitably increased by making a boss on the outer side of the lower plate, provision for which is then made in the cannon pinion by a suitable recess. in either case the laws previously given should be complied with. a source of mischief in many watches is the manner in which the minute wheel is made; the construction being such that its teeth touch the plate so near the bearing of the center arbor that capillary attraction ( , ) is produced, which causes all the oil to leave the lower bearing of the center arbor. this can be avoided by cutting off the lower parts of the teeth of the minute wheel; or, by turning a groove in the plate which will be concentric with the minute wheel post, and which will pass under the teeth of the wheel, but not near enough to the bearing of the center arbor to injure the latter. the oil from the stem wind mechanism, also, sometimes flows under the minute wheel, and from there into the center arbor bearing; and, when the oil is used up in the former place, it is drawn up again out of the latter place leaving it dry. a means of preventing this will be discussed ( ) later. another and _very_ frequent cause of the lower center pivot cutting, particularly in new watches, is the neglect to remove the polishing material from the cannon pinion where the center arbor is solid. a small portion of oil should be applied to the bearings of the minute wheel, (where its pinion, or the pivot on which it revolves, is steel), hour wheel, and cannon pinion where the center arbor is solid, and to the set hands arbor where the center arbor is hollow. the safety pinion should always be oiled, as it may not otherwise be of much service. ~ . the third pinion pivots~ are sometimes the source of mischief. when the center wheel is placed above or below the barrel, the upper or lower pivot of the third pinion receives such great stress that the oil is forced out in many cases. by increasing the length of the pivot this could be obviated. the minute wheel is sometimes so close to the lower bearing of this pinion as to absorb the oil. this can be remedied by cutting a recess in the lower side of the minute wheel. where it is possible to do so the wheels should be so placed on their pinions and arbors, and at such a distance from the bearing surfaces of the latter, that the stress on each pivot--the combined result of the weight of the wheel and the forces acting on it--will be equal. ~ . the fourth pinion pivots~ should follow the same general laws as that given for the rest of the train; but it should be borne in mind that fluid friction acts as a retarding force much more perceptibly in the lighter parts of the train; consequently if no second-hand is to be carried, very small bearing surfaces should be the rule in this case. ~ . the 'scape pinion pivots~ as well as the shoulders should not be too large, while there should be sufficient back taper to insure the oil remaining at the pivots. a very small quantity of oil should be applied, as, when too much is used, it is liable to work up into the pinion where the latter is short, as in very thin watches, thus producing, when very fine dust is added, a mixture that acts much like oil stone power and oil, which cuts away the leaves of the pinion. ~ . the lever arbor pivots~ should also be small, with small shoulders so as to reduce fluid friction to a minimum. it may be well to add that in all uncapped bearings of pivots in the train, whether they be of jewels or of brass, a slight convex shape can profitably be given to the surface where the shoulder of the arbor, or pinion, touches the bearing, thereby reducing not only the surface of contact at the shoulder, and consequently diminishing the cause of friction ( ), but by reducing the distance from the center, at which the friction acts, the retarding effect of the friction is much less ( ), thus obtaining a greater effort ( ). ~ . the balance arbor pivots and bearings~, as well as those of the lever and scape wheel where their pivots run in capped jewels, deserve _particular_ attention. fig. shows hole and cap jewels in settings, but what applies to them is equally applicable to all capped jewels, with few exceptions. [illustration: fig. .] in fig. all the laws of capillary action are applied. it has been shown ( , ) that, when two watch glasses are fixed rigidly relatively with their convex sides adjacent, if a drop of oil be placed near their centers it can be shaken from its position only with great difficulty. the jewels, in this instance, present much the same form, though only a minute quantity of oil, instead of a drop, is involved; but the same influences are at work in both cases. this reservoir, if properly made, will contain enough oil to last a long time; as, when the oil in the center is used up, that which is _nearer_ the settings will be drawn to the pivot. the writer has said "nearer" the settings; but _it is very important that the oil should never touch the setting_ ( ). both settings are cut away at _aa´_, in order that as little attractive influence ( ) as possible may be exerted on the oil by the metal in the settings. where the adjacent surfaces of the hole and cap jewel are flat and parallel the oil will usually have a tendency to be drawn to the setting--the evil effect of which will be shown ( ) later--especially if the hole and cap jewel are at any appreciable distance from each other; while if they are _too_ close together, the reservoir will not be sufficiently large. the conical pivot shown is the usual form in the finer grades of american watches; and as this form of pivot combines strength with a minimum tendency to attract the oil from the jewel hole, it is to be highly recommended. the back-taper t should never be neglected for reasons previously ( , ) given. the proportions that should exist between the diameter of the pivot and the length of its bearing surface, as well as the shape of the end of the pivot, cannot be discussed here, as the scope of this work will not permit; but it should be borne in mind that the smaller the pivots, consistent with strength, the less the fluid friction will be. the sides of the pivots should be straight and parallel for a minute distance from their bearing surfaces; while the form of the rest of the pivot should be a gradually increasing curve, terminating at the point where the back-taper begins. the proper proportion of the diameter of the pivot to the diameter of the jewel hole varies according to conditions; but it has been previously ( ) shown in a general way what this should be. ~ . the escapements~ should be constructed in such a way that a maximum durability of oil may be secured. the acting surfaces of the teeth of the scape wheels should be made as small as possible consistent with durability ( , ); while enough metal should be left _near_ the acting surfaces to be sufficient to retain the oil and prevent its attraction to the web of the wheel. the teeth of chronometer scape wheels should not be oiled, as it is liable to seriously alter the rate. when the oil becomes viscous by oxidation or by cold it would produce too much variation of fluid friction and so diminish the effort ( ) of the mechanism. some watchmakers oil the fork of the lever in anchor escapements _very_ slightly, by applying oil and then using pith to remove any surplus, while others never oil the fork. the writer has frequently observed ferric oxide or "rust" on the roller, fork, and on the plate or potance; but whether this was the result of not oiling or of oil having been applied which afterward become gummed, or evaporated, it would be interesting to know. ~ . the curb pins~ sometimes produce the ferric oxide mentioned by their action on the hairspring. this has been remedied by the same method as used in the fork just referred to, and if a _very minute_ quantity of oil can be applied--such a minute quantity that if the whole spring were equally covered by a coating of oil equally _thin_, such film being _so_ thin that it would have _no_ tendency to cause the coils to adhere, or to cause small particles of matter to adhere--then it may be that this method deserves notice. by making a solution of benzine and oil ( drops of the former with to drops of the latter) and by immersing the hairspring in this solution and on withdrawing it dry it quickly between soft, fine linen, it will be found that the coils of the hairspring do not adhere to each other. the effect that this would produce on the whole spring by way of preventing rust in damp, warm climates, will be stated ( ) later. ~ . the application of oil~ must be attended with great care. the shoulders of the barrel and center arbors may be profitably oiled before putting them in their places, applying an additional small amount afterward. the rest of the pivots should be oiled after the movement is set up--except in the case of capped jewels--as if oil is applied to each pivot as the wheel is put in position it would be difficult to keep the oil in good condition and at its proper place if it should be necessary to take the movement apart again for any purpose. the oil is more evenly distributed on the teeth of scape wheels, where such require lubrication, if a small quantity of oil be applied to each tooth, or every second or third tooth. a small amount added to the surfaces on which the teeth act will in most cases be beneficial. if it be necessary to take the movement partially apart for any purpose, after it has been oiled, care should be taken not to give the train a too rapid motion, as the centrifugal force ( ) resulting from the rapid circular motion of the wheels will be liable to cause the oil to leave the jewel holes and spread upon the surfaces of the jewels, and also cause the oil to fly off the teeth of the scape wheel to its determent and that of other parts which are better without oil. ~ . the method of oiling capped jewels~ has been given by saunier, as follows:[ ] "when a drop of oil is introduced into the oil cup of the balance pivot-hole, insert a very fine pegwood point, so as to cause the descent of the oil. when this precaution is not taken, it frequently happens that in inserting the balance pivot its conical shoulder draws away some of the oil, and there is a deficiency both in the hole and on the endstone." in both the english and american editions, this erroneous method is repeated. by this means, only an insufficient quantity of oil can be caused to flow into the reservoir, as the pressure of the air inside will prevent the oil flowing in; as, in the case of a glass tube with the upper end sealed up, it has been shown ( , ) that the water refused to be drawn up the tube, even with the added pressure caused by the lower end of the tube being below the water line. again, the point of pegwood is liable to have minute fibres of wood adhering to it, which will be incorporated with the oil; and its liability to break off, and remain in the jewel hole, is another reason why pegwood should never be used. the author advances a method, which is not open to these objections, as follows: when about to place the cap jewel in position--after the hole jewel is in place if it be in a setting--a small quantity of oil is placed on the cap jewel, as shown at o, fig. , _being very careful to allow no oil to spread upon the cap jewel setting_. this setting is then carefully placed in position; when the oil, if the operation has been skillfully performed, is seen to be collected in the reservoir _r_ and _in_ the jewel hole. the appearance which it will assume is shown in fig. . the advantages which this method possesses are: the reservoir can by this means be made to contain the maximum quantity of oil; and the oil cup or sink _s_ is left with its surface dry, thereby exposing less oil to the influences of the air; and, at the same time the tendency of the oil to flow towards the shoulder of the pivot is decreased. skill is necessary in order to judge of and place the requisite amount of oil on the cap jewel before putting it in position; as, if too much is used it is worse than if too little is employed, because the oil would then flow on to the setting, and from there _between_ the settings at _b_, when it will rapidly be all drawn _from the bearing_, leaving it dry, while the _settings_ are copiously supplied. the approximate relative position which the oil should occupy is shown at _d_, fig. , in section; and this can be seen by looking through the jewels with a double eye-glass, when a true circle, concentric with the jewel hole, will be seen to have formed. this circle represents the limit of the distance which the oil has flowed from the jewel hole. when too much oil has been applied, this limit is not a circle, but represents a u. in the example given, the upper surface of the cap jewel is made flat, while the lower surface is made convex with a flat space in the center; as a better view of the end of the pivot and the condition of the oil can be thereby obtained. _in no case should the contiguous surfaces of the hole and cap jewel be both made flat_; as, when their planes are vertical, the oil will be drawn downwards by gravitation ( ), there being no counteracting force ( ) to keep the oil in place. the author has remedied this defect, in many instances, by cutting a groove around the jewel, leaving only enough metal near the jewel to hold it, and enough near the edge of the setting to rest solidly against the other setting. in some watches, particularly those of swiss make, the jewel bezels--both cap and hole--are brought well up around the jewel, while _a groove is cut around the jewel bezel_. in this instance the oil may be made to cover the whole inside surface of both jewels, as the groove will prevent the oil from flowing away to parts where it is not required. the reprehensible practice of replacing a broken cap jewel by cutting away the bezel and placing the new jewel in loosely, cannot be too severely condemned. the new cheap foreign-made watches contain this objectionable feature in many instances. where the jewels are in settings, sharp instruments, as tweezers, etc., should never be used to push the settings in place; as the projections produced in this manner would not only injure the appearance of the settings, but would prevent their close contact. thoroughly _clean_, well-finished jewel pushers are indispensable; as even pegwood is liable to leave fibres at least. the shape of the oiler is a matter of some importance; as with a poorly-made oiler it is next to impossible to do work satisfactorily. the tip is preferably of gold, tapering towards the end to about the size of a second's hand pivot of an eighteen size american movement; but at the end it should be about three times as wide and flat. a nickel fastened to the end of a lead-pencil will give the idea approximately. this large end will cause the oil to remain where it may be readily applied to the bearing surface, instead of flowing back on the oiler towards the handle, as it would ( , ) if the point were tapering. ~ . the stem winding mechanism~ should be thoroughly well made, always keeping in view that the laws of capillary attraction must be complied with. wherever an angle can be formed, with its apex pointing towards the place where the oil is required to remain, it should be done. a very good lubricant for stem wind parts is found in stearine, from which the animal oils are expressed at cold temperatures, as it is very thickly fluid at ordinary temperatures; while an _excellent_ lubricant for this purpose is paraffine--not the wax nor the oil, but that white, soft substance from which both are obtained ( & ). stearine and paraffine both possess great viscosity; and, though the fluid friction is increased by their use, the solid friction is diminished. then, too, _the tendency to spread is very much less_. ~ . the pendant~ is frequently a cause of trouble to the watchmaker. it is very important that the winding stem be lubricated with a substance that will not spread at ordinary temperatures. the lubricant should be applied at all places where steel rubs on steel or other metal. the winding stem and case spring, and the sleeve if present should have as much as can be safely applied; as they are so much exposed that rust often forms, which finds its way down through the movement, frequently resulting in serious damage to the delicate parts. the bearings of collet on stem and the pendant screw should also be lubricated. attention to these details will also prevent "that squeaking sound" which, sometimes occurring shortly after a watch has been repaired, causes the owner to believe that the work was not done properly. the lubricants just mentioned ( ) serve admirably for this purpose. ~ . the cause of the cutting of pivots~, in addition to the effect of friction ( , ) and other causes which have been mentioned ( ), may be that minute currents of static electricity are induced between the surfaces of the pivot and bearing, the oil acting as the electrolyte. if this be the case, the cause of pivots turning black would appear to be explained--the molecules of iron becoming electrically disassociated from the molecules of carbon, the latter being by their nature black, and being now on the surface in sufficient quantities to make themselves evident, give the surface the black color. such is the first stage of "cutting." the molecules of iron, becoming incorporated in the now thick and viscous oil or imbedding themselves in the bearing, act as an abrasive; the black surface is removed, making the pivot again bright, but "ringed." the molecules of iron, uniting with the molecules of oxygen which exist in the oil in its oxidized state, forms ferric oxide. ferric oxide is known as colcothar, english-roth, rouge, crocus, etc. the above theory is advanced by the author for what it may be worth, as it seems to explain this curious phenomenon. footnotes: [ ] saunier. watchmakers' handbook. chapter v. the properties and relative values of lubricants in horology. ~ . lubrication~ has for its objects, both the reduction of friction and the prevention of excessive injury from wear; and the mechanician resorts to the expedient of interposing between the rubbing surfaces a substance having the lowest possible coefficient of friction with the greatest possible capacity for preventing wear. the valuable qualities of lubricants are determined by their power of reducing friction, and by their endurance as well as that of the surfaces on which they are used. the amount of frictional resistance to the motion of machinery is obviously determined by the character of the lubricating material.[ ] ~ . the animal oils~ have had a wide and varied application in general machinery, and much testimony might be produced to show the superiority of any one kind over all the other kinds. each variety has some particular property which some of the others may not have to such a degree. ~ . porpoise jaw oil[ ] and blackfish melon oil~ have certain good qualities which have made them very popular, particularly on this side of the atlantic. when properly refined ( - ) they are no doubt very suitable for the work of reducing friction in small and delicate mechanism. ~ . sperm oil~ ( ) had been used to some extent as a lubricant for time-keeping contrivances; in fact, many tower clock experts still employ it on the heavier bearings. a. long, writing to the british horological journal, describes a trip to the arctic regions in and , in which he states that a certain portion of the sperm oil they obtained never congealed, which they preserved and applied to their chronometers, and thus kept them going through the winter. others have experimented with it, and it was at one time largely used; while some tower clock makers claim that they find it satisfactory. it is, however, open to the objection that it would produce serious variation when used in time-keeping mechanisms, as its _viscosity varies greatly with varying temperatures_ caused by the alteration of the spermaceti it contains, thus causing sudden fluctuations of its coefficient of friction ( ). it also absorbs oxygen rapidly when it is exposed to the air and loses quality seriously, gradually becoming "gummed" or resinous. a gain of two to three per cent in weight in twelve hours when exposed to the air at ° f. ( c), is caused by this absorption of oxygen ( ). ~ . bone oil~ ( ) has been widely used both in this country and in europe, and possesses some good qualities, not the least of which is the property of resisting evaporation and oxidation. ~ . neatsfoot oil~ ( ) has been largely used, especially in europe. the writer regrets that he has not procured samples in order to ascertain its relative value. ~ . olive oil~ ( ) has at least one good quality. it is one of the most perfectly non-drying of all the oils, resisting both oxidation and evaporation ( ). but it is next to impossible to entirely remove its acid qualities, small traces of which remain after the most thorough treatment. it is also liable to decomposition, generating acids even after refinement. ~ . mineral oil~ ( ) has been used as a lubricant for time keeping mechanism; but as there are so many varieties on the market, each differing from the others and possessing properties peculiar to itself, and as many have made experiments which have not demonstrated that such oils possess all the essential qualities of a perfect lubricant in horology, the author believes that the abundance of kinds and qualities of mineral oils has in the past been more or less confusing to the majority of those who have experimented; and believes further, that if the proper kind and quality of such oils had been used, all that could be desired in a lubricant would have been shown to have been contained therein. past experience has shown that many lubricants remained for years unused for special purposes to which, when tried, they were found specially adapted. though e. rigg was probably in error in the matter previously discussed ( ) his otherwise excellent lecture contains the following:--[ ] "but there is another subject that has a still closer bearing on friction as met with in time keeping instruments, and i cannot bring my lecture to a close without reference to that most fruitful source of trouble to the watchmaker--oil. breguet, a very famous horologist, and d'arcet, an equally celebrated chemist, worked together at this problem and what was the result? they produced an oil that was, according to their theory, perfect; but when applied to watches it proved to be worse than the ordinary oils of commerce. since their day the chemistry of oil has not made much progress, and the methods recommended for testing oil are still very ineffectual. the only test of any use is actual trial for a long period, and under varying conditions as to temperature, nature of atmosphere, etc.; and there are several oils on the market more or less satisfying the required conditions. so far as my knowledge goes, however, all are liable to dry; and this prompts me to draw your attention to a lubricator that has come into use for heavy machinery in recent years, in the hope that it may afford a suggestion for the improvement of watch oils. i allude to the mixture of certain kinds of mineral oil with an oil that has a tendency to dry. even a small percentage is asserted to entirely check this tendency and the resulting mixture is said to have the property of not in any way acting on or damaging the metal to which it is applied. the thickness, or 'body,' is made to vary according to the pressure to which the oil is subjected. * * * * would it be oversanguine to hope that some such mixture, prepared from perfectly pure materials, might help even the chronometer maker to secure more uniform rates? absolute freedom from acidity means a reduction of such electrical action as may occur at the pivots, and, therefore, a greater permanency of the oil from this point of view." ~ . neutral oil~ ( ) seems to be especially adapted for use in horology. used in a pure state, or mixed in variable quantities with a good animal oil, it can readily be made to fulfill the various conditions required in all parts of watches, chronometers, mantel and tower clocks. it is usually sold as such, but sometimes under the names "liquid paraffine," "glycoline," "albolene," etc., while "solid paraffine," "white cosmoline," "solid alboline," are the names given to the thick butyraceous mass from which neutral oils are made. sometimes this substance, as well as the liquid paraffine, is medicated or perfumed; but it is hardly necessary to state that when thus treated it is unfit for use in horology. ~ . the properties of neutral oil~ are stated to be:[ ] "it is a clear oily liquid, having a specific gravity of not less than . and boiling not below ° c. ( ° f.). it should be free from colored, fluorescing, and odorous compounds. "when heated for a day by means of a water bath, the paraffine should not become dark colored, and the sulphuric acid should become only slightly brownish. metallic sodium treated in a similar manner should retain its metallic lustre. alcohol boiled with paraffine should not have an acid reaction." ~ . the properties of solid paraffine~ ( ) are given as follows:[ ] "the melting point of commercial paraffine varies much. obtained from the residuum of petroleum distillation it is usually ° c. ( . f.), or somewhat higher." the acid and metallic sodium tests given for liquid paraffine will apply to the solid paraffine. ~ . the value of a lubricant~ _as_ a lubricant is independent of the market price; and it is at a maximum, according to thurston, when it possesses the following characteristics: . enough "body," or combined capillarity and viscosity ( ), to keep the surfaces between which it is interposed from coming in contact at maximum pressures. . the greatest fluidity consistent with the preceding requirements, i. e., the least fluid friction allowable. . the lowest possible coefficient of friction under the conditions in actual use, i. e., the sum of the two components, solid and fluid friction, should be a minimum. . a maximum capacity for receiving, transmitting, storing and carrying away heat. . freedom from tendency to decompose or to change in composition by gumming or otherwise, on exposure to the air ( ) while in use. . entire absence of acid or other properties liable to produce injury of materials or metals ( ) with which they may be brought in contact. . a high temperature of vaporization and a low temperature ( ) of solidification. . special adaptation as to speed and pressure of rubbing surfaces under which the unguent is to be used. . it must be free from grit and from all foreign matter. the author will add that for use in horology: . it must possess a minimum variation of viscosity ( ) in varying temperatures. the writer can see no reason why a mineral oil which has been properly refined _and of the proper consistency_, either alone or mixed with animal oil, could not be used to great advantage in horology. indeed, the possibilities in this direction seem to be so pregnant with promises of good results that some space will be devoted to the matter. ~ . the special advantages of mineral oils~ as lubricants in horology are: . mineral oils can be made entirely pure, and possess uniform and known properties when derived from the same or a similar source; while the quality of animal and vegetable oils varies from year to year, depending, in animal oils, on the season of the year when the crude oil is obtained, on the age and condition of the animal, and on the kind, quality and quantity of food which it had ( ) recently consumed; and in vegetable oils on the season, soil, climate and method of treatment. . according to thurston "all vegetable and animal oils are compounds of glycerine with fatty acids. when they become old, decomposition takes place and the acid is set free, by which action the oils become rancid. this rancid oil or acid will attack and injure machinery. again, all animal oils contain more or less gummy matter, which accumulates when exposed to the action of the atmosphere, and will, consequently, retard the motion of the machinery." . spon, in his encyclopedia of the arts, gives his views to the effect that "the best oil is that which has the greatest adhesion to metallic surfaces and the least cohesion in its own particles. in this respect fine mineral oils stand first, sperm oil second, neatsfoot oil third. consequently the best mineral oils are the best for light bearings. the best oil to give body to fine mineral oils is sperm oil." . "mineral oils do not absorb oxygen," and consequently do not "gum" or become viscous.--thurston. . mineral oils never become rancid in any climate, as they possess no fatty acids. . mineral oils produce very little fluid friction. . mineral oils withstand a high temperature without decomposition or vaporization, and a low temperature without solidification. . properly prepared mineral oils are free from grit and all foreign substances. . in addition to the above, a minor property of mineral oil is that they are very cheap comparatively, while they do not possess any odor if properly refined. . the variation of viscosity in varying temperatures is less in mineral oils than in animal or vegetable oils. ~ . methods of testing oils~ are necessary in order to determine which may be adapted to a specific purpose. their peculiar characteristics must be studied in order to know which will best fulfill the conditions arising in actual practice. experiments are necessary in which the oil is subjected to conditions approximating, as nearly as possible, to the conditions proposed in its actual use. saunier states[ ] that "success depends largely on the skill of the manipulator; and if he is not endowed with the power of judging, _mainly by the taste_, whether oil satisfies certain prescribed conditions, he can never be certain of the result." as the author's abilities in this regard are not up to the required standard, and as some oils are sometimes in such a state of decomposition that even the odor is unpleasant, he has used other, and perhaps more satisfactory, methods of determining the relative values of the various oils. the following experiments show the relative values of oils that have been, or may be, used in horology: j. j. redwood has made experiments on the action of oils upon metals, especially for the purpose of determining which oils were best adapted for use on the various metals and for ascertaining which oils were most suitable for mixing as lubricants. he has tabulated the results of his researches in two tables, which show that:[ ] _mineral oil_ has no effect upon copper and zinc, and attacks lead most. _olive oil_ attacks copper most, tin least. _sperm oil_ attacks zinc most, copper least. the experiments show, on the other hand, that: _brass_ is attacked most by olive oil. _copper_ is not attacked by mineral lubricating oil, least by sperm oil.[ ] dr. watson states in regard to this action: . that of the oils used, viz., olive sperm, neat's-foot, and paraffine, the samples of paraffine oil on copper was least affected, and that sperm was next in order of inaction. . that the appearances of the paraffine oil and the copper were not changed after an exposure of days. he later[ ] experimented further with the following results noted, after one day's exposure, with iron:-- . _neat's-foot._--considerable brown irregular deposit on metal. the oil slightly more brown than when first applied. . _sperm._--slight brown deposit with irregular markings on the metal. oil of dark brown color. . _olive._--clear and bleached by exposure to light and air. the appearance of metal the same as when first immersed. . _paraffine._--oil bright yellow and contains a little brown deposit. the action of oils on iron exposed to their action for twenty-four hours and on copper after ten day's exposure was found to have been:-- table ii. action of oils on metals. ------------+----------------+----------------- oils. | iron dissolved | copper dissolved | in hours. | in days. ------------+----------------+----------------- neat's foot | . grain. | . grain. sperm | . " | . " olive | . " | . " paraffine | . " | . " ------------+----------------+----------------- ~ . various experiments~ have been made by the writer with a number of oils that may be, or have been, used in horology, as well as with the principal watch oils on the market. at first he did not intend to mention the names of the manufacturers; but, after seeking advice of several eminent watchmakers, and on mature consideration, he decided to do so for the following reasons:-- . the object of the society before which these lectures were delivered[ ] is "to promote and to secure concerted action for the purpose of _mutual_ improvement in the practice of our profession as horologists, by a study of both the practical and theoretical divisions of the science and art of horology; _to publish the results of such study for the benefit of all in the profession_; _to preserve the same for the use of our successors_; to elevate the standard of workmanship; and to encourage in the members a higher conception of what our art really is." as this object cannot be attained without the names of manufacturers being mentioned in connection with their oils, the author considers that this is sufficient justification. . no injustice can have been done the manufacturers when the author states that the results obtained by him are not to be considered as conclusive evidence regarding the properties of the oils tested, as the samples he used may have been better than, or not so good as, the usual output of the manufacturers whose names were on the labels. . some of the manufacturers of oils sent samples subject to the condition of the publication of the results, with the request that the oils should be submitted to test, and if found wanting, they (the manufacturers) certainly wished to know it. table iii. for reference. [transcriber's note: table split for text file] ----------------------+----------------------------------------+ | manufacturer. | +----------------------------------------+ symbols | | | employed. | name. | location. | | | | ----------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ [b]e. k. w | ezra kelley | new bedford, mass.| | | | | | | [b]w. f. n. w | w. f. nye | new bedford, mass.| | | | | | | [a]d. c. s. w | d. c. stull |provincetown, mass.| | | | | | | [a]d. c. s. ch | d. c. stull |provincetown, mass.| | | | | | | [a]d. c. s. cl | d. c. stull |provincetown, mass.| | | | | | | [b]w. c. w | w. cuypers | dresden, germany | | | | [a]b. & k. w | breitinger & kunz | philadelphia, pa. | | | | [a]s. b. & co. wc |stevenson bro. & co.| philadelphia, pa. | | | | [a]c. l. co. w | chem. lub'g co. | brooklyn, n. y. | | | | [a][c]c. l. co. no . | chem. lub'g co. | brooklyn, n. y. | | | | [a][c]glyc | bullock & crenshaw | philadelphia, pa. | | | | [b][c]alb. f | mckesson & robbins | philadelphia, pa. | | | | [b][c]alb. s | mckesson & robbins | philadelphia, pa. | | | | [b][c]sp | ----? | ----? | | | | [b][c]ol | ----? | ----? | ----------------------+--------------------+-------------------+ ---------------------+------------------------------------------------------- | oil. |-----------------------------+-------------------------- symbols | | | source. employed. | kind. | name. |-------------------------- | | | generic.| specific. ---------------------+-------------+---------------+---------+---------------- [b]e. k. w | watch | superfine | animal | porpoise jaw or | | | |blackfish--melon | | | | [b]w. f. n. w | watch | superior | animal | porpoise jaw or | | | |blackfish--melon | | | | [a]d. c. s. w | watch | superfine | animal | porpoise jaw or | | | |blackfish--melon | | | | [a]d. c. s. ch | chronometer | superfine | animal | porpoise jaw or | | | |blackfish--melon | | | | [a]d. c. s. cl | clock | superfine | animal | porpoise jaw or | | | |blackfish--melon | | | | [b]w. c. w | watch | superfine | animal | bone | | | | [a]b. & k. w | watch | superfine | animal | bone | | | | [a]s. b. & co. wc |watch & clock| album | mineral | neutral | | | | [a]c. l. co. w | watch | perfect | mixed |neutral & ---- ? | | | | [a][c]c. l. co. no. | lubricating | no. synolene| mineral | neutral | | | | [a][c]glyc | lubricating | glycolene | mineral | neutral | | | | [b][c]alb. f | lubricating |fluid alboline | mineral | neutral | | | | [b][c]alb. s | lubricating |solid alboline | mineral | paraffine | | | | [b][c]sp | lubricating | ----? | animal | sperm, whale | | | | [b][c]ol | lubricating | ----? |vegetable| olive ---------------------+-------------+---------------+---------+---------------- [note a: obtained as sample from manufacturer.] [note b: purchased in open market.] [note c: not sold as watch oil.] . on hearing of these experiments, others in the profession may be tempted to make similar or other investigations and publish them. . in that case, if the results of many experiments demonstrate the superiority of one particular kind of oil, the whole profession will be profited thereby. . the manufacturers of oils may be caused to exert their utmost to keep abreast of the times, and will see for themselves in what way their oils may not fulfill the required conditions, thereby being the better prepared to overcome the difficulties with which they meet. for the sake of convenience the author has tabulated a list of the oils which he has subjected to various tests, showing the name, kind and source of each oil tested; also those which were obtained as samples, and those which were purchased in open market, as well as those which were not sold as watch oils, but which may be tried. this is shown in table iii. ~ . the action of oils on brass~ has been determined by the author by using a piece of good sheet brass into which suitable recesses were made for the retention of the various oils. this plate was submitted to the action of the air at temperatures varying from ° to . ° c. (about ° to ° f.), for days. the results of this test are shown in table iv. a further test, under different conditions, gave results as shown in table v. table iv. action of oils on brass. temp. ° to . ° c. = ° to ° f. time days. ----------------+------------------------------------- symbols | condition. according to +--------------+---------------------- table iii. | of oil. | of brass. ----------------+--------------+---------------------- e. k. | light brown. | brown. w. f. n. | " | " w. c. | " | light brown. b. & k. | " | " c. l. co. w. | spread. | " c. l. co. no. | unaltered. | " glyc. | " | " sp. | light brown. | greenish-brown. ol. | green. | dark greenish-brown. ----------------+--------------+---------------------- table v. action of oils on brass. temp. . ° to ° c. = ° to ° f. time days. ---------------------+--------------------------------------- symbols | condition. according to +-------------------+------------------- table iii. | of oil. | of brass. ---------------------+-------------------+------------------- e. k. w. | very light brown. | no change. w. f. n. w. | " " " | " " d. c. s. w. | " " " | " " d. c. s. ch. | " " " | " " d. c. s. cl. | " " " | " " w. c. w. | no change. | " " b. & k. w. | " " | " " s. b. & co. w. & cl. | " " | " " c. l. co. w. | " " | " " c. l. co. no. | " " | " " glyc. | " " | " " alb. f. | " " | very light brown. alb. s. | " " | unaltered. ---------------------+-------------------+------------------- ~ . the effect of oils on steel~, with a view of ascertaining their rust preventing properties, especially to see if the treatment of hairsprings with a _very_ slight film of oil ( ), would prevent rust in warm, damp climates was ascertained by the author, as follows: each of twelve brass pins, stuck vertically in a block of wood, had a colleted hairspring on its upper end. the block of wood was allowed to float in water and covered by a glass. one hairspring was left as it came from the factory, while each of the others had been treated with a solution of porpoise jaw oil and benzine, varying proportions of one to ten per cent of oil being used, the balance being benzine. the hairsprings were dipped into the solution, and, on withdrawing, were immediately placed between two folds of soft linen cloth. in any case not enough oil remained on the hairsprings to cause the coils to adhere. one per cent of nitric acid was added to the water, and after ten days the hairsprings showed on examination that they had rusted in proportion to the amount of oil that had been used. another trial, without acid in the water, and with one hairspring treated with ether, one with benzine, one each with one, two, five and ten per cent of porpoise jaw oil in benzine, and one each with the same quantity of mineral oil in benzine, showed after thirty days that the hairspring treated with ten per cent mineral oil was slightly rusted, while those treated with ether and benzine were badly rusted, and all the others were rusted more or less. ~ . the gumming and drying of oils~ is a very important consideration, the former being caused by oxidation, while the latter is due to evaporation. in order to determine these properties in various oils the author used a number of watch glasses, their convex side being glued to a board. two drops of oil were placed in each watch glass and spread over its concave surface, and the board placed in a covered box in which suitable air holes had been made, and allowed to remain in a temperature varying from ° to . ° c. (= ° to ° f.) for days, and at the end of that time the results shown in table vi were noted. table vi. gumming and drying of oils. temp. ° c. to . ° c. = ° f. to ° f. time days. --------------------------------+----------------------------- symbols according to table iii. | condition. --------------------------------+----------------------------- e. k. w. | slightly dried. w. f. n. w. | very slightly dried. w. c. w. | slightly gummed. b. & k. w. | no change. c. l. co. w. | slightly dried, and spread. c. l. co. no. . | no change. glyc. | no change. sp. | slightly gummed. ol. | no change. --------------------------------+----------------------------- ~ . the viscosity of oils~ denotes an approximate measurement of their relative lubricating power. professor thurston states[ ] that "large consumers of oil sometimes purchase on the basis of this kind of test solely. it is regarded as satisfactory and reliable as any single physical or chemical test known, and is second only to the best testing machine methods. the less the viscosity, consistently with the use of the oil under the maximum pressure to be anticipated, the less is, usually, the friction. the best lubricant, as a rule, is that having the least viscosity combined with the greatest adhesiveness. vegetable oils are more viscous than animal, and animal more so than mineral oils. _the fluidity of an oil is thus, to a large extent, a measure of its value._" the relation between the viscosity and the friction reducing power of oils has been determined by mr. n. c. waite[ ] and others to be very close. an oil having little viscosity is suitable for the escapement and lighter parts of the train, but is not a good lubricant for the bearings of the center pinion and barrel arbor and the mainspring, which require a more viscous lubricant; while a still greater viscosity renders it more serviceable on the stem winding mechanism ( ) and in the pendant ( ). again, an oil that possesses sufficient "body," or combined capillarity ( ) and viscosity, to resist the tendency to be "squeezed" from between the bearing surfaces in the heavier parts of the mechanism will produce a _great excess of fluid friction_ in the lighter parts of the train and in the escapement. ~ . the relative viscosity of oils~ is determined in several ways. various machines have been devised for testing the lubricating properties of oils, but as the cheap ones are of no use, and as those which are reliable are so expensive as to prohibit their general use except in laboratories and large factories, a simple method of ascertaining the relative viscosity of oils is desirable. the author used a piece of plate glass of suitable size on which one drop of each oil to be tested was placed near its end. the glass inclined from the horizontal, longitudinally--the angle of inclination being degrees--and was placed in a constant temperature of . ° c. (= ° f.) the total distance in centimeters which each had traveled by the end of each day, as well as the appearance of the "track" which it had left is shown in table vii. table vii. relative viscosity and gumming of oils. temp. . ° c. = ° f. inclination degrees. time days. ----------------+---------------------------------------+----------- symbols | distance in cm. | according to | traveled by oil at the end | width table iii. | of each day. | of | | track. ----------------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----------- days. | | | | | | | | ----------------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----------- e. k. w. | | |stat.| ... | ... | ... | | medium. w. f. n. w. | | . | | | |stat.| | " w. c. w. | . | | |stat.| ... | ... | | narrow. b. & k. w. | . | | . | |stat.| ... | | " c. l. co. w. | . | | . | | . |stat.| . | very wide. c. l. co. no. .| | . | |stat.| ... | ... | | medium. glyc. | | . | |stat.| ... | ... | | " sp. | | . | | . | | | | narrow. ol. | | . | |stat.| ... | ... | | " ----------------+----+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----------- table vii not only shows the relative viscosity of the various oils, but also their tendency to gum or dry ( .) the "width of the track" left by the oil is an indication of the cohesion ( ) and adhesion ( ) which exists, respectively, in the oil and between the oil and the glass. a narrow track denotes great cohesion and little adhesion; a wide track denotes great adhesion and little cohesion; while a medium track indicates that both properties are more nearly equal. if an oil possess great adhesion and little cohesion it is more liable to resist the tendency to be squeezed out of bearings, but it is also more likely to spread. another test made in the manner just described (table vii) gave results as shown in table viii: table viii. relative viscosity and gumming of oils. temp. ° c. = ° f. inclination degrees. time . days. ------------------+------------------------------------------ symbols | distance in cm. according to | traveled by the oil at the end table iii. | of each day. ------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+------ days. | . | . | . | . | . | . | . | . ------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+------ e. k. w. | | | . | . | . | . | . | w. f. n. w. | . | | . | | | . | . | w. c. w. | | | . | | | . | | b. & k. w. | | . | | | . | . | | . s. b. & co. w. c. | | | | . | | . | | . c. l. co. w. | | | . | . | | . |stat.| . c. l. co. no. . | . | | | | | | | glyc. | . | | | | | | | . alb. f. | | | | | | | | . ------------------+----+----+----+----+----+----+-----+------ the author once heard a watchmaker say to a customer, when the latter called for a clock which had been left for repairs, "i have cleaned your clock thoroughly; and, as you are a good customer, i made as good a job of it as i could. _i even oiled it with watch oil._" this watchmaker evidently _thought_ he was right. it is hardly necessary to mention that a stock of oils of different viscosity should be kept on hand and intelligently used; the different bearings in any time keeping mechanism requiring oils of different viscosity. it is not to be supposed that the author means _each_ bearing in a watch is to have a separate oil applied; but a distinction should be made between the light and heavy pressures. ~ . the effect of heat on oils~ is very marked in all cases; some oils being much more subject to change than others, in viscosity and other properties, under the influence of an increase of temperature. the lubricating power of an oil is decreased, while its tendency to spread is increased, with a rise of temperature. in order to ascertain the relative values of various oils in this respect the writer used a plate of glass cm. x cm., placed it flat on a table, and, depositing one drop of each oil near one of its longer edges, allowed it to remain in a temperature of ° c. (= ° f.) for minutes. at the end of this time the glass plate was placed in a vertical position, with its edge near which the drops of oil had been deposited uppermost and horizontal. the time required by each oil to run down to the bottom, a distance of cm., was noted. the width of the track, at a point cm. from the location of the drop at the start, was measured when the oil had passed that point, and again measured _at the same point_ when the oil had reached the bottom. the same test was repeated, with all the conditions similar except that the temperature of the room was raised to ° c. (= ° f.) before the oil was placed on the glass; but the glass was allowed to remain in this temperature also for minutes. the results of both experiments are shown in table ix. table ix. relative viscosity, cohesion and adhesion of oils. temp. ° c.(= ° f.) and ° c. (= ° f.) inclination vertical. -----------------+----------------+--------------------------------------- symbols |minutes required| width of track in mm. at a point according to | to flow cm. | cm. below starting table iii. |at a temperature| place when the oil had flowed | of | | +-----------------+--------------------- | |temp. °c(= °f.)|temp. °c.(= °f.) -----------------|-------+--------+-------+---------+--------+------------ | °c. | °c. | | | | |= °f. |= °f. | cm.| cm. | cm. | cm. -----------------+-------+--------+-------+---------+--------+------------ e. k. w. | | | | | | w. f. n. w. | | | | | | d. c. s. w. | | | | | | d. c. s. ch. | | | | | | d. c. s. cl. | | | | | | w. c. w. | | | | | | b. & k. w. | | | | | | s. b. & co. w. c.| | | | | | c. l. co. w. | | | | | | c. l. co. no. . | | | | | | glyc. | | | | | | alb. f. | | | | | | sp. | | | | | | ol. | | | | | | -----------------+-------+--------+-------+---------+--------+------------ while the relative viscosity of oils in varying high temperatures is shown in table ix, the width of the track indicates the same properties as were explained in reference to table vii. thus it is seen that the third and fifth columns of figures denote the relative adhesion of the oils, approximately according to the value of the figures; while the fourth and sixth columns exhibit their relative cohesion, and absence of adhesion, approximately according to the inverse value of the figures. thus the tendency of the oil to spread, in the warm temperature to which time keeping mechanisms are frequently subjected, is indicated. ~ . the effect of cold on oils~ is very observable in some varieties, converting them into greases, or even into hard, waxy solids. for out-of-door work unguents must be selected that will "feed" at any temperature to which they are exposed in the working of the bearings to which they are applied. the author has subjected various oils to a low degree of temperature, using a sufficient number of thin glass test tubes of cubic centimeters capacity,[ ] into each of which cubic centimeters of the oils to be tested were poured. the test tubes were then tightly corked and properly secured to a thin board, and placed in a temperature of - ° c. (= ° f.) the condition of the oils being noted at various intervals, the result of which is shown in table x. ~ . the variations of viscosity of oils in varying temperatures~ always create fluctuations of their friction reducing power; while the variations of fluid friction which result are also of great importance in horology. when it is known that the viscosity and lubricating power of an oil are usually ( ) very closely related, it is seen that change of temperature has an exceedingly important effect upon oils, even for general lubricating purposes; but particularly so when they are applied to small and delicate mechanisms. an oil of the proper viscosity at ordinary temperatures may be very unsuitable in an extreme of heat, or cold, to which timepieces are frequently subjected--on account of being too limpid in high temperatures to properly separate the rubbing surfaces; while in low temperatures it may become so viscous as to seriously impede the motion of the escapement and the lighter parts of the train. table x. relative effect of cold on oils. temp. - ° c. (= ° f.) time of exposure = hours -----------------+------------------------------------------ symbols | according to | condition of oil. table iii. | -----------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------- time. | min.| min.| hour.| hours.|order of | | | | |viscosity -----------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+--------- e. k. w. w. | ... | ... | ... | ... | w. f. n. w. | ... | ... | t-f. | t-f. | d. c. s. w. | ... | ... | ... | ... | d. c. s. ch. | ... | ... | ... | ... | d. c. s. cl. | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | w. c. w. | ... | ... | ... | ... | b. & k. w. | ... | ... | ... | ... | s. b. & co. w. c.| ... | ... | ... | ... | c. l. co. w. | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | c. l. co. no. . | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | s-s. | glyc. | ... | ... | ... | ... | alb. f. | ... | ... | ... | ... | sp. | s-s. | s-s. | s. | v-s. | ol. |v-t-f. | s-s. | s. | v-s. | -----------------+-------+-------+-------+--------+-------- t. f. = thickly fluid; or like honey. v. t. f. = very thickly fluid; or like jelly. s. s. = semi-solid; or like butter at ° f. s. = solid; or like butter at freezing point. v. s. = very solid; or like paraffin wax. the figures in the last column denote the apparent relative viscosity, as ascertained by inverting the test tubes repeatedly. [illustration: fig. ] again, even if the oil were viscous enough in high temperatures to resist the tendency to be "squeezed" out of the bearings, the _rate_ of the timepiece would be seriously affected by the variation of solid and fluid friction--especially the latter--caused by a variable viscosity of the oil. when a watch, chronometer or clock has been so adjusted as to keep a _maximum even rate_, the oil is one of the factors of the variation which has been overcome; and it is obvious that if another oil be used, in which a greater or less variation of viscosity exists than in the oil with which such timepiece was lubricated prior to adjustment, the variation so produced will be more or less observable. it is, then, evidently necessary to be able to ascertain, with the greatest possible exactness, what change in this respect is produced in the various oils by a change of temperature. the means previously given ( - ) have their value; but when supplemented by a method for determining the particular property under consideration, the results obtained are exceedingly interesting and valuable. on account of the importance of this matter the author has made investigations in this direction, using a "viscosimeter" as shown at fig. , and of which the following is a description: aa represents an ordinary retort stand, with adjustable arms, bb, for holding in position the thermometer c, and the funnel dd capable of holding about one pint of water. ee is the viscosimeter proper, a glass tube, swollen at the lower end, and terminating in a circular orifice of millimeter (= . inch) in diameter;[ ] being a "pipette" holding one cubic centimeter of oil between the dotted lines u and o. f is a flexible gum elastic tube fitting with an air-tight joint to the upper end of the glass tube. the funnel is closed at its lower end by a tightly-fitting cork h, in which an opening is made, through which opening the pipette passes and projects slightly below. g is a small, shallow vessel, preferably of glass, of sufficient capacity to receive the contents of the pipette. s is a syphon composed of a glass tube in two sections--united by a short piece of rubber tube on which the device p pinches by the adjustment of the lever l--the bent section beginning near the bottom of the funnel, while the straight section terminates below the level of the table on which the retort stand is placed. in operating with this, the author proceeded as follows: the funnel was partially filled with water, and hot water added until its temperature reached ° c. (= ° f). a sufficient quantity of the oil to be tested was placed in the glass vessel g, and drawn into the viscosimeter by gentle suction of the mouth until it exactly reached the line u, where it was retained, by a slight pressure with the thumb and finger, for five minutes, the temperature of the water in the funnel being kept constant. at the end of that time, after being sure that all the conditions as to temperature and quantity of oil were satisfied, the pressure of the thumb and finger was relaxed, when the oil began to drop through the lower end of the pipette. the time required for the upper surface of the oil to fall from u to o was carefully ascertained by means of a "stop watch," and the number of seconds noted. in case of doubt the test was repeated. the temperature of the water in the funnel was then lowered by the addition of ice, to ° c. (= ° f.), when the operation was again performed as just described. this was repeated at regular intervals of temperature down to ° c. (= ° f), when the water was again heated, the pipette thoroughly cleansed by introducing benzine into the pipette in a manner similar to that by which the oil was introduced. the surplus water which accumulated in the funnel was allowed to escape through the syphon by relaxing the lever of the pinching device. it is obvious that the number of seconds, in each case, corresponds to the viscosity. other oils were put through the same course, the results obtained being shown in table xi. table xi. relative variations of viscosity of oils in varying temperatures. -----------------+---------------------------------------------- symbols | seconds required for c. c. of oil to flow according to | through an orifice of mm. (= . in.) table iii. | ---------+-------+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- | cent. | . | | . | | . | | . | temp.{a} +-------+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- | fahr. | | | | | | | | ---------+-------+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- e. k. w. | | | | | | . | | w. f. n. w. | | | | | | | | d. c. s. w. | | . | | | . | . | . | d. c. s. ch. | | | | | . | | | d. c. s. cl. | | | | . | | . | | . w. c. w. | | | | | . | | | b & k. w. | | | | | | | . | s. b. & co. w. c.| | | . | | | | | . c. l. co. w. | | | | . | | . | | . c. l. co. no. . | | | . | | . | . | . | glyc. | | | | . | . | . | . | alb. f. | | | | | | | . | . -----------------+----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+----- [note a: the readings of the centigrade and fahrenheit scales given here are not exactly equivalent; but they are near enough for all practical purposes.] ~ . mixed oils~ have been tried by many who have been desirous of obtaining a better lubricant. a mixture of different kinds of animal or vegetable oils--or a combination of both--has usually proved worse than any single one of the components; as, when it is known that "alterations[ ] of composition occur in the animal and vegetable oils with exposure to air and light and with advancing age" ( - ), it is obvious that this chemical action is accelerated by a mixture. the mineral oils are not subject to such alterations to any serious extent; and, when they are compounded with animal or vegetable oils, the resulting mixture partakes of the good qualities of both, according to experiments which the author has made. it would make this paper[ ] too lengthy to insert the results; however, a future opportunity may not be wanting. ~ . various manufacturers~ of watches, chronometers and clocks, have favored the writer with more or less valuable information in answer to queries on the subject, which has been tabulated and which is shown in table xii. it is necessary to know just what kind of oil has been used by the manufacturer of a time piece for three reasons:-- ( .) if some of the bearings need a small quantity of oil, being otherwise in such good condition--because of never having been used, in fact "new"--that it is unnecessary to take all the mechanism apart and clean it, it is very important that the operator know what kind, or variety, of lubricant has been previously used, in order not to "mix oils;" or, if a mixture is thus made, to make it intelligently. ( .) ( .) when the oil which has been applied in the factory has not performed its functions properly in any part of a time piece, it is necessary to know what particular variety of lubricant has been used in order to substitute an oil which possesses the properties lacked by the oil previously used. ( .) ( .) in a watch which has been so adjusted as to keep a maximum even rate, the oil is one of the factors of the variation which has been overcome. it is necessary, then, on putting the watch in order, to employ a lubricant which possesses the same variation of viscosity as the oil which was used during adjustment. ( .) some other interesting facts are shown in table xii, as well as the foregoing. the queries were as follows:-- questions asked. . what oil do you use? . what oils have you tried? . what has been your experience with mixed oils? . do you use the same grade of oil on all parts of your ----? . if not, what is your practice? . what amount of oil do you use annually? the answers are given in table xii. ~ . impurities in oils~ and all foreign matter exert a very injurious effect. the method of sealing the bottles with sealing wax or gum labels should be avoided; the former, as the wax is brittle and liable to break in very fine pieces which lodge around the cork from whence they get into the oil; and the latter because the gum with which it is caused to adhere remains on the bottle, only to be absorbed by the oil. paraffin wax makes a very good sealing material, as it is not brittle, and keeps the oil protected from the air. an extra long cork should accompany each bottle. table xii.--answers to questions. =============+==========+==========+=========+=====+==============+======== manufacturer.| | | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | | | | heavier oil | american | | | | | on barrel | waltham |several. |several. | small. | no. | arbors and | quarts watch co. | | | | | winding | | | | | | wheels. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | |kelley's. | | | light oil on | elgin |smith's on| cook's. | | | escapements, | national |fine work.| nye's. | | no. | and oil with | - / watch co. | nye's. |wheeler's.| | | more body in |gallons. | |smith's. | | | mainspring | | | | | | boards. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- hampden | | |unsatis- | | | watch |kelley's. |kelley's. | factory |yes. | | co. | | | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- illinois | |kelley's. | do not | | | watch | nye's. | cook's. |use mixed| | | co. | | and | oils. | | |quarts. | | others. | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | | | | chronometer | gross new | | nye's. | | | oil on stem- |bottles columbus | nye's. |kelley's. | none. | no. | wind and do |regular watch co. | | | | | no experi- | size. | | | | | menting. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | | | | watch oil on | new york | | | | |train pivots, | standard |kelley's. |kelley's. | none. | no. | and clock |quarts watch co. | | | | | oil on stem | each. | | | | | wind. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | |kelley's | | | | rockford |kelley's. | ayer's. | |yes. | | watch co. | |guyjers? | | | | | |smith's. | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- trenton | nye's. | | |yes. | | watch co. | | | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | |kelley's. | | | | waterbury | smith's. | nye's. | not a | | | watch co. | | smith's. |success. |yes. | |gallon. | | and | | | | | | others. | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | | |yes. |watches, light| | | | | | grade. | seth thomas | nye's. | most | none. |yes. | clocks, | clock co. | | others. | | |medium grade. | | | | |yes. |tower clocks, | | | | | | heavy grade. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- table xii.--answers to questions.--continued. -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- manufacturer.| | | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | steven- | | | on all bear- | | | son's. | | |ings the same | { }|sine dolo | black- | none. | no. | oil, but on | | | fish. | | | mainspring |gallon. e. howard | |porpoise- | | | a rock oil. | watch & | |jaw. rock.| | | | clock co. +----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- { }|kelley's. | | none. |yes. | | | | | | | |gallon. +----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- { }|rock oil. | | satis- |yes. | | | | |factory. | | |gallons. -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | | | |light oil for | h. h. hein- | |every kind|unsatis- | | small pivots | rich,chrono- | stull's. | in the |factory. | no. | and heavier | pint. meter maker. | | market. | | |oil for larger| | | | | | pivots. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | stull's. | |yes. |a light oil on| new haven | stull's. | black- |unsatis- | |clock-watches.| clock co. |kelley's. | fish. |factory. +-----+--------------+gallons. | |porpoise. | |yes. |a heavy oil on| | | | | | clocks. | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- ingraham | | rock. |unsatis- | | | clock co. |porpoise. | mixed. |factory. |yes. | |gallons. | | | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- | | stull's. | | | | waterbury | stull's. | smith's. | none. |yes. | | - clock co. | | steven- | | | | gals. | | son's. | | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- wm. l. gil- | | nye's. | | | | bert clock | nye's. | smith's. | | | | - co. | |kelley's. | | | | gals. | |comstock's| | | | -------------+----------+----------+---------+-----+--------------+-------- [note : watch.] [note : regulator.] [note : tower clock.] then again some workmen leave the oil bottle standing open, which is obviously a very careless proceeding. the author has seen a bottle one quarter full of dust, the oil still being used from the top. when oil is to be placed in the oil-cup, it should be done by using a small, clean glass rod--kept for the purpose--and never poured out of the bottle. the oil cup should always have the cover on except when taking oil from it. before it is refilled it should be very carefully cleaned. the oiler should be perfectly clean, that kind which has a hexagonal nut on the handle and a gold tip being very excellent. some careless workmen wipe the oiler on the back of the hand, on the clothes, on a dirty rag, on an old chamois, etc. the tip of the oiler should never touch the hand or fingers, as the acids in the perspiration are sure to cause a bad effect on the oil. the following is a list of "oilers" which the author has seen used:--peg wood, broom straw, quill, toothpick, match-stick, screw driver, tweezers, rat-tail file, piece of copper wire, horse-shoe nail, steel pen. if dust be on the bench paper, or in the movement tray, the pivots will surely transfer some of it to the bearings when the wheels are being put to place. the scape-wheel, mainspring and other parts, the rubbing surfaces of which may come in contact with the fingers, should be so handled as to allow no perspiration to become deposited on any surface which may afterwards require oiling, as the acids contained in the perspiration will exert an injurious effect on the oil. the owners of watches sometimes subject them to very hard treatment by using perfumes, etc., and then some people perspire more than others, while the perspiration of some persons contains more acids, or is more rancid, than that of others. for these reasons the method of testing oil by putting it on watches kept to loan to customers as saunier recommends cannot be relied on. oils should be kept in a clean, cool, dark place. the wrapper or label on the bottle should be dark blue or black, to exclude all light, as, if this is not done, the oil will be more liable to decomposition, except in the case of a mineral oil, which is not affected by light. all vegetable and animal oil which has been "bleached" by exposure to the light is more liable to decomposition on exposure to air than that which is unbleached. ~ . the effect of age on oils.~ writing on this subject mr. henry g. abbott[ ] states as follows: "there is a popular fallacy existing in the trade that oils should be used when fresh, and even that acknowledged authority, saunier, says, 'do not buy from motives of economy bottles that have laid for years in the shop.' this may be true and probably is in regard to animal and vegetable oils, which are likely to become rancid if kept for a long time, but william f. nye, one of the largest and most celebrated manufacturers of fine watch and chronometer oils in the world, declares that blackfish oils are improved by age, and his oils are seldom placed on the market in the same year as obtained. we are indebted to the same authority for the statement that oils of this kind are clearer and more brilliant after some years than fresh oils." though mr. abbott has made some very valuable additions to the literature of the profession, the author begs permission to call attention, in reference to this, to the following facts: mr. abbott says that vegetable and _animal_ oils are likely to become rancid if kept for a long time, but _blackfish_ oils are not. brant[ ] states that the porpoise or _phocoena communis_, cuv., and the blackfish, or _phocoena globiceps_, are of the subdivision _delphinodea_, or dolphins, of the family of _cetacea_, or whales, an order of the vertebrated mammiferous marine _animals_. adler wright[ ] states that "the term 'train oil,' strictly speaking, applies to any oil extracted from the blubber of cetaceans and the allied marine mammalia, such as the seal, porpoise, dolphin and walrus." huxley classes among cetacea the dolphins, porpoises, grampus and narwhal. authorities might be quoted _ad infinitum_ to show, not only that porpoise-jaw oil and blackfish-melon oil _are animal oils_, but that they possess properties similar to other animal oils as far as their liability to decompose by age, more or less, is concerned. furthermore, thurston[ ] states that "all vegetable and animal oils are compounds of glycerine and the fatty acids. when they become old decomposition takes place, and acid is set free, by which action, as is commonly said, the oils become rancid." thus saunier is borne out in his admonition. ~ . in conclusion~, the author wishes to state, that as he has been able to find but little in the literature of the craft in english, french or german, he has pursued the study of the "properties and relative values of lubricants in horology" upon lines which have suggested themselves as being best adapted to give good results. as much that is herein contained is new and original in its application in horology, the theories advanced may be in some respects incorrect. the tests of various oils have, no doubt, been subject to personal error; but it has been the earnest desire of the author to give the subject the attention it deserves. in order that truth may prevail and that justice may be done to the various manufacturers of oils, as well as to the author and his subject, he will again request criticism through the trade press in any matter in which he may seem to be at fault. he further wishes that others may become interested, and that the makers and repairers of watches, chronometers and clocks, as well as the manufacturers of oil, will further assist in these investigations by making similar or other experiments, and report the result of the same through the trade press in order that this very important subject may be thoroughly understood. in furtherance of this object the author will furnish samples of oils _free_ to anyone wishing to make experimental tests of _any_ kind, on condition that the results of such tests shall be published or communicated to the author for future publication. address, w. t. lewis, president philadelphia horological society, philadelphia, pa. footnotes: [ ] thurston. friction and lost work in machinery. [ ] as the fish from which these oils are obtained are of the mammalia order, their oils are classed among the animal oils. [ ] the horological journal, apr., . vol. xxiii. page . [ ] pharmacopoea germanica. . [ ] the national dispensatory. . [ ] saunier, watchmaker's hand-book, p. , eng. edition; p. , am. edition. [ ] brannt. animal and vegetable fats and oils. [ ] paper read in the chemical section, british association, plymouth meeting, . [ ] swansea meeting. british association, . [ ] this work is compiled from a course of lectures delivered by the author before the philadelphia horological society, . [ ] thurston. friction and lost work in machinery. [ ] proceedings n. e. cotton manufacturers' association, nov. , . [ ] the average teaspoon holds cubic centimeters. [ ] millimeter = . + inch. [ ] thurston. friction and lost work in machinery. [ ] this work is compiled from a series of papers read and lectures delivered by the author before the philadelphia horological society, . [ ] abbott. the american watchmaker and jeweler, , page . [ ] brant. animal and vegetable fats and oils, pages - . [ ] adler wright. oils, fats and waxes, and their manufactured products, p. - . [ ] "friction and lost work in machinery." +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes: | | | | * minor typographical and lay-out errors have been corrected. | | * inconsistencies in spelling (e.g. hyphenated vs. non-hyphenated | | words) have not been corrected. | | * italics are represented by underscores as in _text_. | | * the original book uses a v symbol to describe v-shaped cuts. these | | v symbols are represented as [v]. | | * changes made to original text: | | * table of contents: | | * "early collection of latex transport" changed to "early | | collection of latex--transport". | | * "roof brick built houses" changed to "roof--brick built | | houses". | | * the order of the sections under chapters xii and xxii has been | | changed slightly to reflect the order of the sections in the | | text. | | * "tephrosia candiad" changed to "tephrosia candida". | | * "archiev" changed to "archief". | | * "about / square" changed to "about / inch square". | | * "asbesto-slate" changed to "asbestos-slate" as elsewhere. | | * "formaline" changed to "formalin" as elsewhere. | | * footnotes moved to under the paragraph they belong to. | | * page : "the lengths of crepe were weighed carefully at a.m. | | and a.m." should probably read "the lengths of crepe were weighed| | carefully at a.m. and p.m." | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the preparation of plantation rubber the preparation of plantation rubber by sidney morgan, a.r.c.s. visiting agent for estates in the east; formerly senior scientific officer and now honorary adviser to the rubber growers' association in malaya with a preface and a chapter on vulcanization by henry p. stevens, m.a. (oxon.,) ph.d., f.i.c. consulting chemist to the rubber growers' association in london constable & co. ltd. london : bombay : sydney printed in great britain by billing and sons, ltd., guildford and esher preface mr. sidney morgan's work on plantation rubber in the east is so well known that he hardly needs introduction. an earlier book, published in , by the rubber growers' association, entitled "the preparation of plantation rubber," was well received and widely read. this book dealt in a very practical manner with problems with which the industry had to contend. a second edition was subsequently published. both editions are now out of print. the present opportunity was therefore taken to revise the original work, with the result that it has been enlarged and practically rewritten. the information given is brought up-to-date, and covers the whole process of production, commencing with the planting of the tree, passing on to the collection, coagulation, and curing of the rubber, and concluding with the packing for export. in the course of his work for the association, mr. morgan carried out a great deal of industrial research in rubber production, including lengthy experiments on tapping, the use of different coagulants and different conditions of coagulation, and also on varying modes of rolling, drying, and smoking rubber. he also went very fully into the types of construction and details of the machinery and buildings employed on estates. much of this valuable work has escaped notice, owing to its having been published in reports with limited circulation. also a great deal of information was supplied to planters in a quiet and unobtrusive fashion, in interviews, visits to estates, and on other similar occasions. the knowledge and experience thus accumulated has been embodied in the present volume. the subject-matter should interest not only those actually engaged in rubber planting, but those otherwise directly or indirectly connected with the industry, such as importers, brokers, and particularly the rubber manufacturers in this country and in america. my experience has been that manufacturers as a whole have but a vague idea as to the methods employed in the preparation of plantation rubber, and this work provides them with the opportunity of obtaining an insight into the actual operations on the estates. it is most desirable that a closer bond should unite the plantation and manufacturing rubber industries. such a result is best promoted by a better understanding of the problems with which each is confronted. perhaps i may go so far as to suggest that some leading scientific officer in the employment of one of the large manufacturing concerns may take in hand a book which will give the planters the equivalent of information in regard to the manufacturing industry which the planters are now offering to the manufacturers. the photographs in the earlier part of the book will give the layman some conception of the enormous amount of labour that must be expended in the opening up, planting, trenching, and weeding the plantations which have replaced the virgin jungle. the authors are indebted for most of these photographs to mr. h. sutcliffe, one of the mycologists of the rubber growers' association. the pictures of spotless coagulating tanks and tiled verandahs regularly hosed down will indicate the cleanliness necessary for the preparation of the beautifully clean sheet and crepe rubber which became available with the advent of plantation rubber. these results are largely due to the work of sidney morgan and his colleagues, on whom the planters have relied for technical guidance and advice. as regards my own contribution this is confined to a general outline of the subject. i have, therefore, omitted reference to a number of matters which would have been dealt with in detail had space permitted. the information given is based on researches on vulcanisation carried out for the rubber growers' association by the writer over a period of nine or ten years. it was not found practicable to give detailed references in all cases. the reports on which the conclusions are based will, however, be found among the regular quarterly reports made by the writer for the association up to june, . subsequent reports have been published in the monthly bulletin of the rubber growers' association. we are indebted to the association for permission to publish details from these reports, and also for the use made of numerous earlier reports published both in london and in the east. contents part i _field operations_ page chapter i planting seeds--seed selection--strain improvement by bad propagation-- nurseries--stumps--seed at stake--basket plants--preparation of land--danger of disease--clean clearing--loss of top-soil-- silt-trenches on slopes chapter ii field maintenance clean weeding--selective weeding--loss of top-soil--grass ridges--lallang eradication--_mimosa gigantea_ (_m. invisa_)--green cover-plants--connection between weeding, soil conservation, and soil improvement chapter iii thinning of areas original planting per acre--ultimate stand per acre--close- planting _versus_ wide-planting--when to commence thinning operations--how to select in preliminary rounds-- later selections based on yields of individuals--yields per tree, present and future--trees per acre chapter iv tapping systems former methods--former systems--tendency to reduce number of tapping cuts and frequency of tapping--period allowed for bark-renewal--modern systems--superimposed cuts--single cuts, etc.--tapping experiments--r.g.a. experiment--alternate-daily _versus_ daily tapping chapter v tapping and collecting tapping knives--personal equation in use of knives--choice of latex cups--cleaning of cups--water in cups--premature (spontaneous) coagulation--prevention of spontaneous coagulation--the use of anti-coagulants in the field-- collecting pails--payment by result--methods for calculation of yields per coolie--tree-scrap, oxidation of--prevention of oxidation--bark-shavings--collection and storage of shavings-- treatment of shavings--collection of earth-scrap chapter vi transport of latex and coagulum percentages of "first" latex and other grades--early collection of latex--transport, nature of--light railways-- motor-lorries--bullock-carts--care of transport vessels--use of an anti-coagulant during transport--transport by coolie-- coagulation centres (stations)--transport of coagulum part ii _factory operations_ chapter vii preliminary treatment of latex reception at store--receptacles--jars--tanks--necessity for close supervision--need for utmost cleanliness--straining of latex--strainers--facilitation of straining--bulking of latex --standardised dilution of latex--facilities for receiving and handling latex--reception verandahs--receiving vessels--types of installations chapter viii coagulation choice of coagulant--strength of acid solution--making stock solution--quantity for use--quantities under modern requirements--care in mixing--method of mixing with latex--use of sodium bisulphite as an anti-oxidant--quantities for use-- formulæ--abuse of the chemical--residual traces in the dry rubber--use of sodium sulphite as an anti-coagulant, quantities for use--formulæ--use of formalin as anti-coagulant --formulæ for use chapter ix preparation of sheet rubber pale (air-dried) sheets--uniformity of product--pans _versus_ tanks--the ideal tank--modern installations--care of tanks-- standardised dilution of latex--variation in dimensions and density of coagulum--standardising instruments--method of using--skimming latex--style of sheets--standard sheets-- rolling and marking--when to work the coagulum--hand-rolling-- power smooth-rolling--marking rolls--preparation for smoke- curing--caution against accumulation of wet sheets--hot-water treatment--dripping in the open air--when to place in smoke- house chapter x preparation of crepe rubber first consideration, fine pale crepe--standardised dilution of latex--coagulation and coagulant--quantities of coagulant-- colour of rubber--sodium bisulphite (use of)--evaluation and deterioration of the bisulphite and sulphite of sodium--to distinguish between these two chemicals--care of sodium bisulphite--mixing solution with latex--former methods of making pale rubber--working the coagulum--lower grades of crepe--naturally coagulated lump--skimmings and washings-- tree-scrap--bark-shavings--earth-scrap--fibrous matter in low- grade rubbers--scrap-washers--compound crepes--increased care with lower grades--block rubber from crepe--smoked crepe _versus_ sheet clippings chapter xi drying of rubber air-drying of crepes--artificial driers for crepes--vacuum drying--hot-air driers--michie-golledge system--rate of air- drying--when drying takes place--increase in weight of drying crepe--differences in weight--aids to normal drying--smoke- curing of sheet rubber--instruments for recording temperature --temperatures of smoke-house--period of drying--fuels for smoking--sun-drying of sheet rubber--artificial driers for sheet rubber chapter xii sorting, grading, and packing reducing number of grades--reduction carried too far--r.g.a. recommendations--care in sorting--choice of packing cases-- bags--bales--folding of crepe--mechanical folders--care in assembling--methods of packing--weight of contents--short weights part iii _machinery and buildings_ chapter xiii machines quality of metal in rolls--nature of roll-bearings--brass liners--liners of alloy or of cast-iron--adequacy of machines --arrangement of battery--speed of machines--gear ratios-- grooving of rolls--heating of rolls--sheeting machines-- lubrication--trays--position of battery--drainage of battery-- access to back of machines--engines--power chapter xiv factories general construction--plenty of light--floors--drainage of-- how many storeys--verandahs--tanks, situation of--designs and lay-out--drains--water supply chapter xv other buildings drying-houses for crepe rubber--how many storeys--ventilation --windows--effect of light--effect of direct sun-rays--hot-air houses--smoke-houses--various types--ordinary smoke-houses-- general ventilation--windows--racks of supports--floors-- furnaces in general--pit-fires--pot-fires--iron stoves-- horizontal drum-furnaces--rate of combustion--brick stoves-- pataling type of--consumption of fuel--floor of furnace room-- roof--brick built houses--"third mile" type--jackson cabinet-- devon type--detailed description of--barker patent design chapter xvi other buildings (_continued_), and situation of buildings sorting-room--packing room--store rooms--storage of rubber-- need for special accommodation--floor of store room--local conditions--temperature and humidity--incidence of moulds-- effect upon smoked sheets--tool-sheds and stores--situation of buildings--position with respect to points of the compass-- choosing a factory site--centralisation--decentralisation part iv _the finished rubber_ chapter xvii defects in crepe rubbers general style of finish--dirty edges--iron-stains--rust-stains --oil-marks--trays--dirt--holes--greenish and tacky streaks-- not due to oil _per se_--tackiness and copper--cotton and other fibre--bark and grit--sand--oxidation streaks--yellow streaks--bisulphite streaks--spot disease--cause of--influence of rate of drying--percentage of moisture--humidity of atmosphere--prevention of disease--infection by contact-- outbreak of dormant spores--rules to be observed--surface moulds or mildew--tackiness in general--full discussion of-- experimental reproduction--lack of uniformity in colour-- defects in block rubber chapter xviii defects in sheet rubber defective coagulation--coloured surface blotches--general darkening of surface--soft coagulum--spongy underface--tearing --"pitting" of surface--thick ends or edges--mis-shapen sheets --thick patches--torn sheets--"dog-ears"--creases--greasiness of surface before smoking--surface blemishes--uneven appearance--variation due to oxidation--colour when dry-- surface gloss--dull surface--moist glaze and greasiness-- virgin spots--surface moulds or mildew--black streaks or spots --white or grey streaks--rust--theories on formation of-- prevention of--two methods--other views on causation--bubbles --causes of formation--in the field--in the factory--blisters --"spot" disease in sheet rubber--support marks--stickiness-- surface pattern--sheet clippings--other infrequent defects-- dirt--ash--bark--splinters part v _general_ chapter xix choice of coagulant acetic acid in general use--is a coagulant necessary?--acetic acid--formic acid--citric acid--tartaric acid--oxalic acid-- sulphuric acid--hydrochloric and nitric acids--hydrofluoric acid--alum--pyroligneous acid--smoked water--chinese vinegar-- sulphurous acid--sugars--various salts--proprietary compounds --carbonic acid gas--alcohol--vegetable extracts chapter xx special methods of preparation da costa process--byrne curing process--freezing process-- wickham process--derry process--spontaneous coagulation-- definition of--discussion of types--Ærobic--anærobic-- organisms--maude-crosse patent--method of operation-- accelerating action of sugars--accelerating action of soluble calcium salts--ilcken-down process--slab rubber part vi _vulcanisation_ chapter xxi introductory dealing with treatment and vulcanisation wild rubber contrasted with plantation rubber--milling and mixing--preparation for vulcanising--vulcanising chapter xxii testing of plantation rubber tests on raw rubber--breaking strain--behaviour of rubber during milling, etc.--preparation for testing--tests on vulcanised rubber--choice of a formula--physical tests chapter xxiii the properties of rubber raw rubber--physical tests--vulcanised rubber--"inner qualities" of raw rubber--defects of crepe and sheet-- variation in physical properties--rate of cure--influence of various factors in raw rubber on rate of cure--other types of plantation rubber--fine para index list of illustrations page seeds, showing variable size, shape, and marking felling light (secondary) jungle seedling, showing root-system with seed still attached new clearing typical young clearing, aged about three years, planted on virgin soil. original jungle timber slowly rotting light jungle dense jungle clearing ready for planting new clearing: slopes "holed" for planting; flat area being drained typical young clearing, with timber typical young clearing, with timber typical young planted area another example of a recently planted area widely planted young area, just ready to be brought into tapping field of old rubber trees in which thinning had been delayed too long two cuts on a quarter circumference, on an old tree the single cut on a quarter circumference, on an old tree and on renewed bark single cut on half circumference (half-spiral) a [v]-cut on half the circumference single cut on two-fifths of circumference effects upon renewed bark of previous tapping another example showing the effects of previous tapping . showing effect of "wintering" . new growth of young leaf on same tree effects of disease--"mouldy rot" effects of disease--"mouldy rot" effects of disease--"mouldy rot" effects of disease--"mouldy rot" raised verandah for reception of latex; likewise equipped with facilities for calculating individual daily "yield per coolie" by sampling of latex end-section sketch of verandah, etc., showing a good method for receiving latex and filling tank raised verandah for reception and handling of latex another set of dilution tanks on raised verandah two views of dilution and mixing tanks unit modern coagulating tank (two views) another battery of tanks, with dilution tanks, raised, on the right closer view of foregoing another battery of tanks, without dilution tanks or means of gravitating latex a sheeting tank containing coagulum for crepe preparation a "battery" of sheeting tanks (pataling estate). dilution tanks, raised, on the left the old method of "dripping" freshly rolled sheets within the factory the newer method of hanging in the open air three grades of crepe rubber a washing shed drying graph. pale crepe (thin) a shipment of rubber, packed and ready for transport on its road to the railway: bullock-cart transport a battery of machines "third mile" type; horizontal drum "third mile" type of furnace, used in conjunction with "third mile" smoke-house side sectional elevation (pataling type of furnace) pataling type of furnace large smoke-house of ordinary construction, with shielded ventilators permanently open brick and cement superstructure of furnace inside the building, but fed from outside general view of shelters covering approaches to furnaces near view of shelter "third mile" type of smoke-house general view of double "devon" type of smoke-house general view of double "devon" smoke-house and factory buildings view of platform of "devon" smoke-house; doors of compartments open, and one rack partially withdrawn double "devon" smoke-house of brick, with roof of chinese tiles, showing loading platforms with racks withdrawn from smoking chambers side-view of preceding photograph, showing external arrangement for stoking furnaces front view of double "devon" type of smoke-house side-view of double "devon" type of smoke-house the new "barker" type of smoke-house: a small unit suggested arrangement of building three specimens of fine pale crepe suffering from "spot" disease the preparation of plantation rubber part i field operations chapter i _planting_ to criticise the methods of the pioneer planters of _hevea brasiliensis_ presents no difficulty in the light of present comparative knowledge, and to be "wise after the event" is a failing which is not confined to those interested in modern planting methods. looking at the matter broadly, however, it must be acknowledged that the pioneers, wrong though they may have been on some points, did remarkably well, considering that there existed no real knowledge on the subject and that the methods employed were perforce of an empirical nature. although we know a little more concerning the scientific aspects of rubber planting, the sum total of that knowledge does not justify any drastic criticism of the methods employed by our predecessors. in fact, although we may be of opinion that on general lines there is little now to be learned regarding the planting of _hevea brasiliensis_, our present knowledge does not preclude the possibility that future investigations may bring against us charges similar to those sometimes levelled at the earlier planters. the main theme of the present volume is that of the preparation of rubber for the market. hence it is not proposed to deal in detail with the work attaching to the opening and development of rubber estates. for this the reader is referred to the literature dealing specifically with rubber planting. certain points in connection with planting may advantageously be treated in a general way according to modern knowledge, and of these it is proposed to discuss a few in the following pages. [illustration: seeds, showing variable size, shape, and marking.] seeds.--the view is now generally held that many areas were planted from seed which was not collected in a discriminate manner; and that probably the comparatively low yields obtained on areas of some estates may be due to the employment of seed from a poor strain. to be able to decide whether such explanation fits the case demands a full knowledge of all the possible factors governing the question of yields. it may, or may not, be a fact that seed from a poor strain is wholly or partially accountable for low yields; but whatever the degree in which the seed influences the result, it is an axiom that to obtain the best results in all planting industries a most judicious selection of seed should be made. in short, seed obtained from good-yielding specimens by selective treatment will eventually produce progeny of good-yielding strain. [illustration: felling light (secondary) jungle.] the recognition of these principles as applied to the planting of _h. brasiliensis_ has focussed recent attention upon the desirability of planting nurseries with seeds obtained from those trees which are known to be good producers of latex of normal consistency. it does not follow that the tree of most rapid growth and development is necessarily the best yielder; such is often not the case. in the matter of selection, therefore, one has to take other standards than that of size; and the issue is narrowed chiefly to a consideration of the yields of latex given by individual trees. it has been found by various experimenters that there is no necessity to proceed to such a refinement as the determination of the actual weight of rubber yielded. the dry rubber content of latices from the same trees is found to be so comparatively regular, allowing for climatic changes, that it is sufficient for the purposes of selection to measure the volumes of latex yielded by individual trees. [illustration: seedling, showing root-system with seed still attached.] unfortunately the industry is so young that the question of seed selection yet awaits study. the task presents certain practical difficulties, and would be by no means so easy to control as in the case of seed selection from other plants. it will be obvious that several generations of trees raised from selected seed would have to be under observation before any sound deductions could be made from statistics obtained in the course of the work. thus the problem of seed-selection as it concerns the establishment of a high-yielding strain would involve many years of observation on the part of a trained man. unfortunately neither the man nor the facilities for such experimental work exist at the present moment in the federated malay states. on the scientific side the industry is incommensurably staffed, and most of the workers' time is occupied with routine work connected with estate practice. [illustration: new clearing. in the middle distance, felled trees awaiting burning; in the foreground, a flat and wet area with main drainage outlined. (_by courtesy of the manager of membakut estate, british north borneo._)] [illustration: typical young clearing, aged about three years, planted on virgin soil. original jungle timber slowly rotting.] selection.--it is possible, however, that the question of strain improvement will be solved in another manner than that of successive breeding from the seeds of high-yielding trees. such investigatory work is now occupying the attention of scientific organisations in the east, and credit is due to the stations in java which have begun experimental work in this direction. in brief, the scheme may be outlined as follows. trees known to be uniformly good yielders are kept under observation, and the seeds gathered carefully. these seeds are germinated in a special nursery, and the best-grown seedlings are selected for further operations. at a certain stage a bud is taken from a high-yielding parent tree and grafted upon the stem of the seedling. when this has "struck" the original head of the seedling is removed. this ensures that one has in the seedling both the stem and future branch system of the same strain as the parent high-yielding trees. it is possible to go a step farther, and by certain processes induce a new root system to grow above the existing roots, which are then removed. one is then able to guarantee that the roots, stem, and branches will be of the original high-yielding strain. an objection sometimes made against the third operation of inducing a new root system is that the original tap-root is removed and that the subsequent system consists only of laterals. against this argument may be quoted the observed fact that in actual development any one of the laterals may under such circumstances function eventually as a tap-root. [illustration: light jungle.] on the whole, this system of propagation receives the approval of investigators, and removes the objections which may be advanced against the development of a scheme entirely founded upon successive breedings from selected seed. the course of the investigations, also, are thereby shortened considerably. care must be exercised in the work of obtaining and grafting the buds, but it has now been proved that by exercising reasonable precautions which are not beyond the intelligence and ability of subordinates, an extremely high percentage of success can be attained. [illustration: dense jungle.] until such time as this process becomes practicable the inception of a planted area must follow the lines usually adopted. nurseries.--the usual practice is to obtain seeds from some estate which has a reputation for good yields and for exercising care in the gathering and shipping of seeds. the seed is planted in specially prepared beds, and the percentage of germination noted for future reference. the plants should be tended carefully, and close observation made for the detection of disease or pests. it is not uncommon to find that owing to lack of care in the preparation of the seed-bed, the young plants are attacked by disease. [illustration: clearing ready for planting. surface timber removed, but stumps remaining.] stumps.--at a stage, varying according to the requirements of the estate, when the plants are from twelve to eighteen months old, they are lifted from the earth. the roots and head are cut off, and the "stump" is ready for immediate planting in the field. naturally any appreciable delay in planting, or unfavourable weather conditions, will militate against the chances of successful "striking"; and it is not uncommon to find that a certain number of "supplies" will be necessary. seed at stake.--a method sometimes adopted is to put out seed in the field, in prepared holes which indicate the exact position of the future trees. usually three seeds are placed in each hole, and if two or three germinate, the plant having the healthiest appearance is retained, and the others removed. the possible objections to this method of planting are obvious to those acquainted with field conditions, but in actual practice planting seed "at stake" has often proved highly successful. naturally the results obtained must depend upon the selection of good seeds, the care exercised in the preparation of the "holes," weather conditions, and the discrimination exercised in the selection of the plants to be retained--apart from such disabilities as the depredations of rats and other pests. basket plants.--yet another and perhaps the most popular method at present is the germination and growth of seedlings in baskets specially constructed for the purpose. these plants are kept under observation until of the required age and growth. they are then conveyed to the field, and the baskets are planted in prepared holes. the baskets, being of vegetable material, are liable to be attacked by various diseases while in the nursery or after planting. it is considered advisable, therefore, to treat them by dipping into some disinfectant such as tar, or a mixture of tar and one of the common proprietary disinfectants. otherwise a disease may be conveyed from the basket to the seedling. preparation for planting.--there can be no other opinion than that ideally all land required for planting should be perfectly clear of timber of every description. after felling and burning, under ordinary conditions a certain amount of clearing is effected, but in actual practice this amounts to comparatively little. big logs and stumps are left because the cost of clean clearing is judged to be prohibitive and non-economic. surface timber is gradually cleared in the course of development, and usually large stumps are the last to be tackled. the objection to this procedure is really not strong, but unfortunately an important point is generally overlooked. granted that most of the dreaded diseases travel beneath the surface of the ground by means of buried timber, it is plain that as far as stumps are concerned, the chief source of danger lies in the existence of the roots. if these were carefully exposed and removed, the isolated stumps would then not be such potential infection points. it follows from this argument that the importance of removing buried timber cannot be too strongly insisted upon. it is not uncommon to find that some years after the opening of an estate, and after surface timber has been removed, a large number of trees are affected with _fomes lignosus_ (formerly known as _fomes semitostus_). such cases are directly attributable to the existence of buried timber, and no local treatment will be successful unless the whole of the area is dug over carefully, and all pieces of timber removed. [illustration: new clearing; slopes "holed" for planting; flat area being drained. (_by courtesy of manager, membakut estate, british north borneo._)] silt catchment trenches.--granted the ultimate necessity of clean clearing, it becomes necessary to take some precautions to prevent loss of soil by "wash" in young areas planted on sloping land. an argument often used in extenuation of the practice of allowing large surface timber to remain until it becomes rotten is that it is an aid in preventing loss of soil by wash. its removal necessitates the institution of some method of preventing "wash." the establishment of terraces on steep slopes tends to the achievement of the desired result, but this method is not extended to more moderate slopes where loss by wash is still considerable. it is the opinion of the writers and others that the general case calls for the institution of silt catchment trenches, which, as the name denotes, fulfil the duty of catching any surface soil and of retaining rainwater. these trenches are usually laid out on contour, and do not exceed a length of feet. they are usually from inches to feet wide and deep, and are so arranged on the slope that they occupy overlapping positions. the actual number of trenches required will depend upon the angle of slope; the steeper the slope the greater the number required--_i.e._, the shorter will be the length of slope between any two trenches. given a clean area, it is obvious that the momentum acquired by running water (and hence the amount of soil removed) on any one slope will depend upon the distance travelled. it is advisable, therefore, to place a larger proportion of the trenches on the upper part of the slope than on the lower, so as to guard against the breaking down of the trench system under an abnormal downpour of rain. on land thus prepared the writer has seen areas successfully planted, which, under ordinary conditions, were condemned as being too steep for planting. it is true that these trenches necessitate continual upkeep until the soil becomes well shaded by trees, but the actual amount of work demanded in cleaning and maintaining the trenches will depend largely upon the thoroughness with which the original work was planned and executed. whatever may be the weaknesses exposed as a result of providing an insufficient number of trenches of inadequate dimensions, there can be no question that they are a necessity. chapter ii _field maintenance_ clean weeding.--intimately connected with the growth and development of the rubber tree one has to consider the conditions under which it is allowed to mature. the argument has been used that, since the habitat of _hevea brasiliensis_ is in the jungle, we should be proceeding against nature by introducing conditions unlike those under which the "wild" rubber tree grows. it is difficult to treat such an argument seriously, as by quoting parallel instances in arboriculture it could be shown that growth, development, and yields are improved by cultivation of "wild" plants. it needs small experience with rubber-tree plantations to be convinced of the necessity for dealing with other growths, which would otherwise soon surround and overshadow young rubber trees. apart from checking and preventing woody undergrowths it is considered advisable to keep the ground more or less free from light vegetable growths, which are roughly grouped under the heading of "weeds." naturally, if these weeds are allowed to flourish and seed, their eventual eradication may be a matter of extreme difficulty and expense. it is the aim, therefore, of properly conducted estates generally to institute such a system of work that the weeding-gangs cover the whole estate at regular intervals; and, as a general rule, it may be accepted that the shorter the interval between successive visits by the gang to any particular area, the easier it is to keep weeds in check, and the cheaper the work will eventually be done. this procedure defines roughly what is implied by the term "clean weeding," and it is the policy adopted by most estates. strict adherence to this practice in rubber cultivation has been inculcated by the older school of planters who obtained their experience in the cultivation of other crops such as tea, coffee, tobacco, etc. in latter years the wisdom of scrupulous clean weeding under all conditions has been questioned; and there can be no doubt that under certain special conditions a continuation of the policy of clean weeding is calculated to produce, in course of time, more harm than benefit. as an instance, the case might be cited of steep slopes on poor land. continual clean weeding on such areas will lead eventually to a great loss of the surface soil, unless some precautions are adopted for catching and retaining the fine silt particles. it is to be noted that such a type of soil and slope, when the shade is appreciable, often produces no weeds heavier in growth than a very light grass. it is urged that the necessity for strict clean weeding on such soils does not exist, and, in fact, that it would be an injurious policy. such arguments appear to be well founded in experience, and the writers are in thorough agreement that such special cases deserve special consideration. rigid adherence to a policy of clean weeding, without regard to special conditions, would be most inadvisable. nevertheless, such exceptional cases do not detract from the wisdom of clean weeding in general. every planter of experience realises how easily fields become infested with weeds if the regular work is suspended or delayed. it is probably quite true that the harm due to the presence of some weeds on an occasion is negligible; but apart from this debatable point, there is the solid fact that if once an area is allowed to become weedy it may soon demand a much greater expenditure to bring it back to normal condition than if it had been regularly weeded. this is common experience, and for that reason alone a general policy of clean weeding is thoroughly sound; especially if combined with some system of silt-retention. grass squares.--on some estates the practice of clean weeding is undertaken in combination with a system of silt-retention, which depends upon the development and maintenance of ridges. these are built up from the débris of weeding in the form of hollow squares. grass is allowed to sprout and grow in these ridges, and when it attains a certain height it is trimmed down so as to keep it within bounds. the soil within the hollow square is clean weeded; and it is maintained that loss of soil by wash is avoided. under certain conditions there is a great deal to be said in favour of the method, but in the opinion of the writers it should be regarded only as a method of expediency. it is not to be preferred to the more thorough practice of soil-retention by means of silt-trenches, although the latter method may be slightly more expensive in the end. [illustration: typical young clearing, with timber. planted "rubber-stump" in foreground.] "lallang" eradication.--the greatest bugbear of the planter in connection with weeding is the incidence of lallang. many proposals have been put forward at various times for the complete eradication of this pest; but at present, under ordinary circumstances, there would seem to be no better method than by heavy and deep digging, followed by regular attention. the method is acknowledged to be expensive, but any half-hearted measure otherwise taken will eventually prove to be even more costly. one has to differentiate, of course, between the incidence of lallang attributable to negligence on the estate itself, and the occasional outbreaks near boundaries, due to seeds having been wind-borne from patches of lallang outside the boundaries but, in general, it would be safe to remark that the appearance of lallang could be taken as evidence of a failure to cover the area at sufficiently short intervals. as already intimated, the usual method of eradication of areas of lallang is by thorough digging, and the exposure of the strong root system to the sun. as a matter of interest it may be noted that recently some success has been obtained by another method[ ] on areas which one may have in view for planting at some future date. [ ] "eradication of lallang," w. p. handover, _the planter_, vol. i., no. , august, . it consists in the employment of _mimosa gigantea_, which eventually smothers the growth of lallang. the seeds are sown broadcast, in drills, or in pockets, amongst the lallang. in the course of about three months it overtops the grass and proceeds to travel. at this stage the whole mass is pressed down, and the pressing is repeated at regular intervals. under favourable conditions, in about twelve months, an impenetrable mat has been formed, which gradually forms a good mulch. when it is desired to remove the mimosa, the mass (pressed down) is cut and rolled up like a carpet. cleared in this manner, the area then needs regular weeding, in order to check the development of any stray lallang shoots. in actual practice it was found that the cost of this method was approximately two-thirds that of the usual digging method. green cover plants.--some years ago it was quite common to find green cover-plants employed on estates with the primary idea of minimising weeding costs. with most of these it was found later that their value was not real, and that they harboured diseases, and pests. moreover, when they were removed, it was often found that an abundant crop of lallang and weeds resulted. there can be no question that certain plants can be employed with advantage, not only in the control of weeds, but also by reason of benefit to the soil in which they are established. these plants are leguminous, and their use is restricted almost entirely to young areas, inasmuch as they will not continue to grow when shade becomes marked. of those best known in modern practice might be mentioned _tephrosia candida_ (boga bean), _centrosema plumerii_, and _dolichos hoseii_ (sarawak bean). [illustration: typical young clearing, with timber. young rubber plants in foreground. two of these are easily distinguishable, both with small crowns of leaves.] it is wrong to imagine, however, that the establishment of such leguminous cover-plants obviates weeding. so far is this from being the case, that in practice it is found that the weeding "rounds" must be conducted at first with the same regularity as in ordinary working, but that naturally there is much less work to be done. as the plants develop, they can be pruned or dug into the soil, as the case may be. the addition of the green material to the soil, either by digging or by burying in open trenches, is calculated to cause improvement in the condition of the soil. there may thus be a close connection between weeding, soil conservation, and soil improvement. chapter iii _thinning of areas_ on this subject there is unanimity regarding the necessity for the operation. divergence of opinion exists only as to a matter of degree. on the one hand there is the school of planters who would advocate the advisability of planting up to, say, trees per acre, with subsequent thinning out by selection. at the other extreme there is the opinion that we should plant only a few more trees per acre than it is intended eventually to maintain, the argument being that by this method the growth and development of individual trees will be so much greater than in close planting that the necessity for drastic thinning out will not arise. unfortunately for the latter school, a very important point is overlooked--viz., that size and general development are not criteria of yielding capacity. it might thus follow that a stand of ninety well-grown trees per acre might give very disappointing yields per acre. in a few instances this has been noted with by feet planting, but it is doubtful whether the factor influencing such results has been appreciated. the apostles of close-planting have this in their favour: that if the trees to be removed are selected on proper lines, it is possible to have all remaining trees of comparatively high-yielding strain. this is a very sound argument, but its practicability is limited very largely by the question of early growth and development. it would seem the sane course in any event not to plant more trees per acre than may grow normally, and without branch or root interference up to the fifth year (the normal first year of tapping). before this stage has been reached, stunted or deformed trees will have been noted and removed, so that in the first year of tapping thinning proper can be commenced. in the past this has been effected wholly by selection of trees according to their general appearance and situation; but it is now safe to predict that future operations will be based upon sounder and more scientific lines. trees will be selected for removal according to their individual yields, a standard which we have been advocating for years without much practical success. in java and sumatra much good work has been done in this direction, and recently a commencement has been made in the f.m.s. [illustration: typical young planted area. heavy original jungle timber.] it is within the daily observation of all planters that certain trees regularly give greater yields than others, and that such trees are not to be distinguished by size or general development. moreover, with slight variations, it has been found that a good yielding tree is consistently a good yielder, and the converse holds true. if, therefore, measurements of individual yields are taken at intervals, and the results recorded during the first year of tapping of an area, an excellent guide is obtained for the first round of thinning. it is found in actual practice that five, or even three, readings during the year are sufficient to give the indication required. it is not essential that simultaneous readings should be taken over a large area; in fact, such a step is really impracticable at first. the simplest method is to employ either-- (_a_) a small uniform vessel in which the latex is measured by means of a thin slip of bamboo upon which graduations are marked. (_b_) a glass measure graduated regularly. [illustration: another example of a recently planted area.] in both cases it is immaterial what units are represented by the graduations--whether cubic centimetres, quarter ounces, half-ounces, or ounces, as long as the unit is not too large. it is preferable to employ a fairly small unit, so that in taking readings from young trees a wider range may be obtained between poor yields and good yields. in the case of older trees a larger unit may be taken. the first stage in the operations is to number all trees in the field to be tested, and to prepare a rough register, with three or five vacant columns opposite each tree number. it is not advisable to commence the record of yields until the panel of bark has been under tapping for a month or two. it is found that an intelligent coolie can be taught the method of measuring and rough recording. the latter is accomplished by means of marks made upon the virgin bark of the tree above the tapped area. the marks may be made with a tapping knife, by means of paint, or with a lead pencil. the simplest form of record consists in putting one mark for each graduation of reading. in practice it is found that, commencing about an hour after the first tree has been tapped (in the case of young trees) and following the course taken by the tapper, the measurer of yields is able to do about full tasks ( to trees) per diem. each day progress is made through the field. obviously on such a small scale and utilising only one measuring coolie the comparison is restricted very much; but in any case this is immaterial as, owing to the personal equation of the tapper, comparison strictly should be limited and internal--_i.e._, it should really be confined to one task only at a time. in this way the worst trees in any task are indicated. the keeping of the records may be entrusted to a field clerk, but is better placed in the hands of a european. the register is taken into the field and the rough records found on the trees are noted in the columns against the tree number. most planters are aware in a general way of the disparity between the yields of individual trees, but they would probably be surprised if they undertook the institution of such records. the following figures must not be taken as typical. they represent the average results from several tasks in a young field from which all ill-grown and deformed trees had been removed. it is immaterial what the units represent, as they are purely arbitrary and were selected for the purpose of obtaining a fairly wide range. any trees which failed to yield sufficient latex to reach the first mark were registered at zero. the following percentages were obtained: zero per cent. above mark " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " --- " it may be remarked that, judging by ordinary standards, it was impossible to discriminate between good yielders and others, and if thinning were to be done on the usual lines it is quite possible that some of the best yielding trees would be removed. taking the mark no. as the datum line, it will be noted that per cent. of the trees come below and per cent. above. in the latter proportion the majority lie close to the datum line. it will be seen that there are outstanding yielders even amongst these young trees, and that it would be possible to mark about per cent. of the stand per acre at once for removal in the first round of thinning. in the case of old trees it is possible that one would encounter greater extremes of yields than those shown in the foregoing table, especially if a certain amount of thinning had been done previously on empirical lines. sufficient has been written to show that the only reasonable basis for selection of trees in thinning is that of yields; and it is obvious that if the method be adopted the future yield per acre of any area is bound to be in excess of the same area as thinned on rule-of-thumb lines. yields per tree.--a great feature is made in estate reports of the figure showing the average yield per tree per annum. assuming an area to be yielding at the average high rate of lbs. per acre per annum, with an average stand of ninety trees per acre, the yield per tree per annum averaged over all trees is lbs. keeping in mind the test-figures on a previous page, it will be obvious that some of these trees may have given very much more than lbs. during the year, and some less. in view of present information it would not be surprising to find that a few might have been yielding upwards of lbs. per annum. unfortunately this information is only to be obtained by individual tests, and under normal estate conditions the facts escape notice. cases are known in which out-standing individual trees have been known to yield at the rate of lbs. and more per annum. [illustration: widely planted young area, just ready to be brought into tapping.] [illustration: field of old rubber trees in which thinning had been delayed too long. note height and comparative lack of girth.] future yields per tree.--it has been shown that by selective methods based on yields, poor trees can be eliminated. whether by a process of seed-selection or by means of propagation based on bud-grafting and marcotting, it needs no great stretch of imagination to forecast future conditions under which trees may be bred which will be capable eventually of giving an average yield of lbs. per annum over any given area. yields of , lbs. per acre per annum should be obtained easily. trees per acre.--this brings us to the question as to how many trees one should leave to the acre after thinning operations. figures have been given by various authorities, but it appears to the writer at the present time to be impossible to lay down a general rule. so much depends upon conditions. in certain cases where the soil is admittedly poor, the average growth below normal, and thinning has been postponed too long, the writer has been forced to the conclusion that it would be most inadvisable, and commercially unsound, to reduce the stand of trees below per acre. in such instances the average yield per tree equalled only lbs. per annum, and although the trees were upwards of nine or ten years old the crowns were small and sparse. it is doubtful whether such trees will ever exhibit any further development, and to thin them further would probably lead only to a diminution in the crop per acre. under normal conditions of growth an arbitrary figure of eighty trees per acre has been selected as a standard by many estates. in these cases it would probably be correct to state that thinning was undertaken on almost purely empirical lines--_i.e._, that trees were not selected by tests of individual yields. as far as such a method retained the apparently most vigorous trees it was successful; but in view of what has been written it might explain some of the disappointing results which have followed upon such a system of thinning. it will be clear that any decision regarding the number of trees to be retained must be derived from a study of the detailed results of individual tests. if the large majority of the trees appear to be fairly uniform in yields the first thinning must be confined to comparatively few trees. where there is, on the other hand, a good percentage of high-yielding trees the final stand per acre may be appreciably less. unless and until such information is available, one cannot give any definite opinion as to the requisite number of trees to be retained per acre. similarly, intelligence must be displayed in deciding which of several uniformly-yielding trees should be removed. in the average sense of this consideration one must pay no attention to symmetry of spacing, but when dealing with trees of fairly uniform yields one needs to study the characteristic development of the trees individually, in order to retain those which would appear to be most favourably situated with regard to surrounding trees. chapter iv _tapping systems_ broadly there are only two methods employed in obtaining the latex from _hevea brasiliensis_. the first is that employed in south america, where incisions are made by means of a light axe. the other is the system of excision, or paring, of the bark practised on plantations in the east. in the early days of the plantation industry, the south american method seems to have been employed, and the writer has knowledge of trees on one of our best-known estates in malaya which still exhibit the outward and visible signs of that method. at a comparatively early stage, however, the method of excision was introduced. curiously enough there appears to be no record of its inception or of the individual who was responsible for the substitution of this method. we have been so accustomed to regard it as one of the ordinary facts of estate procedure, that this point seems to have escaped notice and enquiry. as a variant of these two main methods, a slight vogue was for a short while obtained by the operation known as "pricking." this was generally combined with excision of bark, and was then known as the "paring and pricking" method; but the simple operation of pricking alone had its adherents, and various forms of instruments were designed to achieve the object. as a means for obtaining a flow of latex, pricking may have been effective, but the general difficulties attaching to the collection of the latex was such as to put the method out of favour. in the employment of "paring and pricking," a thin shaving of bark was excised on one occasion. at the next tapping no bark was excised, but a pricking instrument was used along the previously cut surface. it was not proved that any advantage was gained by this method, which was more commonly employed in ceylon than elsewhere, and it would be surprising to find it in use at the present day. in the ordinary way the method of excision is practised in such a manner that the "cut" gradually descends to the base of the tree. planters with original views, and of an enquiring nature, often query the common practice; and it has been suggested that "as the latex descends by the force of gravity," one's paring should be done in an upward direction, thus obtaining a greater pressure of latex--and hence a greater flow. it will be obvious that it would be no simple matter to collect effectively the latex thus obtained from the under edge of a sloping cut, but apart from this the argument would appear to be founded upon what is now accepted to be a fallacy--viz., that the latex _per se_ is manufactured in the leaves and gravitates down the tree. former systems of tapping.--to hark back ten years in the plantation rubber industry is equivalent to delving into history, since development has been so rapid. it was then thought necessary to place upon the trees a number of simultaneous cuts which the modern planter would judge to be inconceivably excessive. were it not for evidence in the shape of photographs extant, it would be difficult to convince a young planter that such systems were employed. it was not uncommon for trees to have from six to ten cuts, sometimes all placed on one half of the tree in a herring-bone fashion, and sometimes divided into two portions, each of which tapped the opposite quarter panel of the tree's circumference. such superimposed cuts were spaced from foot to inches apart. on other occasions, a spiral cut was employed, commencing at a height of, say, feet, and gradually descending to the cup at the base of the tree. later systems varied from several cuts on a half-circumference, or on a quarter of the tree, tapped either daily, or on alternate days, to cases in which one-third or one-fifth of the tree was employed. also popular were the systems of the [v] and half-spiral cuts on half the circumference. it did not take long to be recognised that with all these systems demanding a number of simultaneous parings from the same panel of bark, the rate of excision was so heavy that the period available for the renewal of bark was insufficient for continuous tapping. as a result most of the systems specified have fallen into desuetude, and the tendency has since been to reduce the number of cuts, or the periodicity of tapping, so as to allow for increasing periods of bark renewal. in the earlier days, a period of four years was thought to be an extremely generous allowance, whereas six years is now becoming recognised as a minimum necessity. eight years is not regarded as extravagant, while with older bark on some estates periods of ten and twelve years have to be allowed for full renewal. even so no finality has been reached, and no general rule can be laid down. local conditions of planting and growth exercise great influence, and the writers have in mind instances in which a period of eight years has proved to be insufficient even for a first renewal after the excision of virgin bark. in the main the most popular systems of tapping are: (_a_) one cut on a quarter of the tree, tapped daily. (_b_) one cut on a third of the tree, tapped daily. (_c_) one cut on half the circumference, tapped on alternate days. (_d_) a [v] cut on half the circumference, tapped on alternate days. variants and extremes are: ( ) one cut on a quarter, tapped on alternate days. ( ) one cut on a half, tapped daily. superficially viewed the latter is four times as strenuous as the former, and the relative position seems to be inexplicable. it may be explained that as a rule the former system is practised on old trees with poorly renewed bark, in order to allow for adequate bark renewal; and the latter is employed in opening young trees just brought into tapping, when the rate of bark renewal is at a maximum. [illustration: two cuts on a quarter circumference, on an old tree.] a few estates in this country still continue to tap trees by means of two superimposed cuts on a quarter of the tree. this was a very popular system some four or five years ago, but it has come to be recognised by practical experience that any system employing superimposed cuts leads to a high consumption of bark without proportionate increase in yield. for instance, if one compares the system of two cuts on a quarter tapped daily with a similar system employing only one cut, one finds that the major quantity of latex is yielded by the lower cut, and that the single-cut system which excises approximately half the amount of bark gives about per cent. of the yield obtained by the tapping of two superimposed cuts. of experiments to test the relative values of different systems of tapping there have been many. most of them suffered from the initial handicap that they dealt with systems which were then popular. in order to obtain any valid result they had to be undertaken over a long period. meantime there was a progressive movement in actual estate practice towards a greater conservatism in bark removal, and hence the experiments as originally planned lost value. moreover, in malaya it was difficult for experimenters to obtain practical support in the form of areas of trees suitable for experiment. as a result experiments were often confined to small blocks of trees, and a small number of blocks, from which any conclusions derived were subject to considerable errors of experiment. often comparisons were made between only two blocks, and no allowance was made for varying factors, such as initial differences in yielding capacities of the trees, soil conditions, or the personal equation of the tappers. as a general rule, therefore, the results were vitiated to a very appreciable extent. all these factors were later taken into consideration in an experiment undertaken on behalf of the rubber growers' association. in this instance unique facilities were provided by the london asiatic rubber company on their property at semenyih estate, and it is only fitting that the company should receive the recognition which its enterprise deserves. it would have been a great advantage to have included in that experiment other features which have since come into prominence, but the original scope of the experiment had to be confined to the point of comparing yields obtained in making comparative tests based on one system of tapping with different frequencies. such data were required as a check upon a ceylon tapping experiment which had attracted much attention. in that experiment trees were tapped at intervals ranging from one day to seven days; and it was concluded that after a period of three and a half years trees tapped with greater intervals gave yields equalling or exceeding those obtained from trees tapped with shorter intervals. [illustration: the single cut on a quarter circumference, on an old tree and on renewed bark.] in the semenyih experiment the system chosen was that which had the greatest contemporary vogue--viz., two superimposed cuts on a quarter of the tree. the various blocks were tapped respectively every day, every second day, and every third day. it was found that the conclusions drawn from the ceylon experiment were not confirmed. after a period of three and a half years' continuous tapping neither the alternate-day system nor the third-day system gave results in any way approximating to the yield of the daily system. the actual average yields from these systems over the whole period were in the order of-- _daily._ _two days._ _three days._ per cent. per cent. per cent.; and throughout the course of the experiment neither of the other sections showed any appreciable improvement in position relative to the daily section. in actual yields "per tapping" over the whole period the alternate-day and the third-day divisions showed advantages of and per cent. respectively over the daily portion. at the beginning of the second year of experiment another section of blocks was opened with a single cut on a quarter, tapped daily. this enabled direct comparison between the values of one cut and two cuts on a quarter in daily tappings and between a daily single cut and two cuts tapped alternate daily. it appeared that the daily single cut yielded over the period of experiment per cent. of that obtained by tapping two cuts daily; and that in the comparison between two cuts tapped alternate-daily and a single cut tapped daily the latter had an advantage of about per cent. in yield. this result has been used by advocates of daily tapping generally, but it does not constitute a fair argument, inasmuch as the single cut was tapped twice as often, and its position was always relatively low on the hole of the tree. it has been shown in the comparison between the daily single cut and the two cuts daily that the influence on yields of the superimposed cut is relatively small. a fairer comparison would have been obtained if the two cuts tapped alternate-daily had been either amalgamated to form one long cut on half the tree or to form a [v] on half the tree, thus placing the cuts in the opposing sections on the same level. with the knowledge that the yield obtained from cuts is _always greater per tapping_ by using the alternate-daily system, it would appear to be plain that the one long cut on half the tree would at least equal the yield of the single short cut tapped daily on a quarter tree. [illustration: single cut on half circumference (half spiral). _note._--in this particular instance the cut is changed to the opposite half of the tree every half-year.] unfortunately no opportunity has been afforded up to the present of definitely proving this point by prolonged experiment under strict conditions. it is true that the view is held strongly in some quarters as a result of the experience of managers, chiefly on their own estates, that alternate-daily tapping generally gives better yields than daily tapping. in a number of instances this view is probably correct, and the writers are in agreement; but it is necessary to clear away some misconceptions which confuse the issue. in the main there are two schools, one of which plumps for alternate-daily tapping, while the other adheres strongly to daily excision. great confusion exists, inasmuch as in many instances the disciples of these schools are really discussing different matters. in the case of managers who argue for alternate-daily tapping their experience is gained, with very few exceptions, from systems in which the excision covers half the circumference of the tree; whereas in almost all cases daily tapping is confined to a single cut on a quarter of the girth. bearing on such a comparison there are, as far as the writers are aware, no reliable published experimental results. to compare the results obtained from one system practised on one estate with the results of the other system established on another estate is not strictly permissible, as we know that conditions generally may vary to an enormous degree. the controversy has raged, however, to such an extent that many who are not directly engaged in estate practice have obtained confused impressions. for instance, it appears to be the belief in some quarters that alternate-daily tapping, when applied to a single cut on a quarter of the tree, will yield more than an exactly similar cut tapped daily. in support of such a statement there does not appear to be any confirmation under normal conditions; although such a result might be obtained in the case of old trees which have been heavily over-tapped in the past, and on which the rate of bark renewal has been appreciably retarded. it might also be the case eventually when trees with the opposing frequencies have been tapped for a period extending into many years; but it is the opinion of the writers that under normal conditions such a result would be extremely doubtful. when we come, however, to a comparison of daily tapping on a single cut on a quarter with double the length of that cut on half the circumference, at the same height, tapped alternate-daily--whether in the form of one long cut or in the form of a [v]--we arrive at a contrast which gives a clear issue. as already stated, facts and figures of reliable experiment are wanting; but it is the opinion and experience of the writers that the alternate-daily system at least suffers no disadvantage on the point of yields, and in other respects, such as conservation of labour and costs, is superior to the daily system. [illustration: a [v]-cut on half the circumference.] chapter v _tapping and collecting_ tapping knives.--the choice of a tapping knife is a subject upon which there is much divergence of opinion. this must be so because no known knife has such apparent outstanding superior features or claims as would enable one to settle the point. moreover, the personal factor is so large that, as far as the knives in common use are concerned, it appears to exert the greatest influence. the possibility of obtaining the ideal knife, which will go to sufficient depth into barks of varying thickness to yield the maximum quantity of latex without wounding, is quite as remote at the present time as it was some years ago. meanwhile the search for that ideal knife continues, and occasionally one learns of the alleged merits of some new instrument which, it is said, fulfils all requirements. it is only to be regretted, both for the sake of the inventor and for the expectant buyers, that the claims always fail in some one or more particulars. in malaya probably the number of different types of tapping knives may amount to a half-dozen, but those most commonly in use are: ( ) the gouge--straight or bent. ( ) the ordinary farrier's knife. ( ) modifications of the farrier's knife, such as the "jebong." argument on the respective merits of knives is popular, and discussion seems endless. it is claimed for the bent gouge that it is superior to the straight instrument, because, the leverage being downwards on the handle, the tendency is to lift the cutting edge upwards and out of the bark, whereas with a straight gouge the tendency is to push the knife downwards into the bark. it is claimed, therefore, that the average shavings taken off by the bent gouge should be thinner than those obtained by the use of the straight instrument. for similar reasons it is asserted that the "jebong" and other modifications are superior to the original form of the farrier's knife. these points are generally accepted without great argument, but when comparisons are made between the gouge and the farrier's knife (with its modifications) the opinions of planters are so varied and conflicting as to be almost irreconcilable. two opinions based on experience with both types of knives are often wholly contradictory. there can be no doubt that the likes and dislikes of operative coolies have a considerable influence in determining the measure of success obtained with any one knife. should coolies have been accustomed to the use of a particular form of instrument they become quite expert, and any proposed change creates in the minds of coolies a prejudice which is considerable in effect on the quality of the handicraft. such prejudice may be overcome in course of time, but in the interval not a little damage may have been done in the shape of tapping wounds. so considerable is this question of personal favour that even on estates where a standard pattern of knife is issued coolies often modify that knife slightly on their own accord. such alteration is ignored by the superintendents as long as the quality of the tapper's work is maintained at a high standard. naturally there is a limit to such leniency, and this limit is soon reached in the case of knives having adjustable parts controlled by screws, or nuts and bolts, etc. some knives of this description really merit a much wider use than is afforded them at present; but in view of the potential damage which might be done as a result of adjustments made by the coolies these knives do not become popular. it is not proposed here to enter into a description of even recent instruments for which strong claims are being made by their inventors or vendors. if they possess the merits attributed to them they will soon find favour, as managers are always keen on studying the points of any new knife which will lead to a conservation of bark and a reduction in the number of wounds. on the whole, it may be advanced that the best general results are obtained by the adoption of a simple non-adjustable knife and the retention of its use. the choice of latex cups.--it has come to be recognised that the maximum possible cleanliness is essential in all details of estate work, and the younger generation of planters could scarcely be aware that a few years ago it was deemed sufficient to use coco-nut shells for the reception of latex on individual trees. terne-plate cups ousted the coco-nut shell, and they had the merit of being cheap. the interior coating of tin did not last long if the cups were properly cleaned. the iron being exposed, with a minutely roughened surface, each microscopic projection served as a point around which latex coagulated. scrapping the film of interior rubber became more and more difficult, and often the cups were burnt in order to get rid of the accumulation of rubber. the last state of such cups was worse than the preceding one. on some estates fairly successful attempts were made to keep these cups clean by making the coolies bring them into the store each day. terne-plate cups are not now in common use. aluminium cups have their advocates, but much the same argument applies to the difficulty of keeping them clean as was used in the foregoing paragraph. on many estates, however, they are used with success, the usual method of treatment being to make the coolies bring them into the store and clean them there. owing to the comparative lightness of the material such a scheme is more feasible than was the case with terne-plate cups. the cups now most in general use are either of glass or white-ware, and probably those of glass are the most extensively employed. there are many details to be studied in the choice between these two types of cups--_e.g._, percentage of breakage in transport and in the field, price when breakage is taken into account, etc.; but these apart the glass cups have one advantage--namely, the ability of the superintendents to see whether the cups have been properly cleaned. in the case of white-ware cups this means an inspection and handling of individual cups, whereas in the case of glass the point is settled by visual examination at a comparative distance. [illustration: single cut on two-fifths of circumference. the opening cut covers two-fifths. subsequent cuts occupy one-fifth of circumference.] glass cups are made in two patterns, one having a flat bottom and the other a conical base. the latter is convenient for use when wire supports are employed, the cup fitting into a loop placed beneath the spout. used on the ground its shape is an obvious disadvantage, as, unless a hole is scooped for its reception, it has to be propped up with sticks or stones. often a touch is sufficient to upset the balance, and latex is lost. the flat-bottomed cup, on the other hand, may be used with success equally on a wire support or on the ground. it is sometimes said that owing to its shape the ease of cleaning, as compared with the half-spherical cup, is diminished, and that if the cups when not in use are kept inverted upon sticks placed near the foot of the tree the breakage is apt to be high. this latter objection is being rapidly removed as the practice of using these sticks is losing vogue for various reasons, and wire cup-holders will be in general use as soon as the cost of material becomes normal. there are on the market, and in fairly wide use, cups of chinese and japanese manufacture. these generally consist of brown earthenware with an interior glass finish. these are cheap in comparison with glass and white-ware cups, but it is a pity that the glass does not extend over the whole of the cup. the outer surface has a tendency to collect rubber and dirt. on some few estates small china bowls or saucers are still used and are quite satisfactory, except for the favour with which they are regarded by natives on the outskirts of the estates. cleaning cups.--the question of cup-cleaning would appear to be a very simple one; but in practice it is quite a source of worry to managers, especially where a mixed labour force is employed. tamil coolies can be made to clean their cups in the day's task and at odd times. chinese coolies, more often than not, either refuse to give the necessary attention or else demand extra pay for the work. the method of cup-cleaning employed more popularly within recent years was that of daily washing. the tapper carried two buckets, one for receiving the latex and the other containing water. pouring the latex in the bucket the coolie then added a little water to the cup and added these rinsings to the latex collected. the cup was next washed hastily in the bucket of water and replaced. by the time the coolie has emptied and washed some cups (about half the task generally) the water has the consistency of dilute latex, and the wet cup when replaced becomes coated with a thin film of rubber. if the latex is always collected in one direction it will be clear that, while the cups at one end of the task are comparatively clean, those at the other end have the chance of being correspondingly dirty. controversy has raged respecting this question of cup-washing, and many estates have abandoned it as a daily practice. coolies have not to carry an extra bucket of water. the contents of the cups are poured into the latex-bucket, and the bulk of the latex film remaining is also removed by the aid of a finger. the cup is then replaced, a thin skin of rubber forming on the interior surface. as a general rule this is easily removed on the next occasion, except perhaps in dry weather. it is the custom on most estates employing this practice to have all cups receive special attention at regular intervals. there are certain economic factors entering into the difference of opinion regarding the two broad methods employed. in some cases--_e.g._, on old areas--it would be practically impossible to follow the older method of daily cup-washing, as the tappers have to employ two buckets for the collection of the latex. the employment of special coolies for cup-washing would be necessitated, such as may be seen sometimes on estates working chinese "squatter" labour--where the man taps, a child assists in collecting, and another child, or the mother, washes the cups. it may be pointed out that in such instances the helpers are not paid by the estate. their services merely mean a saving in time which is spent in the squatter's garden, and perhaps the permission to the tapper to work a larger number of trees than would be allotted ordinarily to a task. again, on some estates, the tappers, while not being required to carry a bucket of water for cup-washing, are given an increased number of trees to tap. furthermore, on hilly areas under tapping, it is often manifestly unfair to expect the tapper to be able to carry two buckets during collection, when the slope is such, as to make the manipulation of even one bucket a matter of difficulty. it will be seen, therefore, that there is no clear issue for argument concerning the two methods, and that the point must be decided on the economic factors peculiar to each estate or district. [illustration: effects upon renewed bark of previous tapping. note uneven surface and callosities.] [illustration: another example showing the effects of previous tapping.] water in cups.--much discussion used to take place regarding the necessity or otherwise for placing a small quantity of water in the cups when tapping. it was recognised that the permission to use water (with the idea of preventing coagulation) led to much abuse, apart from the question as to the utility of the method. dirty water was often used, although clean water may have been placed in the buckets when coolies left the muster-ground. the small quantity of water often exceeded the actual yield of pure latex by hundreds per cent., with the result that on arrival at the factory the diluted latex was below the standard desirable for the preparation of a good sheet-rubber. premature coagulation.--other opinion to the contrary it is now generally acknowledged that the possibility of premature coagulation in the cup or bucket is at least not diminished by the addition of even clean water. the use of water often obtained from estate drains clearly led to increased trouble. the extent to which such premature coagulation takes place varies greatly under the influence of many factors--_e.g._: (_a_) cleanliness of cups and spouts (the latter an important item often overlooked, and involving the presence of certain organisms which effect coagulation). (_b_) climatic conditions. (_c_) rate and volume of flow of latex. (_d_) size of tappers' tasks (involving the length of interval between tapping, and the collection of latex). (_e_) distance to be traversed between the site of the task and the store. (_f_) care in collecting, to exclude extraneous matter. (_g_) nature of transport; agitation of the latex to be reduced to a minimum. (_h_) nature of the soil, and situation of the estate. the last mentioned factor is of great importance. as a general rule it is noted that premature coagulation is less marked on estates situated on comparatively hilly land. the greatest effect is remarked on estates situated on the flat lands of the coastal area where peaty soils are a feature. on many such estates, in spite of the observance of all ordinary precautions, it is not possible to receive the latex at the factory without a large percentage of prematurely coagulated rubber being found in the transport vessels. anti-coagulants.--for this reason on these (and other) estates, the use of small quantities of anti-coagulants is common. the effect of these is to keep the latex liquid and thus render possible the preparation of a higher percentage of first-grade rubber than would be otherwise obtained. among the better known agents which have such an effect upon latex, formalin and sodium sulphite (not bisulphite) are the chief. the latter is the more popular as it is slightly cheaper and much more stable. as now used, it is in the form of an easily soluble powder (anhydrous sodium sulphite). the ordinary crystalline form of sodium sulphite as used in photography is not recommended, on account of its comparative lack of power and its poor keeping qualities. it will be obvious that, given two equal quantities of different latices, different amounts of an anti-coagulant may be required to produce the same effect. hence it should be remembered that a formula which suits the needs of one field or one estate will not necessarily prove suitable in the case of another field or estate. unless this point is appreciated trouble may ensue. on some estates it has been the custom to give equal quantities of sodium sulphite solution to all coolies irrespective of the ages of the trees in the fields to be tapped. thus it happened that the latex from one field was found to have insufficient anti-coagulant present, while that from another field could only be coagulated by the addition of an excess of acid. in this matter the experience of the preliminary trials should have caused some discrimination to be exercised as to the quantities of solution to be issued in each field or division. it has been found sometimes that a moist glossiness in the smoked sheet could be attributed to the use of an excess of sodium sulphite. traces of the salt remained in the rubber, and as the substance is hygroscopic, moisture was being absorbed from the air, to cause a surface deposit which often returned even after the sheets were surface-washed and re-dried. if sodium sulphite is to be used in the field, the following formula, which is in wide use, may serve as a basis for trials. _formula for use of sodium sulphite in the field._ (_a_) dissolve anhydrous sodium sulphite in water at the rate of pound to gallons. (_b_) of this solution each coolie is given about / pint. this is usually sufficient for a task of trees. the solution is used by shaking a few drops into the cup or, diluted with an equal volume of water, it is run down the main channel when the latex flows. [illustration: . showing effect of "wintering."] on some estates it is found either unnecessary or impracticable to use the solution in this manner. instead the anti-coagulant is placed in the bottom of the bucket prior to the commencement of collection. the solution is made as in (_a_) above, and roughly half an ordinary latex-cupful is placed in each bucket. [illustration: . new growth of young leaf on same tree.] collecting pails.--all vessels intended for the transport of latex should have a smooth and curved interior, so that cleansing may be easy. preferably the interior and exterior surfaces should be glazed, but it is often found that the enamel chips easily, and that the handles are too frail in construction. the shoulder-pieces, to which the handles are joined, are often too lightly attached to the bucket. something stouter in the shape of enamelled ware is required, without an appreciable increase in weight. until such a utensil is available, the heavily galvanised and brass-bound milk-pails used on some estates are as good as anything at present in vogue, providing they are kept scrupulously clean. [illustration: effects of disease--"mouldy rot." (_a_) note on right hand the panel next in order for tapping; a hopeless position.] [illustration: effects of disease--"mouldy rot." (_b_) the present cut badly infected; above there is no renewal of bark.] the collecting pails should be kept under cover, when not in use, either at the muster grounds or at the factory. on some estates coolies are allowed to take them to their quarters, where they are used for various purposes. curious effects of this practice have sometimes been noticed. as an example might be quoted an instance in which premature coagulation was found to take place to a surprising degree. it was discovered eventually that the coolies (javanese in this case) were in the habit of utilising the buckets for the preparation of their food. a liquid extract of a popular fruit was often made. this extract was very markedly acid in character, and as the buckets were not afterwards thoroughly cleansed, the latex of the following day suffered. [illustration: effects of disease--"mouldy rot." (_c_) as in (_b_); another tree.] preferably all buckets should have a lid of slightly funnel shape. this is inverted during collection, and thus prevents much dirt falling into the latex. [illustration: effects of disease--"mouldy rot." (_d_) at close quarters. note wounds due, apparently, to bad tapping, but really caused by the disease.] payment by result.--the arguments for and against the institution of this practice are many. in actual result there can be no question that a higher yield is obtained by the adoption of a scheme under which the coolie is either given a bonus based on result or is paid at a definite rate per pound. it is fully recognised, both by advocates and opponents of payment by result, that the personal equation of the tapper is a very important factor. a good skilled tapper will always obtain a higher yield than an ordinary individual from the same task of trees, and without any more injury to the trees. it is argued, therefore, that such an operative should be given the benefit of his skill. apart from this, it is claimed that even the average tapper does not do his best work if he knows that he will get his daily wage, no matter what his yield may be, as long as he does not injure the trees by wounding. it is claimed that this sense of security leads to shallow tapping which, while it has an agreeable appearance, does not produce the available amount of rubber. on the other hand, it is advanced in opposition that under a scheme of payment by result the tappers' only consideration is the matter of obtaining rubber, and that considerable damage in the form of wounds is done by over-deep tapping. that there is a great deal of truth in these statements is not to be doubted. much, of course, depends upon the amount and quality of the supervision possible, and upon the standard demanded. it is a notable fact, however, that on estates which first introduced the system some years ago the quality of the tapping compares favourably with that of average estates, and in a few instances within the experience of the writer the tapping is of a high standard. possibly these are exceptional instances, and there can be no doubt that the opposition of many managers of considerable experience is founded upon the deterioration in the standard of tapping which often follows the institution of payment of tappers by result. it will be recognised by planters that apart from the personal factor in tapping, the worker might be so unfortunate as to be placed in an area from which the yield is naturally low, either by reason of its youth or from other natural causes. obviously such individuals are entitled to special consideration in respect of the rate per pound paid for the rubber obtained. again, on very hilly land it may be not humanly possible for a worker to tap the usual number of trees. hence to place him on a parity with other tappers, as far as wage-earning capacity is concerned, a higher rate than ordinary must be given. it will be plain, therefore, that on any one estate it is generally impossible to set a standard rate per pound for payment by result; the rate may vary, for example, from, say, cents per pound in old and high-yielding tasks to cents or more per pound on young areas of the same estate. naturally the actual rates paid will primarily depend upon the average yield per tree or yield per acre, and the lower the average yield the higher the rates to be paid per pound. thus, on low-yielding properties where the natural conditions render a high yield impossible the rate per pound may reach a figure of cents (approximately d.). the methods of arriving at the yield of rubber brought in by individual tappers vary, but broadly they fall into two classes: (_a_) that in which the volume of latex is ascertained (either by measuring or by weighing), a sample is drawn, and the final calculation made from the weight of the more or less dry sample. (_b_) that in which, after noting the volume, the calculation is based upon a reading of the dry rubber content of the latex, obtained by means of an instrument such as the "metrolac," or any other instrument working on the same principle. quite a number of estates which have not adopted the full system of payment by result yet employed some such method of checking the yields of individual coolies, as the observed results act as a great deterrent against various malpractices, such as neglecting to tap trees, adulteration of the latex, etc. tree-scrap.--the thin film of latex which coagulates naturally upon the surface of the tapping cut after the latex has ceased to flow is known as "tree-scrap." normally it is collected on all estates, but the method of collection varies according to the class of labour employed. on most estates, where the labour is tamil or javanese, it is supposed to be removed as fully as possible before the tapping cut is reopened. the narrow strips are then placed in a bag or basket carried by the tapper. chinese tappers usually decline to follow this practice of first peeling off the scrap, and remove it by the operation of tapping, with the result that the scrap when brought into the store has adhering to it various shavings of bark. unless these can be thoroughly cleaned off the scrap cannot truly be classed as "tree-scrap." oxidation of tree-scrap.--it is often noted that some scrap is dark in colour, and in this condition it is generally spoken of as "oxidised" scrap. the oxidation is probably due to an enzyme, and also to the presence of chemical substances of a phenolic nature. in the course of laboratory experiments with normal latex, it was found possible to reproduce this darkening due to oxidation by the addition of very small quantities of various phenols used in general chemical processes, and the rapidity with which the darkening was effected depended upon the quantity of the phenol added. if this rapidly oxidising latex be mixed with normal latex, it would seem that the whole bulk of the latex is affected by this tendency to rapid oxidation. it is observed that this condition under which any tree may yield rapidly oxidising latex is not a permanent one. care of tree-scrap.--as these scraps eventually give a grade of rubber which compares well with other and better-looking grades care should be exercised in collection and treatment so that its quality is not impaired in any way. to prevent oxidation.--as a rule the scraps are picked over, and heavily oxidised pieces are sorted out; otherwise the crepe rubber prepared exhibits black streaks. the scraps should not be allowed to remain in the sun (which induces "tackiness"), and if they have to be kept over night they may be placed in a weak solution ( per cent.) of sodium bisulphite to arrest oxidation. it should be recognised that such a solution will not "bleach" already darkened scrap-rubber, and the nature of its action is only anti-oxidant. bark shavings.--in the matter of collecting bark-shavings much depends upon the organisation and nature of the labour force. probably, on the majority of estates bark-shavings are collected systematically, but on quite a number considerable laxity in this respect has been noted. this may arise from lack of adequate supervision or from the peculiar systems of working which seem to pertain to chinese labour. granted that the trees are well "scrapped," and that the percentage of rubber obtained from shavings under such circumstances would be extremely small (say per cent. by weight on the total output), it does not need much calculation to see that annually the loss of rubber to the estate must be considerable. it would also seem to follow that, if the adult labour declines to pick up bark-shavings carefully, it might pay to employ children for the purpose. or, as is done in some places, the adult labour might find it advantageous to collect bark-shavings at low rates per pound. it is a well-known fact that if bark-shavings be allowed to accumulate in a heap for any but a short period, a fermentative and heating action is set up. the heat developed in these piles of shavings is so considerable that it is impossible to keep the hand in a heap for more than a second or two. should this be allowed to persist, as would happen in the case of a breakdown of engine or machines, it usually results in the final crepe rubber becoming tacky when approaching dryness. to avoid this heating effect it is necessary to have spare jars or proper tanks in which the shavings may be soaked in water. in this condition bark-shavings may be kept for many days. for the same reason (_i.e._, the heating effect and consequent tackiness) the custom followed on some estates of allowing coolies to keep bark-shavings in their "lines" until they have accumulated a fair quantity cannot be commended, quite apart from the possibility of actual loss by theft, which is thus rendered easy. it will be clear that where the trees are scrapped efficiently before tapping, the amount of rubber to be obtained from the treatment of pure dry shavings would be almost nil, and would scarcely repay the cost of collection and working. in actual practice, however, it is not possible to guarantee that the shavings are free from some scrap-rubber. shavings brought in by tamils and javanese carry only a small amount of rubber, whereas where chinese tappers are employed the yield of rubber may be as high as to per cent. upon the total weight of the material treated. few estates now are not equipped with "scrap-washers"--machines specially designed for removing the bark from the rubber--and if they function efficiently the resulting crepe should be free from bark-particles. collection of earth-scrap.--this, the lowest grade of rubber, is found at the base of the tree. theoretically, if proper precautions are observed, the amount should be comparatively small, but in actual practice it may be very appreciable. the usual contributory causes are: (_a_) failure to replace cups beneath the spouts of trees which continue to drip latex after collection. (_b_) collection of latex at too early a stage. (_c_) failure on the part of the tapper to ensure the flow of latex, by means of the spout, into the cup. (_d_) flowing of latex over the edge of the cut before it reaches the vertical channel. (_e_) "wash-cuts" on wet days, when the volume of rainwater down the tree is sufficient to wash the latex out of the cup. the amount of earth-scrap collected on any estate will depend, all other things being equal, upon the labour expended in its collection. certainly on well-organised estates, having ample labour, the amounts collected are huge in comparison with other estates. the ground at the base of the tree below the latex-spout is systematically turned over with pointed sticks and large clots of rubber are often picked up. here, again, it is advised that the collected earth-scrap should not be allowed to remain in heaps upon the floor of the factory. it should be placed in suitable tanks containing water, and quite a considerable portion of the cleansing work is thus taken from the machines. chapter vi _transport of latex and coagulum_ percentage of first latex and other grades.--one of the problems confronting any manager is the question of the percentage of first-grade rubber calculated upon the whole output. inquiries are constantly being received for advice as to what the various percentages of each grade of rubber should be. this is a question to which no definite list of figures can apply. there are so many little factors influencing the result. some estates are not particularly careful in collecting tree-scrap. hence quite a quantity of tree-scrap finds its way into the crepe made from bark-shavings. on the other hand, bark-shavings are not collected systematically on some estates, and the total output is thereby diminished. in consequence the first-grade rubber shows a higher percentage than it would otherwise. again, if the earth-rubber is not regularly collected the percentages of the best grades are higher than they should be. in comparing the percentages of each grade of rubber from any two estates, therefore, one should have all the information possible as to the various working details of the estates. without wishing to lay down any definite proportions which can be applied to all estates it might be said that, taking averages over a large number of estates, the percentages to be aimed at are: first-grade latex per cent. to per cent. other grades " " " for these figures one promises that all lower grades are collected and accounted for carefully and regularly. the distribution of the lower grades will depend upon the field practices of the particular estate, but the following list might be given for an estate keeping all lower grades distinctly separate: first-grade latex per cent. cup-washings } coagulated lump, etc. } " tree-scrap " bark-shavings " earth rubber " --- " emphasis is again laid on the statement that these figures must not be accepted as a standard. nevertheless, they may prove of some service to managers in giving an idea of what the general line of percentages may be. there are special circumstances, such as distance of transport and the nature of the land, which at present would render the attainment of more than per cent. first-grade rubber impossible on some estates. still the fact remains that if the percentage is low through distance of transport, etc., some method will have to be discovered by means of which the difficulty maybe overcome. on a few estates the percentage of first-grade rubber obtained sometimes reaches , but these results are rather out of the ordinary. an estate which collects all lower grades properly is doing well if the percentage of first-grade rubber is or over. early collection.--as already noted in the preceding chapter, one of the factors influencing premature coagulation is that of the interval elapsing between the commencement of tapping and the collection of latex. it will be seen that this ordinarily would depend, in turn, upon such considerations as the size of the tappers' tasks, the spacing of the trees, and the natural conformation of the land over which the tappers have to perform their tasks. in general it need only be remarked that every possible consideration should be given to this question, and that any delay should be avoided. transport.--wherever possible it is endeavoured to convey latex from field to factory by man-power. tamil coolies, as a rule, place the bucket on the head; chinese and javanese coolies like to use a balanced carrying-pole. where distance renders these methods too costly in time and labour, it is usual to have field centres where the latex is collected and dispatched to the factory generally (_a_) by means of vessels conveyed on light railways; (_b_) in large cans placed on motor-lorries; (_c_) in cylindrical galvanised drums supported on two wheels and drawn by bullocks. there may be variants, but these are the chief means of transport in bulk over a distance. where possible, the best system is that employing a trolley-line, as great agitation of the latex is avoided, and the time in transit is much reduced. the usual method of transport by bullock power is slow, and as estate roads (and even government roads) are often below the standard expected in this country, the jolting undergone by the latex is, to say the least, not calculated to afford a high yield of first-grade rubber. the late mr. f. w. f. day advocated the use of a circular perforated wooden grid, to be floated on the latex, in order to moderate the wave effect produced by jolting. whatever the means of bulk-transport employed, it should be the care of those in charge to see that vessels are not allowed to remain in the sun longer than is necessary. even during the journey they should be shaded in the best possible manner. these large transport vessels usually receive what is really only perfunctory attention in the matter of cleaning. they should receive the same care as would be exercised in dealing with milk cans in other countries. ordinary sluicing with water is not sufficient, and if they cannot be sterilised by means of boiling water, they should be treated, after ordinary washing, with a per cent. solution of sodium bisulphite every day. anti-coagulant for transport.--when anti-coagulants are not used in the cups or buckets, it is advisable to use them in the bulk-transport vessels. either formalin or sodium sulphite is of service, but the great objection advanced against the former is its loss due to evaporation while the carts are going to the fields or waiting at the centres. for this reason sodium sulphite is now generally employed. _formula for use of sodium sulphite in transport._ (_a_) dissolve pound of powder in gallons of water. (_b_) of this solution, place half a gallon in the vessel for every to gallons of latex. transport by coolie.--as already pointed out, the extent to which man-power can be used in transport of latex is generally limited. on small estates it is an easy matter for coolies to carry the latex to the factory, but on larger estates many difficulties may arise, which may also militate against the successful use of other means of transport. it is not uncommon to find, therefore, that a policy of decentralisation has been adopted. coagulation centres.--divisions of the estate have their own small stations at which latex is received and coagulated. in this way it is possible to receive latex without much delay, and with benefit to the resultant rubber, especially if prepared in sheet form. much controversy has arisen regarding these decentralised establishments, but the fact remains that on large estates, which are efficiently controlled, the scheme has been highly successful from all points of view. on the other hand, it is alleged that this method of working increases costs, and often gives an unsatisfactory quality of rubber. concerning the latter point it seems to be reasonable to expect that the european in charge of any division should be conversant with the method of preparation required, and should be capable of seeing that no mistakes are made. given uniform equipment in all stations, and uniform rules for treatment of the latex, there does not appear to be any valid reason why the product of one station should be inferior to that of the others. neither is it so in the case of several estates which might be quoted. in the matter of costs of working the writer has had to investigate several cases regarding which there was dissatisfaction. in some instances it was found that the stations had not been placed advantageously with respect to a water-supply; and instead of one or two coolies pumping for an hour or two, a larger number had to be employed for hours in the carriage of water from the nearest available source. this meant that, as the coolies were on daily wage, the force appeared to be much bigger than that usually required. in other cases there were too many store coolies, when often the place of some could have been taken for the necessary period by tappers arriving early from the nearer fields. sometimes costs were increased by reason of the use of an excess of chemicals, owing to the lack of uniform rules throughout the several stations. in spite of all that has been written, and the verbal instructions that have been given, it was not uncommon to find unstable chemicals such as sodium bisulphite exposed to the moist air. in this way not only was there waste of material, but also the probability of inferior rubber being made. transport of coagulum.--on the whole if it is a question between the transport of latex and the transport of coagulum, the writer would always favour the latter, for reasons which have possibly been made clear in the preceding paragraphs. in effect, it should be recognised that the less handling and transport the latex receives the better the general result. if proper precautions are taken, the transport of coagulum intended for the preparation of crepe should present no difficulty, and should have no injurious effect upon the quality of the resultant rubber. it is only too common, nevertheless, to note defects, in the finished crepes, which can only be attributed to a failure to observe reasonable care in the transport of the coagulum. for example, it has been observed that a mass of coagulum from a coagulation station has been conveyed on the floor of a bullock-cart, or motor-lorry, previously used in the carriage of other materials. unless the boards have been most scrupulously cleansed, the coagulum is found to be contaminated, often to a marked degree. again, although the cart may be clean, it may have to travel some distance on roads carrying a fair amount of motor traffic. even should the cart have a canopy, road-dust is often whirled through the open sides of the cart; and in the districts where red laterite roads are common, the stain of such dust often persists in the finished crepe. it scarcely need be remarked that coagulum should be transported in closed wooden boxes or in galvanised iron drums fitted with lids; and that preferably sufficient water should be present in these receptacles to allow the coagulum to float. all such containers should receive the same scrupulous attention as the vessels employed in the transport of latex. the successful transport of coagulum for sheet-making is fraught with much greater disabilities, and it is usual to note on most estates that the resulting sheets from out-stations are always inferior, in final result, to those coagulated and prepared at the central factory. if the flat pieces of coagulum are placed in piles of any height it is common to find, on arrival at the factory, that much adhesion has been caused. there is great difficulty in separating the pieces, and often the successful operation is impossible. it is usual to hand-roll the coagulum before transport, but it is often found that by the time the rubber reaches the factory it has become too hard for subsequent good results. one of the strong arguments in favour of the establishment of divisional stations is to be found in the preceding paragraph. sheet-making, as it necessitates the employment of only light machines suitable for hand-power, is a feasible proposition in a field station. there is no reason for sheets made thus to be in any way inferior to those made at a central factory; in fact, they are often better, as the latex has the chance of being treated when comparatively fresh. if it is found necessary to transport sheet-coagulum, every possible precaution should be taken against piling the pieces. after hand-rolling some estates bring the rubber from the field-stations to the central factory in drums of water, others in shallow boxes containing not more than half a dozen sheets in a pile. a method proposed long ago, but not in practice, was to have a number of shallow trays subdivided so that each compartment held one sheet only. if these trays were properly made and carefully fitted there appeared to be no reason why they should not form sliding parts of a large box, in which squeezing and adhesion of the pieces of coagulum would be avoided. naturally any such device would increase appreciably the weight to be transported, and on this ground would not find popular favour except where motor-power is used for road transport. part ii factory operations chapter vii _preliminary treatment of latex_ reception of latex at the store.--bearing in mind the remarks in chapter vi. on the conditions under which latex is transported, it follows that nothing but the very best and most suitable vessels should be used in the store. a point to which adequate attention is not given in many factories might be mentioned here. considering the importance attached to colour in the dry rubber by brokers and consumers, and knowing how extremely trivial are the causes which may mar the colour, it is rather surprising that better provision is not made for the reception and handling of latex in factories. too often the receiving vessels are placed on the floor of the store close to the entrance. coolies bringing in latex cannot avoid bringing with them quite a considerable amount of dirt. presuming that a hose-pipe has been installed, and that the floor is constantly being sluiced down with water, no great harm will result. but would it not be ever so much better if the dirt were kept out? in how many factories is provision made for this? such an arrangement is not difficult to make, and is already in practice on a few estates. a verandah is built outside the wall of the factory and all latex is received there. in another place open chutes are provided which terminate in the straining sieves. the coolie thus stands on the verandah where he removes coagulated lump and impurities from the latex, which is then poured down the chute, passing through the sieve into large coagulating jars or tanks. too often it would appear, from the writers' observation, there is a lack of adequate supervision on the arrival of latex at the store. much can be learned from an inspection of the coolies' buckets, and the cause of small defects in the finished rubber can often be thus traced. leaves, stems, bark-shavings, and dirt appear in the buckets, and it is a source of constant surprise to imagine how even unintelligent coolies can allow such things to happen. these objects are removed before or during straining, but still they ought not to be there in the first place, and the fact that such a state of things exists is evidence of neglect on the part of the coolies or lack of supervision. efforts are made in a large number of cases to cope with these troubles, but on some estates things are allowed to proceed in the same slipshod way, and too much responsibility is thrown on the straining process. [illustration: raised verandah for reception of latex; likewise equipped with facilities for calculating individual daily "yield per coolie" by sampling of latex.] it is suggested that it should be the business of a european to supervise the reception of latex every day. this is at present quite impossible on some estates, but it does not alter the fact that this supervision should be provided, and is extremely necessary. it is surprising how the point is overlooked in many factories--not that they are in a dirty state, but they fall short of being classed as clean factories for want of the little that makes the difference. possibly those in charge do not believe that all this fuss need be made, but the writers can assure them, from a practical knowledge of a very large number of factories, that cleanliness does pay. it might not be credited to tamil coolies, but yet it is probably true, that the moral effect of working under the cleanest and best conditions has an influence upon the store coolies, and that their work is better in consequence. everything which will tend to simplify the cleansing of the factory should therefore be installed. hose-pipes, glazed tiles, clean floors, plenty of light and air are not fads or fancies, but considerable factors in determining the final quality of the rubber. there is considerable truth in the suggestion that the coagulating room and machine room should be as "spick and span" as a modern home dairy. straining of latex.--this is a most necessary process, and one which usually entails much trouble and time which one could wish avoided. it will be admitted that the trouble could be reduced greatly if the regulation of field processes could be made more stringent. in spite of knowledge that impurities must not be allowed to enter the cups, coolies will ignore the rule that the cup must not be placed in position until the bark shaving has been cut. the result is that pieces of bark fall into the cups, and coolies are generally too careless or too hurried to remove them. again, when cups are placed on the ground, it is easy to see that dirt may adhere to them. in the collection of latex some of this dirt may fall into the bucket. since the introduction of cup-holders on many estates the trouble from this source has decreased considerably, but, nevertheless, it may be taken for granted that even under the best of conditions all latex requires straining. the best type of strainer has yet to be evolved. usually it consists in principle of a piece of fine brass mesh contained in some form of holder. theoretically such a strainer should work well, but in actual practice nearly all strainers are a source of continual worry. undiluted latex, as received at the factory, is of a rich consistency, containing very fine particles of dirt and often minute particles of prematurely coagulated rubber. the latter soon clog a fine mesh strainer, while the former may pass through. when the flow through the strainer becomes slow, the coolie in charge generally rubs the top surface of the sieve with a piece of coagulum, thus forcing material through the mesh. he then rubs the under-surface, with the result that undesirable matter falls into the strained latex. in theory it seems a simple matter to have a number of sieves ready so that a clean one may be substituted for a clogged one, which should be cleansed at once with water. in practice the factory coolie will probably only carry out instructions when the eye of the superintendent is alert. as a result of the rubbing and consequent strain, the brass mesh usually breaks away from its support and the fracture may not be detected for some time, during which irreparable damage may have been done to the resultant rubber. in view of the presence of the fine particles of dirt, to which allusion has been made, fine sieving of the latex appears to be essential, especially when sheet-rubber is to be prepared. the fine sieves are generally of the type known as " mesh," and they do not usually give thoroughly satisfactory results even when the gauze is supported and strengthened by means of cross-wires placed underneath. the general fault with these strainers is that a sufficiently wide "selvage" is not allowed in the clamped edges of the gauze, or that the edges of the support are so sharp and abrupt that the strands of the gauze are soon severed by the strain imposed in vigorous cleaning. many estates use two strainers; the first a more robust one containing " mesh" gauze, and the second the fine " mesh." even this device does not bring about the desired immunity from trouble. relief could be obtained if the latex were always in a more freely fluid form. estates employing anti-coagulants in the field benefit in this respect. other estates, although finally using the finest of mesh, experience far less trouble than most estates by reason of a difference in method of working. this can be explained by an outline of the system adopted on a particular estate: (_a_) on arrival of the rich latex at the store, all visible coagulated lumps and other extraneous matter are removed by the tapper. (_b_) each tapper's latex is diluted with a quantity of water. (_c_) the diluted latex passes through two sieves, one above the other. the top sieve is of stout perforated zinc sheet, with circular holes to the inch. this removes all large particles. the lower is of " mesh" brass gauze, and practically no rubbing is required. the latex is now in glazed-tile tanks, in which it is further diluted to the required standard by means of a recording instrument. (_d_) the latex flows by means of a chute into the coagulating tanks, passing through a large " mesh" sieve. it is not guaranteed that this method will furnish a complete absence of very fine particles of dirt in sheet rubber, as the human element enters so largely into the question; but it can be stated that no complaints have been received on the point of "specks of dirt" since this system was inaugurated. on the same estate fine sieving in the preparation of pale crepe has been abandoned as an unnecessary refinement. the two coarse sieves mentioned above are employed only, and it is to be acknowledged that the results justify the procedure. bulking of latex.--not long ago advanced estates used to combine all latex before coagulation, in order to obtain uniformity of product. previously it had been the custom to deal only with comparatively small separate volumes of latex, with obviously great disadvantage. since the introduction of instruments such as the "metrolac," by means of which any volume and all volumes of latex may be reduced to a common standard of dry rubber content, the necessity for "bulking" has passed. it is not now necessary to keep latex standing, perhaps for two hours, awaiting the arrival of other latex from distant fields. standardisation of latex.--in modern practice, as already pointed out, it is possible now to handle any volume of latex with a view to its reduction to any required standard of dilution for the purpose of obtaining a uniform product. for the reception and subsequent handling of the latex various schemes have been devised, and they are usually planned in connection with coagulating tanks used in the preparation chiefly of sheet rubber. [illustration: end-section sketch of verandah, etc., showing a good method for receiving latex and filling tank. t, sheet coagulation tank; c, cylinder for reception and dilution of latex; gg, gutter; pp, raised platform on verandah; ss, steps leading to platform; w, dwarf wall; ee, expanded metal partition; oo, open.] in the successful working of a tank it is necessary, in order to obtain the best results, to standardise all latex. this cannot be effected properly in the tank itself, and hence it is the practice to dilute each lot of latex to standard before it is run into the tank. in the ordinary way this would entail a great deal of labour in handling the diluted latex. to obviate this, the scheme outlined in the accompanying sketch has been suggested on several occasions and in various quarters. such a scheme or modification of it has been put into successful practice on several estates. although the drawing was made some considerable time ago when estates were not then prepared to go so far in this direction, subsequent modifications show only minor differences which, while leaving the original principle intact, testify to a fertility of resource in adapting the idea to existing circumstances and buildings. the drawing is _in toto_ almost a replica of the original installation now in successful use on the kinrara estate of the ledbury rubber company. on this company's ledbury estate likewise a similar system is employed, except that the reception verandah is part of a natural formation and needed no such direct raising. several other estates have now adopted the scheme, which has been proved to be of practical value. the writers make no claim to originality in the idea, which might have occurred to many independently on the introduction of coagulating tanks. [illustration: raised verandah for reception and handling of latex.] verandah.--in reproducing the drawing it is believed that the sketch will convey practically all the information required. it may be explained that the coolies are allowed to enter only the outer part of the verandah. the buckets are handed across the low wall into the care of factory coolies, who strain the latex through gauze sieves into the latex cylinders. latex reception vessels.--these cylinders may be similar to the tanks commonly used for transport of latex from distant fields to the factory. an -gallon cylinder is easily mounted by its trunnions on a suitable iron framework which is superimposed on a skeleton truck. [illustration: another set of dilution tanks on raised verandah.] the latex is diluted down to standard in the cylinders, the truck is moved opposite the compartment to be filled, and a light movable gutter is placed beneath the vent of the outlet pipe. this pipe is fixed in the bottom of the cylinder, and is provided with a large stop-cock which is operated by a spanner key. the stop-cock should be of the simplest type, capable of being taken apart and assembled in a minute or so. the orifices should be large enough for a coolie to insert at least two or three fingers so as to facilitate cleaning, and the pipe should have no right-angle bends. on the inside of the cylinder a scale of gallons may be painted, so that one may possess a knowledge of the quantities run into, or required for the completion of, any compartment. a screw plug unsatisfactory.--it may be of benefit to managers who contemplate such an installation to know that the adoption of a stop-cock in the vent pipe of the cylinder is the outcome of experience. in one instance the vent pipe as designed was fitted with a screw plug at the end. unfortunately with this arrangement the flow could not be regulated, and owing to the "head" of the latex it dashed violently down the gutter, struck the bottom of the coagulating tank, and thence was scattered over the factory. another installation.--in another type of installation, in place of the vessels travelling upon a raised verandah platform, the standardised latex is conveyed to the coagulating tanks by means of drums supported by hooks to a chain-block and pulley which travels on an overhead gantry. this method is practicable, but may be regarded as less satisfactory in general working than the verandah method of treatment. a modern installation.--in the most recent scheme for dealing with the reception of latex, its standardisation, and conveyance to the coagulating tank, the main principle of the first system outlined is retained; but the receptacles are not mobile. glazed-tile tanks are employed, the capacity of each being approximately equivalent to that of each unit coagulating tank. the accompanying illustrations show the general arrangement and some details of the system of reception tanks employed on the well-known pataling estate. chapter viii _coagulation_ whether it is necessary to employ any coagulant, or whether latex should be allowed to coagulate naturally, will not be discussed at this stage. neither will mention be made of any patent processes of coagulation which employ other than acid mediums. these subjects will be treated in a subsequent section of the book. choice of coagulants.--it is not proposed here to enter into a discussion as to the merits of the dozens of known coagulants. suffice it to state that acetic acid, although the oldest general coagulant, still remains the best and safest at the present time. there is a deal to be said in favour of the use of another organic acid, formic acid. it is equally as safe as acetic acid, and quite efficacious; the only drawback is that, taking all things into consideration, it is very slightly more expensive. acetic acid, therefore, will always be implied in this chapter when the word "acid" is used. strength of acid solution.--in the old days it was the rule rather than the exception to find pure, undiluted acid used in coagulation. in many cases no harm resulted, for the simple reason that, owing to the large proportion of water in the latex, the acid was thereby very much diluted. the estates had to thank the over-dilution of the latex for the non-injury of the resulting rubber. some estates make up a stock solution of part acid to of water, and use this with success because of the fair amount of added water present in the latex. it must be understood that what is being referred to now is not the absolute quantity necessary for coagulation, but the proportions--_i.e._, the respective volumes of acid and water in the solution of acid made up every day. that the strength of the acid solution, as well as the quantity used, has an effect upon coagulation can be easily demonstrated in the following way: take separate and equal lots of the same latex, and to each add the same quantity of pure acid, but in each case diluted with varying quantities of water. it will be found that coagulation is quickest where pure acid is employed, and slowest where the acid is most dilute. it will also be found that, providing the quantity of acid employed was sufficient for coagulation, the best and most uniform coagulation is obtained from the use of the most dilute acid, within limits. it will often be found that where pure acid has been employed coagulation is local--_i.e._, we have lumpy coagulation, and often a very milky remaining liquor. this is due to the fact that, as coagulation is immediate upon the spot which is first touched by the pure acid, a deal of the acid is enclosed within the rubber at that spot, and hence other portions of the latex are deprived of acid. it is in such cases that most air-bubbles are enclosed. as the dilution of the acid solution is increased the mixing is more thorough and uniform. coagulation is slower, and air-bubbles can escape to the surface. method of making stock solution.--experiments have been repeatedly made in the laboratory with acid solutions of varying dilution, from pure acid down to part of acid in parts of water. while it has been found that a in solution can be used where the latex is very dilute (say, part of latex to parts of water), and a in solution may be used in fairly dilute latex (for crepe-making), it is undoubtedly a fact that for latex as generally "standardised" on estates a much more dilute solution of acid should be used--_e.g._, in , or even in , of water. it must be borne in mind that the quantity of acid necessary for coagulation is not changed, but merely the dilution. let us take a concrete case to illustrate the point: on an estate at present the stock solution is made up by diluting pint of acid with pints of water, and gallon of this is necessary to coagulate gallons of pure latex. it is desired to use a stock solution of pint of acid to pints of water. evidently, therefore, gallons of this stock solution contain only the same quantity of pure acid as gallon of the old solution contained, and it will be necessary to add gallons for every gallons of pure latex. thus: to ; gallon necessary for gallons pure latex. to ; gallons necessary for gallons pure latex. it may be pointed out that the quantities worked out in the foregoing examples are not absolutely and mathematically correct, but they are quite close enough for all practical purposes. it may be advanced by someone that if a dilute solution of acid, such as in , is used the bulk of this stock solution ( gallons to gallons of latex) is very great, and might be injurious to the quality of the resulting rubber. a moment's consideration will show that, after all, the volume of acid solution is only one-tenth that of the volume of latex. this can have no effect upon the quality of the rubber. even dilution of the pure latex with half its bulk of water in the factory will have no effect upon the quality of the resulting rubber. it is to be remembered that, except in cases where the proportion of added water to latex is absurdly large, the main argument against putting water into the latex-cups is against the possible poor quality of the water rather than against the actual small quantity theoretically added. it is acknowledged that, where the water to be put into the cups can be guaranteed to be of good quality, no great objection would be raised against placing the smallest possible quantity of such water in the cups. but how many estates have such good water easily available to the coolies, and how many estates can be sure that only that smallest possible quantity would be used? it is a notorious fact that, even on estates where the quantity of water used was supposed to be a minimum, the proportion of water to latex in some cups often exceeded even three or four to one. in any case it may be stated as an elementary truism that the absence of water is more to be desired than water of doubtful quality. quantity of acid.--as a result of repeated experimental work it has been found that, for pure average latex, the quantity of acid necessary for complete coagulation, reckoned in parts of pure acid to parts of latex, is: part pure acid; , parts average latex. where the latex is rather richer than average (above per cent. dry rubber) probably a little more acid would be required, and similarly if the dry rubber content is lower the quantity of acid must be less. it used to be a common belief that the more dilute the latex the greater the quantity of acid necessary, but this would only apply to cases of extreme dilution of latex. as a matter of fact, up to certain limits of added water, the reverse is actually the case--_i.e._, the more water in the latex the less acid must be added, assuming that for pure latex the proportion of pure acid to latex is taken as part to , parts. this was found to be the case up to dilutions of three or four times the volume of latex. to take concrete examples which will perhaps make the truth more clear: assuming we commence by making up our stock solution of acid by adding parts of water to part of pure acid, this gives us a mixture of to . for gallon of pure latex it would be necessary to add one-tenth of its volume of the above mixture--_i.e._, ozs. suppose we take a gallon of pure latex and add a gallon of water, we now have gallons of so-called latex. but we still have only gallon of real latex present in the diluted latex, and it is only necessary to add sufficient acid to coagulate this gallon--_i.e._, ozs. further, if gallon of latex be diluted with , , or even gallons of water it is still only necessary to add ozs. of the acid mixture. at dilutions beyond this limit, however, it is necessary to add a little more acid to obtain complete coagulation. in the process of preparing sheet rubber it is very necessary to see that the minimum quantity of acid is used, otherwise visible defects are caused. but in coagulating latex intended for preparing crepe, where the rubber undergoes protracted washing on the machines, the presence of a slight excess of acid in coagulation is not calculated to cause any deterioration in the quality of the rubber. advantage must not be taken of this statement to argue that more than a slight excess may be used without injury to the rubber, as it can be shown that the use of a large excess of acid results in an inferior rubber. quantities necessary for modern requirements.--it may be commended to the notice of the beginner that any further experimental work as to the quantity of acetic acid necessary for complete coagulation would only involve a waste of time and energy. the general figure given in a preceding paragraph ( part pure acid to , parts of latex) may be accepted as the rough basis for working. in modern practice, however, undiluted latex is usually diluted to a standard which may vary on different estates from - / lbs. to - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon. latices of these strengths can be coagulated at a ratio of part pure acid to , parts of standardised latex; and this quantity need not be exceeded, except in cases where an appreciable amount of some anti-coagulant is present in the latex. the proportion may then be raised to in , . if considered advisable the acid may be used in a / per cent. solution for sheet preparation; but in any case it is advised for the sake of uniformity that a per cent. solution should be employed in the preparation of both sheet rubber and crepe rubber. in most modern factories, measuring vessels of various capacities are to be found, and it is always more satisfactory to have the solution made up in approximately correct strength at the rate of oz. of pure acid to pints of water. often, however, on some estates european supervision of this work is not possible, and the preparation of the acid solution has to be left in the hands of a (more or less) skilled coolie. it is thus necessary to find some less fine, but still approximately correct, method of procedure. in the east the kerosene tin is in universal favour for the carriage of water, and there is no reason why it should not be utilised as a standard measure for preparing the dilute acid solution, _providing it is not allowed to become rusty_. the capacity of the tin is gallons ( fluid ozs.), so that a one-hundredth part would be approximately - / ozs. it is suggested that this quantity should be measured out by means of a glass graduated vessel, and then that an aluminium cup should be cut down so as to hold the exact quantity. this would reduce the making of a solution, sufficiently approximate to per cent. strength for all practical purposes, into a simple operation of mixing pure acid and water in the ratio of one cupful of acid to kerosene tin of water. the actual quantity of solution required for the coagulation of any volume of standardised latex can be calculated easily from the ratio : , . as the strength of solution is : it will be seen that the quantity to be taken is _always one-twelfth_ that of the volume of latex--_e.g._: (_a_) if the latex tank holds gallons of standardised latex, - / gallons of dilute acid solution are required. (_b_) a tank containing gallons of latex would need gallons of the per cent. acid solution. it is assumed that all estates, not only in the preparation of sheet rubber, but also in the making of crepe rubber, always employ the system of standardising latex in order to obtain uniformity. they are ill-advised if they do not follow this practice; but in case average undiluted latex is treated in coagulation, the quantity of acetic acid to be used should be calculated from the ratio : , . if the acid solution is to be employed in per cent. strength, _one-tenth_ of the volume of latex to be treated will indicate the required quantity of solution necessary for complete coagulation unless anti-coagulants have been used, when the quantity must be increased as experience directs. it will be recognised, of course, that undiluted latex may only be used in any case for the preparation of crepe rubber; or in some exceptional case, such as the special preparation of "slab" rubber. care in mixing.--it is essential that the mixture of dilute acid and latex should be thoroughly intimate. this can only be attained by careful manipulation, especially in the case of sheet preparation. where crepe rubber is to be made it may be permissible to employ a solution stronger than per cent., but it is not advised. the acid should be poured into the latex while stirring, and the agitation should continue for such a period as to ensure thorough mixing in all parts. it will be appreciated that in the preparation of sheet rubber this period may not be unduly prolonged, otherwise the latex will have begun to coagulate before skimming and the placing of the partitions in their respective slots can be effected. furthermore, while in the preliminary treatment for crepe rubber, the formation of enclosed bubbles and surface froth is immaterial. for sheet preparation it is essential that the stirring shall be done so carefully as to try to avoid internal bubbles and to reduce surface froth to a minimum. for crepe-making a perforated board, with handle attached at right angles to the face of the board, may be used; but in shallow sheet-coagulating tanks, broad paddles (which may or may not be perforated) give good results as long as there is a sufficient number used to cover the area of the tank in reasonable time. obviously also, where the area of any tank or compartment is of any appreciable size, the dilute acid solution should be poured in from various points so as to obtain a good even distribution. in some cases the acid is distributed from a sprinkling can, but this is a refinement which experience shows to be unnecessary. in actual practice, working on a tank measuring ft. by ft., no difficulty is found if coolies pour in acid solution from four points. the degree of success depends entirely upon experience and efficient supervision. this remark applies equally to the use of various devices, such as rakes with broad teeth, used as stirring implements. there is room for display of ingenuity in this direction, and it is found often that, while they are used successfully on one estate, they may be condemned on another. [illustration: two views of dilution and mixing tanks. below, on the right, coagulating tanks. at the far end strainers. each dilution tank is of equal capacity to the corresponding coagulating tank.] use of sodium bisulphite.--some few years ago a demand for pale crepe rubbers sprang up, and this demand has been maintained. the total quantity of pale rubber put on the market previously could only have amounted to very little, and that little was obtained by luck and various tricks in manipulation. it must be premised that if coagulation is allowed to take place, either naturally or with the aid of acetic acid, the resulting rubber will almost inevitably oxidise on the surface, except in the cases of very dilute or young latices. even supposing that this darkening of the surface does not take place in the wet stage, it is often found that a rubber expected to dry to a pale colour does not fulfil expectations, and a dull neutral shade results. this darkening of crepe rubber may be attributed to a slow process of oxidation, which continues until the rubber is dry. from these remarks it will be seen that the process of oxidation is a natural one, and that any pale rubber formerly shipped was the outcome of circumstances outside the control of the estate, except in such cases where boiling of the coagulum, etc., was resorted to. the fact that one rubber happened to be a shade darker than another was absolutely no criterion as to the value of the rubber, but apparently the market thought, and still thinks, otherwise, although the actual necessities of manufacturers for a pale crepe to be employed in special processes must be comparatively small. the prevention of this natural oxidation was a problem which exercised the minds of all responsible for the preparation of pale rubbers, and much time and thought were expended upon it. various theories were propounded, and the chief conclusion arrived at was that the darkening of rubber was to be prevented by excluding all the light possible from the drying houses. to this end windows were to be kept shut, or else they were provided with ruby-coloured glass, which incidentally kept out the air. in spite of these precautions, little success attended the expenditure of so much energy and thought. it was absolutely necessary that some chemical agent should be discovered which would make the preparation of pale crepe possible for any estate. this chemical would have to fulfil several requirements before it could become popular: . it must be a simple substance capable of being easily handled. . it must be very soluble, so that solutions could easily be made up by inexpert workers. . it must be cheap. . it must be quite innocent of any harmful effect upon the quality of the rubber. after months of investigation into the properties of other chemicals the writers decided that the only one which satisfactorily answered all requirements was sodium bisulphite. the writers make no pretension to any claim of having discovered the properties of this substance, which was a common chemical, and widely known. even its action on latex was suspected before they engaged upon the work. these matters are only mentioned because the credit, if any, should be given to the laboratories of the rubber growers' association. as soon as it began to be known on the market that sodium bisulphite was being used in the preparation of pale crepe, a great outcry was made, and estates were warned that no more rubber prepared in this way would be accepted. it was said that the chemical would destroy the "nerve" of the rubber,[ ] and it was definitely stated that rubber prepared with this chemical was brittle. it must be remembered that brokers had some legitimate excuse in raising objections to the introduction of new and strange chemicals for preparing rubber, as they were quite without means of judging whether the rubber had suffered harm or not. still, on the other hand, private tests had been made in conjunction with messrs. beadle and stevens for fully eight months before the name of the chemical was mentioned in reports, and they had decided from the results of vulcanisation tests that the chemical was quite innocuous. then, and only then, did we consider it advisable to recommend the use of sodium bisulphite in general estate practice. owing to the initial prejudice against rubber prepared with sodium bisulphite, the results of our preliminary work were published by permission of the rubber growers' association.[ ] the original instructions to estates regarding the proper employment of this chemical were given in the private reports issued by the rubber growers' association in . at the present time it is probably accurate to state that it is now used by all estates preparing fine crepes. representatives of manufacturers have sometimes given us to understand that the question of paleness of colour in such rubber is of no such importance as is impressed upon us as producers. while we are prepared to believe, we can only plead that from our point of view the supply arises from the demand. such are the conditions governing the sale of rubber that, irrespective of the requirements of the ultimate user, we have to market rubber which is valued almost completely upon its appearance at the time of sale. [ ] williams, international rubber and allied congress, london, . [ ] "the employment of sodium bisulphite in the preparation of plantation rubber," beadle, stevens, and morgan, _india-rubber journal_, august , . as long as such conditions prevail estates must continue to adopt any device of proved harmlessness, in order to obtain the best possible price for their product, and not because we desire to continue a practice which some assure us to be unnecessary, and which, moreover, adds somewhat to the cost of production. quantities of sodium bisulphite.--it must be premised that, although sodium bisulphite is employed on some few estates in the preparation of sheet rubber, we do not advise the practice. it is unnecessary, and may lead to some little trouble and delay in drying. in any case, sodium sulphite gives the results desired for sheet rubber (see following). it must be understood, therefore, that we are concerned here, in the case of sodium bisulphite, with its employment in the preparation of fine pale crepe only. as the dry rubber contents of latices vary with the age of the trees, the general health of the trees, the seasons and general climatic conditions, the relative strain imposed by depletion of reserves through tapping, etc., it will be clear that the effect produced by a definite quantity of sodium bisulphite in any given volume of latex will also vary--_i.e._, the effect depends upon the potential amount of rubber present. a dilute latex needs less sodium bisulphite than a richer latex to produce the same effect in colour.[ ] [ ] incidentally there are certain occasions, as in the opening of areas of bark rested for long periods, when the latex is of a rich yellow colour. sodium bisulphite will not "bleach" this colour, and it is well to remark again at this stage that the action of the chemical is only to avoid or arrest oxidation (darkening). hence it follows that if in any factory uniform quantities of the solution are used for any given volume of undiluted latices from different areas of the estate, the effect upon the dry rubbers will vary. this explains why some estates obtain different shades of rubber in their fine pale crepes. the remedy obviously is to reduce the variation in latices by diluting them all to a standard rubber content as is done in sheet preparation. one is thus assured that the prescribed quantities of sodium bisulphite will meet requirements in every case, and that waste will be avoided. working with a standard of - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon the following formula should serve as a _maximum_: _formula for use of sodium bisulphite._ (_a_) dissolve sodium bisulphite in water at the rate of lb. to gallons. (_b_) of this solution use gallon to every gallons of latex. making a solution.--the making of a solution of the chemical would seem to be a simple matter, but to judge by the ill-effects sometimes observed in the dry rubber the simplicity of the operation appears to have been overrated. great care must be exercised in preparing the solution, and the work should not be left to the few minutes preceding its actual requirement; such has been found to be the case in several factories, so that it is not surprising if the rubber is defective. the powder should be added gradually to water with thorough stirring, which should be continued for five minutes at least. even then there may often be seen at the bottom undissolved particles, sand, and other impurity. it is necessary, therefore, in such cases to decant the solution through a piece of cotton cloth before using. no solid particles should be allowed to enter the latex. abuse of sodium bisulphite.--it is now generally recognised that the abuse of sodium bisulphite, in the form of an excess, leads mainly to delay in the period of drying and the production of an overpale rubber.[ ] it is probable that few estates, if any, now experience trouble due to this non-observance of the rules and quantities laid down for use. [ ] "the preparation of plantation rubber," morgan, , p. . residual traces of sodium bisulphite.--the prolongation of the drying period was attributed to the fact that traces of substances caused by the decomposition of sodium bisulphite remained in the rubber if the rubber were not sufficiently worked and washed on the rolls. these traces must have been very minute, but they were sufficient to retard the progress of drying. that much depended on the care exercised in washing is evident from the fact that samples prepared with varying quantities of the chemical show varying results on extraction. these samples were tested for the presence of sulphates. of the series tested that sample prepared with bisulphite in the proportion of part to parts latex showed only a trace of sulphate present; while the one prepared : , gave an equal quantity. intermediate samples contained no trace of sulphate. on the whole, therefore, the presence of sulphate in crepe rubber is adventitious, and properly washed crepe prepared with moderate quantities of bisulphite may be taken as free from any residual quantities. meanwhile there cannot possibly be any doubt of the advantages gained by the use of sodium bisulphite, and it would not be very wide of the mark if the statement were made that, in the event of this chemical being discarded, most contracts for pale crepe could not be fulfilled. sodium sulphite.--it would not be amiss to insist upon the point that while the nature of sodium _bisulphite_, as employed in the preparation of rubber, is anti-oxidant, sodium sulphite is employed chiefly for its anti-coagulant property. it is not used, therefore, in the making of crepe rubber, but is of service in the preparation of sheet rubber, where the aim is to keep the latex in good fluid condition as long as is necessary, and to retard coagulation slightly so that enclosed bubbles of gas or air may escape. formulæ have been given for its use in the field when required. on some estates this practice is not found necessary, but a quantity of solution is always placed in the bottom of the reception vessels prior to the straining of latex into them. only a small quantity is used, and as a working basis the following formula may be adopted: _sodium sulphite: for use in the factory._ (_a_) dissolve ozs. of anhydrous sodium sulphite in a gallon of water. (_b_) the gallon of solution, placed in the bottom of the reception jar or tank, is sufficient for the treatment of gallons of standardised latex ( - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon). the warning previously given regarding the necessity for thoroughness in the preparation of solutions is here reiterated. stirring should be thorough, say for five minutes, and if there is any sediment or undissolved matter the solution should be strained through cloth before using. where uniform jars or tanks are in use, the majority of which will contain uniform quantities of latex daily, the practice of using the chemical can be made almost fool-proof even in the hands of coolies. a calculation is made of the quantity of powder required for each vessel daily. the necessary number of lots is weighed out each morning and each placed in an envelope. the process is thus simplified by the fact that the contents of an envelope, neither more nor less, are required for each unit reception vessel. even the weighing can be done by a coolie if he is given a counterpoise (of lead, for example) equivalent to the required weight. it will not be found necessary to do any vigorous stirring of the solution with the latex, as the latter is strained into the solution and the continued addition of successive quantities is sufficient to give a good mixture. use of formalin.--few estates now use formalin (formaldehyde) as an anti-coagulant. it must be acknowledged that when not abused there are points in favour of its employment in preference to sodium sulphite, but these are outbalanced by certain disadvantages. the argument may be stated thus: _points for_: ( ) if made up freshly it is an effective anti-coagulant. ( ) formalin being the solution of a gas in water, there is no residual substance left in the rubber to delay drying. ( ) its use gives a bright clear rubber. _points against_: ( ) its cost at all times is greater than that of sodium sulphite. ( ) if the jar is not sealed there is loss by evaporation, thus increasing the cost. ( ) its effect upon the rubber is uncertain. even in normal quantity it is said to cause "brittleness" or "shortness." certain few estates, however, have continued its use, and no trouble is claimed to ensue. the following formula is stated to give satisfactory results in the preparation of sheet rubber, when applied as in the preceding paragraphs bearing on the employment of sodium sulphite: _formula for use of formalin (formaldehyde)._ (_a_) pint of formalin is diluted with gallons of water. (_b_) of this solution gallon is required for gallons of standardised latex. in noting this formula the writer gives no recommendation regarding its use. whatever may be the actual facts regarding the effect of formalin upon the vulcanisation of rubber, when used in minimum proportions, there can be no question concerning its injurious effect if used in excess. beyond this the factors of cost and loss militate against its wider employment. chapter ix _preparation of sheet rubber_ pale sheet.--the first form in which plantation rubber was prepared was as "biscuits" or sheets. this form remained in favour for some years. the first biscuits or sheets were rather dark in colour owing to the natural oxidation which followed. then it was discovered that by diluting the latex the degree of oxidation was diminished, and later it was found that if the soft coagulum were placed in almost boiling water for a short time the resulting rubber was pale. thus there arose gradually a demand for pale sheet. with our present knowledge we are in a position to state that the pale biscuits were not in any way superior to the darker ones, and they were in most cases actually inferior. it was found also as time progressed that sheet rubber, on air-drying, became covered with external surface moulds, and that, more often than not, the smell of the drying rubber was the reverse of pleasant. even when dry the sheets had to be continually brushed free from moulds, and by the time the rubber reached the market it was again usually mouldy. such are, even now, the handicaps under which those who prepare pale sheets have to labour. few, however, are the estates making pale sheets, and they are confined almost entirely to native holdings. to those accustomed only to the preparation of crepe rubber, where coagulation can be effected in large batches, the preparation of sheet rubber always seems to demand much more labour. as a matter of fact, although the preliminary operations certainly do demand more care and labour than in crepe-making, there are compensating advantages in the machining stage. for the preparation of sheet of the highest quality on any but the largest scale, elaborate installations of machinery are quite superfluous, as equal results can be obtained with pairs of rolls worked by hand. uniformity of product.--there will be no need to enter again into a discussion of the preliminary operations of receiving and straining latex for sheet-making. they have been fully dealt with in chapter vii. it used to be the general custom to mix the acid and latex in each individual dish, and in some small or non-progressive factories that is still the procedure. quite apart from the question of labour entailed, the process is quite unnecessary. even if comparatively small volumes of latex are handled, standardisation by dilution should be the rule, and the acid solution should be added to the bulk. it is possible to stir in the acid and to ladle out uniform quantities in each pan or dish from a bulk volume of up to gallons if the organisation is efficient. on any but a small scale the labour entailed in the handling and cleaning of pans is excessive, and shallow tanks are now employed on most estates. the reception and standardisation of latex by dilution has already been discussed in chapter vii. the combination of this practice with the employment of shallow coagulating tanks has simplified working and reduced the cost of labour. it is not intended to enter into any lengthy discussion relative to the merits of sheets made in pans as against those made in tanks. it is granted that it is possible to make a "pan" sheet superior in appearance to the general average of "tank" sheets; but from an economic standpoint the introduction of the use of tanks into all but the smallest factories is only a matter of time, if the demand for this class of rubber persists. the ideal tank.--even the most modern installations of sheet-coagulating tanks must be regarded as merely temporary devices, as, given facilities, the room for improvement is so wide. the first tanks made erred in being too large, and as the result of experience the size of units has now been reduced to a maximum of feet by feet by foot deep. [illustration: unit modern coagulating tank (two views). construction of brick and cement with lining of glazed tiles. note slots incorporated in side tiles. partition boards in piles in the background.] tanks are at present constructed either of hard timber or of brick and cement faced with glazed tiles; both types have inherent drawbacks. the wooden tanks are difficult to keep clean and in "sweet" condition. the glazed tiles, unless extremely well laid, allow the acid serum (from which the rubber is removed) to percolate between the interstices. thus "pockets" of liquid collect beneath the tiles, and in process of the decomposition of certain constituents dissolved in the serum evil-smelling gases are set free. [illustration: another battery of tanks, with dilution tanks, raised, on the right. note drainage cocks, chute, and sieve in position.] it should not be a matter of difficulty for manufacturers to make sheets of thick glass sufficiently large to form the bed-plate and side-pieces necessary in the lining of a tank. if such adjuncts could be secured, the disabilities indicated above would be perhaps wholly removed. unless there is a demand from estates, however, it is idle to expect a supply to be forthcoming. an even greater improvement would take the form of unit tanks cast in glazed white-ware with the necessary slots incorporated in the sides. at present no known firm makes such tanks of sufficient size. a unit could measure (internally) feet by feet by foot deep, with slots - / inches apart, and / inch in width. the tanks might be reinforced with iron bars, so that they could either be used alone or embedded in the usual brick structure. the junctions of the bed-plate and side-pieces could be finely rounded so as to facilitate cleaning, and at one end a draining-hole could be made, say, inch in diameter. [illustration: closer view of foregoing. note partitions in position and coagulum being removed.] meantime both the hard-wood tanks and those of glazed tiles find their particular applications. the former is generally employed in smaller factories, or where future large increases of crop preclude the present installation of a fixed system. the latter find use in large factories, or where no new areas remain to come into bearing. modern installation.--as an example of a modern installation of coagulating tanks, we can do no better than offer reproductions of the system now in use on pataling estate. a warning must be given against employing all tanks of stone-ware or cement unless well glazed. almost without exception, irrespective of the material used in the construction of coagulating tanks, wooden partitions are employed. in the few exceptional cases the partitions are either of glass or of aluminium. the former would appear to be the ideal substance, were it not for initial cost and loss by breakage. these disabilities may possibly be overcome in course of time. care of tanks.--the use of aluminium would have been wider had it not been for lack of supplies and the question of cost during the war. a novel method of employing aluminium partitions was introduced in the factory of tremelbye estate. there were no slots in the sides of the glazed-tile tanks, but the necessary slots were very ingeniously created by means of aluminium "distance-pieces," the two long edges of which were turned at right angles to the face of each piece to a depth of about / inch. the ends of the thin aluminium partition moved in the slot thus formed between two adjacent "distance-pieces." the friction between the surfaces was sufficient to allow all the partitions, when in position, to be raised well above the floor of the tank, so that a uniform level of latex was obtained. slight hand-pressure only was then required to push the partitions down. naturally the cleansing of glass or aluminium partitions presents no difficulty, but in the case of wood failure to ensure thorough cleanliness leads to possible defects in the finished dry rubber. provided the wood could be made waterproof, no trouble would ensue, and hence various measures have been tried with that object in view. when new the boards have been surface-waxed or varnished, and the treatment has been repeated on occasions. but in course of time the surface film of waterproof material has disappeared, partially or wholly, and the trouble recurs. when partitions become sodden with serum, the surfaces are liable to be coated with a slime, consisting largely of organic growths which have an effect upon the latex, causing "pitting" on the surface of the coagulum and enclosed bubbles within. [illustration: another battery of tanks, without dilution tanks or means of gravitating latex.] it is recommended, therefore, that wooden tanks, after ordinary cleansing daily, should be swabbed out with a per cent. solution of sodium bisulphite. wooden partitions should receive the same treatment, and once a week at least (or every day if possible) they should be placed in the sun for an hour or two, care being taken that both sides of a partition are exposed in turn. before being placed in the latex, all wooden partitions should be made wet on the surfaces. some years ago the writers had made a partition of vulcanite, which apparently would have proved of great service but for the initial cost. the advent of the war put the matter out of the question, but it is possible now that such a material would be worthy of extended trial. except in the matter of cost, it would appear to have advantages over any substance yet tried; and if it were possible for estates to supply their own lower grade rubbers direct, the cost might be reduced considerably. [illustration: a sheeting tank containing coagulum for crepe preparation. behind wall in background are the tanks in which latex is standardized. note vent, to the left, through which latex flows and wooden "stopper" on edge of tank.] standard latex.--enough has been written (see chapter vii.) to familiarise the reader with the use of this term for the description of latex diluted daily to a level of dry rubber content. whatever may be the practice elsewhere, it is now fairly general on estates in malaya to reduce all latices to a uniform "strength" for the preparation of sheet rubber. it is claimed that only in this manner can uniformity of product be achieved. the selection of a standard has been the outcome of general experience. it has been found that if too high a standard is taken difficulties arise, such as ( ) unsatisfactory and uneven coagulation, ( ) too thick a coagulum for easy working in general, ( ) too extended a period of drying and smoke-curing, and hence too dark a colour in the finished rubber. [illustration: a "battery" of sheeting tanks (pataling estate). dilution tanks, raised, on the left.] on the other hand, too low a standard also brings trouble in its train. the coagulum is too porous, will not stand handling, and the resultant sheet is too thin unless an abnormal thickness of coagulum is prepared. furthermore, over-dilution means an increase in the number of tanks required for any original volume of latex. this involves an increase in floor area, and perhaps in the size of the building. the soft sheets, when rolled, may spread to such a width as to cause the edges to be squeezed under the cheek-blocks of the machines, etc. for all practical purposes, whether sheets are prepared in pans or in tanks, it has been found that the optimum results are obtained by the adoption of a standard approximating and not exceeding - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon. primarily this standard has a direct connection and interdependence with the distance between the partitions (or between the slots) in coagulating tanks. the distance found most practicable is - / inches. this thickness of coagulum, when prepared from latex not exceeding a standard of - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon, is found to yield a very satisfactory sheet in all respects. it will be seen that we have two possible main factors of variation: (_a_) distance between partitions, causing visible differences in thickness of coagulum. (_b_) dry rubber content of latex, causing differences in the density (_e.g._, hardness or softness) of the coagulum. the effect of variation in (_a_) will be clear. even when latex of a standard of - / lbs. per gallon is employed the resulting sheet may be either too thin or too thick. similarly, as already argued, the use of too low or too high a standard of dilution (when the factor of distance between partitions is not allowed to vary) is capable of causing much difficulty. while this is correct, broadly, it is found in the experience of some estates that their requirements are satisfied by a slightly lower standard than - / lbs. per gallon. thus it is not uncommon to note the adoption of a standard equivalent to lb. ozs. or lb. ozs. dry rubber per gallon. experience dictates, however, that for the recognised standard measurements of modern tanks the practical limits of satisfactory density of latex lie between - / lbs. and - / lbs. per gallon. standardising instruments.--for standardising latex by dilution all that is required is an instrument which will preserve a perpendicular position while floating in latex, will be sufficiently sensitive to indicate fairly small differences in density of latex, and has one mark on its aerial portion accurately indicating a density corresponding to the required standard. on scientific grounds it can be demonstrated that such an instrument as employed in common practice would not be strictly accurate.[ ] it is not proposed, in this section of the book, to discuss such considerations. [ ] de vries, "archief voor de rubbercultuur." instruments of this nature are represented by the "metrolac" (originating from the rubber growers' association) and other similar recorders. they generally consist of a submersible bulb with a projecting stem which is graduated. the "metrolac" differs from others in that the bulb is of torpedo form (thus reducing "skin friction"), and the graduations on the stem indicate actual weight of dry rubber per gallon instead of the ordinary specific gravity figures. theoretical considerations to the contrary, it is found in actual practice in malaya and ceylon that, although such instruments are naturally delicate and require careful manipulation, they are of considerable practical value and satisfy a definite requirement. until an instrument of greater accuracy and equal simplicity can be discovered all estates should regard the possession of a few "metrolacs" as essential. the nature of their construction and the average conditions under which they are used (and abused) make it impossible to rely upon their accuracy indefinitely or for any long period. it is always recommended, therefore, that there should be at least two instruments available, one of which may be in daily use, while the other is kept in safe custody and only employed, say, once a week for purposes of checking the accuracy or degree of inaccuracy of the other. this can be done with reasonable approximity by placing both instruments in a tall vessel containing well-mixed and diluted latex. instruments showing a marked degree of inaccuracy should not be preserved; but in cases of necessity "metrolacs" from estates belonging to company members of the rubber growers' association may be sent to the laboratories for repair and adjustment.[ ] [ ] this applies to the gilt brass instruments. as the result of experiment the rubber growers' association are now introducing glass instruments. these are necessarily more fragile, but while unbroken can be relied on to give correct readings. where field coagulating stations have been instituted on estates, it is strictly necessary that instruments should be provided in all cases; and it should be a rule that these are tested and corrected weekly by a standard instrument employed for that purpose only. this need was well recognised by many estates when, during the war and the consequent shortage of supply of "metrolacs," a demand arose which was met in some degree by crude instruments of local manufacture, such as that commonly known as the "castlefield bobber," contrived and made by the enterprising manager of the estate of that name. the demand for the more accurate instruments can now be met. methods of using the instruments.--the "metrolac" was devised and introduced by the writers on behalf of the rubber growers' association, and directions for its use were given. tables were prepared by means of which simple calculations for the dilution of any given latex could be made. these did not find an extended application, inasmuch as in the majority of cases native workers only were in charge of the processes of rubber preparation. in point of fact, such calculations are not strictly necessary, as the operation of standardising the latex can be done quite simply and skilfully by a trained native. latex as it reaches the store in average weather from any particular division or field does not vary greatly in density. the trained coolie or foreman, basing his practice on experience, adds to the latex a quantity of water, and then makes a first test with the standardising instrument. several additions of water (with thorough stirring) may have to be made before a test indicates that the correct density has been obtained, but it is surprising how quickly a skilled worker will arrive at the desired standard. extreme or absolute accuracy is not insisted upon or desired, as avoidable delay is to be deprecated, and the result in any case is sufficiently exact for practical purposes. skimming.--during the gravitation of the latex from the reception vessels (in which the standardising of the latex is effected) to the coagulating tanks, much surface froth is usually caused. this is best removed by means of a thin board of a width slightly less than the breadth of the tank. the skimmings are sometimes placed in pans and subsequently made into a second grade of sheet rubber, or they receive treatment with a small proportion of sodium bisulphite and eventually appear as fine pale crepe. the practice varies usually according to the form in which the general no. grade is prepared. on some estates a great deal of the frothing is avoided by placing in position at the receiving end of the tank a perforated partition. this partition may be made of wood, or of stout zinc (or aluminium) carrying ten circular holes to the inch. through this the latex percolates, while the froth is retained on a small area. the froth is removed prior to the addition of the acid. after stirring in the acid solution most estates again skim the surface of the latex; but if the stirring has been performed properly there should be little froth. this, when it collapses, in any case will appear only on the upper edge of the strip of coagulum, and after rolling should not be visible. it would appear, therefore, that the second skimming is not necessary. style of sheet.--within the last few years the custom of making plain sheet--_i.e._, sheet having a plain surface--has gradually given place to the preparation of ribbed sheet--_i.e._, sheet having a pattern marked on the surface. it would probably be correct to say that plain (smooth) sheet is now only prepared by natives or by some estates just come into bearing. even in the latter case there is no reason why smooth sheet should be made, as hand machines are sold which will do all the work required. it will be evident to anyone acquainted with rubber preparation that in the matter of actual quality of rubber the question of smoothness or a pattern can have no bearing on the result. one advantage claimed for ribbed sheet which may entirely justify the preference exhibited by consumers, relates to the question of packing. when rubber arrives at home it is frequently found to be in an almost solid block, due to the pressure of the sheets superimposed in the case. the smoother the surfaces of the rubber in contact the greater the adhesion and the denser will be the mass, and consequently the greater the difficulty in separating individual pieces. under such circumstances it is plain that the difficulty is diminished if the sheets have a raised pattern on them. it is noted also that the liability to mildew-growth is greater the smoother the surfaces of the rubber. on these grounds the "marking" of sheet rubber is to be commended. these reasons apart, it is really astonishing the difference made in the appearance of the sheets by impressing upon them a ribbed pattern, and it is highly probable that the market value of the rubber is slightly increased. it is not our duty to attempt to reason why this simple operation should increase the market value of sheet rubber; it is sufficient to recognise that it is so, and that money may be thrown away by neglecting to cater for the taste of the market. of the patterns impressed upon sheet rubber there is a variety, but the general style is that known as the "spirally close-cut ribbing." standard sheet.--leaving for the present the question of pattern of mark, one cannot do better by way of introduction than to reproduce the instructions[ ] given generally to estates. [ ] "handbook on preparation of rubber," rubber growers' association, may, , p. . rolling and marking of sheet rubber.--working with standard latex it is found that strips of coagulum - / inches in thickness require little rolling to produce sheets of desirable thickness. ( ) the sheets or strips are first given a preliminary rolling with a heavy hand-roller made of hard wood. the roller is passed once in one direction, and once in the reverse direction. ( ) the coagulum is then passed through smooth machines twice, once with the rolls fairly open, and once with a narrower space. it is not found advisable to close the smooth rolls so tightly that the rubber is made too hard. ( ) the sheets or strips are then passed once through a pair of marking rollers. various types of patterns are used, but the one which appears to give the most satisfactory results is that known as the "close-cut spiral." this produces the semblance of a small diamond pattern on the rubber. the surface of the sheet is raised in well-defined ridges, which appear to present the maximum drying surface exposed to the atmosphere of the smoke-house. thus, not only is the appearance of the sheet rendered attractive, but also the period of drying is reduced. starting with standard latex and following the procedure here described for rolling and marking, sheets should be ready for packing in ten or eleven days. if the period is longer, it is possible that the design or structure of the smoke-house is at fault. when to work the coagulum.--before proceeding to discuss other points the question remains to be settled as to how long it may be necessary or advisable to allow the coagulum to remain in the serum before rolling it. for reasons of practical economy in factory working, it is usual to allow sheet rubber to remain over night, and the coagulum receives attention early next morning. during the interval (averaging about eighteen hours), the coagulum consolidates, leaving an almost clear serum if the correct quantity of acid has been added to the latex. any but the very slightest trace of milkiness in the serum indicates an insufficiency of coagulant. if the serum is always definitely clear, there may be grounds for believing that an excess is being used. if the quantity of coagulant has been calculated to an average nicety, the serum should be just dubiously free from milkiness. the firmness gained by the coagulum on standing in the serum overnight should enable it to be handled next morning without any marked stretching, and in some estates the rubber is put direct through the first pair of smooth rolls without a preliminary consolidation by means of hand-rolling. some estates prefer to handle the coagulum while rather softer, as it is claimed: (_a_) that the coagulum is easier to work, and sheets of improved appearance can be made. (_b_) that there is greater freedom from "bubbles." (_c_) that the incidence of "rust" is lessened. these claims are substantiated in practice; but in the case of the third, it only holds provided that the rubber can be finished and placed in the smoke-house almost as soon as the last sheet has been machined. in such cases all latex must reach the store comparatively early in the day--_e.g._, before noon. three hours is allowed for coagulation, and the working of the rubber is then commenced. as a general rule this means that the operations of rolling and marking must be completed, a short interval given for dripping, weighing must be done, and the rubber placed in the smoke-house before night falls (as a rule about . p.m.). unless factories dealing with a large crop are well equipped with artificial light, such a course is not open to them; in any case it remains true that night work should be avoided if possible. if, however, it can be arranged without increasing the cost of production, there would appear to be no objection to the early working of the coagulum as described above. hand-rolling.--as already indicated, some few estates do not give the strips of coagulum any preliminary hand-rolling, as the rubber is considered to be sufficiently firm to be handled into the first machine. on most estates hand-rolling is found necessary, owing to the tendency of the long strips to stretch unduly, giving badly shaped sheets. this hand-rolling should be done carefully, and is best effected on a specially constructed table. this consists essentially of an inch-thick hard-wood plank about inches wider, and or feet longer, than the strip of coagulum. along the edges of the plank, and at right angles to its upper flat surface, may be fastened strips of wood about / inch square in section, thus forming a shallow tray open at either end. these strips serve two purposes: (_a_) as the wooden roller is wider than the plank, they prevent the coagulum being rolled too thin and too firm. (_b_) they prevent the coagulum being squashed too wide, and tend to keep the edges straight. to avoid "thick ends" it is sometimes considered advisable to insert, at either end of the rolling table, shallow wedges about inches long, of the same width as the table (between the edge-strips), and with the sharp end of the wedge pointing in the direction of the length of the table. the ends of the coagulum are drawn up and finished on these inclined planes. these points may appear to be extreme refinements, but as long as rubber is valued on such grounds we must endeavour to meet the system imposed upon us. smooth-rolling.--it is advised that, after hand-rolling, the coagulum should be passed through at least two machines having smooth-rolls. on some estates three such machines are employed. the purpose of this procedure is to reduce the thickness of the coagulum gradually. the same could be effected, of course, on one machine; but obviously the distance between the rolls would have to be readjusted at each operation and for each piece of coagulum. apart from the time thus wasted, there is the certainty, in view of the rough adjustment of the machines, that the chances of obtaining uniformly thick sheets would be slight. the machines should be arranged as a battery, with the marking rolls at one end, so that the operations are consecutive. it is erroneous to imagine that heavy machines (such as those used in crepe preparation) are required. light machinery only is necessary for sheet-making; but any available heavy smooth-roll machines in a crepeing battery may serve admirably for the purpose. marking.--heavy machines are unnecessary for the purpose of putting a pattern on sheet rubber. if the rubber has been properly prepared a light pair of rolls is capable of exerting sufficient pressure to cause a good upstanding pattern. rolls are cut in various designs: some with "diamond" grooves on both rolls; some with grooves of varying width and depth encircling the circumference of the rolls, thus creating a "stripe" effect on the rubber; and some with diagonally-cut spiral grooves placed closely together. the last has the greatest vogue at present, while the first has almost gone out of favour. an objection lodged against the second design is that the edges of the grooves sometimes cut through the rubber, so that the dried sheet divides in strips. it would appear in such instances that either the coagulum was too thin and soft, or that the grooves had been cut too deeply and sharply. in any case the choice of a design is an arbitrary matter, and should depend upon the effect produced on the rate of drying and the general appearance. the popular "close-cut spiral" roll is machined with varying measurements, but the usual design has grooves / inch wide by / inch deep and / inch apart. many estates have a particular "brand" cut in the middle of the rolls for purposes of identification. if this is done it is advised that the main grooving of the rolls be carried into the "branding" strip; otherwise grip will be lacking on this portion, and a certain amount of "cockling" of the sheets will result. sheets are often seen in which the potential effect of the grooving is reduced to a comparatively flat pattern in place of the desired ridges. the fault is generally attributed to the shortcomings of the marking rolls. while it is true that the grooving often deteriorates by friction-wear when the rolls are running "free," experience generally decides that the deficiency in the appearance of the rubber should be attributed to faulty previous preparation rather than to the marking rolls. sets of rolls have been changed often without justification or an improved result. it would always be well to be certain first that the trouble did not emanate from the fact that the coagulum had been previously rolled so thin and hard that the rubber could not be squeezed so as to fill the grooves. this has been found to be a common fault, and the general effect is to delay drying in spite of the thinness of the rubber. again, the trouble may have been due to an incorrect standardisation of the latex, generally in the direction of too heavy a density (too rich a latex) being employed. the original thickness of the coagulum would be normal, but owing to the abnormal rubber-content the effect of passing through the smooth rolls would be the production of a strip thicker and firmer than ordinary. if this firmness is appreciable the resistance of the rubber to the squeezing action of the marking rolls will result in a flat pattern--_i.e._, the grooves cannot be filled, and the ridges are low. it is advised that all rolls used in the preparation of sheet rubber should be at least inches wide, in order to avoid the appearance of thickened edges which delay drying. working with the correct standard of dilution of latex, and following the procedure indicated in the foregoing paragraphs, the dry sheet should not exceed an average thickness (over ridges and depressions) of / inch. preparation for smoke-curing.--it used to be the custom to allow sheet rubber to air-dry first for periods varying from one to several days. naturally moulds were soon formed, and when the sheets were quite smoke-cured a mass of the dead moulds could be seen, if not over the whole sheet, at least in the corners of each diamond mark. it has been demonstrated in practice that there is no advantage in allowing sheets to air-dry partially before smoking. in fact, to obtain the greatest benefit from smoke-curing, sheet rubber should be placed in the smoke-house as soon as possible. the same effect of mould-growth may be noted if the wet sheets are placed in a smoke-house insufficiently heated. other defects may arise which can be traced to faulty treatment of the marked coagulum prior to hanging in the smoke-house and subsequent to rolling. these will be enlarged upon in a subsequent section of the book, and at present it will suffice to indicate the procedure which experience directs as likely to give the best results. when the lengths of coagulum leave the marking machine they are usually laid in piles containing two dozen or more strips. the piles are then cut into the required lengths, the exact length generally being determined by the available perpendicular distance between the supports in the smoke-house. it is necessary to remark that the piles of sheets should not be allowed to accumulate, but should be dealt with in subsequent treatment progressively. if for some reason this is not possible, then all piles of sheets should be turned on edge so as to assist the draining away of the serum or "mother-liquor," which continues to ooze from the rubber for some time after the squeezing in the machines. where hot water is available the freshly cut sheets should be passed into it as soon as possible, and given a thoroughly good swilling. the caution must be given that the hot water should be changed very frequently and, if possible, after every batch, say, of a hundred sheets. the sheets should then be carried immediately to racks on which they are hung to drip. generally these racks are situated under cover, but there is no reason why they should not be placed in the open air without cover or shade. from continued experience of this practice over a period of years it is found advantageous and to be preferred to the usual method of allowing sheets to drip under cover. while the sheets are fresh and loaded with internal moisture, the effect of sun-heat upon the surface, when exposed for, say, two hours, is nil; and the safety of the process can be guaranteed, provided the stated limit is not exceeded to an appreciable extent. [illustration: the old method of "dripping" freshly rolled sheets within the factory.] after dripping for an hour or so, the sheets should be placed in the smoke-house. if it is a bright sunny day, no extra precautions need be taken; but on cool, dull days it would be advisable to light the fires earlier than usual, consistent with the work required to be done in the house--_e.g._, in the removal of dry rubber. there would appear to be no reason why the dry sheets should not be first removed, so that on dull or wet days smoking can be commenced as soon as the wet rubber has been hung. on a few estates where the smoke-houses are worked continuously, except for a few hours in the morning, a portion of the building is separated by a partition for the reception of the wet rubber. the sheets are taken directly from the marking rolls and placed in the chamber, beneath which a fire is started. the sheets thus drip in a warm and smoke-laden atmosphere until next morning, when they are weighed and removed to the smoke-house proper. it is claimed that freedom from "rust" is thus obtained. it will be clear that in the treatment of the rubber preparatory to smoking the whole process should be continuous, and delay should be avoided if the best results are to be obtained. [illustration: the newer method of hanging in the open air.] smoking of rubber.--the assumption may have been noted above that the sheet is to be smoked. as far as our knowledge extends, none but small native estates now prepare sheet rubber of any other type, with the exception of certain patent processes. air-dried sheets are generally made on small-holdings, and are bought in the market chiefly for the purpose of macerating and making into blanket crepe. we have no intention, therefore, of discussing the possibilities or qualities of air-dried sheets, as the output of sheet-rubber from our estates is always in smoked form. the drying (or, properly, smoking) stage will be discussed in chapter xi. chapter x _preparation of crepe rubber_ no. , or fine pale crepe.--considering first the preparation of the highest grade, fine pale crepe, it must be stated that the difficulties attached to the process are generally not sufficiently appreciated. in this pale rubber minor blemishes are so plainly apparent that their importance is highly exaggerated, and what would worthily escape notice in smoked rubber assumes disproportionate prominence in pale crepes. the very fact that such a delicate material as colourless coagulum has to be manipulated in coarse iron rollers, with the attendant oil and grease worries, should be sufficient to deter one from criticising too harshly the occasional lapses of an estate struggling to give of its best to the market. at the same time there can be no doubt that if precautions are taken to attend to all likely sources of contamination, defects in pale crepe may be avoided to a wonderful extent; and on some estates the observance of elementary rules enables the preparation of the finest pale crepe to be made almost mechanically. standardisation of latex.--the question of the standardisation of latex has been dealt with in a general way in chapter vii., and the reader is now familiar with the trend of the argument in its favour. it will be recognised that the necessity for standardisation exists to the same degree in the correct preparation of pale crepe as in the case of smoked sheet. unless the dry rubber content is invariable, and the quantities of chemicals fixed, the colour of the crepe may vary appreciably. it may be pointed out that it is not _essential_ to adopt the same standard of dilution as for sheet preparation. given that latices from all fields or divisions are fairly uniform, and of high rubber content, the standard may be taken at a figure equivalent, for example, to lbs., or - / lbs., or even lbs. per gallon. it is wise, nevertheless, to take a lower standard for several reasons. for instance: (_a_) the average dry rubber content varies with climatic conditions, position of the cut on the tree, general health of the tree, etc. on a rainy day the dry rubber content may be lowered too greatly by adventitious circumstances. (_b_) recording instruments often fail to give even approximately correct readings in rich latex. errors may thus be made easily. (_c_) a fairly soft coagulum means easier working on the machines, less labour, and proportionately cheaper costs. [illustration: three grades of crepe rubber. left to right: fine pale crepe; second quality pale crepe; compound crepe.] it is advised, therefore, that for general purposes the same standard as that found suitable for sheet rubber should be taken--viz., - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon. at all events the standard should not exceed lbs. per gallon. coagulation and coagulant.--coagulation may be undertaken without any special arrangement of tanks, and is usually effected in the ordinary "shanghai" glazed earthenware jars containing about gallons. given reasonable care, and a fairly fool-proof system of calculation for the quantities of chemicals required, no difficulty need be experienced. [illustration: a washing shed. sheets are soaked in hot water in tanks in the background, and then scrubbed under a spray of cold water.] on a larger scale it is advised that proper reception tanks, in which standardisation can be effected, should be installed. where both sheet rubber and fine crepe are being prepared, the whole system of sheet-coagulating tanks may be employed with considerable advantage, even to the insertion of the partitions. if ordinary jars are used, and the coagulum is left until the following morning, the mass of rubber has to be cut up into pieces of a size suitable for the machines. the knives or saws are sometimes rusty, and the colour of the coagulum is affected. the coolies often feed into the machines lumps which are too large, with the result that portions are thrust under the cheek-blocks and become stained. when a sheet-coagulating tank is used all labour of cutting the coagulum is obviated. the long strips are handled and fed into the rolls easily. it may be seen, likewise, that actual work is thus saved in machining. quantity of coagulant.--for a general discussion on the coagulant and quantities employed, the reader is referred to chapter viii. it is there recommended that for latex standardised to a level of - / lbs. per gallon, the proportion of pure acetic acid should be in the ratio of : , . directions are there given for the making of the solution, and the calculation of the quantity required for any given volume of latex. it is pointed out that for average _undiluted_ latex the basis of calculation, for quantities of acetic acid required, should be taken on the ratio : , . where latex exceeds a dry rubber content of lbs. per gallon, it may be necessary to increase the quantity of acid to : . if a standard of lbs. per gallon is adopted, the formula given for the - / lbs. standard will not give full satisfaction, and the quantity of acid solution must be increased slightly in order to obtain complete coagulation. assuming that the original solution is prepared in per cent. strength, the following difference would be noted: (_a_) one part pure acetic acid to parts water (theoretically parts). (_b_) _ - / lbs. per gallon._ | _ lbs. per gallon._ | of the above solution use gallon | of the above solution use to every gallons of standardised| gallon to every or latex. | gallons of standardised latex. it is not possible to lay down an exact figure governing all cases, as so much depends upon the treatment undergone by the latex before it reaches the store. some estates continue to use solutions of greater strength, generally per cent., in crepe preparation. while such solutions may be effectively stirred in when the latex is dilute, it is advised that for intimate mixture the solution need not be stronger than per cent. in estimating the quantities of acetic acid required much depends upon the interval which is to elapse between the addition of acid and the time of working of the coagulum. if the rubber is to remain until next morning, the average formulæ will be found suitable; but if it is required to work the coagulum with an interval of less than three hours, an excess of acid must be employed. the excess need be comparatively small, unless the interval is much reduced. for instance, it is the practice on some few estates to begin the machining of the coagulum about half an hour after coagulation commences; in which case it is usual to add from a quarter to a half of the normal quantity in excess. it need scarcely be pointed out that unless this procedure is strictly unavoidable it should be discouraged on account of the waste of coagulant involved. incidentally, the use of strong solutions of acid under such circumstances may lead to increased deterioration of the rolls. colour of fine crepe.--we are sometimes assured that manufacturers do not pay the attention to the question of colour which sale conditions would lead one to believe. as far as we are concerned, and as long as there is no direct traffic between producer and consumer, it must be recognised that in the vast majority of cases we are forced to concern ourselves only with the standards set up in the markets. this, in spite of the knowledge that, all other things being equal, the arbitrary distinctions in colour afford no indication of the intrinsic value of the rubber. under present circumstances it is plain that if paleness is demanded it has to be supplied. probably without exception all estates employ sodium bisulphite as the agent for the prevention of that darkening (oxidation) which is natural in drying rubber. sodium bisulphite.--a formula for use of this chemical is given in chapter viii., and is applicable to latex standardised to - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon. if a higher standard is chosen the quantity calculated as in (_b_) of that formula may be increased slightly, and the exact requirements found by experience. the caution must again be given that the employment of an excess of sodium bisulphite will lead to the production of an over-pale rubber, and a prolongation of the drying period. if thick crepes are made, an excess of the chemical is sometimes made visible by a greyish powder deposited on the edges of the strips of dry rubber. it must be emphasised that the formula in chapter viii. indicates the _maximum_ quantities required for use with standard latex. many estates will find it expedient to use less of the chemical; and if it is found that the desired result is not obtained from normal proportions, attention should be directed to the points discussed in the following paragraph. evaluation and deterioration of sodium bisulphite and sodium sulphite.--sodium bisulphite and sodium sulphite are both bought for our purpose in the form of a fine crystalline powder, and on analysis good specimens should contain over per cent. pure substance, when packed in well-sealed vessels. it has often happened that shippers or local sellers, by inadvertence, have supplied the one chemical in place of the other--to the detriment of the rubber and the discomfiture of managers of estates. the error, as a rule, has not been detected for some time, and then perhaps only as a result of complaints or enquiries reaching the laboratories. to the layman, and certainly to the native who usually has charge of these substances, it is not a simple matter to distinguish between them without special knowledge. there are certain elementary tests, however, which can be applied on all estates serving to make the distinction, but affording no information regarding the actual quality of the chemicals. they are given in a comparative form on page . samples of doubtful specimens may be sent to the laboratories for analysis, but the bulk of the chemical should not be used. during the war some very poor shipments were received, and much trouble was caused. under normal conditions there can be no question that it is to the interests of chemical manufacturers to supply the best article; and it is anticipated that in future there should be no difficulty in procuring shipments of a high degree of purity. _sodium bisulphite._ | _sodium sulphite._ | . if in good condition it | . it has no perceptible has a powerful odour of | odour. sulphur dioxide.[ ] | | . in solution it should turn | . in solution it should turn a blue litmus-paper red. | a red litmus-paper blue. | . it exhibits a marked tendency | . the tendency to "cake" to "cake" if the | is less marked than in drum is allowed to | the case of the bisulphite. remain open. | [ ] high-grade sodium bisulphite has very little odour, but by the time it reaches the estate, and as a result of short exposure to the moist atmosphere of the tropics, a little decomposition sets in and a strong odour of sulphur dioxide gas is noticeable. it will be evident that, as sodium bisulphite under normal conditions gives off a gas when exposed to the atmosphere, it deteriorates in quality continuously. it is the potential presence of this gas which makes the powder effective as an anti-oxidant and disinfectant. it is within the experience of all accustomed to the handling of this chemical, that in addition to the loss of gas, the powder cakes into a hard mass on exposure. if only the top layer is caked, the remainder may be in fair condition; but no caked portions should be used, as they cannot be of good quality. they may, however, be used for the treatment of scrap rubber, to be discussed later. care of sodium bisulphite.--the ready tendency of sodium bisulphite to deteriorate on exposure should give sufficient indication regarding its treatment in storage. it should be bought only in drums (or other air-tight containers), and should be stored in a dry place. no drum should be opened until required, and the common practice of keeping an open drum on the floor of the factory should be avoided. drums are of two sizes, generally containing / or / cwt. respectively. it will be obvious that, although the prime cost may be cheaper with the larger quantity, it would always be preferable to secure the smaller drums, as the loss on exposure will be less. most commonly the lb. drum is purchased. it should not be difficult to calculate the period during which the contents will be consumed, on the basis of a maximum of lb. per gallons of latex. a lb. drum, assuming no loss or waste, should be sufficient to treat _at least_ , gallons of latex (say, , lbs. of rubber)--if the bisulphite is of first-class quality, and the use is applied only to the preparation of fine pale crepe. where the quantity used per diem is small, it is advised that precautions should be taken to preserve the quality of the chemical when a drum is opened. it might be of advantage to place the contents of the drum in smaller sealed tins, or to have made a special container (with a closely fitting lid) into which the powder can be placed as soon as the drum has been opened. mixing solution with latex.--emphasis has been laid, in chapter viii., upon the necessity for care in the preparation of the solution. equal regard must be given to the mixture of the solution with the latex. on a few estates it used to be the practice to add the powder to the solution of acid, with stirring. obviously this led at least to a great loss of efficiency, owing to the rapid escape of the gas which was evolved. the solution of sodium bisulphite should be poured into the latex in as uniform a distribution as possible. the mixture of solution and latex should be thoroughly stirred, and if only natives are in charge a minimum period of five minutes should be prescribed before the addition of the coagulant. a thorough stirring should again follow the advent of the acid. if these elementary rules are not observed faithfully, the deficiency will most probably be manifested in the dry rubber in the shape of streaks of varying shades of colour. finally it may be insisted upon that deteriorated sodium bisulphite should not be used. in order to obtain an effect double the quantity may be required, and the residual salts left in the rubber on evaporation of the moisture will be responsible for prolonged drying, surface deposits, and possibly "spot disease." former methods of making pale rubber.--merely as a matter of historic interest it may be mentioned that previous to the introduction of sodium bisulphite pale crepes were made in comparatively small quantity by various devices, among which the following might be quoted: (_a_) use of excessive quantities of strong acetic acid. (_b_) extreme dilution of latex in conjunction with excessive quantities of acid. (_c_) extreme dilution in conjunction with steaming and excess of acid. (_d_) extreme dilution of latex in conjunction with excess of acid and subsequent heating of the coagulum in hot water. (_e_) the use of excess of a mineral acid such as sulphuric acid. (_f_) the skimmings and very dilute latex, coagulated with excess of acid. working the coagulum.--description of the details of necessary machinery for crepe-making is relegated to section iii. of this book. here we shall treat only of the matter in general. in the preparation of crepe rubber heavy machinery is necessary, and ample engine-power must be available. the machines should comprise three types: (_a_) with rolls cut in such fashion, and run at such different speeds, as to have a macerating effect upon the coagulum. such machines or rolls will be referred to as "macerators." (_b_) intermediate rolls, grooved in varying designs and geared differentially. these reduce the thick rough crepe obtained from the macerators into a form suitable for passing to the rolls described in (_c_). they are sometimes called "crepers," but as this term may be applied equally to the macerating rolls, they will be termed the "intermediate" rolls. (_c_) smooth rolls usually run at approximately even speeds and, as their name denotes, devoid of any grooving. they are called "smooth" rolls or "finishers." without such equipment it is not possible to prepare the grade which is known as "fine pale crepe." in the common acceptation of this term crepe of no. quality generally connotes fineness and paleness with a thin crepe which has a good, smooth, and fairly well-knit texture. it is, of course, possible to make a thick pale crepe, using only the macerators and intermediates, but the "finish" will be that typical of the particular grooving of the intermediate rolls. for the preparation of crepe ordinarily, the possession of smooth rolls is a _sine qua non_. for reasons which will be explained more fully in the chapter dealing with the defects of crepe rubber, the practice of preparing thick crepes direct from the coagulum is now very uncommon. thick crepes are generally made by reworking dry rubber, either in the form of thin crepes or from air-dried sheets. the market for the latter in malaya is confined almost entirely to singapore, where factories buy native rubber and re-work it into thick crepe. the bulk of the output of no. crepe from estates is in the form of thin "fine pale crepe." the artificial standard set up by buyers and brokers necessitates this thin crepe being of even texture and fairly free from small holes ("looseness"). what difference the small holes are to make in the vulcanising properties of the rubber is beyond our knowledge; but such being the standard, it must be attained if the full price is to be obtained. in order to secure the desired effect the coagulum must be passed consecutively through the three types of rolls, and undergoes a varying degree of working in each. given the necessary equipment of machines, it is possible to make a good specimen of thin pale crepe if the coagulum passes through all the rolls a total of twelve times (or even less in exceptional cases). there is no intention of suggesting that this is possible on all estates. clearly the number of times the rubber passes through the rolls will depend upon the total efficiency of the machines. this in turn involves such factors as (_a_) the size of the rolls, (_b_) the number of machines of each type, (_c_) the gearing of the pinions, (_d_) the speed of the drive, etc. again, much depends upon the nature of the coagulum worked. a fairly soft coagulum will offer less resistance, and conversely a dense coagulum will require more machining. it has been shown by the writers in previous publications that over-working of the coagulum has an effect on the vulcanisation of the rubber; and this has been confirmed by others.[ ] apart from this point, it should be recognised that over-working, beyond that necessary to produce a thin crepe of even texture, is to be deprecated, on the ground of economy, in working. [ ] bulletin no. , department of agriculture f.m.s., april, , "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation para rubber," eaton, grantham and day. owing to the existing differences in equipment and speed of drive, etc., the regular practice of any one estate may be unsuitable for another. it remains, therefore, a matter of study for each estate to discover the minimum number of times which rubber should pass through the machines, consistent with the factors indicated above. in any case it may be assumed that if any factory cannot prepare a good crepe by passing the rubber, say, twelve times through the rolls, there is some deficiency in the machines, or of speed; the coagulum may be too hard, or the rolls may be badly worn. lower grades of crepe rubber.--even a few years ago it was plain that the lower grades of crepe (_i.e._, all grades lower than first latex rubber) were not sufficiently appreciated in the market. there was often a marked difference in price between a first-grade crepe and crepe made from naturally coagulated lump. this arose chiefly from lack of knowledge. it has since been recognised in some measure that no reason exists for such a wide difference in price, and more recently the margin between even the first-grade rubber and the lowest grade of scrap rubber has been a gradually diminishing one. providing sufficient care is exercised in the preparation of the lower grades, one would expect to see but very small difference in prices between any two grades. it is true that adequate attention has been given to the preparation of the scrap grades only in comparatively recent years, and it is acknowledged that when high prices were ruling for first-grade rubbers sufficient attention was not generally given to the subject of the preparation of the lower grades. naturally coagulated lump rubber.--the grade of rubber made from the naturally coagulated lump which forms in buckets and carts is usually of a mixed colour, due to the fact that the lumps oxidise very quickly. when they are allowed to remain overnight before being machined, it can be imagined that the colour of the dry crepe would be very dark, or would contain very dark streaks. such is ordinarily the case, unless special precautions are taken. providing that the coagulated lump is free from bark, leaves, and leaf-stems, and certain other precautions taken, the difference in price between coagulated-lump crepes and first-grade crepes should be very slight. too often, however, not sufficient supervision is given to the coagulated-lump rubber, and it is common to see it come into the factory containing leaves and bark. these should be picked out before the latex is strained, but obviously it would be better to ensure that they did not enter the buckets in the first place. it would seem reasonable to suppose that if some means could be employed for preventing or checking the surface oxidation of naturally-coagulated lump rubber, there would be a corresponding improvement in the colour of the dry crepe. that such a method is practicable has been demonstrated on many estates. the lump when lifted out of the latex is allowed to drain for a few minutes, and is then (without squeezing) placed in a dilute solution of sodium bisulphite. a per cent. solution is sufficiently powerful. it is not to be thought for a moment that by the use of sodium bisulphite any previous oxidation will be counteracted; all that is claimed for the treatment is that any further surface oxidation will be checked, and the rubber may be allowed to remain until the next day, for working, if it is so desired. it will probably be found that quite a quantity of latex has been expressed from the lumps by contraction, and acid may be added to obtain the rubber from this. on other estates the lump rubber is worked on the machines as it is received, and the resulting crepe is submerged in a weak solution of sodium bisulphite over-night. it is then rinsed in water and hung to drip before weighing and placing in the drying house. under certain conditions some of the lump rubber darkens rapidly during transport to the store, and any such oxidised portions must be rejected if a uniform colour is to be expected in the crepe. following the procedure indicated above, some estates find it possible to prepare from naturally coagulated lump rubber a crepe which can be classed as no. grade. skimmings and washings.--the skimmings of tanks, as already shown, may be prepared sometimes as a second quality of smoked sheet; but generally they are amalgamated with the rinsings of cups and buckets, treated with sodium bisulphite and acid, and made into crepe form. the cup-washings, as they arrive at the store, represent a very dilute latex, the rubber from which is generally of a greyish colour. bucket-washings should yield a good type of pale rubber if they are obtained properly. to obtain the maximum quantity of good rubber the buckets should first be rinsed. a gang should be taken, a small quantity (say a quart) of water poured into the first bucket, and this dilute latex used progressively in all the buckets of that gang of tappers. the result is a fair latex which can be added to the bulk of no. latex, provided it is free from dirt. where sheet rubber is being prepared, carefully strained cup-washings or bucket-washings may be utilised in the dilution of the latex to the required standard, thus increasing slightly the percentage of first-grade rubber. tree-scrap.--as tree-scrap is a naturally coagulated rubber, it should be expected to show up well in quality. this is usually the case; but from what has been said of the effect of sun-heat it will be understood that if trees are not regularly "scrapped," there is a danger that the crepes may be found to contain tacky streaks due to the inclusion of old scrap which has been sun-baked. in hot dry weather, on widely planted areas tapped on alternate days, it has been noticed that scrap remaining for two days often exhibits a resinous appearance, and feels sticky to the touch. if tree-scrap is to be made as a separate grade, as used to be the general custom, care should be taken to see that it is free from bark and dirt. on some estates where scrap-rubber is paid for per pound collected, it is usually the rule to insist that scrap shall be washed free from dirt and picked free of bark. this course is to be commended, but might probably prove impracticable to the majority of estates. theoretically, of course, the operation of machining should rid the scrap of all traces of bark; but in practice it does not do so. some proportion of the tree-scrap is usually found to be heavily oxidised, and naturally if a crepe of uniform colour is to be obtained these dark scraps must be rejected, otherwise dark streaks will be formed. coolies should be instructed to sort out the dark pieces before arriving at the store. bark-shavings.--it has been intimated in a previous section that the method of obtaining and collecting bark-shavings varies with the type of labour employed. where the scrap is removed from the edge of the bark on each occasion before tapping, the amount of rubber to be extracted from the dry shavings is very small--so small, in fact, that when the price of rubber is low, it is doubtful whether it pays to collect and work the material. on the other hand, where trees are not "scrapped" before tapping, the bark-shavings and tree-scrap are collected together, and the amount of rubber derived from the mixture may be to per cent. upon the gross weight--depending chiefly upon the quality of the tapping (_i.e._, in this case, the thickness of the paring). another factor influencing this figure would be the effect of using an anti-coagulant on the cuts. bark-shavings entail such wear upon the ordinary machines during working, especially if fairly free from rubber, that unless the factory is equipped with a special "scrap-washer" it is advised that this material should be sent for working to a factory having the necessary equipment. whenever possible, bark-shavings should receive treatment on the day of collection. it used to be quite common to see heaps of bark-shavings accumulating on the floor of a factory, and generating excessive heat. yet these heaps were allowed to stand about for a day or days. is it any wonder then that tackiness was found to develop when the rubber was dry? it is here definitely laid down that no heaps of bark-shavings should be accumulated even for half a day. tanks should be provided in which the shavings should be submerged in water. earth-scrap.--of all grades of crepe this is the one most liable to become tacky in transit. this tackiness to a large extent cannot be avoided, as old pieces of earth-scrap may be brought in amongst the bulk. probably these old pieces have been exposed to the sun for days, and have become quite resinous. it would be practically impossible to go through all earth-scrap in order to find these odd pieces, but unless this were done one could not guarantee that the earth-rubber would always be free from tackiness. the difficulty does not appear, however, on estates where earth-rubber is collected systematically at very frequent intervals. fibrous matter in low-grade rubbers.--it is sometimes found in this and other lower grade rubbers that pieces of cloth or cotton-waste are concealed. coolies may have used them for cleaning cups, or the store coolies may have been at fault. earth-scraps especially should be examined, before working, for such extraneous matter. scrap-washers.--these are heavy machines specially devised for the treatment of lower grade rubbers. in these the raw rubber is well masticated and freed from impurities, if the machine functions efficiently. there are several types of these machines, all of which are efficient. that best known is the "universal" washer, made by joseph baker, sons, and perkins, ltd. (formerly perkins engineering company). coming into local favour during the war, the "u.e." scrap-washer, made by the united engineering company (singapore), gives very good service. the "c.c.c." washer, made by the colombo commercial company, is suitable for the purposes of an average estate. there are others, less well known. most of these machines are made in varying sizes to meet the requirements of small, medium, or large estates; and if funds are available, a scrap-washer should be regarded as an essential item in the machinery of any estate employing engine power. the rate of output of scrap-washers will depend mainly upon the speed at which they are driven, and when ordering the equipment it would be advisable to state the ordinary speed of the back-shaft, length of drive, etc. it does not follow that the larger the rate of output, the greater is the efficiency of the washer. the point is not as to what quantity of rubber can be taken out per hour, but what quantity is actually freed from impurities. it is advisable for the superintendent to obtain a thorough knowledge of the general construction and principles of the particular scrap-washer employed. in the past it was not uncommon to find superintendents innocent of the fact that a certain type of washer possessed movable parts upon which the efficiency of the cleansing largely depended. it was often found that these parts, which were intended to be removed and cleaned at intervals, had become firmly fixed and could not be removed for inspection. it must be recognised also that the machines are liable to considerable damage if extraneous substances are allowed to enter--for example, tapping-knives, stones, pieces of iron, spouts, etc., which are sometimes present in the loose scraps of rubber or shavings, owing to the carelessness of coolies. under the best regulated-system, such accidents occasionally occur, but a great deal of trouble could be avoided by having it understood that each charge must be sorted over before entering the washer. again a deal of extra work, and much wear and tear, is caused by the _abuse_ of the scrap-washer--_e.g._, in the cleansing of earth-scrap. as this reaches the factory it often contains a quantity of internal or adhering earth. before entering the washer a good proportion of the external soil could be removed if the scraps were thrown into a tank and given a thorough soaking and stirring. in a similar manner dry bark-shavings, which have been allowed to accumulate, could be softened. in the actual working of scrap-washers instructions are generally given by the makers. these sometimes advise the introduction of warm water (or of steam into the cold water supply) for an interval during the working of each charge. where possible, such instructions should be followed, as by this means the individual pieces of rubber are massed together, in the final stage, into a "sausage" form which is easy to transport and to manipulate in the ordinary crepeing battery. compound crepes.--the attitude of both buyers and sellers with regard to the types of lower grade rubbers appears to be changing. in the past, from any one estate there might be obtained as many as six grades of crepe below no. i. these comprised: ( ) a pale rubber (often streaked) obtained from coagulation of cup washings and bucket rinsings. ( ) a pale rubber (often streaked) obtained by coagulation of the skimmings from the surface of the no. latex. ( ) a streaked and dull rubber prepared from naturally-coagulated clots found in cups, buckets, and latex carts. ( ) a streaked rubber prepared from scrap which had coagulated upon the face of the cut bark. ( ) a brownish and streaked rubber made by maceration of bark-shavings to which pieces of tree-scrap adhered. ( ) a dark rubber, often tacky, prepared from scrap found in or on the ground near the base of the trees. as it is often a matter of weeks between any two regular collections, it is easy to understand why the dry rubber was more liable to be "tacky" than any other grade of crepe. it will have been evident to all who have acquaintance with these grades, as shipped from many different estates, that the diversity in the various shipments must have been rather bewildering. there appeared to be a regrettable lack of uniformity, even in the appearance of, say, a bark scrap rubber from any two estates. when, in addition to these variations, the further complication of condition of cleanliness is introduced, one may realise the difficulty attaching to the evaluation of these rubbers as they appeared upon the market. although the foregoing paragraph is written in the past tense, it should be pointed out that within certain limits the trouble continues to exist with respect to the output of a great number of estates. in the case of many, it has been realised that the manufacturer does not want to buy a large number of "parcels," all differing in some respect. it is probably correct to state that what a manufacturer requires is a big "parcel" uniform in appearance and treatment, even though the colour may not be so light as that of many smaller lots. this statement is modified with the proviso that the rubber, no matter what its colour or appearance may be, must be free from dirt, grit, and bark. the difficulty of making a uniform product from several types of lower grade rubbers has been successfully solved on several estates by the preparation of a "compound" crepe composed of a mixture of the best lower grades in approximately definite proportions daily. naturally the shade of colour of this compound crepe will depend largely upon the types of rubber employed, but as a rule it is somewhat darker than the highest of the types employed in the mixture. to the writers this seems immaterial as long as the manufacturer is offered a larger and more uniform lot which can be given uniform treatment in vulcanisation processes. neither would it appear that the seller suffers any monetary loss. in point of fact it will be found probably that the reverse is the case. for instance, supposing it were decided to mix for a compound crepe-- (_a_) naturally coagulated lump rubber. (_b_) tree-scrap. (_c_) bark-shavings scrap. the product would be darker in colour than (_a_) and slightly better than (_b_). let it be granted that there might be a monetary loss on (_a_), it is probable that there would be a slight gain in comparison with the usual prices obtained for (_b_) and (_c_). now, as a general rule, the actual percentage of crop made into (_b_) is appreciably less than that made into (_c_) and still less than (_b_) and (_c_) together. apparently, therefore, there would be a margin of profit on the whole by making a compound crepe. it may be pointed out, on the other hand, that there might be expended on the manufacture of this crepe more time and labour, but as against this the labour of sorting and grading would be simplified. unfortunately this process is not open to estates which do not possess a scrap-washer. _it is essential that the rubber should be free from grit, sand, and bark particles._ in the absence of a scrap-washer for the cleansing of the bark-shavings, it would be futile to attempt to make a compound crepe containing that type of rubber, as one would run the risk of spoiling the whole. it seems certain that in course of time a scrap-washer will be considered as necessary a piece of machinery as an ordinary crepeing machine in the factories of estates having sufficient means. until that time the preparation of compound crepes must be the privilege only of well-equipped estates, unless other estates can send their lower grade rubbers for treatment in a scrap-washer to their more fortunate neighbours. in previous publications a diminution in the number of grades of crepe rubber has been advocated, and it is gratifying to find that in many cases the amending grades suggested have been improved upon. many estates now make only three grades of crepe--viz.: (_a_) no. . from latex coagulated in the store. (_b_) no. . compound. (_c_) no. . earth-rubber. it will be seen that the compound crepe includes all types between fine pale crepe and earth-rubber. naturally one could not safely recommend the inclusion of earth-rubber in any compound crepe, as the risk of possible "tackiness" in the whole would be serious. in the case of the bark-shavings rubber to be incorporated, it is first cleaned alone in the scrap-washer. then all types are mixed together again in the scrap-washer in proportions ruled by the experience of the usual average percentages of each grade of the crop. besides the estates having only three grades, there are others which make four--viz.: (_a_) no. . from latex coagulated in the store. (_b_) no. . compound, from cup washings, etc., skimmings, and naturally coagulated lump. (_c_) no. . compound, from tree-scrap and bark-shavings rubber. (_d_) no. . earth-scrap. other variations are possible, but their number is limited, and they all conduce to simplification of working, and a supply to the market of rubber having greater uniformity. need for increased care with lower grade rubber.--in the ordinary procedure of estate-working there appears to be an undesirable variety in the style of lower grade crepes. on some estates an examination of these rubbers would appear to suggest that there need be no expenditure of care in the preparation or the form in which it is made. this is a great mistake. with the exception of the lowest grade (earth-rubber), it would not be unfair to state that the quality of the rubbers on testing should be very little inferior to the no. product. often, as in the case of naturally coagulated rubbers, they are superior in some respects to ordinary fine pale crepe. doubtless manufacturers are aware of these facts, but what course is open to them if they find the rubber spoiled for their purpose by the presence of particles of sand, grit, or bark? the possible injury caused by these ingredients cannot be insisted upon too strongly, and it must be evident that great care should be exercised in the preparation of the lower grades of crepe. as to the particular form of the lower grade crepe rubber, one may apply the remarks made under the section dealing with the best grades. it is common to find thin crepes, medium crepes, and "blanket" crepes. more often than otherwise, the medium and thicker crepes are prepared direct in those forms. it follows that they are liable to attacks of "spot" disease, which, however, is not easily visible in the lowest grades, owing to the dark colour of the rubber. furthermore, it is not possible to cleanse the rubber so thoroughly if thick crepes are made. block rubber.--few estates now prepare block rubber, which is essentially crepe rubber pressed into blocks. in the ordinary process the fresh coagulum is lightly rolled into thin crepe, which is then vacuum-dried. there are slight variations in the subsequent procedure. sometimes the rubber as it comes from the vacuum drier is merely allowed to remain on racks overnight before blocking. in other instances, the sticky rubber from the vacuum drier is passed once or twice through wet, smooth rolls and hung to dry for some days. the dry crepe is then folded into the pressing box or cut to suit the size of the box. pressure is applied for some time, and finally the rubber is taken out in one homogeneous mass. naturally the appearance of the block depends upon the quality of the parent crepe. some block rubber is made up thick; other is made in slabs about inches or inches in thickness. with the latter, it should be possible, when held up to the light, to see the shape of a hand held between it and the source of light. it is possible that an erroneous idea of the strength of block rubber has been formed. it should only be necessary to point out that essentially block rubber is merely pressed crepe rubber. it is inconceivable that the mere action of pressing layers of crepe together would increase the physical quality of the rubber. the advantages which block rubber possesses are the compactness of the output, its ease of packing, and a saving in freight; but there is the disadvantage, from the consumer's point of view, that extra labour is involved in the preparatory work of cutting up the blocks. smoked crepe and sheet clippings.--there appears to be no certain demand for any grade of smoked crepe, and probably all which is put into the market is really comprised of ( ) clippings obtained from the ends of sheets, ( ) sheets which have been malformed in machining, or ( ) sheets showing the presence of many "bubbles." as to the first class it might be explained that through defective rolling, thick ends or edges may be caused. these show signs of contained moisture when the bulk of the sheet is perfectly dry, and as undue delay would otherwise result these moist strips are trimmed and either returned to the smoke-house, or machined to form crepe. similarly a torn or otherwise badly formed sheet, when brought from the smoke-house, may be made into crepe, rather than it should prejudice the selling price of the bulk under ruling conditions. in the same manner, although "bubbles" have no influence upon the quality of the rubber on vulcanisation, sheets thus affected are generally made into crepe. it cannot possibly be argued that rubber of this description would be in any way inferior to the best smoked sheet for manufacturing purposes, but owing to the prevailing system of evaluation for market purposes, it is necessary to resort to the expedients indicated above. on some estates the rubber specified in the three classes mentioned is not made into crepe, but cut up into small pieces and shipped as "sheet clippings" or "sheet trimmings"--a procedure which would appear to be justified by a steady demand. in point of fact, the buyers are really obtaining a first-class article (except in superficial appearance) at a reduced price. chapter xi _drying of rubber_ air-drying of crepe.--it is still the prevailing custom to air-dry crepe rubbers. a few estates, it is true, have artificial driers installed, and in some necessary cases others will be erected. but in the majority of cases where money has been expended in building air-drying sheds, as long as it is only possible to ship rubber regularly air-drying is likely to remain in favour. the great drawback to air-drying is that one is so dependent upon the weather conditions. in favourable weather the rubber dries well, but in a long period of wet weather rubber may accumulate at an alarming rate, and the accommodation is sometimes severely taxed. of course, the rate of drying under the best conditions is mainly dependent on the thickness of the crepe, and every endeavour should be made to maintain a thin style of preparation. if this precaution is not taken, the rubber is liable to recurrent attacks of "spot" disease, and one's troubles are very much augmented. this is a disability to which rubber treated in artificial driers is not liable. still, air-dried rubber can be made equal, if not superior, in appearance to pale rubbers prepared by other processes. for the lowest grades of crepe air-drying is always likely to remain the only method, as it would be extremely unsafe to submit them to heat. it is noted in ordinary practice that the rate of drying on different estates, for the same type of rubber, may vary widely. naturally the construction of the house has a great effect, and this subject will receive attention in a subsequent chapter. similarly the position of the drying-shed exerts an important influence, and the erection of the building in low-lying surroundings is always calculated to prolong the drying period appreciably. incidentally this means that the building must be larger than a normal rate of drying would otherwise demand. the combination of a poor type of drying-house, a low-lying situation, and a prolonged wet season, might render it advisable to abandon the air-drying of high grade crepes in favour of artificial drying. artificial driers for crepe.--it is more common to find artificial driers in use in ceylon than in malaya, possibly because these driers have been in use in ceylon for other products. some time ago the question of installing artificial driers received the serious attention of a number of estates in this country, chiefly on account of the incidence of fungoid and bacterial diseases in crepe rubber. the simple treatment for the prevention of these diseases is to get the rubber dry in the shortest possible space of time. in most cases it is found sufficient to roll crepe thin for air-drying in order to prevent the appearance of coloured spots. it is found, however, that some drying-houses are so badly planned and constructed, that quick drying under even the best of conditions is a practical impossibility. cases have been known in which the disease may disappear almost entirely during a period of freedom from rain, only to recur as soon as wet weather sets in again. there can be no doubt that, on the whole, the number of cases of "spot" disease is on the decline; but equally it is certain that a very few estates will always be liable to outbreaks as long as drying is attempted in existing houses. for these reasons it is a poor policy to temporise, and the only sound policy in extreme cases would be to give up ordinary air-drying in favour of some method of artificial drying. as regards the majority of estates preparing pale crepe for various reasons, it is not expected that any will instal artificial driers. money has been expended in elaborate buildings which certainly do the work for which they were designed. as long, therefore, as the accommodation is sufficient, and regular shipments are the rule, it is expected that ordinary air-drying will still remain the general practice. of the better-known artificial driers, there are only three which merit serious consideration in these pages. they are the vacuum driers, the colombo commercial company's hot-air drier, and the michie-golledge process. vacuum driers.--the vacuum drier is so well known that only a brief description need be given. it consists of a chamber heated by steam pipes and capable of having the contained air and moisture withdrawn by a pump. this description sounds very simple, and in practice the operation of vacuum drying is really a simple one, and can well be entrusted to an intelligent coolie under efficient supervision. indicators are fitted which show the vacuum pressure and the pressure of steam in the heating pipes which travel underneath horizontal slabs upon which trays may be placed. still, in spite of the apparent simplicity of the process, there would appear to be a number of little details which, if overlooked, prove to be factors influencing the result to a considerable degree. thus it is not uncommon to find complaints that the rubber is not dry when packed. the writers have seen rubber taken from a vacuum drier still containing a visible quantity of moisture. one would have imagined that continuous working of the drier would give the experience necessary to obtain dry rubber, but, apparently, such is not the case in a number of instances. elaborate instructions are given by the makers, but often they are more honoured in the breach than in the observance. really, there are only two points to bear in mind: ( ) that the rubber must be fairly thin. ( ) that the temperature be not allowed to rise too high. some makers advise ° f. as a maximum, but no harm results from a temperature of ° to ° as long as the interval is not prolonged.[ ] [ ] these figures refer to temperatures recorded by thermometers placed in the folds of the rubber. these two points presume that the vacuum drier is true to its name, and that one can obtain a maximum steady pressure. the machines are so well made now that no drier should be taken over from those responsible for its erection unless it can show a vacuum pressure of inches within fifteen minutes of starting the pump; and with the pump stopped, there should not be a greater fall in pressure than inch within ten minutes after stopping the pump. one of the most frequent sources of error is the control of steam pressure which is responsible for the temperature of the drier. it is quite unnecessary and unwise to maintain any steam pressure once the drying is well under way. all that is necessary is to heat the chamber well, with a steam pressure of lbs., before inserting the rubber. as soon as the maximum vacuum pressure has been obtained, steam should be shut off from the heating pipes, and it will be found that the temperature is well maintained throughout the operation with a rise of ten to twenty degrees at the end. if the drier is working at a vacuum pressure of inches, and if the crepe has been prepared thin enough, the rubber should be quite dry within two hours. should the operation have to be extended to two and a half hours at inches vacuum pressure, it is a sign that the crepe is too thick. on such occasions it is often noticed that these thicker crepes are not thoroughly dry, having moist spots enclosed in them. on re-rolling, these moist patches become easily visible, and are a source of great annoyance, inasmuch as they take quite a long time to dry out. as mentioned before, the crepe for vacuum drying should be thin. there is no necessity to give it a superfine finish, and the presence of small holes is quite permissible, as they disappear on subsequent re-rolling. the thin crepe may be folded loosely to the length (or breadth) of the tray several times, but in no other way can the drier be expected to perform its work satisfactorily. a case was noted in which thin crepe was excellently prepared, and four or five layers were rolled together for vacuum drying. naturally this mode of procedure does not give the drier a fair chance, and it would be ridiculous to judge vacuum drying on the results. after two and a half hours at a temperature of ° f. the rubber appeared to be only about three parts dry, and the subsequent air-drying extended well into a fortnight. it is the common practice to screw up the door of the chamber as tightly as possible. as a rule it is found in course of time that the obtainable maximum vacuum pressure decreases. this may be attributed solely to the forcible screwing up of the door. around the inside edges of the door are strips of rubber compound, the function of which is to form a tight joint. should the door be screwed up too tightly, these strips become deformed in course of time, and slight leaks occur. it should be pointed out that it is only necessary to screw up the door at the beginning of the operation. when the vacuum has been obtained, the screw pressure may be released, as the atmospheric pressure outside the chamber is more than ample to keep the door in a close fitting position. this will be obvious from the fact that the difference in pressure between the inside and the outside of the door amounts to, say, inches atmospheric pressure--_i.e._, nearly lbs. per square foot. by slackening the screw handles, therefore, as soon as the indicator shows the maximum working vacuum pressure, the life of the door joints may be prolonged, and the drier will remain efficient for a longer time. a careful consideration of the question of temperature leads one to the conclusion that the practice of placing a thermometer through the roof of the chamber does not enable one to determine the temperature correctly. in the same way a thermometer suspended behind the observation window cannot indicate the temperature of the rubber, as in both of these positions the thermometer must be influenced by radiation from the walls of the chamber. the only position in which the correct temperature could be indicated is between the folds of crepe. this can be arranged easily so as to enable one to read the temperature from the observation window. colombo commercial company's drier.--the drier of the colombo commercial company consists in principle of a number of small chambers or units in which crepe rubber is placed, and through which hot air is passed. as in the case of vacuum drying, a great deal depends upon the preliminary treatment of the rubber. if the crepe is not rolled thin enough drying will be unduly prolonged, with a possibility that the rubber will become tacky. the temperature usually obtained is about ° f., and if the rubber is thin the production of an installation of two chambers should be at the rate of lb. of dry rubber per minute. the usual period of drying is under two hours. one advantage which this drier has over the vacuum drier is that the chamber can be opened at any time for a short period to withdraw or insert trays. the thin crepe is folded several times, as in the case of vacuum-drying. figures obtained from the actual working of a drier in ceylon are given below: -------------------------------------------------+----------------------- chamber .--temperature °- °f. | -------------------------------------------------|chamber .--temperature _no. of | _drying | _weight of | _weight of | °- °f. tray._ | period._ | wet rubber._ | dry rubber._ | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+----------------------- |hrs. mins.| lbs. | lbs. | | | - / | |worked similarly | | - / | |to no. . yielded | | - / | |in hrs. mins. | | - / | | - / lbs. dry rubber, | | | - / |from - / lbs. wet | | - / | |rubber. | | - / | | | | - / | | | | - / | | | | - / | | | | - / | | | | - / | | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+----------------------- | | - / | - / | --------+----------+--------------+--------------+----------------------- it will be seen, therefore, that the drier had an output in hrs. mins. of - / lbs., which is at the rate of lb. per minute approximately. as the rubber leaves the driers it resembles vacuum-dried rubber in being surface-sticky. this stickiness is only temporary, and is got rid of by passing the crepe through wet rolls. opinions differ as to when this rolling should be given. on some estates the rubber is only allowed to cool a little before passing through the rolls; on others it is given a day or so before rolling. the methods of rolling also differ. in some factories the rubber has been cut to lengths before drying, and these lengths are merely rolled together by simple pressure. other estates prefer to re-macerate the crepe while still fairly warm and soft. it is probable that little harm, if any, results from this re-maceration while the rubber is soft, as it is more easily worked in this condition. the thick rubber is then generally hung for a few days to air-dry before packing. as most of the moisture taken up by the dry rubber is surface moisture, three or four days is usually found ample for air-drying. michie-golledge system.--the michie-golledge system comprises a process of preparation and drying. the latex is diluted with two, three, or four volumes of water and coagulated with acid in a vessel which is rotated with a churning motion. in this cylinder there are curved and fixed blades. the revolving cylinder and its ribs force the latex against the curved blades so as to cause an eddy in the middle of the machine. here the rubber coagulates and accumulates, the remaining liquor whirling round outside the blades. it can be imagined that with such dilute latex, the coagulum is very soft and spongy. this soft mass is passed through a machine which cuts it into "worms" about / inch in section. these are placed upon wire trays and dried by means of hot air. the "worms" when dry are re-macerated and built up into medium and thick crepes. the colour of the rubber prepared by this process is usually very good. when treated in a colombo drier the "worms" usually require about two hours to dry, so that crepe rubber may be packed at latest on the fourth or fifth day, as in the case of vacuum-dried rubber. rate of air-drying of crepe rubber.--in spite of the facts that some estates have been making thin pale crepes for years, and that so much has been written concerning the preparation of this grade of rubber, one occasionally meets with a case in which an estate seems to be unable to prepare thin pale crepe, or if it does the period of drying is much longer than obtains on most estates. again, when cases of infection by spot disease in fairly thin crepes are submitted, it is usually found that the particular crepes are of that type which, though fairly thin, show whitish spots of moisture when the bulk of the rubber is nearly dry. this type of crepe is to be noted for the excessive period of drying in comparison with other crepes of equal thinness. it has been advanced elsewhere[ ] that a factor of the most considerable importance in the rate of drying of crepe rubber is the type of drying-house and its situation. this accounts very largely for observed differences in the rate of drying of thin crepes on different estates. yet even where two drying-houses may be of the same type, and the situations may be comparable, one still observes that one thin crepe dries more quickly than another. it has been remarked also that a thin crepe in one old drying-house dries in a shorter period than a similar crepe in another more modern house, although the methods of coagulation and preparation exhibit no apparent diversity. in all these conflicting cases allowance is made for the weather conditions, and the observed differences seem to be inexplicable. it has always been the opinion of the writers that the actual rolling of the rubber plays an important part in determining the rate of drying of crepe, apart from the question of thinness; and it seemed possible that this factor would account for the discrepancies noted above, either partially or wholly. [ ] "preparation of plantation rubber," morgan, , chapters xii. and xiii. with a view to determining to what degree the drying of crepe rubber was hastened by the extent to which the rubber was rolled, experiments were made. it was hoped, also, that some idea would be gained of the particular stage in crepe rolling which had the greatest effect upon the rate of drying. in preparing crepe in the estate in the ordinary way the coagulum is passed through three sets of rollers, and the stages may be described as: ( ) rough rolling. ( ) medium rolling. ( ) smooth rolling. in the first the coagulum is broken down by passing through the machines until a thick rough crepe is formed. this passes to the intermediate rollers, where it is worked down to a medium crepe. the rubber finally goes to the smooth running at approximately even speeds. passing through these a number of times it emerges as a thin uniform crepe, free from "lumpiness" and free from holes, which should dry in from ten to twelve days. in the experiment the rubber was passed through the machines with varying frequency, the number of times in each machine being progressively increased, while the working on the other machines remained constant. it was determined that the rate of drying was affected only by the extent to which the crepe was worked in the smooth rolls. the less often the rubber passed through these rolls, the slower the rate of drying. beyond a limit in the other direction, increased rolling did not reduce the period of drying. it follows, therefore, that crepes which have a good thin finish should dry in a minimum period. [illustration: drying graph. pale crepe (thin).] when does air-drying take place?--experiments[ ] were conducted with a view to discovering, if possible, the rate at which crepe rubber dries, and the extent of drying during the night under weather conditions such as prevail ordinarily in malaya. it is to be remembered that, during the day, most drying-houses are fairly open and that the temperature ranges from about ° f. in the lower rooms to over ° in the upper rooms (near the roof) when the sun shines. at night, however, there is usually a decided drop in the temperature, and unless it is a very clear night the air is generally saturated with moisture. in addition the drying-house is closed as thoroughly as possible, and we should expect the atmosphere of the house to be laden with moisture from the wet and drying rubber. it would be a just inference, therefore, that the rate of drying during the night would be much less than the rate of drying during the day, and the results of experiments confirm this very fully. one was hardly prepared, however, to find that, under certain circumstances and at a certain stage, the amount of drying is nil; not only so, but it was found under certain conditions that the amount of drying which took place was negative--_i.e._, the rubber weighed slightly more when taken out in the morning than it had weighed the previous afternoon. [ ] rubber growers' association, malaya local report, no. , . crepe may increase in weight.--as an instance of the kind of result obtained a graph is here given of the rate of drying of a batch of pale crepe. this was hung to dry in the top room of a drying-house in which rubber ordinarily dries quickly. the rubber was hung in a good position, with the bulk of output, near a window which was open for some time during the day. in order to restrict the day interval of drying to the actual period in which the sun was likely to be in evidence, the day was taken to begin at a.m. and end at p.m., the night interval covering the remaining sixteen hours. thus the night interval was twice as long as the period of day drying. the lengths of crepe were weighed carefully at a.m. and a.m., and the average of the several weights was plotted in a graph. the weights are placed vertically and the duration of drying horizontally. it will be seen that the rubber was quite dry and fit for packing on the sixth day, as far as could be judged in the usual way by casual inspection. peculiarly enough at this time it weighed slightly more than had been registered on the fourth and fifth days, but the difference did not amount to more than about · per cent. in examining the graph it should be borne in mind that the steeper the slope of the curve downwards the quicker the rate of drying, and that when the curve takes an upward direction there is an addition of moisture instead of abstraction. it will be noted that when drying takes place the slopes more nearly approximating the vertical represent the extent of day drying, and that often the night drying is represented either by a very flat curve or even by an upward curve which shows the addition of moisture. a striking feature of the experiment is shown by the rapidity with which drying takes place during the first few days and the comparative slowness with which the remaining moisture is got rid of. thus, from the graph, it may be calculated that about per cent. of the total moisture content was lost in the first two days, and over per cent. in two and a half days. yet three days had to elapse before the remaining per cent. of total moisture was lost--_i.e._, before the rubber was judged to be ready for packing. it will be seen that after this stage had been reached the rubber alternately lost and gained in weight, with a tendency to increase. this increase was attributed to the presence of surface moisture after hanging overnight, when the rains had become frequent. some light is thus shed upon a subject which has puzzled both shippers and receivers of crepe rubber. differences in weight.--it will be obvious that if rubber is allowed to hang after becoming dry, and is taken down, packed, and weighed in the early morning, it will weigh more than when it reaches a drier climate. the loss in weight under such circumstances might amount to even per cent. it may seem to some an unnecessary refinement to introduce, but it would appear from the graph that rubber should be packed for preference in the afternoon if the weights are to be more nearly correct. it is extremely singular to note how quickly the curve changes its slope after the major portion of the moisture has evaporated, and it will be very plain that in the last stages any decrease in weight during the day would appear to be counterbalanced, or more than counterbalanced, by the addition of moisture during the night. it may be pointed out, however, that this increase in weight during the later stages of drying of pale crepe is mainly, if not altogether, due to surface moisture. the chief point of interest is the fact that in the case of thin pale crepe, quite per cent. of the total moisture content is lost during the first two or three days, and that, owing to the negative influence of the night atmosphere, the final drying is delayed. it will be understood that the foregoing results applied to thin pale crepe. thin lower-grade crepes appeared to dry at more uniform rates, but the differences between the rates of drying at night and during the day were similarly notable. aids to normal air-drying.--these experiments were undertaken in a drying-house, favourably situated for rapid drying, in which the average period of drying for thin crepes is nine days. it is easy to imagine that the condition of affairs as revealed would be much exaggerated in a drying-house situated on low-lying ground and surrounded by trees. in extreme cases of this nature the use of large fans and heating pipes has been advocated. it is believed that in some cases these installations have given satisfaction, but that in others the degree of improvement obtained has not been in economic proportion to the outlay incurred. smoke-curing of sheet rubber.--it will have been evident that one of the disadvantages of air-drying sheet is the incidence of moulds. now it is found that moulds should not develop in smoke-curing; and if they do, then the smoke-curing has been insufficient or inefficient. the difference in the drying period also is a strong argument in favour of smoke-curing, so that all-round it is seen that there are many valuable advantages to be gained by smoke-curing sheet in comparison with air-drying, and no disadvantages. the manipulation of the rubber, after it leaves the marking rolls and preparatory to smoke-curing, has been discussed in chapter ix. it is sufficient only to allow adequate time for furnace water to drip from the sheets before transferring them to the smoke-house. as it is the general rule to roll sheet rubber in the morning, this arrangement fits in very well. the furnaces of the smoke-house are usually extinguished as soon as the sun is well risen, and the rest of the day is occupied in sorting dry sheets, etc. towards noon the day's wet sheets should have been admitted, and smoking may be commenced as soon as the sun is well in the west--say, at half-past four o'clock or earlier. it used to be the custom on a few estates to smoke during the daytime and to discontinue smoking at night. as the night-air in malaya is usually heavily laden with moisture, it will be plain that such a policy was a topsy-turvy one. it is vastly more reasonable to smoke-cure at night; usually the heat of the sun during the day is quite sufficient in itself to promote the drying of rubber; but there is no reason why smoking should not be carried on in the daytime in wet weather, should it be found expedient to do so. recording instruments.--during the night the care of the smoke-houses is usually in the hands of natives, except for occasional surprise visits from a european superintendent. to all acquainted with the ways of the native it must be plain that means must be provided for the checking of the temperatures attained in the smoke-house. ordinary thermometers are quite unsuitable, and even thermometers registering maximum and minimum temperatures are of little avail, inasmuch as they record only the degree of heat attained at a particular moment, and do not indicate any period during which a particular temperature was maintained. it is evident that something more informative is required. there are many types of suitable recording instruments or "pyrometers," some of which can be electrically connected, so as to cause the ringing of a bell, placed in the superintendent's office or house, on the attainment of a certain temperature. the type best known in estate practice is that named the "thermograph," in which a pen traces a curve or graph on a plotted piece of paper carried by a rotating cylinder which is actuated by clockwork. such instruments can be purchased through most of the local firms dealing in estate supplies. from experience it can be asserted that, given intelligent attention, these instruments yield very satisfactory results. the apparatus should not be placed always in one position in the smoke-house, but should be moved frequently so as to obtain information regarding the distribution of heat. temperature of smoke-curing.--in the question of temperature of drying, it is well to be as strict as possible; not that any great harm will result from a rise of ° above that recommended, but because the higher the temperature recorded the larger the fires must have been, and consequently the more real danger there was of the store becoming ignited. it has been shown[ ] that the temperature giving the maximum benefit of drying and quality was found experimentally to be rather above the temperature usually prescribed for smoke-houses, but in the experimental work there was no danger from fire. [ ] "preparation of plantation rubber," morgan, , chapter x. the figure given in previous publications as a maximum working temperature for smoke-houses was ° f., but certainly the temperature may be as high as ° if it is considered safe to allow fires to be so arranged. one or two estates are known to work at temperatures of ° f. and over, in spite of the recommendations of the writers. if those estates care to risk it they may do so, with increased rapidity of drying; but no responsibility can be taken for whatever may happen in smoke-houses where the temperature is allowed to remain, as in one case, at ° f. naturally the range of temperature is strictly limited by the properties of the substance to be treated, and with a substance such as rubber it would be far better to err on the side of caution than to risk damage to such a commodity, apart from the consideration of the possible destruction of the building. period of drying.--considerable differences are noted in the periods of drying on various estates; but, as there is more than one factor influencing the results, it is not easy at first to find why these differences should exist. really there are three factors: ( ) relative thickness of rubber. ( ) extent and quality of rolling. ( ) temperature of drying. it is presumed that the smoke-houses are identical in type and efficiency, and that smoking is in force for the same length of time each day. there need be no discussion of these points; the effect of each is so obvious. the thinner the sheet, the quicker the rate of drying; the better the sheet has been rolled, the shorter the period of drying; the higher the temperature, the more rapid the drying. it has been shown in chapter ix. that the condition of the sheet after rolling depends primarily upon the standard of dilution of the latex and the original thickness of the coagulum. if these factors are correctly controlled, the rolling should give a sheet which is fairly soft and porous--_i.e._, it should not have been subjected to such pressure as to make it both thin and hard. an average sheet of rubber which has been well rolled should be smoke-dried at a temperature of ° f. in about ten days. if sheets take appreciably longer to dry, then the three foregoing factors must be examined. on the other hand, it is often found that thin sheets made from very dilute latex dry so quickly that they are considered to be fully smoke-cured in from five to seven days. it frequently happens in such cases, however, that the smoking is insufficient, and by the time the rubber reaches home it has begun to show signs of surface moulds. it is evident, therefore, from this discussion that: ( ) if smoked sheet develops surface moulds within a short period after smoking, the duration of curing has been insufficient, or the quality of the smoking is at fault. ( ) the actual time taken to smoke-dry rubber may be insufficient to smoke-cure it. ( ) the rate of drying of smoked sheet depends upon-- (_a_) the relative thickness of the rubber. (_b_) the preliminary treatment of rolling. (_c_) the temperature of the smoke-house, and (_d_) the type of smoke-house used. this point will be treated in a subsequent chapter. fuels for smoking.--the general idea formerly held was that the beneficial effects of smoking were to be attributed to the constituents of the smoke, and chiefly the creosotic substances. this is not now the opinion of the writers, who attribute the effect largely to the temperature of drying and constituents of the smoke other than creosotic substances. there can be no doubt that the presence of creosotic bodies is responsible largely for the absence of moulds and the existence of the typical odour, but it is becoming increasingly known that the employment of substances rich in creosote is not required or desirable. estates used to be put to considerable expense in the purchase of "bakau" (a mangrove timber rich in creosote and creating much heat), under the idea that it was the best material and almost indispensable. most estates now restrict themselves to the consumption of timber obtained from their own areas. thinning-out programmes are largely responsible for the supply, but the local authorities are much concerned regarding future supplies; and consideration has been given in some quarters to the question of the development of quick-growing trees on estates with a view to safeguarding the future. this seems to be desirable, as it is difficult to imagine that the place of timber can be taken by any other material in the smoke-curing of rubber. unless some such precautions are taken it is not difficult to predict that, in course of time, some estates will be able to continue the preparation of smoked sheets only at considerable expense in obtaining suitable fuel from a distance. it is not true that _any kind of timber_ is suitable as a fuel to be used in a smoke-house. all timbers are suitable, either alone or in mixture with others, provided that the wood is not too green. naturally an absolutely dead and crumbling wood will smoulder, but does not develop sufficient smoke. a green timber will give an acrid and moist smoke, but demands the consumption of a certain amount of dry timber in addition if it is to be used. rubber-tree prunings and sawn rubber trees obtained by thinning-out may be used in mixture with dead wood, provided the logs are stacked to dry in the sun for some weeks before use. if the timber is too green, steam is formed as well as smoke, and the sheets of rubber may have a moist surface glaze. sun-drying sheet rubber.--among the first curious sights which impress the visitor or newcomer to this country is the spectacle of sheet rubber hanging in the sun on native holdings. from what one has learned of the extraordinary care which must be exercised in all the processes of rubber preparation, one fails to understand how such rubber reaches the market without becoming tacky. that some of it does become slightly tacky is certain, but on the whole native rubber, though crudely prepared, is usually sound. the native idea of giving sheet rubber a preliminary drying in the sun is to hasten the total period of drying. that the period is curtailed would seem to be the case, but it is open to doubt, as the effect of sun-drying, if unduly prolonged, is to create a thin surface film of dry rubber which retards the drying of the rubber below the surface. working with wet crepe rubber, the writer found that, to all external appearances, there was no effect upon the rubber when it was allowed to sun-dry for four or five hours. with periods of from six to ten hours the crepe becomes slightly sticky, chiefly on that portion across the support. when removed to the air-drying house this tackiness developed further, and the rubber, on the line of support, became so weak that it stretched and broke. reasoning by analogy, it would appear that no apparent harm would result to sheet rubber from sun-drying for periods up to four or five hours. from experience (see chapter ix.), not the slightest ill-effect is found to result from the short interval of preliminary drying or dripping practised on many estates preparatory to smoke-curing. artificial driers for sheet rubber.--it is understood that when vacuum driers were first applied to the drying of rubber it was thought possible to dry sheet rubber in this way. the practice was found to be impossible, as the length of time required and the temperature were responsible for the destruction of the form of the rubber; it became tacky and semi-liquid. the "chula" drier.--although several suggestions of devices for artificially drying sheet have been made, only one is known to be in use at the present time. in the original form this was used for drying other tropical products. it consists of a large iron chamber, in which are several compartments divided by means of baffle-plates. at one end there is a small furnace and, by means of a fan, smoke and hot air are drawn through the compartments. owing to the temperature attained ( ° to ° f.) sheet rubber cannot be completely dried in the chambers, and is, as a rule, only treated in this manner for one or two days. drying is then completed in an ordinary air-drying house. it is claimed that drying is expedited, and that the rubber can be packed in ten days. in the more recent modification, the smoke and hot air which leave the chula drier pass through a large room in which may be hung either sheet or crepe rubber. it would seem that all sources of danger have not been eliminated from the process, as on one estate a wooden room containing rubber was ignited by a spark which passed through the drier. yet another form exists in which the furnace is outside the main building, and in the ordinary course of working only heats a series of open pipes through which air is drawn by a powerful fan. by means of a valve it is possible to allow smoke from the furnace to pass into the room with the hot air for the preparation of smoked rubber. the hot air or smoke is distributed in the lower room by means of main and branch pipes, and passes through an open floor to the room above. with such an arrangement it is possible, therefore, to prepare either air-dried or smoke-cured rubber. if the method could be successfully applied to the drying of crepe it would be of great assistance on some estates. there would seem to be a difficulty in working it for the drying of sheer rubber and crepe together, as the temperature suitable for the one is excessive for the other. given an efficient control over the temperature of the hot air, the house should be successful in the drying of crepe, provided the rubber is not hung in folds of too great length. for smoke-curing sheet rubber the period is said to be reduced by several days in comparison with the time occupied in an ordinary smoke-house, but it is not clear that such a system would have any advantage over a modern smoke-house, in types of which rubber can be fully cured in periods ranging from five to ten days. chapter xii _sorting, grading, and packing_ the question of standardising the output of our plantations is one which has occupied attention for some years, with a not inconsiderable degree of success. meanwhile opinion is growing in favour of proceeding along the line of reducing the number of plantation grades to a minimum. at present some confusion exists. some estates make up tree-scrap and bark-shavings together; one estate puts tree-scrap, earth-scrap, and bark-shavings into one uniform crepe; other estates have three or more separate scrap grades--_e.g._, lump-rubber and "washings," tree-scrap, earth-scrap, and bark-shavings scrap. there is a movement on foot at present to try to restrict plantation rubber to three grades: crepes-- . _first quality latex._--_i.e._, crepe made from the true coagulum obtained from the regulated coagulation of strained latex. this is a pale rubber, and may be prepared satisfactorily if the directions given in preceding chapters are followed. naturally there must be, in all factories, some defective rubber of this grade. for various reasons the crepe may be of inferior colour, or is slightly contaminated with dirt or traces of oil and grease, etc. this defective rubber should be placed aside most rigorously and plainly marked as "off-quality." if a proper scheme of standardisation of latex and chemicals is followed, there should not be any such variety in shades of colour, such as was common in no. crepe in the past. comparatively few estates in malaya now prepare thick (or blanket) crepes in the no. grade, but in such cases the same rules must be applied as govern the sorting of thin fine pale crepes. . _compound crepe, no. ._--in this it is proposed to include cup-coagulated lumps, coagulated lumps from transport vessels, skimmings, bucket rinsings, cup-washings, and tree-scrap. it has been shown in chapter x. that strict care is necessary to eliminate all oxidised (dark) scraps. these are relegated to a lower grade. the possession of a "scrap-washer" is necessary if the best results are to be obtained. on some estates the ingredients of this compound crepe, while fresh, are placed in a common jar or tank to which a quantity of sodium bisulphite ( per cent. solution) and acid are added. the resulting conglomerate mass is cut up for working. . _compound crepe, no. ._--this grade would include the remaining lower grades--viz., bark-shavings, scrap, and earth-rubber scrap. reduction carried too far.--however desirable it may be to diminish the number of grades, it must be pointed out that diminution and simplification are not necessarily synonymous terms in this matter. it is well known that on estates where the earth-rubber is only brought in at lengthy intervals, say of a week, the resulting crepe is sometimes very tacky. this is only natural, and is due to the prolonged exposure to the sun's rays. with the improved machinery now at our disposal, and with the increasing attention which will be given to the lower grades in the future, it is possible to prepare from average bark-shavings crepe free from bark, and of quite a good colour. where trees are not "scrapped" before tapping, there would seem to be no objection to amalgamating the rubber obtained from the bark-shavings with the no. compound crepe; and it would be a distinct danger and possible loss if this good rubber were to be mixed with earth rubber. the liability of the latter to become tacky is well recognised; and if possible it should be maintained as a separate grade, in which it would be permissible to mix only rubber obtained from actually dry shavings from "scrapped" trees, or heavily-oxidised scraps which have been rejected from other grades. sheets.--broadly there are no fine distinctions to be made at present in the grading of smoked-sheet rubber; it is either no. , or if any so-called defect is visible the sheets must be rejected and plainly marked as "off-quality." clippings (trimmings) may either be made into crepe or shipped under their own description. rubber growers' association's recommendations.--taking the foregoing arguments into full consideration, it would seem that, strictly speaking, the number of grades cannot be reduced to less than four at present without producing some amount of confusion. in its handbook,[ ] the rubber growers' association remarks: [ ] "preparation of plantation rubber," . "the fewer grades the better, and regularity of each grade is most important. "the grading should be as follows: "(no. ) fine crepe (or no. sheet), made from the free or liquid latex. "(no. ) clean light brown crepe, made from lumps and skimmings. "(no. ) scrap crepe, made from tree-scrap. "(no. ) dark crepe, made from bark-shavings, earth rubber, and the lower quality of scrap. "tacky rubber should be packed separately. "_compound scrap crepe._--estates using scrap-washers should make a compound crepe of grades nos. and , which will make one compound free from bark and specks. all rubber intended for no. should be most thoroughly washed." concerning these recommendations the remarks in preceding paragraphs should be studied. care in sorting.--whether dealing with smoked-sheet, pale crepe, or lower grades, the strictest care is necessary in sorting and grading. this work must of necessity be relegated to coolies, and they should be trained men. instructions must be definite, and doubtful specimens of rubber should always be placed aside for the decision of the european superintendent. any pieces showing unmistakable signs of what are regarded as defects should be stringently rejected. in the case of pale crepe, when the defect is confined only to a small area it is permissible to cut out the affected portion. similarly there can be no objection, in the case of smoked sheets, to an occasional sheet being treated in this manner. on the majority of estates these rules are observed carefully, but some estates yet have to learn that defective pieces of rubber may not be concealed in a bulk of otherwise good quality. samplers have often an uncanny knack of hitting upon the defective specimens, and it is entirely the fault of the estate's sorters if these pieces are submitted as being representative of the mass. choice of cases.--consumers complain justly of the presence of chips, splinters, and wood-dust. it will be evident, therefore, that whatever the type of case employed the interior surfaces should be smooth, there should be no cracks or gaps in the timber, and the cases should be cleaned out before using. there remains great room for improvement in the means and method of packing, and in spite of suggested alternatives we are at present restricted to the use of wooden cases. from comparisons of actual quality and fulfilment of the requirements indicated above, there can be no question that cases made of three-ply wood, such as the "venesta," are in every respect superior to the ordinary wooden cases of "momi" type. the consideration of cost and available supplies, of course, enters largely into the question, and three-ply cases are not at present so largely employed as they deserve to be. a new type of case was recently exhibited in singapore. it emanates from the u.s.a. and is made of a fibrous material, resembling in appearance a very stout cardboard. the complete case when assembled consists really of two boxes, one of which is inverted and slides down over the other. packing is completed by means of stout wire, which is strained by a simple ratchet arrangement. it is claimed that from to lbs. of rubber can be contained. other claims made amount to the statement that the case is practically indestructible under normal conditions of handling and shipping. a demonstration given certainly appeared to substantiate the statement fully. rubber packed in cases of various and average type was allowed to fall from a height of about twenty feet. in all instances the wooden cases of every type were either smashed or badly burst, whereas the fibre cases were merely dented. these cases are obtained in flat sections, which, in assembling, are folded and clamped by means of copper rivets in a special but simple machine. it was pointed out that objection might be lodged against the use of copper for this purpose. more recently there is announced a new packing case which is stated to be made from low-grade rubbers, but information is rather vague. bags.--there are in local use stout canvas bags which have the advantage of being used many times, as long as they are waterproof and kept in good dry condition. their employment for the conveyance of smoked-sheets would appear to be permitted, but crepe rubbers sent in them are often reported upon as being "massed" at the edges, and hence difficult to "sample." bales.--attempts to bale rubber for the market have been frequent, but no success seems to have attended the efforts. in some quarters the failure has been ascribed to prejudice on the part of buyers, but it is the opinion of the writers that the objections to baling are, or could be, well-founded. massed rubber often cannot be inspected properly, and hence is always open to suspicion that internally there may be unsuitable portions. there have been several schemes put forward for winding crepe rubber on spindles so as to form a cylindrical package complete in itself. we have seen the process, and certainly the method had much which appeared commendable. apart from other objections which might be raised, there is always the one prominent objection mentioned in the preceding paragraph. while baling of rubber is thus not likely to suit the general market, there is no reason why, as in one or two instances, it should not be practised by agreement between producer and consumer. it is believed that "slab" rubber is shipped in bales from sumatra to the u.s.a. quite recently a proposal has been put forward to revert to a simple form of baling for ordinary plantation rubber. under this scheme wooden cases are discarded, the packing material being composed of scrap-grade crepe rubber which, it is claimed, could be put to use by the manufacturer. an obvious drawback would be evident if these bales happened to be exposed to direct sunlight or a continuous high temperature. the tackiness which might supervene would make the handling of such bales unpleasant, even if it did not affect the internal rubber. folding for packing.--in the packing of smoked sheets it would appear to be advisable to avoid, if possible, the folding of any pieces, as the objection is made that such rubber is difficult to "sample" on arrival, especially in cold weather. sheets should be prepared or cut to such length that they occupy the full superficial area of the box, either singly or side by side. [illustration: a shipment of rubber, packed and ready for transport.] the same remark applies to the packing of crepe rubbers, except that here we deal with units of folded rubber. crepes are generally folded by hand, and coolies usually work to a certain dimension by means of a standard stick. the work is slow, but often gives employment, at a cheap rate of pay, to women and weak coolies. several machines have been invented to replace this labour. the best of these yet seen has a simple device by means of which the length of the fold is adjustable to suit the size of any packing case. it is called the "senang" folder, and is made by the general engineering company (radcliffe) ltd., radcliffe, near manchester. care in assembling.--whatever the type of case employed, great care must be given to the assembling of parts and the final fastening. it is not uncommon to find in the operation of putting on the "strapping" that nails have been driven into the rubber. extra bands of strapping are sometimes advised, and where these bands pass over the sides (not edges) of the case only specially short nails should be used. all wood should be planed, and in cases other than three-ply should be of stout wood, not less than / inch in thickness. all timber used should be of uniform type and thickness. methods of packing.--the usual method of packing crepe is to fold the lengths to some measure of the dimensions of the case. this is done in a haphazard fashion on some estates, with the result that either space is lost or the packing is badly arranged. some ingenuity can be displayed in the packing of sheet rubber in order to avoid folding the sheets, which, besides increasing the difficulty of sampling, leads to loss of space. endeavours are being continually made on estates to prepare sheet of such a size as to obtain the maximum benefit of space both in smoke-house accommodation and in packing. a few estates employ tanks of such calculated dimensions as will yield uniform sheets which pack flat and fill the superficial area of the case. in view of the contamination which sometimes characterises the employment of wooden cases it is sometimes advised that the interior should be lined with sheets, or pieces of crepe, the ends of which are later folded over the top of the mass. in this manner it is stated that contamination is confined only to the exterior of the contents of the case. weight of contents.--the dimensions of average cases are inches by inches by inches, giving a capacity of cubic feet. in these it is possible to pack lbs. of crepe rubber and lbs. of sheet rubber (about per cent. more in cases of three-ply wood). it may be noted that boxes arrive in better condition when fully packed. the foregoing figures are not adhered to strictly. for example, some estates find it expedient to ship rubber in actual ton lots, and for this purpose pack only lbs. of crepe per case, giving sixteen cases to the ton. other estates, using presses, pack more per case than the quantities noted above. at present there does not appear to be any definite regularity in practice. [illustration: on its road to the railway: bullock-cart transport.] in all instances it should be the invariable rule that the rubber should be weighed before packing, and that all cases should contain uniform nett quantities of any particular type of rubber. invoicing, etc., will thus be greatly facilitated. if these practices are followed, and the rubber always weighed on the same scales (assuming it to be perfectly dry when packed) complaints of "short-weight" should be infrequent. "short" weights.--in some cases the occurrence of "short" weights on arrival at ports would appear to be inexplicable. it often happens that the constituent parts of wooden cases have been in stock for a considerable period. if for no other reason than that indicated below, all cases, either before or after assembling, should be thoroughly dried in the sun. "short" weight could be accounted for to some degree by a lack of observance of this elementary rule, as it is most probable that there would be a perceptible difference in weight of the wooden case in a drier atmosphere. (_a_) if rubber is weighed in the box, and the average tare of the case deducted from the gross weight (in order to obtain the nett weight), any loss in the weight of the timber would appear as a deficiency of rubber at the distant port. (_b_) whether the same effect would be produced eventually in the case of rubber which is weighed before packing will depend upon the method of weighing at the warehouse. if the rubber is weighed in the box, any observed deficiency would be attributed to a loss of weight in the rubber. part iii machinery and buildings chapter xiii _machines_ the number of manufacturers of machines for preparing rubber would seem to be on the increase, and there can be little doubt that this competition will result in a continued improvement in the design of machines. it cannot be denied that there has been room for such improvement, and it is believed that manufacturers will display judgment in putting only their best quality into the work. while design and finish are very excellent in their way, it is to be regretted that in a number of cases in the past the material of rolls has been found to be of inferior quality. generally, the complaint seemed to be that the rolls were too soft, and that the "grinding" effect was far too great. the damage to pale rubber in such cases is considerable, as it is impossible to keep the rolls free from fine dark powder. the effect is generally noticed more in the smooth rolls with which a finish is put upon the crepe. cases have occurred frequently in which rolls have been returned, because of the injury caused to pale rubber, and there can be little doubt that the life of quite a large number of rolls is even now far too short in comparison with the expense involved. it is a moot point, however, in many instances how far the quality of the rolls is actually responsible for the damage done to the rubber. in the experience of the writers it is certain that complaints regarding the rolls were unjustifiable, and that the injury had been caused by carelessness in the "feeding" of the machine. especially in the case of smooth finishing rolls, it is clear that if the rolls are allowed to run idle for more than the briefest possible interval grinding must take place. the complaints apply not only to the rolls themselves, but also to the brass linings for shaft-bearings. cases are known in which a brass "liner" was so worn within a few weeks as to be quite useless. if the matter ended there it would not be so bad; but there is always the possibility of particles of brass finding their way into trays, and so into the rubber. the damage which ensues to the rubber is quite irreparable. this particular defect arising from the presence of brass will be dealt with in a later chapter. but here again it is necessary to point out that such wear on brass liners may be caused by the standards (ends) of the rolls being eccentric; and the case may be analogous to the placing of "new wine in old bottles." _en passant_ it may be remarked that in any case brass liners are not strictly necessary. white-metal alloys are in use on rubber machines, and cast-iron bearings have been employed satisfactorily for years. it would be well for managers to remember, therefore, that when machines have to be ordered, nothing but the best is good enough, and that the difference between good machinery and passable machinery is probably immensely greater in effect than any saving in expenditure would warrant. adequacy of machines.--in general, the factories which prepare sheet rubber are usually equipped with adequate machinery. this arises from the fact that machines are necessary for preparing all grades below the first, even if they are not necessary for the making of sheet. thus all the necessary macerators and finishing machines are installed, but the major part of the output is in sheet form. for the preparation of sheet, no heavy machinery is required; all that is necessary are light machines for rolling the sheets and expressing as much moisture as possible. to obtain a pattern on the sheet, another light machine may be used. it may be imagined, then, that the work of rolling sheet rubber by power machines is small, and that a large quantity of rubber can be worked off in a comparatively short time. it follows, therefore, that the preparation of the lower crepe grades can be proceeded with at once, and that the whole work of the factory is expedited. the case of factories which have to prepare all first-grade rubber in crepe form is quite different, especially when thin rubber has to be made. the care which has to be exercised in preparing pale crepe rubber is very great in comparison with what is demanded by sheet rubber. the rubber has to go first through the uneven-speed macerators, from there to the intermediate rollers, thence to the finishing rollers. considerable ingenuity has to be displayed in the arrangement of the machines, so that one section will not work faster or slower than another. more often than not, the attempt to arrive at such a desirable arrangement fails, owing to an insufficiency of machines. such a statement will probably read strangely to the uninitiated; but an example will make it plain. a factory may have a battery of six machines, one only of which is a finishing machine (smooth rolls). with five macerators and intermediate machines working continuously, it will be more than the work of one finishing pair of rolls to keep pace, especially as so much more care has to be exercised in finishing than in rough crepe-making. the obvious course to adopt is to substitute a pair of smooth rolls, with suitable gear ratio, for a pair of macerators or "intermediates." if, however, the macerators and intermediates are already fully occupied the whole of the time, any such change would be of small benefit. what is really needed in this case is more machinery. it might be pertinently asked what constitutes an adequate equipment of machines for crepe-making. the writers cannot give a number, but have no hesitation in stating that if a factory cannot complete its whole day's work before dark, it is inadequately equipped. no work should be done after dark, if possible, as it cannot receive the supervision which crepe-making demands. to make comparison between the number of machines in any two factories and their respective outputs is not sound argument, as the out-turn of two similar machines will depend upon the speed at which the rolls travel--_i.e._, the gearing between the machines and the engines. thus, while one machine will out-turn lbs. of crepe per hour, another may only have an output of lbs., although the machines may be identical in pattern. to make calculations based on a rate per hour for any known make of machine, and to apply those calculations to the existing machinery in any factory, in an attempt to judge whether there is a sufficient number of machines, would be a mistake, unless one were also supplied with the relative speeds at which the rolls work. finally, on the question of adequacy of machines, it must be pointed out that an insufficient number of machines must result in a poor product, since all rolls have to be used for all grades. even with the greatest possible care it happens that pale crepe is sometimes spoiled because it is contaminated with foreign matter, resulting from the working of lower grades on the same machines. this is one of the great arguments in another direction for the installation of a scrap-washer. in conclusion, the writers can only give their opinion that one must not decide the question of adequacy by the number of existing machines, but by the time taken each day in working off the rubber, providing one can be satisfied that the best arrangement of the existing machines has been made. ideal arrangement.--as to what this best arrangement may be, guidance can be obtained from the results of experience here given. it must be premised that the output of any factory preparing fine pale crepe is limited by the output of the smooth finishing rolls. broadly, it will be recognised that if there is any excess of capacity in a battery it should be found in the smooth-roll machines. this sufficiency, or excess of capacity, may sometimes be attained by an alteration in the gearing of the drive of the rolls from the back-shaft, or by an addition to the number of machines. in the former case, there are practicable limits of speed, beyond which the second alternative measure must be adopted. speed.--the usual speed at which the back-shaft travels ranges from to revolutions per minute. taking first the macerating machines, the intermediate gearing between the shaft and the rolls should give a driving speed of about revolutions per minute on the faster-travelling roll. this is equivalent, with a -inch diameter roll, to a peripheral speed of about to feet per minute. the intermediate and smooth rolls can be arranged to travel more quickly, but the maximum comfortable speed for proper feeding and control appears to be about revolutions per minute on even-speed rolls. in view of the fact that the rubber at each successive machine becomes longer and thinner, it will be seen that a smooth-roll machine could not cope with the output of a macerator in the same period of time. if, therefore, the macerator is fully occupied for the greater part of the time, an additional smooth-roll machine must be installed, even though the existing one has been "speeded up" to practicable limits. for the information of the uninitiated it might be explained that in the macerating and intermediate machines the cog-wheels driving the two rolls are of different sizes (_i.e._, differentially geared), as opposed to the smooth rolls on which the cog-wheels are usually of the same size (_i.e._, even speed). the idea in the one case is to exert a "working" influence upon the rubber while it is being washed by the stream of water coming from above; in the smooth rolls a squeezing action only is effected. to give an idea of the ratio of the speeds of the rolls in each machine in a typical working battery, the following particulars may be noted: gear ratios.-- _machine._ _differential ratio._ . macerator - . intermediate (coarse grooved) - . " (fine grooved) - . smooth (uneven speed) - . " (finishing) - . " ( " ) - it will be seen that the so-called "even-speed" smooth rolls run at approximately the same rate. it is advised that in all cases the gear wheels should be cut helically. those who have experience of the noise of some batteries after they are slightly worn will appreciate such a remark. grooving of rolls.--concerning the choice of grooving, there is divergence of opinion, some managers preferring one type, which others reject in favour of another type. provided any particular type can be shown to be as effective as required, no necessity for laying down hard-and-fast rules seems to exist. the following particulars serve to describe a battery well known to the writers, and accustomed to produce the finest quality of thin pale crepe and lower grades: -----------------+-----------------------------------+------------- | |_no. of times _machine._ | _grooving._ |rubber passes | | through._ -----------------+-----------------------------------+------------- . macerator | deep horizontal grooves; | | square-cut, / inch × / inch | | × / inch spaces | . intermediate | horizontal grooves; / inch | | × / inch × / inch spaces | . " | fine spiral grooves; / inch | | × / inch × / inch spaces | . geared smooth | nil | . "even" smooth | " | . " " | " | -----------------+-----------------------------------+------------- | total | times -----------------+-----------------------------------+------------- the actual rate of output of this installation is the capacity of the last smooth machine. this is about lbs. per hour, while the output of the macerator is approximately double this amount. thus the macerator only works for about half the time. this applies also to the two intermediate machines. after a study of the preliminary remarks, it would not be difficult to suggest methods for improving the condition of affairs. it would appear that, in order to obtain a uniform rate of working in such a battery, the relative peripheral speeds of the several machines should be--( ), ( ), and ( ) ; ( ) ; ( ) and ( ) . the remarks on the practical limits of speed should be borne in mind. in this case the smooth rolls travelled at revolutions per minute. as already stated, it is not intended to lay down definitely that, _e.g._, horizontal grooving alone should be cut on macerating rolls. some estates employ with satisfaction a deep square-cut spiral / inch by / inch by / inch or / inch spacing; others use a large diamond pattern. similarly various types of grooving are cut in the intermediate rolls. [illustration: a battery of machines. on the left, light marking rolls for sheet rubber; on the right, heavy machines for crepe preparation. in the middle background, "scrap-washing" machines outside the main building.] it has been remarked in the chapter dealing with crepe preparation that much depends upon the condition of the coagulum. there is no necessity, or desirability, for having a standard higher than lbs. dry rubber per gallon, and it has been argued that it would be better to select a standard of - / lbs. the tougher the coagulum, the more the power required, and the slower the rate of output of the leading machines. in ordering machines for crepe-making, only large rolls should be considered--_e.g._, rolls having a diameter of inches to inches and from inches to inches face. rolls running hot or "free."--if the rolls are found to become hot, work on that machine should be stopped, and an examination made, otherwise there is the possibility of the crepe becoming sticky and "tacky" when dry. although comparatively cold water may be flowing upon the rubber and the rolls, little alleviation may be noticed, inasmuch as the source of heat lies generally at the bearing ends of the rolls. this may be tested by placing the hand on the top of the "standard" of the machine. the development of the heat may be due to lack of lubrication, worn bearings, or sometimes faulty setting-up of the machines. allusion has been made to the necessity for avoiding the running "free" of rolls--_i.e._, in the absence of rubber. the grinding of the rolls, when working close together, produces a fine powder, which causes a more or less pronounced deposit on pale crepe. when the rolls have been in action for some time and become slightly worn, this deposit may be confined only to the edges of the rubber. sheeting machines.--the foregoing paragraphs have dealt entirely with machines for crepe preparation. concerning machines for use in sheet-making, the ground has been mainly covered in chapter ix. where both crepe and sheet are made, it is permissible and advantageous to use the heavy smooth rolls for the rolling of the sheets, and it is only necessary to instal one or two light machines for placing a pattern on the rubber. where a heavy battery does not exist, light machines with smooth rolls may be employed satisfactorily. even engine-power is not necessary for the preparation of excellent sheets, but the output is limited where hand-power only is employed. estates are known on which upwards of , lbs of sheet rubber are made daily with hand-power machinery in one station. beyond this figure, it is deemed advisable to instal a small engine, say of - horse-power. this is ample to drive a battery of three smooth-roll machines and two markers, and yet have sufficient reserve to actuate a small pump for the water supply. lubrication of machines.--it must always appear to those inexperienced in engineering matters that existing methods for lubricating rubber machinery are distinctly crude, when one considers the delicacy of the material to be prepared. many existing machines are still lubricated with oil, which has to be administered in generous quantities. generally, such machines have been so designed that the excess of oil may find an easy passage into the tray which receives the rubber. if not, it drops just outside the tray to the floor, and is washed away in great gouts. even where grease-cap lubricators are fitted it is common to find that the excess can often be transferred from the bearings to the trays and so to the rubber. one would have expected from the attention which is being given to machinery for rubber estates that some improvement in lubrication methods would have been devised. it is probable, however, that a great deal of the disabilities attaching to present methods of lubrication might be obviated if closer attention were given to the actual operation of the lubricators. coolies should not be allowed to handle them, and the responsibility should be placed upon a foreman or the engine-driver. trays.--the most unsuitable and damage-causing part of the vast majority of machines, without doubt, is the tray. on nearly all machines the tray is wider than the effective portion of the rolls, so that any excess of lubricant may drop into it. on others, not only is the tray wider than the rolls, but its edge either is in contact with the shaft of a roll or just a small distance away. the edge of the tray is thus favourably situated for acting as a "wipe," and the lubricant is transferred to the inside of the tray. considering that the effective portion of rolls is about two-thirds of their length, it must be unnecessary to have trays wider than the length of the rolls. for the preparation of fine crepe trays are quite superfluous, and their place can be taken by a narrow piece of board if required. if the bed of the machines has been covered with glazed tiles, even a piece of board is not necessary. where trays have been removed from the fine-crepe rolls on a number of estates, a marked decrease in the number of spoiled pieces of rubber has resulted. it must be recorded that the foregoing paragraph appeared in our publication. after a lapse of over seven years, the remarks remain as true as when originally written. one of us is continually meeting with cases in which the defects are plainly attributable to the cause indicated above, and the fault often lies with the management of estates. on most machines the trays are not fixtures, and could be removed if desired. arrangement of machines.--in considering the future arrangement of machines, the first care should be to see that machines and windows are to be found together.[ ] of all the factory operations, rolling of rubber should be given the maximum light. at the same time it would not be advisable always to choose a southern aspect, unless outside shades were supplied. the best position for setting up machines, therefore, is along a wall having a number of windows. this is extremely convenient also from the view of power transmission, and gives the maximum free floor space to the factory. in setting up machines, foresight must be displayed, otherwise one may find, when future extensions are made, that the extra machines may obstruct an entry or exit. [ ] windows imply the existence of walls. such is the conventional design of factories. it may be pointed out that walls are not necessary. the roof may be supported on pillars between which expanded metal of large size may be placed. this fulfils all requirements and gives the maximum of light and air. many new factories have been erected to such a design. for the actual erection of machines, no labour should be accepted without european supervision. at present there are machines which are practically useless owing to faulty workmanship, and on many machines bearings run hot for no apparent or explicable reason. whether the fault lies with the turning of the rolls or the setting of the machine cannot be decided; but at any rate too much care cannot be expended on the supervision of setting up machines. there is no reason why everything in a factory should not be made as easy to clean as possible. for this desirable condition all machines should have the beds faced with tiles. a word of caution should be given against using marble slabs under the machines, as they would be eroded in time by the slight amount of acid washed out of the rubber. there would be no such objection against the use of white glazed tiles, if they are well set. access to back of machine.--in a few factories it has been noticed that the drainage of water from the machines runs to the front of them. this means that the coolies are put to unnecessary inconvenience and discomfort, and they often suffer from sore feet. all water should drain to the back of the machines. the necessity for seeing that these drains are kept clear might then induce those in charge to examine the back of the machines. it is often the case that, while the front of the rolls and tray are kept clean, little attempt is made to cleanse those parts which are not visible or accessible from the front. there should be no need to point out that any labour expended in such "front-window" work is rendered useless by the contamination from accumulations of old rubber and grease at the back of the machines. in the course of visiting factories one of us has many times seen great surprise exhibited by the manager or assistants on being shown the state of affairs at the back of the machines. there should have been no occasion for such surprise, for the back of the machines is quite as accessible to them as to the visitor. in conclusion it might be said that the manager needing advice as to the best machines cannot go far wrong in purchasing any of the better-known makes, such as shaw's, bridge's, robinson's, bertram's, walker's, carter's, iddon's, etc. this list does not include local manufacturers such as the "united engineers." it must not be imagined that their machines are not recommended. as a matter of fact, their machines compare well with those made at home. it would be well to judge in the final decision upon-- . cost. . the experience of those already using the machines. . simplicity of parts. . lubrication system. . mode of adjusting rolls. . fitting of trays. engines.--it is not intended here to discuss particular makes of engines, or even to attempt to lay down definite statements with regard to the type of engine. without a full knowledge of local circumstances, it is not possible to recommend whether the engine shall be oil-driven, gas-driven, or steam-driven. assuming a copious supply of very cheap timber, there could be no objection to the employment of a steam-engine; but for most estates such a choice is out of the question. again, in deciding between oil and gas, local economic factors must be considered. suction-gas plants are now made, in which a wonderful variety of refuse can be consumed in the production of gas, whereas ordinarily estates are restricted to the use of either charcoal or anthracite coal. both oil and gas driven engines are eminently suitable for the purpose of a rubber factory, and the results obtained on different estates with either are often discussed in favour of one or the other. the selection ultimately narrows itself down to one of cost of running, in which availability of supplies becomes an essential feature. power.--no matter what type is selected, there should be made an ample allowance for margin of power. the general experience of estates has been that when the first portion of the estate comes into bearing, there is a desire to avoid great outlay, which should really have been secured in the original capital. the result has been that as later the estate expands, the original power unit is found to be inadequate, and a larger engine has to be purchased. in a short while the original engine is found to be unsuitable even as a "stand-by," inasmuch as it is incapable of doing more than a portion of the work required. this means eventually that another large engine is required. had sufficient margin of power been allowed originally, only two engines would have been bought, as against the three indicated above. without going into finer details, it is usual to allow a rate of horse-power per heavy machine used for crepe preparation. in actual practice, when a battery is working under full load, the power demanded is about horse-power per machine. thus a horse-power engine running six machines and a scrap-washer is really running with only a small margin of power, and if large pieces of hard coagulum are placed in the washer or the macerator there may be a sudden stoppage. assuming an average estate commences with only three machines for crepe-making, on an expanding programme, allowance of power should be made for six machines and a scrap-washer, if the purchase of larger power units is to be avoided later. chapter xiv _factories_ general construction.--on the question of general construction there is little to be said, except that buildings are now being properly designed in more permanent form than were some of the earlier buildings. on the whole there is little fault to be found with factories in general, except in so far as the output has outgrown the accommodation. most factories are now erected in iron, but there are a few which are built of bricks. it should be premised that a factory in which rubber is to be prepared should be as light and airy as possible. in this respect quite a number of the older factories are lacking, and they seem to have been designed to exclude as much air and light as possible. under these circumstances, the building is always dark, there is always an air of dampness, dirt may accumulate, and there is usually a bad smell. rubber prepared under these conditions is always liable to be below the high standard which should be attained, and the general tone of the factory is depressing. plenty of light.--the old idea that light must be excluded is now known to be erroneous; so that in designing a factory, provision should be made for ample light and air. it should not be forgotten that in tropical climates, iron buildings may become uncomfortably hot, as most of our older factories are. usually it will be found that the ventilation is imperfect. there is a lack of window space, and the roof is imperfectly ventilated. the ridge of the roof should be opened up by means of a "jack-roof," so that the warm air rising naturally may escape at the highest point of the building. these are defects which should be remedied in old buildings. as a rule no rubber remains in the factory at night-time, except in the form of coagulum, the loss of any of which would be noted with ease. the conventional idea of enclosing the factory with walls of galvanised sheeting, wood, or brick, is not strictly necessary. in modern buildings these walls are replaced by large-mesh expanded metal, thus making the machine-room perfectly light and plentifully ventilated. under such conditions, dirt cannot accumulate unseen, and the general tone of the work is raised. the floor.--the floor should be of thick concrete, and have a good surface layer of cement. preparations are now advertised for which claims are made that their employment renders the surface of such floors waterproof and dustproof. if these claims can be substantiated when the use is applied to the floors of rubber factories, the employment of a preparation of this nature should result in a considerable saving of expense and trouble. preferably the floor should not be flat, but should slope slightly from the longitudinal middle of the building to the sides on either hand. if the floor is level it usually results in accumulation of water, the cement breaks in patches, and the factory always appears to be dirty. position of machines.--all machines should be arranged adjacent to and parallel with one of the long sides of the building, and should be raised about inches above the floor, so that water may escape easily. tanks for the reception of latex, scrap rubber, etc., should be placed along the opposite wall to the machines, and the intermediate length of the building should be entirely free from fixtures. it was not uncommon in older factories to find the engine situated in the middle of the floor, so that what with the space occupied by the engine, and the space rendered unavailable by the belt-drive, the real accommodation of the factory was sadly diminished. in no modern factory should the engines be brought into the main room. they should always be accommodated in a special compartment, situated outside the wall, along the inside of which machines are placed. in this way considerable floor space is left available, and the machines may be worked by direct drive. not only so; but if a suction-gas plant is worked, there can then be no excuse for particles of coal or charcoal dust being found in the factory. position of engines.--it scarcely need be pointed out that if the engines are placed outside the wall which is opposite the machines, a long belt-drive would be necessitated, and that the presence of the belt would prevent the use of end doors. it is presumed in these arguments that two engines are to be installed. one can hardly imagine a modern factory in full working being equipped with only one engine, which might possibly have an excess of power necessary to drive all the machines. in the case of breakdown, which sometimes happens in the best supervised factories, it would be small consolation to know that this excess of power was present theoretically. how many storeys.--there can be no doubt that, taking all things into consideration, the best type of factory is that consisting only of one floor. the factory should be quite separate from all other buildings, and if attempts are made to conserve ground space by putting a drying-room over the factory, much trouble will ensue, especially if pale crepes are to be made. in the first place, the factory is made very much darker, and hence more difficult to keep clean; secondly, the ventilation of the factory is seriously interfered with; and thirdly, it is manifestly prejudicing the drying of rubber to place it directly over a room which is always more or less awash with water. at night such a building would reek with a moisture-laden atmosphere, and little drying could be expected to take place in that interval. from actual experience it has been shown that rubber hung to dry in such a room, situated over a damp factory, is very liable to attacks of "spot" diseases, since the presence of perpetual moisture is favourable to the development of these diseases. if a double-storey building has to be worked, it will be readily seen that no first-grade rubber should be allowed to dry in it. the accommodation over the factory may be restricted to the purpose of receiving lower grade rubber which is not so liable to "spot" diseases, and possibly does not take so long to dry as first-grade rubbers of equal thickness. it is evident, therefore, that the erection of double-storey factories is false economy, as separate drying-houses have to be built eventually. this conclusion does not apply with the same force to factories worked in conjunction with smoke-houses for preparing sheet rubber, but, nevertheless, such a factory should not have another floor above the work-room. verandahs.--one of the worst features in many factories is the necessity for coolies to bring latex into the factory. as already mentioned, the floors of factories are usually running with water (or should be), and it can be imagined that the passage to and fro of scores of coolies must bring in a great quantity of dirt. not only so; the very presence of the coolies is a hindrance to the efficient working of the factory, and considerable floor-space and time are wasted. this feature in factory working is all the more annoying because the necessity for it could so easily be obviated. all that is necessary is the erection of a wide, open verandah outside the wall of the factory. here all latex could be received and strained, scrap-rubbers could be received and passed through an opening into tanks placed in convenient position. water could be laid on in this verandah so that coolies might wash their buckets, and the whole verandah might be enclosed only with expanded metal so as to avoid interference with the lighting of the factory. in this way it would be quite unnecessary for any field coolie to enter the factory proper, and this would facilitate cleanliness. such an arrangement has been discussed by the writers many times during the last few years, but the number of estates which have made such provision is still in the minority, and the same slipshod and dirt-making procession of coolies continues to walk through the factories, and the same piles of bark-shavings and scrap-rubber continue to accumulate and ferment in a few instances. an indication of types of verandahs is given in chapters vii. and ix. these are not intended to be representative of a universal design, but may be suggestive in the planning of others according to local conditions. situation of tanks.--it will be noted that these verandahs are raised from the ground-level to a height of about feet in order that latex may be gravitated, with a slight fall, into the coagulating tanks which are within the factory. there exists a real necessity for this practice, inasmuch as otherwise to obtain gravitation of latex (which is quicker and cheaper than handling) the coagulating tanks would have to be either placed on the floor or sunk beneath the level. the risk of contamination of latex or coagulum under such circumstances would be appreciable. apart from this, it is advisable to have the coagulating tanks raised to a height of between and feet, to secure the advantage of ease of working in the processes of coagulation and the handling of coagulum--a not inconsiderable factor. in some modern designs it is proposed to place the coagulating tanks in a separate building. this would seem to be an unnecessary refinement in a new building, if observance is given to the suggestions made in previous paragraphs. designs and "lay-out."--in a previous publication[ ] comment was made upon grievous errors in designs prepared by those inexperienced in the requirements of the tropics. there is little ground now for complaint, and local engineering firms are fully capable of advising upon, and constructing, suitable buildings. [ ] "preparation of plantation rubber," morgan, . in considering the first installation of a factory and equipment one always has to weigh the question of prime cost against the probability of future expansion of crop. if it should be decided at first merely to cater for contemporary requirements, the fullest consideration should be given in discussing design of building and lay-out of machinery to the practicability of later extension. the site should be large enough for the eventual group of buildings, the building should be easily capable of extension with the least cost, and the same forethought should govern the lay-out of the machinery. drains.--lastly, there is the question of drains. generally speaking, all factories are well provided with drains, and the only difficulty is that of getting an adequate fall for efficient drainage. but there is a certain amount of laxity exhibited in the matter of providing sieves in drains. to anyone acquainted with factory working, it must be apparent that quite a lot of small pieces of rubber are washed into the drains. this rubber should be collected at intervals during the day; but in many instances that collected is only a fraction of what escapes. wherever possible the drainings of a factory should be carried as far as is practicable from the buildings by means of cement drains. too often these are short, and lead into earthen drains. even if no pieces of rubber are present, the serum from the coagulum is subject to decomposition, the effluvium from which is objectionable. water supply.--it is essential that a good supply of water should be available. this should be distributed by pipes all round the building, so that a hose may be used in every part for the thorough cleansing of the factory at intervals during the hours of working. summing up, it might be said that a good factory, therefore, should have the following features: . plenty of windows, or walls of expanded metal. . a jack-roof in the ridge, and hence a good system of ventilation. . engines in compartments outside the walls of the factory. . machines close to and parallel with the wall outside of which the engines are placed. . latex tanks and other fixtures along the wall opposite the machines. . a long middle free space, at either end of which a large double door should be placed in the end walls. . a good concrete and cement floor sloping slightly from the middle towards each long wall. . an abundant water supply, and several lengths of hose. . the building should be of only one floor, and have ample head room. . there should be an outside, open verandah upon which latex may be received, etc.; preferably outside the wall which is opposite to the machines. . the system of drainage should be thorough, and the drains should be adequately screened, so that all particles of rubber may be collected. chapter xv _other buildings_ drying-houses for crepe.--it has already been shown in the previous chapter that one type of drying-houses--viz., that over a factory--stands condemned, except for the drying of low-grade rubbers. generally speaking, a great advance has been made in the design of crepe drying-houses during recent years, and it has been possible even to improve older ones so as to bring them into line with the more modern buildings. houses for drying crepe rubber may be of one floor, two floors, or even three floors. doubtless those built with three floors were designed with a view to economising the available site for factory buildings, and as long as the ventilation is good there can be no very great objection to them. it might be pointed out, however, that even with the best of ventilation the air passing successively through three layers of rubber must be fairly saturated with moisture by the time it leaves the building. the effect of this upon the rate of drying in the uppermost chamber will not be so marked as it will be in the middle floor, as the temperature of the top floor must be many degrees higher than that of the other two rooms. it would be expected, therefore, that the rate of drying in the middle storey would be slower than that in either of the other two. in houses of two floors this objection would not have to be met, and drying-houses of this type are successful and common. how many storeys?--again nothing could be urged against a building of two or three storeys in which the ground floor was occupied as a packing-room, except that, by negligence in not allowing wet crepe a preliminary dripping period, water might fall upon the packed rubber below. as a matter of experience, such a house is, taking all into consideration, the cheapest and most suitable type for any estate with an increase in output. even at the outset there should be a separate room in which sorting and packing is undertaken. this is conveniently the lower room of a drying-house. the only stipulation to be made for a house with two storeys is that the floor of the upper room should be of an open pattern, so that the air may circulate right through the building. this is usually and very successfully attained by laying down wide slats of wood, with spaces of an inch or more between them. it is not advisable to have spaces wider than - / inches, otherwise there is a certain amount of danger to the limbs of individuals who have to work or supervise in the building. in any case, it is very convenient to have pathways of planks running the whole length of the floor, so that the supervision is made more convenient. if this is done, there can be no objection to the custom of suspending the rubber of a lower chamber from the slats of the floor of the upper room. at present, in some drying-houses, this means of suspension is used, but no planks are laid down, and it becomes necessary to walk over the drying rubber. this is a detail, but it is one which does not make for the improvement of rubber, and the expenditure of a small sum would be sufficient to rectify the matter. from every point of view, it would be desirable to have the floor of the packing-shed (or the packing-room in a combined house) raised from the ground, to a height of, say, feet; or the height of a bullock-cart or motor-lorry. not only is ventilation improved, but there would be a great saving in labour. packed cases could be wheeled directly on a level with the cart or lorry. a great many estates favour drying-houses of one storey. these are eminently suitable, provided that the site is suitable, and that the relative dimensions of the house are favourable to efficient ventilation. it is a common mistake to find buildings of which the breadth is out of proportion to the height. obviously, if the height is not considerably in excess of the breadth, ventilation will be defective. for a single-storey drying-house, the maximum height should bear the ratio to the breadth of : , and in a house of this type specially long pieces of crepe can be utilised. naturally, in a house of two storeys, this factor is not likely to be neglected, and if the lower room is used for packing purposes the rate of drying should be rapid. again, when a single-storey building is contemplated, it is well to make strict examination of local conditions. if the site is low-lying and surrounded by trees it will be clear that tall buildings are required, and that a house of more than one floor is to be preferred. considerations of this nature would have prevented the erection of some dry-sheds which do not give a satisfactory rate of drying. ventilation.--no matter how many floors there may be in a drying-house, the greatest attention should be given to the question of ventilation. it is an elementary point in the study of ventilation problems that the best system of natural ventilation is obtained by admitting cool air near or through the floor and providing an exit for the warmer air at the highest point in the building. it is not often that such a rule is infringed in the ventilation of rubber drying-houses, but several of the older buildings erred in this respect. in a good modern house there is a space (about feet in height) all round the base of the walls merely closed with expanded metal; this admits cool air. an exit for warm air is provided in the ridge of the roof by either ventilation chimneys or by a jack-roof. the latter is preferable, as it provides for a more free and uniform escape. in some drying-houses, besides the ridge openings, the space along the eaves is left open. this would seem to be undesirable, as it provides for the entrance of outer air, which might combat the ascending warm air and so interfere with the natural upward currents. provided that a jack-roof or other suitable openings have been installed, there is, therefore, no necessity for the existence of open spaces at the eaves, and they probably do more harm than good. in the tropics, on days of sunshine, there must always be an upward current of air in well-designed houses. temperatures of ° f. are easily recorded in the ridge space of a building, while the temperature in the lower part of the house may be at least ° f. lower. on the floor of an upper room a temperature of ° f. is commonly noted, and in buildings with three storeys the usual day temperature of the top room is about or over ° f. even, therefore, when there is no trace of a breeze, there must be a displacement of air in an upward direction, though it may not be detected without tests being applied. it is often asked whether a temperature of ° f., such as is obtained in the upper room, is calculated to injure the quality of the rubber. there need be no fear on this ground; the experience of many estates goes to show not only that no harm results, but also that the drying of the rubber is expedited. there would seem to be no reason why crepe rubber should not be dried at a temperature of ° f. it must be understood, however, that higher temperatures for crepe rubber are not recommended, as it has been proved that the rubber is affected. the fact becomes obvious with continued treatment at temperatures much above ° f., for the rubber stretches and breaks across the support. windows.--concerning the subject of window space in a drying-house, there has been much discussion at various times. years ago it was common to find windows widely open with the sunshine streaming in. naturally, tackiness developed in some of the rubber, and care was then taken to keep the windows closed. thus the rooms were darkened and air excluded. there followed a period in which windows were fitted with ruby-coloured glass to keep out the actinic rays of the sun, which were responsible for tackiness, and excess of light, which was supposed to be responsible for the rapid oxidation of rubber. unless special precautions were observed in the processes of coagulation and preparation, it was not proved that the exclusion of light prevented or lessened the natural oxidation of crepe rubber. since the introduction of sodium bisulphite for the prevention of oxidation, there has been no cause to worry as to the possible effect of light, as no perceptible darkening of the rubber takes place. it follows, therefore, that no trouble need be taken to exclude light, although the necessity for excluding direct sunshine still exists. windows may be left open as long as the sun does not reach them. this can usually be arranged in a drying-house by manipulating the windows at intervals during the day, so that those in the shady side of a building are always open, while those on the sunny side are always closed. if it is thought that this manipulation cannot be entrusted with success to the store coolies, the case may be met by having all windows constructed on the louvre pattern, so that, although the windows are closed all day, air and light are not excluded. should it be desired to retain the existing type of windows, which open outwards, and to keep them open all day, a simple arrangement of ruby-coloured cloth on an outstanding wooden frame may be placed within the walls of the building, or the shutters of the windows may be hinged at the top to open outwards. unless there is a pronounced breeze, or it is required to examine the rubber closely, there is no necessity to have windows open, except in the case of a house in which the bottom floor is used as a packing-room. the windows of this chamber may remain open during the day, to advantage in sorting and packing, and also to the proper ventilation of the building. thus the direct rays of the sun are rendered harmless, while air and light are allowed to enter. hot-air drying-houses.--mention has already been made of the existence of a system of drying in which hot air is forced into a drying-house by means of a powerful fan. provided that the temperature of the hot air could be so regulated as not to exceed ° f., there would be merit in the system. such matter of regulation could be solved by having a duct in the main air passage, through which cool air could be admitted in such proportion as to modify the temperature of the hot air. as the process is worked at present, the temperature attained is often well above ° f., and there is a danger of thin crepe placed in this house over-night being found upon the floor in the morning. unless the crepe is prepared thick and cut into fairly short lengths, it will not bear its own weight at higher temperatures; and if it is made thick, drying is impracticably prolonged. it is probable that, with a temperature of ° f., and a steady current of air, average thin crepe would dry in such a drying-house within six or seven days. this would be an improvement upon the usual rate of drying in most factories, although several ordinary drying-houses are known in which thin crepe will dry naturally in that period. smoke-houses.--no discussion of theoretical considerations regarding the process of smoke-curing will be attempted here. we are concerned only with the necessity for supplying a demand for smoke-cured sheet rubber. broadly, the process is akin to the smoke-curing of herrings, and the objects are much the same--viz., ( ) drying, ( ) preservation--except that while herrings are only dried partially, rubber should be dried perfectly. on a small scale a primitive smoke-house could be built easily and cheaply, and such a building might be fully as efficacious as the most elaborate and expensive installation. in the early days of estates it was not uncommon to see temporary smoke-houses constructed of wood, and roofed with "attaps" (palm leaves). some of the best rubber in the market has come from wooden buildings, but naturally the risk of destruction by fire is considerable. for imperative reasons it may be sometimes found necessary to smoke rubber when the only available building is a single-storey one. as a temporary measure, the building may be converted into a smoke-house by placing the fires in pits sunk deeply into the ground, and effectively screened above by iron baffle plates. but it is not advisable that smoking be continued in such a single-storey building, as the best effects are not obtained, and the risk of fire is far too great. usual types.--at first sight it would appear that the best type of smoke-house would be one consisting of a tall building, covering a comparatively small superficial area, and having a number of superimposed chambers in which the rubber could be hung to dry. in practice there are several solid objections which limit the height and the number of floors. chief among these is the question of temperature. if smoke-curing is to be effective, a certain temperature must be attained and maintained. to obtain such results in a house of excessive height would be difficult, if not impossible, under normal conditions. it would be found that the chamber immediately above the furnace-room would be overheated if the temperature in the upper rooms was within the desired range, etc. until recent years smoke-houses could be classed as belonging to one of two types: ( ) those having external furnaces. ( ) those having internal furnaces. the number of the former existing at the present time must be very small, as it has been shown that the arrangement of the furnace outside the house is unsatisfactory in comparison with the other type of house. in discussing the question of smoke-houses, therefore, it will be understood that the standard type accepted is that having an internal furnace. in its original form it was known as a "kent" drier, and consisted of a tall two-storey wooden building. the walls of the lower chamber had the form of an inverted and truncated pyramid. by this arrangement it was possible to obtain from a comparatively small fire sufficient smoke and heat to cure the product placed in the room above. this is the principle upon which many smoke-houses in malaya are designed. on a very large scale it is not claimed that the sloping sides of the lower chamber lead to economy in the number of fires, but merely divert the smoke in an upward direction. it is acknowledged that vertical lower walls are quite effective, and it is an easier matter to fit in doors. it may be noted that the usual type of smoke-house now in general use consists of a building of two storeys, in the lower of which are situated the furnaces, while rubber is hung on racks in the upper room. sometimes there may be a third storey, also used as a drying (curing) chamber. as a rule the drying-room is one long unit, as also is the furnace chamber; but in some cases they are subdivided by vertical partitions into smaller chambers, for ease of working and better control. this applies with some force in the case of very long houses standing in an open space. it is sometimes found in such cases that at certain seasons the prevailing winds have the effect of making drying and curing uneven in parts of the building. with these exceptions, the ordinary type of smoke-house functions very efficiently, and is capable of drying average sheet (from standardised latex) in a period ranging from seven to eleven days. should the building not be capable of such performance, in spite of the strict observance of all rules laid down for the processes of preparation, then there is some defect in ventilation or in the distribution of heat. general ventilation.--the ordinary rules of ventilation in drying-houses apply equally to a smoke-house. there should be a slow current of air and smoke from the lowest point to the highest point in the building. in spite of all that has been written on this subject, it is by no means uncommon to encounter the idea that a smoke-house should be perfectly closed in order to get good results. as to what must become of the (say) per cent. of moisture which the rubber contains there is no knowledge. in dozens of cases, when complaints regarding slowness of drying have been investigated, it has been necessary to point out the need for providing a rational system of ventilation. naturally only a slow current of air and smoke is required. the creation of an appreciable draught would have the effect of increasing the fuel consumption of the furnaces, raising dust from the ash, and of causing a temperature higher than that which is known to be desirable. it will be clear, therefore, that if there are to be any openings at the base of the walls they should be small in area, and should have some device by means of which the current of air can be efficiently regulated. in the usual case the construction of the building is not calculated to render it air-tight, and the necessity for providing special air inlets does not arise. windows.--windows are not strictly necessary, and are only intended to be of service during the time in which coolies are at work within the building. the operations of examining rubber, turning sheets, removing dry rubber, cleaning racks and floors, and putting wet rubber into position, usually occupy some hours daily. during this interval the windows should be widely opened if the weather is favourable, and should remain so until the fires have been lighted. it should not be forgotten that during the heat of the day quite an appreciable degree of drying is possible. advantage can be taken of this; but there is no necessity to extend the interval unduly, and it is of greater advantage to proceed with smoke-curing when the work in the drying-chambers has ceased. racks of supports.--still referring to the usual type of smoke-house, it may be remarked that in the upper room bays of racks run at right angles to a central passage down the length of the building. narrower passages run between the bays of the racks to facilitate ease in handling and inspection. the wooden supports may be placed about inches apart horizontally, and or inches apart vertically. a full bay of racks should contain nine or more lines of support in each of the planes which are or inches apart vertically. the number of these planes is governed only by the height of the room, measured from the floor to eaves. the supports should be of smooth timber, and need not exceed - / inches square in section. it is usual and advisable to smooth off the rectangular edges of the supports or bars, to avoid the incidence of splinters of wood adhering to the rubber. the bars should not be fixtures, but may either be accommodated in slots, or may rest _between_ two nails, so that it is possible to give them a rotary motion by turning the projecting ends. this practice is followed in smoke-houses, the idea being to move the drying sheets slightly each day, with a view to the prevention of a pronounced mark across the sheets. care should be taken to see that the vacant racks are thoroughly cleaned before fresh rubber is placed upon them, otherwise a distinct dirty mark is caused across the middle of the sheet. this mark usually cannot be removed, even by scrubbing with water. where this mark occurs regularly in all sheets, attention should be turned to the openings beneath the bays of racks, if open fire furnaces are employed. it will generally be found that gauze of too wide mesh has been fitted. this should be removed or covered with a finer gauze. a more effective way of dealing with the trouble, provided other precautions have been taken, is to have plenty of spare wooden bars. it should be a rule stringently enforced that, as soon as racks are emptied, the bars should be removed to the factory to be cleansed thoroughly. a spare set should enter the smoke-house with each batch of fresh rubber. the actual number of spare sets required could be limited to a two days' supply, and the extra cost would be recouped easily. floor of drying-chamber.--the floor of the chamber is usually of planks, except that the space under each bay of racks should be filled with expanded metal. with the use of wood fires there is always a large amount of light ash formed, which may find its way into the upper chamber. to counteract this, screens of fine mesh gauze are laid over the expanded metal. this gauze may be fitted into a movable wooden frame, so that when it becomes necessary to clean it the whole may be removed. the difficulty is that with furnaces of the "open-fire" type the rise of dust is so great that the gauze screens soon become clogged, especially as the slight tarry matter in the smoke condenses on the gauze, causing the dust to adhere. with the better types of furnaces, the employment of gauze screens is not necessary, as there should be very little rise of dust. it is sufficient to use only expanded metal, to prevent any displaced pieces of rubber falling into the furnace chamber. furnaces generally.--the crudest and dirtiest method of fuel consumption in the preparation of smoked-sheet rubber is that of making a fire on the ground. this is still a common practice, and should be condemned as being both wasteful and harmful. under prevailing conditions coolies will, in spite of instructions, heap up a pile of logs in order to save themselves the trouble of stoking the fire in small quantity and at regular intervals. a small supply of water is kept at hand with which to quench the fire somewhat if it threatens to cause trouble. naturally a large quantity of fine ash is thus thrown up, and the rubber above receives the deposit. if the coolie does not happen to be sufficiently awake, of course a house burns occasionally. from this primitive type of furnace, others have been evolved. these usually take the form of more or less shallow trucks, the majority of which are similar in principle to the fire on the ground, except that the container can be withdrawn from the house for the purpose of removing the ash. sometimes they are even more objectionable than the ground fire, inasmuch as, being raised above the ground level, an under-draught through fire-bars is caused, and consumption of fuel is so much the more rapid. pits.--it is clear that large fires are not desirable, and that combustion should be slow, provided that the necessary temperature can be maintained. the lines along which the development of furnaces needed to extend are therefore plain. the simplest device adopted was the digging of pits in the ground. sometimes these pits received the addition of an iron truncated cone which was movable. naturally the combustion was slow, but sufficient heat was obtained if the pits were large enough or in sufficient number. an objection was that the ash had to be cleared _in situ_, and in the process the earthen pits gradually increased in size. in all cases it was necessary to suspend an iron baffle-plate above the furnaces to distribute smoke and arrest any sparks. "pot" furnaces.--the next development was the employment of "pot-furnaces." these consist of iron drums, sometimes merely resting on the ground, and sometimes mounted on trucks for easy withdrawal. these drums radiate sufficient heat if present in sufficient numbers, and the fuel consumption is low. they are usually manipulated by starting a fire in the bottom and packing in logs cut to the necessary length. some have no lids, while others are fitted with perforated caps. it was considered necessary in some instances to punch a few small holes near the base of the drum in order to ensure a very slight upward draught. in a few cases this perforation has been exaggerated to the form of a hinged door. unless this can be closed with ease, and is closed according to instructions, part of the object of this type of furnace is defeated; fuel consumption is rapid, and the temperature is too high. in the original form "pot-furnaces" have been found to be effective on many estates, and are still employed with satisfaction. iron stoves.--working on exactly the same principle, on some estates one finds small iron stoves in use. sometimes broad pipes are attached for the better distribution of the smoke; if this is the case it should be noted that the pipes should have a slight downward slope, and that the "bend" at the end should be turned downwards. in this way condensed moisture and creosotic matter falls to the ground, and does not lodge in the pipe. the life of the conduit is thus prolonged. usually such stoves are in use where the "head-room" of a smoking chamber is insufficient for other types, or where the nature of the site does not permit of sunken furnaces being installed. they are of value likewise on occasions where the fuel supply is limited to a rich timber such as mangrove-logs ("bakau"), when it is necessary to ensure a low combustion with low cost of fuel. horizontal drum-furnaces.--to overcome difficulties inherent to drums or "pot-furnaces," the next development was that in which the drum was made to assume a horizontal position, and adapted ingeniously to a simple system of working from the outside of the building. reference to the drawings given will explain how this is effected. in the first illustration (no. ) it will be noted that the drum is supported upon brick pillars, with one end projecting through the wall of the building. at the other end a short chimney is mounted, having within it a "damper" which is adjustable from the outside. over this chimney is suspended a simple baffle-plate, made from a chinese iron cooking-pan. the outer end of the drum is furnished with a hinged and latched door, in which a small air-regulator is accommodated. in the second set of drawings (no. ) the drum is increased in size and fitted in a special manner for incorporation with a distinct type of building. such a scheme was first put into effect by mr. r. c. sherar, the manager of third mile estate, seremban, f.m.s., and for ease of reference the house and furnace will hereafter be mentioned when necessary as the "third mile" type. [illustration: "third mile" type; horizontal drum. this type of furnace is suitable for adapting to existing buildings with perpendicular lower walls.] [illustration: "third mile" type of furnace, used in conjunction with "third mile" smoke-house.] it will be seen that the furnace has at the farther end a door for the removal of ash. as this, if badly fitting, may result in too great a draught, it is well to insist upon good workmanship. other adjustable air-inlets are provided, and the drum is enclosed in a brick chamber. rate of combustion.--however successful this furnace may have proved in the hands of trained coolies, one must feel that with such a number of air-inlets (whether accidental or designed) there would always be present the possibility of obtaining too rapid a combustion. in the original forms of drums or pot-furnaces of various kinds, a very slow rate of combustion was attained. naturally a relatively larger proportion of carbon remained unconsumed, and there was a small proportion of ash. in these respects the furnaces resembled charcoal-burners. in point of fact, some estates used this principle for the dual purpose of smoke-curing the rubber, and at the same time obtaining a supply of charcoal to provide fuel for their suction-gas engines. this is a consideration in times when managers are desirous of discovering any devices which tend towards reduction of costs. it will be clear that, under ordinary circumstances, the condition of what remains after the combustion of the fuel gives an indication of the rate at which the wood has burned, and this test should apply to all furnaces. that in which there is the most ash and the least charcoal is the one least to be desired. in direct connection with this consideration, one must recognise that a fire which is sunk below the level of the ground exposes the least surface from which heat may radiate; and hence, in order to obtain the maximum benefit of heat from a slow-combustion furnace, it should be above ground-level, or should have a superstructure from which the heat may be dissipated. simple drum furnaces, with slow combustion, have the further advantages that a "charge" of fuel will need no attention for possibly eight to ten hours, and practically no ash is found to be ejected. these advantages have great practical importance. the first minimises any disabilities arising from neglect on the part of coolies, and the second makes for increased cleanliness in the drying-chamber. while these advantages would appeal to most estates, there would appear to be a further advantage to small estates which have only temporary timber smoke-houses. with a slow rate of combustion in a furnace of this type, danger from fire is diminished considerably. bearing in mind the slow rate of combustion, and hence the comparatively low temperature obtained, it will be plain that drum furnaces should be employed in larger number than ordinary open-hearth fires; and the drums can be so placed as to ensure the best possible uniform distribution of heat and smoke. large furnaces are sometimes seen, with flues of brickwork. in view of the foregoing remarks, it will be obvious that these tend to large fires and a rapid combustion, and hence must be classed as undesirable. brick stoves.--developing from "drum" furnaces, another type comes into existence. in principle it consists of an enclosed brick furnace, with feeding door, and a low conical dome surmounted by an adjustable cap or spark-arrester. the rate of combustion can be influenced by a suitable movement of the cap, which is operated by a screw. this type of furnace has been installed on several estates by the engineering department of messrs. harrisons and crosfield, and is understood to give satisfaction. pataling type.--with the exception of the "third mile" type already mentioned, all the furnaces described are open to a strong objection, in that the coolies have to enter a room, usually filled with hot smoke, in order to attend to the fires. the mere opening of the door of the building is sufficient to fan most fires into a blaze and to raise sparks. apart from these points, it is natural for coolies to avoid entering too often, with the result that they generally stoke with the maximum load of timber. even should they not sleep the danger is clearly great. [illustration: side sectional elevation (pataling type of furnace).] [illustration: pataling type of furnace.] to obviate these drawbacks, furnaces which are fed from the outside of the building were designed. there have been various forms, but as they were first installed on pataling estate, in the present form, they may be known under the description of the pataling type of furnace. they are eminently satisfactory, and have a low rate of fuel consumption. they are very safe, and in fact, if worked with average intelligence in supervision, can be regarded as being fool-proof. there is practically no ejection of fine ash, and no fine-mesh screens need be employed. they can be adapted to any building having either vertical or sloping walls of galvanised iron. [illustration: large smoke-house of ordinary construction, with shielded ventilators permanently open. in foreground, movable folding racks on which sheets "drip" in the open air. this smoke-house is equipped with brick furnaces fed from the outside (pataling estate).] in essential the furnace consists of a shallow pit below ground-level, lined with brick, and having a square brick superstructure rising feet above the floor of the building. on top of the brick walls rests a sheet of boiler-plate perforated with small holes. the hearth being below ground-level, and with the extra feet of height above the floor, it follows that if ash is disturbed it is confined. from the drawings it may be seen that the pit is prolonged to the side wall of the building, with steps leading up to the ground-level. the top and sides of the opening are made with galvanised sheeting, forming a kind of short tunnel in which the coolie may stand upright. the outer face of the brick furnace forms the inner end of the tunnel, and accommodates the door of the furnace. the bottom of the pit is filled up with clay and stones almost to the level of the bottom of the door. this ensures a very shallow hearth, and guards against an unduly large fire. obviously it is not desirable or necessary to make the hearth of fire-bars, as was done in one instance, with the provision of a door below for removing the ash. this would lead only to a strong draught being created, with a high rate of fuel consumption. [illustration: brick and cement superstructure of furnace inside the building, but fed from outside. on the top of the superstructure rests a sheet of perforated boiler-plate. the actual fire-pit is below ground-level, and to the left may be seen parts of the sides and top of the downward approach, from the outside, to the door of the fire-pit.] the openings can be screened by a narrow sloping lean-to, which serves to keep out rain, and provides shelter for the stock of fuel and the coolie. the iron furnace-door should be well made, with an easily worked latch; but it is not necessary that it should be perfectly fitting. any slight aperture will serve to provide the necessary air-inlet, but in any case it should not be more than slight. consumption of fuel.--regarding this furnace, it may be said in conclusion that it is more satisfactory in general working than any other furnaces yet encountered. obtaining information from over sixty estates, on the question of fuel consumption compared with output of rubber, it was found that, as far as ordinary smoke-houses were concerned, the pataling type of furnace showed the lowest unit consumption of fuel. [illustration: general view of shelters covering approaches to furnaces.] this was at the rate of slightly less than lb of fuel per lb of thoroughly cured sheet rubber. the figure on some estates mounted as high as - / lbs. of fuel per lb. of rubber. naturally this factor may have been affected by failure to utilise the drying space to its fullest capacity, but in the main the high rate of consumption could be attributed solely to the deficiencies of the furnaces. floor of furnace-room.--as a rule no attempt is made to improve the natural earthen floor. whether open-hearth fires, truck furnaces, or drums are employed, it is usual to find a floor with an inch or two of dust upon it. where all endeavours are directed in other directions towards cleanliness, it appears strange that this should be overlooked. in contrast, houses employing the pataling type of furnace (or others) have concrete and cement floors, which can be kept quite clean. cleanliness should be as zealously attempted in the smoke-house as in other departments. [illustration: near view of shelter. steps lead downwards where the wall of the smoke-house has been removed.] roof.--in any type of smoke-house, the roof should fit tightly at the eaves, and the only vent should be in or near the roof-ridge. in an ordinary smoke-house, the opening should take the form either of a low jack-roof or of squat chimneys protected against rain. if a jack-roof is chosen, it may be so low as to need no scheme of adjustment, or otherwise adjustable swing shutters must be provided. the chimneys may be made with such low fitting between the cap and the body that no interior swinging flaps are required. during the operation of smoke-curing the smoke vents must remain open to a degree which is arrived at by experience. failure to provide a comparatively free egress for smoke and moisture will bring trouble in its train. after a house has been in use for some time, it will be noted that the timber becomes covered with a shiny tarry coating deposited by the smoke. if the rubber remained in the house for an equal period, it would take on the same appearance. during the interval between the entry and the exit of the rubber some amount of deposit does take place, and it is this mixture of creosotic substances which plays a part in fitting the rubber to withstand growths of mildew which would otherwise form. if proper smoke-vents are not provided, the moisture evaporating from the sheets is unable to escape quickly enough, with the result that a great deal condenses at night-time upon the inner surface of the comparatively cool roof, and falls back upon the rubber in unsightly black "drips," which leave a distinct mark on the sheet. even if vents are open, this may happen during seasons of rain. the temperature of the moist smoke in the roof-ridge may be as high as ° to ° f., while the outer atmosphere may have been cooled by rain to ° f. such a difference on the two surfaces of the roof must lead to condensation within the house, with consequent "dripping." it used to be the custom to drape sacking material above the bays of racks in order to prevent the drops of liquid falling upon the rubber; but often for want of renewal the last state was worse than the first. modern houses have often an inner lining, a few inches below the roof. this is made of soft wood which receives any product of condensation and absorbs it. other types of smoke-house.--so far we have confined the arguments to smoke-houses of the usual type. there are others which vary in either design and method of working, or in the material of the structure. mention may be made of the most prominent of these. brick houses.--some houses are constructed of brick, and may have one or two storeys above the furnace chamber. the floors are sometimes made of ferro-concrete, and the furnaces may also be of this material. these brick houses give satisfaction, but there would seem to be some difficulty in obtaining and maintaining the desired temperature, although it is not quite plain why this should be so. the principle of these buildings is the same as that of the ordinary iron house, and the suggestions made in previous paragraphs apply with equal force. "third mile" type.--reference has been made to the "third mile" type of furnace. this is an integral part of a smoke-house, which for clearness of distinction may be known as the "third mile" type of smoke-house, the original of which was erected on the third mile estate, seremban, f.m.s. [illustration: "third mile" type of smoke-house.] in essence the design consists of a building, having two storeys for rubber-drying, and a shallow inverted pyramidal base, ending on the ground in "third mile" furnace, already described and illustrated. it will be seen that the principles of ventilation employed are those indicated for an ordinary house--viz., air-inlet near the ground (with little draught), and smoke-vent at the roof-ridge. the windows shown in the drawing are only for purposes of inspection of the rubber during the day, and form no part of the scheme of ventilation during the hours of smoking. it is claimed that the efficiency of the house is high. certainly the work of attending to the furnaces is simplified, and there should be small ground for excuse if negligence is displayed. jackson house.--this was brought into notice under the description of the "jackson cabinet," and it was claimed that average sheets could be dried in a few days. it consisted of a small house of one storey, having several tiers of racks. smoke and heat were generated in a small stove placed outside the wall. a smoke vent was provided in the roof. these cabinets had a certain vogue as part of a small unit installation, with a fair degree of success. it is not clear, however, that such speed in drying is required. (this point will receive further attention in a subsequent chapter.) "devon" type.--in its full original design this type owes its origin to mr. h. e. nixon, general manager of the devon estates, malacca, where it forms part of unit divisional installations worked under a scheme of decentralisation. the original units consisted of a building erected with an iron framework covered with sheets of asbestos-slate, and a roof of galvanised iron. the novelty in design lies in the utilisation of external platforms upon which the racks of bars supporting the sheets of rubber may be drawn out of the smoking chambers, and on which the racks are loaded and unloaded. by this device it is possible to remove the contents of any compartment bodily without interfering with the continuity of curing in the other compartments. that is to say, smoking in such a house can proceed day and night if necessary, and yet the rubber in any part of the house can be examined, can be removed, or can be replaced without cessation of smoking. it will be seen from the illustrations that the house is more or less of the same general design as the "third mile" type, with the addition of external platforms. it has two storeys for the reception of rubber; and a basal furnace-room with sloping sides converging downwards into a pit containing a large drum-furnace. this is mounted on a low truck, and travels on a short length of railway. [illustration: general view of double "devon" type of smoke-house. the platforms are common to both units. building of brick with iron roof (batu caves estate).] each of the curing-rooms is divided into four compartments (making eight compartments in all). these are closed by swing doors, each of which is the full width of a compartment, and has a slight overlapping edge. through these doors light railways run into the house and out upon the platforms. on the rails "bays" of racks run, and when fully loaded they are easily moved. the racks were designed with a frame of stout hard wood, but light angle-iron could be utilised. [illustration: general view of double "devon" smoke-house and factory buildings. timber in foreground cut to length for stoking. note water-tower and engine cooling-tanks adjacent to factory.] the chimney style of smoke-vent has an internal butterfly flap, which is controlled by means of a wire from the outside. in the ordinary course of smoke-curing, it is advised that this flap should be permanently open so as to reduce the possibility of internal condensation of moisture and creosotic matter. the exact degree to which it should be open must be found by experience. [illustration: view of platform of "devon" smoke-house; doors of compartments open, and one rack partially withdrawn. note below each rack opening through which smoke rises, covered with wire netting.] although reference has been made several times to compartments, it should be understood that the chambers are not subdivided internally by means of partitions. there exists only the external effect of compartments in the form of the eight swinging doors which allow for the withdrawal of, or insertion of, any one unit of racks at any time without interference with the bulk of the rubber. [illustration: double "devon" smoke-house of brick, with roof of chinese tiles, showing loading platforms with racks withdrawn from smoking chambers. federated engineering co., ltd., kuala lumpur.] [illustration: side view of preceding photograph, showing external arrangement for stoking furnaces. federated engineering co., ltd., kuala lumpur.] detailed description.--as enquiries are often received it is permissible to reproduce the following detailed description of the original house. this appeared in the fourth local report (malaya) , issued to subscribers by the rubber growers' association. "the house has a steel frame-work, feet long, feet wide, and feet high. of the length, feet is occupied by the platforms, and feet by the chambers. these measurements can be varied. the whole of the width ( feet) is occupied by compartments of which one series is placed above the other. [illustration: front view of double "devon" type of smoke-house. glenmarie estate: batu tiga co.] "_platforms._--the loading verandahs or platforms are of ordinary 'seriah' timber. "_compartments and furnace chamber._--these are enclosed with bell's 'poilite' sheets, each of which measures feet by feet by / inch. the sheets are affixed to the steel stanchions, doors, etc., by galvanised bolts ( inch by / inch) which pass through iron flats measuring feet by inches by / inch (about). these iron flats hold the sheets at the edges. the dimensions of the compartments are feet by feet by feet. "_racks._--these are eight in number, and measure just under feet by feet by feet. the capacity of each is roughly about lbs., of dry sheet rubber. the racks are mounted on -inch iron wheels, running on rails of stock size, 't' iron ( - / inches by - / inches by / inch). "the sheets are hung on split bamboos. to prevent these projecting over the edge of the rack and catching in the doors when the rack is moved in or out, a thin strip of wood, about / inch high, is nailed along the sides of the rack. [illustration: side view of double "devon" type of smoke-house. building constructed of galvanised iron. shows door to furnace chamber, and ventilator.] "_furnace._--this is of the type that aims at slow combustion. it consists of a cast-iron cylinder, feet in diameter and feet high, carried on a truck made of a sheet of boiler-plate, and mounted on small wheels, so that the whole can be moved easily out of, and into, the furnace chamber for easy cleaning and stoking. "the furnace chamber is a pit lined with concrete, just wide enough to take the trolley, and about feet long. the top of the furnace, which is almost flush with the ground-level, consists of a sheet of zinc or galvanised iron with numerous holes about inches in diameter. over these holes are strips of mosquito gauze, as flame and dust arresters (see note below). there are no holes in the sides or bottom of the cylinder. "over the furnace is hung a baffle-plate, measuring feet by feet. above this, on the first floor-level, the bottom of the compartments is covered with wire netting, to prevent any rubber dropping accidentally into the furnace chamber. the furnace chamber is fitted with an iron-frame door, swinging on perpendicular hinges. "_method of stoking._--the timber used is a mixture of jungle wood and rubber-tree wood, cut to lengths of about - / feet. in the ordinary way the furnace is charged at p.m., and at six-hour intervals a little more fuel is added, but a new charge is not necessary. during the daytime, when the heat of the sun is sufficient to raise the temperature appreciably, a smaller fire is maintained. "_temperature._--there is no difficulty in maintaining a temperature of ° f. by continuous smoking, average sheets prepared from standardised latex can be fully cured in five days. this represents hours of smoke-curing, which is at least equal to ten days' intermittent smoking in an ordinary house. "_capacity._--there are eight racks, each accommodating lbs. of standardised sheet rubber. the loading capacity of the house, therefore, is , lbs. as each charge is cured in five days, the monthly output may be , lbs. "the cubic capacity is , cubic feet. as there are no gangways, etc., this is fully utilised. this gives a rate of monthly output capacity to over - / lbs. dry rubber per cubic foot of drying space; an excellent figure much in advance of values obtained in the great majority of ordinary smoke-houses."[ ] [ ] since the above was written, it has been found possible to eliminate the gauze. a mild steel top has been made, perforated with -inch holes. practically no dust is ejected from the furnace, and there are no flames. owing to shortage of supplies during the war, similar buildings have been erected with frames of well-seasoned hard wood, which was protected by strips of asbestos-slate or galvanised iron. the latter material was also substituted in the covering walls. later, houses were erected of brick, with other minor modifications. as a natural development, the latest buildings consist of two of the original houses face to face, under a common roof, and served by common platforms. as originally designed, the house was intended to meet the needs of a small estate, or a division of an estate, having a maximum output of about , lbs. of sheet rubber per month. the possibility of an extension of this idea has been shown to be great. the furnace has been described as situated in a pit. situated on a bank or on sloping ground, it was easy to arrange for withdrawal of the furnace. in some cases this has not been possible, and various modifications have been effected. the most satisfactory yet encountered is that in which a shallow brick pit is surmounted by an iron cone, about feet in height. this is fitted with a cap having small perforations. the fire burns in the pit, and the heat is radiated by the cone. it would have been more effective to have allowed greater height in the furnace chamber, and to have employed the travelling drum-furnace as in the original design. in order to avoid interference in draught by a space between the bottom of the doors of the compartments and the platform (due to the presence of rails), the floor of the platform is laid level with the top of the rails; or to the bottom of the doors is attached a swinging flap, notched for accommodating the rails when in position. * * * * * there are in use houses of other designs, which all more or less vary only in some modifications from the types described. hence they do not call for special comment. recently a rather distinct departure has been noted in a structure designated the "barker" smoke-house. barker patent.--in essential this consists of a long narrow structure erected with an appreciable slope from one end to the other. at the lower end is a small furnace enclosed in a brick compartment. the smoke from this furnace travels up the slope to the other end, at which the rubber enters. the sheets are hung on bars which are attached to a unit framework. this frame slides, by its own weight, upon timber side supports. a sufficient number of these units occupies the full effective length of the structure. the removal of "stops" at the lower end enables the foremost frame to be removed, and the succeeding frames slide into a new position. thus the freshly prepared sheets, entering at the higher end, gradually and automatically move towards the furnace as the frames of dry rubber are removed from the lower end. [illustration: the new "barker" type of smoke-house: a small unit. the racks slide automatically from top to bottom on withdrawal of the lower frames through door at front. the furnace is contained in the brick compartment at the lower (front) end.] thus far only small units have been seen. it is claimed that, properly prepared, sheet rubber can be smoke-cured in about five or six days, and it is stated that installations have been in successful working for sufficiently long periods to prove their efficacy. the device is better known in java and sumatra than in malaya. the capacity of a unit building is stated to be , lbs. per month, calculating on a six days' cycle of working. in a more recent design provision is made at the lower end for a water tank, into which all rubber can be discharged in case of fire. chapter xvi _other buildings (continued) and situation of buildings_ sorting-room and packing-room.--it is in these departments that most factory installations are lacking. more often than one cares to acknowledge, sorting and packing are done under conditions which place a premium upon poor work. as a consequence, consignments of rubber are often marred by the inclusion of defective specimens. the result is that shipments may be rejected when tendered against contracts, or that allowances in price have to be made. in many instances it would not be fair to lay the blame upon the manager or an assistant, as it is obviously impossible for an individual to inspect every piece of rubber. neither would it be strictly fair in some cases to ascribe the fault to pure carelessness on the part of the coolies. often the only provision made for this important work is the lower room of a drying-shed, which may also contain hanging rubber. under these circumstances, space is cramped, and the light often poor. small defects may pass unnoticed, and the general surroundings do not conduce to keen work. where, for economic reasons, the sorting and packing operations are conducted in the drying-shed, there should be ample space free from hanging rubber, and it should not be possible for wet rubber placed in the upper room to drip upon the dry rubber below or upon packed cases. there should be plenty of light, and for this reason windows should be ample. usually the window-frames are fitted with wooden shutters, which are preferably hung on horizontal hinges from the top of the frame. by this device it is not necessary to close all windows during a shower of rain, and rubber may be stacked near a window with reasonable chance that direct sunlight will not be allowed to fall upon it. in dealing with smoked sheet, it is advised that the rubber to be examined should be placed upon tables facing the windows, so that each piece may be scrutinised in a strong light. crepe rubber also is best examined in a strong light, but preferably with one's back towards the source of light or at an angle to it. for this work coolies usually are most efficient when sitting on the floor. it will be clear from the foregoing remarks that the best conditions would be secured in a separate building especially constructed. a single room would be all that is required; at one end sorting could be undertaken, while packing could be done at the other end. no hanging rubber should be allowed in the room. the floor should be of hard timber, and raised from the ground, to the height approximately of a bullock-cart or motor-lorry, as the case may be. the boxes of rubber could thus be transported by small hand-trucks on a level with the transport vehicle, reducing labour to the minimum. the ventilation of the building should be good, especially if cases of rubber are to be stored therein; and the entire structure should be weather-proof. store-rooms for rubber and storage.--the question of storage of rubber in factory buildings has always possessed importance, but has demanded increased consideration recently. from experience in this country, it is clear that cement floors for store-rooms or packing-sheds are the least suitable. they are often visibly damp, especially in the early morning. to allow rubber, packed or unpacked, to remain upon a cement floor in the tropics, is to court trouble from moulds, external or internal. if the employment of a cement floor is unavoidable, the rubber and boxes should be raised on wooden supports, giving a clearance of at least or inches, and there should be clear ventilation space between tiers of boxes. experience indicates that the best type of floor is that already advised for sorting and packing rooms--_i.e._, a good hard timber floor raised at least feet above ground-level. apart from the advantage in labour specified in the previous paragraphs, this provision of ample ventilation space below the floor is a great consideration in the preservation of the timber. raised store-rooms become essential in low-lying districts which are at all subject to flooding, yet the writer has seen many boxes of rubber damaged by flood-water entering a packing-room situated on the level. the question has often been raised recently as to the length of the period during which rubber may be safely stored in this country. the answer can be only supplied by experience, of which up to the present we have none possible of being classed as reliable. whatever storage may have been done in the past has been influenced greatly by the unsuitability of the storage accommodation, and the fact that often the rubber was not prepared with a view to prolonged storage. while the market demand was strong, rubber was being shipped and passed into circulation, at a rate which did not demand investigation of the subject of local storage. in the year conditions were such as to bring the matter into prominence, and we were able to tender advice on the lines given in this chapter. the necessity passed, but has again arisen. our experience goes to prove that if rubber is properly prepared and thoroughly dried before packing, it will remain in good condition for a period of a year or more in this country. how much beyond a year it may be kept remains to be determined. the assumption of "proper preparation" leaves great room for reservations. in the case of crepe rubbers, there is no great difficulty, provided that the recognised methods and formulæ are employed, and that the rubber is packed only when perfectly dry. under those conditions, the higher grades of crepe remain apparently unaffected on storing. any appreciable deterioration may be attributed to defective preparation or external causes, such as accidental damage by water. the prolonged storage of lower grade rubbers is attended by more risk, especially in the case of the lowest grade (earth-scrap) from estates which neglect the practice of regular and frequent collection of the raw product. the same reservation applies to crepes made from tree-scrap which is not collected daily. in these types of crepe rubber "tackiness" may be initially present only in small degree, but the final damage may be immensely greater by close contact of the folded rubber during prolonged storage. when we come to discuss the possibility of storage of smoked sheets, the difficulties become immensely greater. we have yet no reliable experience as to the keeping properties of this grade when properly prepared, fully cured, correctly packed, and stored under the best of local conditions. it is understood, of course, that in the qualification by the term "local" conditions, we assume it to be more difficult to store rubber generally in malaya than in a temperate climate. the average temperature and humidity of the atmosphere are here much more favourable to the development of mould growths than would be the case, say, in great britain. in discussing this question, as far as it refers to the preservation by storing of smoked sheet rubber, it is not fair to draw conclusions as to the likely behaviour of packed rubber from data based upon observation of loose specimens. we have samples of smoked sheets prepared in , and these, superficially, appear to have remained unchanged. no mould is present and, as far as intermittent observation enables us to judge, moulds have never been incident. whether such rubber would have been preserved in this condition had it formed part of a packed case, is a point upon which we have no experience; neither can we give any opinion. it seems true, however, that loose specimens "keep" better than bulk samples of the same preparation. it cannot be argued that the present good condition of these old specimens may be due to correct preparation. in those days methods and formulæ were rather haphazard, especially in view of the fact that the daily variability of dry rubber content of latices was not then recognised. one would rather submit the factor of adequate smoke-curing as the chief influence in the superficial preservation of smoked sheets. ten or eleven years ago it was considered advisable to allow the rubber to remain in the smoke-house for a period extending well beyond that necessary for ordinary drying. as a result, very dark rubber was produced, which was thoroughly impregnated with the products of wood combustion. there would seem to be little doubt that this procedure was responsible for the prolonged freedom from mould growths. market standards have varied to some degree since, with a tendency to prefer a paler product than that in vogue, say, six or seven years ago. moreover, standardised methods of preparation have been introduced, with the result that sheets of a desirably high standard can be produced in from ten to fourteen days, when smoke-curing is conducted only during night hours. some estates are equipped with smoke-houses which, by continuity of working day and night, provide smoke-dried rubber in from five to six days; but the actual hours of smoke-curing are approximately equal to those of the ordinary type of house. this tendency towards the production of sheets paler in colour than the old standard is probably largely responsible in the present for the commonly observed incidence of surface moulds on stored smoked sheets, and also for some complaints of "under-curing," where the term specifically refers to a failure to dry and cure the rubber thoroughly. boxes of smoked sheets, which had been stored for varying periods up to five months, were recently inspected, and, in the majority of instances, surface moulds were found to be plentiful. in all cases it was observed that the trouble was intensified where boxes of rubber were stored in contact with cement floors. this "under-curing" is not a question solely of the duration of smoke-drying, although probably the modern practice of curtailing the period has exerted a great influence. to make this clear, it may be stated that, given two batches of uniformly prepared wet sheets, it would be possible to smoke-cure them for equal periods in different houses, so as to produce one batch very much paler in colour than the other, although the total hours of actual smoke-curing would be identical. in order to produce such effects, all that is necessary is to employ different timbers for fuel or different types of furnaces. in the one case there would be produced heat and very little smoke, while in the other the necessary heat would be obtained plus plenty of smoke. the best results naturally are obtained by the employment of the happy medium, and if smoked sheets have to be stored, the ordinary period of smoke-curing should be prolonged to an interval consistent with the capacity of the smoke-house. all precautions taken in preparation and curing can be nullified, as already indicated, by unsuitable storage conditions. tool-sheds and store-rooms.--in some factories it is the rule to see lime, cement, spare rolls, sieves, and a general heterogeneous assortment occupying part of the rubber-drying rooms. the inconvenience is often great; and it certainly seems that these stores and tools are of sufficient value to be accommodated in suitable buildings. situation of factory buildings.--there can be no doubt that a great deal of the "spot" disease trouble, and the general slowness of drying, can be attributed in many factories to the unsuitability of the site chosen. probably the idea which actuated those responsible for the choice of site generally was proximity to a water supply. this would account for the fact that a number of factories are situated in valleys or near swamps. more often than not, also, the actual clear space is very limited, and rubber trees grow close up to the walls of the buildings. under such circumstances, it is difficult to see how these buildings can be anything but dark and damp, and it is not difficult to understand the slow rate of drying. in a few cases the sites chosen proved to be so unsuitable that the estates were confronted with a very serious problem, the solution to which was, either the erection of another complete set of buildings in a more suitable spot or the installation of artificial driers. it must be laid down as an axiom that the first essential in a suitable site is that water may be brought to it easily, but, as already indicated, this does not mean that the buildings need be placed in actual proximity to the water-supply. the mistakes made by pioneers in this work are not likely to be repeated, and it is common now to note well-designed and comprehensive schemes in which the water is pumped to a reservoir placed at a suitable elevation, whence the supply is gravitated to bungalows, coolie lines, and the factory. the importance of securing a plentiful supply of good water for factory purposes cannot be exaggerated, and it is a point which is only thoroughly appreciated on estates where smoke-sheet rubber has to be prepared. the second essential, but of equal importance, is that there shall be an ample open space on which the sun may shine all day. there must be no trees too near the buildings, and there should be no adjacent swamps. preferably, the site should be on a raised position, so that it will be impossible for surrounding trees to cut off sunshine, even when they are fully grown. from such an arrangement it will follow that the factory will be light and airy, and the drying-houses will receive the maximum of benefit to drying from direct sunshine on the roof and walls. there can be little doubt that these considerations play a most important part in determining the rate of drying of the rubber, and where comparisons are made between the rates of drying in various drying-houses all these factors enter into the question and contribute to the total result. presuming that the thin crepes made in two factories are equal in thickness, it is not uncommon to find that in a drying-house, situated in a wide open space, the period of drying may be as low as six or seven days; while in another drying-house, situated near a swamp and surrounded by trees, the period may be as high as eighteen days to twenty-one days. the figures quoted are not fictitious, but are facts actually noted in the course of the writers' experience. a great deal also depends upon the exact position of buildings. thus, to obtain the maximum of light in a factory, it will be obviously beneficial to erect it with the long sides running east and west, so that the windows face the north and south, and the large end doors face the east and west respectively. at first sight it would appear that the best position for the machines would be on the north side of the building where no sun can enter; but a moment's consideration shows that the south side would give the best results. by the time the sun has come round to the south, it is usually high in the heavens, and the direct sunshine does not fall very far into the room. even should it play upon the machines for an hour or two during the day, no harm could result to the rubber which was being worked, as no piece would remain there a sufficiently long time to be injured in the slightest degree. placed in this position, the maximum benefit of light would be obtained, whereas if the length of the building ran east and west, the machines would have only either the morning or afternoon light. [illustration: suggested arrangement of building.] while it is advisable to erect a factory running east and west, the drying-houses should run north and south. in this position the maximum wall area will be exposed to the sun during the day, and it will be possible to manipulate the windows of the drying-rooms so that those along one side are open, and it will never be necessary to close all the windows at any time of the day. thus the windows facing east will be closed, and those facing west will be open until after midday; then _vice versa_. with such an arrangement a more uniform temperature may be obtained than by any other arrangement of the buildings. if the building ran east and west, the windows on the north side could remain open all day, while those facing south would have to remain closed practically all day. the south side of the house would be heated by the sun, while the north side would remain cool, and the rates of drying would be correspondingly unequal. the total wall area heated by the sun at any time of the day would be less in this position than if the house ran north and south. similarly, to obtain the best drying effect during the daytime in a smoke-house the building should run north and south. by this means the temperature will be maintained to the maximum possible by sun heat, and the rate of drying will correspond. _references to sketch plan._ drying-house no. should be of two storeys, and unless a separate sorting and packing room is to be built, no. should also have two floors (see previous notes on packing-rooms). in the factory-- _v_ shows the position of the verandah, which may be quite open and only divided from the inner room by _s_, a wall composed of very strong expanded metal, which allows light and air to enter the factory. _t,t_ are the glazed tile tanks for the reception of latex, scrap rubbers, and bark-shavings. _m_ shows the position of the machines on the south side of the factory, with the direction of extensions, and _e,e_ the compartments in which the engines are bedded. in these positions it is possible to obtain direct drive to the machines. _d,d_ are large double swing or sliding doors (the latter for preference always). these, while suiting transport of rubber, provide also for a free draught of air. if possible the scrap-washing machine should be placed outside the wall of the factory, and tanks for the reception of scrap rubbers may then be situated in convenient proximity. economy of labour is obtained by grouping all factory buildings as closely as possible, but it should be borne in mind that smoke-houses should be regarded as a possible source of danger from fire. this point has a practical bearing upon rates of insurance, and it is essential that the smoke-house should be situated at a minimum of feet from any other building or group of buildings. in this connection, also, it may be noted, as being of further practical interest, that, in the insurance of smoke-houses, preferential rates are given to those having a good type of slow-combustion furnace. choosing a factory site.--sufficient has been written to make it clear that the choice of a site for factory buildings is a matter demanding weighty consideration. much, of course, depends upon the planted area, and the rate at which it comes into bearing. under certain circumstances which will be obvious, it is permissible to instal first a group of buildings of a temporary nature only, the future site and permanent buildings to be chosen later when the main portion of the estate comes into bearing. often, however, one finds that, from lack of forethought, the estate has been committed to considerable expense in the establishment of equipment, which later is proved to be unfavourably situated with regard to the majority of the area in ultimate bearing. in such case, transport of latex is fraught with difficulties and may be expensive. in the instance of an estate which will gradually come into bearing, it is not easy to decide whether a temporary installation shall first be provided, or whether, in anticipation of future demands, a complete equipment shall be erected. so much depends upon the financial aspect of the question, and upon the rate at which areas will come into bearing. as far as is possible, the best policy would be that of a compromise under which the site would suit later requirements, and the factory would be so planned as to be capable of future easy extensions both of buildings and machinery. it is not possible to lay down any definite data as regards requirements based on acreage, or to make comparisons between any two estates of similar acreage. the important factors determining such requirements are: (_a_) area. (_b_) shape of the estate. (_c_) topography of the estate. (_d_) available supplies of water. naturally the ideal site for factory buildings would lie in a central position, given other favourable conditions. centralisation or decentralisation.--it is the experience of a number of estates that, all other conditions being favourable, there is a limit beyond which the centralisation of factory work leads to an unwieldy position. we are not here concerned with the few extremely large estates running into tens of thousands of acres. in those cases the total area would be divided into economic sections. the argument there would resolve itself into a discussion on the size of an economic section. this, in turn, would be dependent upon the type of main product, involving the question of transport of latex or coagulum, and the possible provision of batteries of heavy machinery. the differentiation between the transport of latex and coagulum, respectively, is a most important one, and has a powerful influence in determination of the maximum of centralisation possible. whereas properly prepared coagulum may be safely transported by bullock-cart, light-railway, or motor vehicle for many miles, latex, on the other hand, demands very careful treatment. anti-coagulants may be employed to preserve fluidity, but only within certain limits. even under these conditions, other factors (chiefly climatic) exert an influence which renders the transport of latex for any distance a matter of anxiety. it will be plain, therefore, that the limits of centralisation of factory work are much narrower for the preparation of sheet rubber than is the case when crepe rubber is to be made. in actual experience the preparation of a high standard and a high percentage of smoked sheet is attended with considerable difficulty in those cases where the factory processes have been ultra-centralised. apart from the difficulties inherent to the transport of latex in a state of good preservation, there is the added difficulty of dealing quickly with large volumes of latex brought from various quarters. none of these should be allowed to remain standing if the best results are to be secured; but obviously there must at times be some congestion. even on a small scale it is often found that the latest batches of latex are unfit for the preparation of good sheet rubber, and the trouble may be easily exaggerated when working on a large scale. the centralisation of work on crepe preparation, therefore, is limited only to a comparatively slight degree by distance of transport, and in the main only by the size of the necessary equipment of machinery and drying accommodation. the successful preparation of sheet rubber is, on the contrary, governed chiefly by the factor of transport. with this consideration in view, several large estates, preparing sheet rubber as the chief grade, have found it necessary to decentralise the factory work, with very satisfactory results. outlying sections are given uniform and complete equipments of necessary buildings on a small scale, and hand-driven light machines. uniform coagulating tanks are installed, and the methods and quantities of chemicals employed are carefully standardised. experience has shown that often the best sheet rubber coming to the market has been prepared on small estates; and the same applies to the product of these decentralised stations on large estates. there is no _a priori_ reason why the product from one station should differ in the smallest particular from that of another, apart from minor fluctuations which are due to variable weather conditions affecting the latex. if the contrary is found to be the case, it indicates failure on the part of the person responsible to follow the regular rules and methods. in the natural scheme of development of a large estate, it would be necessary, of course, to have a comparatively small centrally situated factory, equipped with power and heavy machinery for working scrap rubbers in the preparation of crepe grades below no. in quality. as the yield per acre increases, or the area in bearing expands, it would be advisable later to increase the size of the central factory and buildings so as to permit of the preparation of a proportion of the crop in the form of no. crepe rubber, in order to be able to comply with prevailing market demands under which preferential rates fluctuate between pale crepe and smoked sheet. part iv the finished rubber chapter xvii _defects in crepe rubbers_ general style of finish.--broadly, there is no single and definite style of finish, but on the whole it may be stated that the greater proportion of crepe rubbers are prepared in a thin form and with a close-knit texture or finish. very little thick or blanket crepe is now made on estates in malaya, so that beyond the mention of that type little need be written. a fair amount of blanket crepe is sold in the singapore market, but it should generally be regarded as re-made rubber--_i.e._, it may have been prepared from thin crepes, or from native pale sheets, in local rubber-washing factories. in appearance these crepes have a rough finish, and vary in colour according to the crude material employed. the general preference of the market at present is for a thin, smooth-finished crepe, with a close-knitted surface--_i.e._, free from what is described as "laciness." what effect this looseness of finish can possibly have upon the quality of the rubber is not understood, but the standard type set up by the market must be comparatively free from small holes. under existing conditions governing the sale and purchase of rubber, various "standards" are set up. these really have no bearing upon the intrinsic qualities of the rubber, and are concerned almost entirely with superficial attributes. they are necessary in the absence of any proper scheme of evaluation for the establishment of certain standards of comparison, which imply that the rubber is apparently clean, free from certain recognised defects, and has been carefully prepared--as far as can be determined by a superficial examination. thus the question of "finish" has attained disproportionate importance, but must be respected when preparing rubber for sale. under ordinary conditions, thin crepe rubber, as it leaves the finishing machines, has what may be termed "deckled" edges. on many estates, in order to comply with market conditions, the edges of the wet crepe are trimmed, and the trimmings re-made into lengths of crepe. this is done under the impression that the market price is influenced by the evenness of the edges of crepe rubbers. again, it sometimes happens that, owing to "wear" of the rolls, the finished dry crepe may show a faint but distinct pattern of mark--a diamond or a horizontal bar. since these are not accepted under the "standard" comparisons, rubber exhibiting these characteristics does not obtain the top market price. in other words, these innocent and innocuous marks are regarded as defects and penalised accordingly. enough has been written to show how very important becomes the question of finish. it will be acknowledged that the superficial qualities demanded in the "standard" market type can be reproduced by any estate having adequate machinery and ample facilities for drying and handling the rubber. methods of preparation and formulæ for the employment of chemicals are so well laid down that, up to the stage of machining, no difficulty need be encountered. but the standard type of finish in the dry crepes cannot be obtained unless the estate factory is fully equipped with the three types of rolls necessary--_i.e._, macerators, intermediate crepers, and smooth finishing-rolls. this subject has received full discussion in chapter xiii., and is here only mentioned with the view of emphasising the point that no estate can be blamed for a lack of "finish" in crepe rubbers if the equipment of machinery is inadequate or in poor condition. if, on the other hand, the factory has ample machinery for requirements, and a good finish cannot be obtained on the thin crepe, then it is time the rolls were attended to and changed, or that the ratios of the driving pinions were altered. dirty edges.--it seems to be almost impossible to keep old machines clean, and it is equally difficult to keep the edges of crepe free from oil and dirt. usually these dark edges are to be found on crepe which is rather wide, and it will be noticed that where wide crepe is made, unless special precautions are taken, the edges of the rubber often pass under the edges of the hopper and so pick up dirt and oil. on most machines it is a great mistake to attempt the preparation of wide crepe; nothing but narrow crepe must be made. to obtain this it is necessary to decrease the width of the hopper placed above the rolls. this can easily be effected by blocks of heavy hard wood, cut to shape and fastened in position. sometimes the dark edges of crepe are due to another cause. rolls may be gradually worn in the middle, so that to obtain a good finish it becomes increasingly necessary to tighten up the screws which regulate the distance between the rolls. it thus happens that just at, and beyond, the edges of the rubber the rolls grind upon each other, and fine particles of iron and graphite are transferred to the rubber. in such a case it is evident that either the rolls must be "turned" or that a new pair of rolls must be substituted. iron-stains.--one of the causes of iron-stain on rubber has been mentioned in the preceding paragraph. this particular kind of iron-stain must not be confounded with rust-stain, and gives a dark dirty colour. it results from the grinding together of the rolls, and is usually noticed in the finishing of fine pale crepe. for this operation it is necessary to screw up the rolls tightly, and it will be plain that, whenever the rolls are vacant of rubber, there is a tendency for them to grind upon each other, thus setting free fine particles of iron and graphite. in order to avoid this, one must be careful to see that between the working of each length of fine crepe the rolls should be occupied with another piece of rubber, which may be kept for the purpose. in some factories this trouble apparently does not exist, while in others the amount of wear on the rolls is surprisingly great, and the damage done to the rubber is excessive. the only way in which this difference can be accounted for is that there must be a great difference in the quality of the roll material. some rolls seem to be excessively soft, and from these contamination by iron-stain is great. for this reason rolls are sometimes rejected, and there would appear to be an objection to any but chilled steel rolls for the final stage of finishing crepe rubbers. rust-stains.--rust-stains, on the other hand, throw the responsibility entirely upon the labour and supervision of the factory. rust is formed upon the rolls when they are at rest, and any one passing pale rubber between the rolls before they have been thoroughly cleaned is guilty of culpable negligence. even when apparently clean, a piece of lower grade rubber should be passed through the rolls several times so as to remove any slight trace of rust remaining. rust-stains have also been caused in a few cases by the large knives which are used to cut up lumps of coagulum, or by allowing freshly coagulated rubber to come into contact with iron vessels in the factory. a similar appearance has been traced in a few instances to contamination of the coagulum in transit by the dust of the reddish rock (laterite) employed in localities for road-making. oil-marks.--the origin of oil-marks in crepe has already been described in chapter xiii. the whole question resolves itself into one of cleanliness, moderation in lubrication, and supervision. the machines should be inspected every day, and once a week rolls may be swabbed down with a per cent. solution of caustic soda applied by means of a piece of cloth fastened round the end of a stick. immediately after this operation water should be turned on and the rolls set in motion, so that all traces of caustic soda are thoroughly removed. if possible, lubrication by oil should be substituted by grease lubrication through screw caps. particular attention should be paid to the back of the machines. none but the individual in charge of engines should be allowed to lubricate the machines, and he should be held responsible for any excess of lubricant. as a rule oil-marks are restricted to the edges or the proximity of the edges of crepe, but sometimes the streak is to be found in the middle of the length. in such a case it is almost certain that the oil or grease has been picked up by the rubber in the tray. it sometimes happens, if the "liners" of the bearings are eccentrically worn, that a few drops of dirty oil or a particle of grease are squirted out to some distance. these usually find a resting-place in the tray, and the contamination may then appear in any part of the rubber. it will be clear, therefore, that all trays beneath machines should be examined as the probable source of danger from contamination by oil and dirt. if the trays are as wide as or wider than the effective portion of the rolls, they should be discarded. in their place (except sometimes in the case of the macerating machine) all that is necessary is a movable piece of board, in width not less than from to inches shorter than the width of the rolls. any oil or grease ejected from the bearings will thus be allowed to fall clear of the board; and defects due to oil streaks, etc., will be very much diminished, if not entirely obviated. this point in connection with the damage possible by the existence of wide trays is commended to the notice of manufacturers of machines for plantations, as it is common to find that trays are made which contravene the rule prescribed by experience. in fact, trays on some machines have been so designed as to act as "traps" for all dirty matter exuding from the bearings. not only so; they are sometimes made of such a shape and height that oil or grease lodging upon the edges act as a "wipe" to the rolls, thus increasing the possibility of contamination. until this defect was investigated, it was common to note continued contamination of pale crepes in spite of all precautions taken in cleaning the rolls at frequent intervals. the trouble due to this cause is intensified when the same machines are employed for the preparation of scrap-rubber crepes and no. crepe. small pieces of scrap find their way towards the bearings and lodge on the edges of the trays. unless a thorough inspection is made before proceeding with the working of the no. (pale) grade, contamination may be continuous. dirt.--streaks due to the presence of dirt (as apart from oil or grease contamination, or that due to pieces of oxidised scrap) are unusual, and when they do appear their origin seems to be somewhat of a mystery. it could scarcely be advanced that the dirt was picked up on the machines, as it is difficult to imagine where such dirt could come from. in one or two instances there has been fairly clear evidence that the dirt was contained in the coagulum, and the only explanation fitting the case is that it fell into the latex after straining and during the course of coagulation. on cutting open lumps of coagulum brought in from the field division, it has sometimes been noticed that dirt is included, and the foregoing explanation is the only reasonable one. how it was possible for dirt to get into the latex must be left for explanation to those better acquainted with the conditions under which the latex was coagulated. holes.--on some estates it would seem impossible, with the existing machines, to make really good crepe. the complaint is that, if thin crepe is attempted, it is invariably found to be "full of holes"; and as, apparently, the presence or absence of small holes in crepe rubber is a factor which influences buyers, this defect must be avoided at all costs. why this matter of small holes in thin crepe should weigh so heavily with buyers is a matter which the writers are not in a position to explain. as a matter of fact, the presence of small holes is most generally an indication that the rubber has received the minimum amount of working on the rolls consistent with good washing. further working would only be undertaken with the idea of so consolidating the rubber as to get rid of holes in order to meet the market scheme of valuation. this is usually achieved by making a very thin crepe and rolling together two lengths when wet. the resulting crepe may be slightly thicker than ordinary, and the method employed may be usually detected by the appearance of the edges unless these are trimmed. greenish and tacky streaks.--occasionally one meets cases in which pale crepe exhibits streaks varying in colour from a decided green to an almost black in which the greenish tinge is scarcely perceptible. experience indicates that these streaks are much more dangerous than they appear superficially, inasmuch as they contain traces of brass from the "liners" of the bearings. the presence of the copper in brass is responsible for a gradual disintegration of the rubber, commonly recognised as "tackiness." in fact, copper may be said to be a "poison" to rubber, and every effort should be made to avoid possible sources of contamination. the effect may be proved easily and perceptibly by fastening together several pieces of crepe rubber by means of a brass "paper-fastener." in course of time a salt of copper, green in colour, will be formed, and it will be found that the portions of rubber in contact with the fastener have "perished" and become tacky. this contamination of crepe rubber may take place in two ways: ( ) by the ejection of actual particles of brass from the bearings of machines, due to eccentric grinding of the "standards" of the rolls upon the brass "bushes." these particles are carried by exuded oil or grease into trays, and thence to the rubber. ( ) by the action of an acid lubricant upon the brass, with the formation of a metallic soap which has a decided green colour, unless obscured by the dark colour of the oil or grease. it is transferred to the crepe rubber in the manner indicated above. the inevitable effect, apart from the superficial defect, is incipient tackiness. the extent to which this may develop will depend upon the amount of the copper compound present, but it should be remembered that an exceedingly small trace is capable of causing a disproportionately large amount of damage. this effect is further magnified if the "tacky" piece of rubber is packed in close contact with previously unaffected rubber. when the defect is discovered, the affected portions should be cut out, and the cuttings should be burned. to mix them with the lowest scrap grades, as may be done thoughtlessly, is only inviting further trouble. besides the source of danger already indicated, it may be found, but far less frequently, that contamination may arise from the presence in the rubber of small pieces of the brass mesh which is generally used for straining latex. the view appears to be held in some quarters that these tacky streaks and patches in crepe rubber may arise from contamination with oil or grease alone. this does not agree with our experience. an experiment was made to test the point using fresh oil and grease drawn from drums in stock, specimens of the same lubricants to which traces of a copper salt were added, and samples of lubricants taken from the bearings of several machines. the treated pieces of rubber were placed in contact with untreated pieces of crepe which served as "blanks." notes were made at intervals extending over a period of two years. the conclusions arrived at were: ( ) although there was surface discoloration, no tackiness had been caused by fresh (unadulterated) lubricant; neither were the "blanks" affected. ( ) in the majority of specimens upon which had been smeared a small streak of lubricant taken from the bearings of machines, tackiness had supervened, and had developed likewise in the contact "blanks." ( ) in all cases where a trace of copper salt had been used to adulterate the fresh lubricant, tackiness was to be noted in the course of a short period (a week upwards) after the rubber was dry. development was slow, but progressive, over the full period of experiment, and the "blanks" in contact were affected. the degree of affection was determined by the proportion of copper salt employed. in the worst cases the affected strip of rubber had deteriorated and disintegrated to such a degree as to cause a distinct longitudinal gap, the edges of which appeared to consist of a moist gummy substance of a deep syrup colour. the adjacent blanks in some cases exhibited a similar appearance in lesser degree, or were merely affected by a characteristic brownish stain. these observations regarding the possibility of damage to crepe rubbers from the existence of brass "liners" or "bushes" in the bearings of the machines lead to the natural query as to whether the use of brass is necessary. experience shows that it is not necessary. machines in use for years have been running with plain bearings of iron or other metallic substances. satisfaction is obtained without the use of brass. cotton and other fibre.--one of the most frequent complaints made against low grade crepes is the presence of fibre--generally classed in a wholesale fashion as "cotton-waste." it is true that some years ago most of the complaints were genuine in referring the cause to cotton-waste. the defect arose chiefly owing to the careless use of this material in the factory. lumps of waste when discarded were often thrown to the ground, and became mixed with the heaps of scrap rubber and bark-shavings awaiting attention. the fault was one of sheer negligence, and nothing can be advanced in extenuation. even when the soiled waste was thrown into the external drains, it often returned to the factory mixed up with the scraps of rubber recovered by means of the drain-screens. as far as the complaint concerns itself with cotton-waste only, the remedy is plain, and lies in the power of the management by reason of the ability to restrict the use of "waste" only to the engine-drivers and mechanics. in the vast majority of cases, however, the defect arises from circumstances beyond the direct control of the factory, and under conditions which make it difficult to check the evil. although against instructions, and for the purpose of fulfilling other orders, some coolies persist in using pieces of cloth for cleaning cups. in course of time, unless the practice is detected, this cloth becomes coated with rubber. careless coolies throw it away, when it may be collected by the individuals who gather earth-scrap; or it may be brought into the factory in the tappers' scrap-bag. cases have been known in which the fibrous matter observed in the dry crepe rubber was of such a nature as to indicate that the source might be attributed to leaf-stalks which had passed through the scrap-washer. it is an easy matter to condemn the sorting as being careless, but it is another matter to instil into the mind of factory coolies such a respect for easy and sane precautions that the practice of them will be continued when the eye of the supervisor is not fixed upon the workers. it will be clear that contamination by fibrous matter should be limited practically to the lowest grades of rubber. the appearance of cotton-waste in high-grade crepes must be most unusual, and the writers have not yet seen a case in a drying-house. that it does occur, however, seems to be evident from brokers' reports. it is extremely difficult to imagine how the waste enters the rubber. one possible explanation is that a coolie may have been cleaning the rolls surreptitiously with waste, which may have passed later into the rolls together with rubber. another explanation was offered in one factory by the observed fact that coolies engaged in cutting up coagulum, ready for passing into the machines, kept a wad of waste for the purpose of keeping the knife-blade clean. this may have found its way into the rolls. it must be recorded that in the course of many years of experience no case has been seen in any drying-house of contamination of the higher grades of crepe by fibrous matter. bark and grit.--with ordinary machines and the usual process of working, it would seem impossible to wash and macerate some of the scrap rubbers sufficiently to free them entirely from bark. this applies specially to the grade of rubber prepared from bark-shavings. specimens have been handled in which it was practically impossible to detect bark, but in such instances the amount of working necessary would be such as to interfere seriously with the regular working of the factory. even with the employment of special scrap-washing machines, complaints of the presence of bark in dry crepe have been received, but it is certain that this mode of operation reduces the quantity of bark to a minimum. while fully realising that the amount of working it is possible to give in proportion to the existing machinery and the output per day is limited, it must be recognised that the working of lower grades of rubber is usually insufficient, and that where possible it is the duty of estates to pay more attention to these lower grades. a considerable improvement in this direction has been noticed of recent years. it is not uncommon to encounter managers who fail to appreciate that complaints regarding the presence of bark in the lower grades are founded on legitimate grounds, and that they are not frivolous objections put forward for the purpose of depressing the price of the article. the sooner such an idea is jettisoned the better. there would appear to be a good future demand for the lower grades, and it is only natural that consumers will be willing to pay the best price only for an article which is clean. the same arguments apply to the complaints regarding the presence of sand and grit. the quantity of the latter found in low-grade crepes from some estates is surprisingly high. its presence can often be shown by the simple device of spreading a piece of crepe over the upturned and hollowed palm of one hand, while striking the rubber with the other hand. the incidence of bark in higher grades of crepe may be due to inadvertence or to gross negligence. in the former class one might put those occasions on which pieces of bark are embedded in lumps of naturally coagulated rubber. a piece of bark-shaving may fall unnoticed into latex and be partially responsible for the coagulation which takes place. this piece of coagulated lump may be massed with others, and hence, unless each small piece is cut up, the bark is not perceived. or again, by some unknown means, a piece of shaving may drop into a jar of latex, and so become embedded in the coagulum. sometimes this becomes evident on cutting up the rubber, but it is quite as likely to pass unseen. on the whole, the presence of bark in first-grade rubber is most unusual, and should be seen before the rubber is packed. in the class due to negligence may be included cases in which careless coolies place the cup upon the ground before tapping. pieces of shavings fall into the cup, and coolies are too lazy to pick them out. more often than not coagulation in the cup is caused. as it is impossible for the european staff to supervise each individual tree tapped, some cases must continue to pass unheeded. sometimes bark-shavings are brought in with the latex, and if a broken sieve is being used, these, with other impurities, pass into the jar, and are embedded in the coagulated rubber. this must be classified as negligence, for no manager would willingly allow the use of a broken sieve. again, naturally coagulated lump rubber on arrival at the factory sometimes contains evident pieces of bark, leaves, and stems of leaves. for lack of supervision the average coolie would not think of picking out these obvious impurities, and would pass the whole mass into the machines. oxidation streaks.--since the introduction of sodium bisulphite defects due to streaks, caused by portions of the coagulum becoming oxidised, have practically ceased to exist. in the usual course, and without the use of an antiseptic agent, the freshly coagulated rubber has a surface darkened by oxidation. unless this dark surface were carefully cut off, there would result a crepe containing dark streaks caused by the mixture of the oxidised surface portion with the bulk of the paler coagulum. the presence of oxidation streaks in no. crepes, now being made, would imply either that no anti-oxidant substance was in use, or that the quantity necessary to prevent this surface oxidation is exceedingly small. although the price obtained would appear to be influenced by the presence of oxidation streaks, no evidence can be obtained that the actual quality of the rubber suffers to the same degree as does the appearance--_i.e._, there is no evidence to show that a pale rubber, in which surface oxidation has been inhibited, is intrinsically superior to one in which slight natural oxidation has been incident. "yellow latex" streaks.--this appearance of "yellow-latex" streaks in not common, and may be accounted for by incomplete mixture of two different latices. it is a fact of common observation that, when a new portion of bark is being tapped for the first time, there is a distinct yellow tinge in the latex excluded. as tapping progresses, this colour vanishes; usually it may persist for a period varying from two weeks to more than a month. should this latex be poured into ordinary latex without thorough mixing, it is sometimes found that, when the crepe rubber is dry, there are distinct yellow streaks. it should be remembered that, as the rubber content of the latex from first tappings is high, this latex is lighter than latex which is more dilute, so that the mixed latices must be well stirred with a broad paddle to obtain intimate mixture. it would be much better to keep yellow latex apart, and coagulate it separately, if at all possible. in such case the resultant crepe may be of a distinct canary yellow in tint. in scrap-crepes of the higher grade this distinct yellow colour is often visible in streaks which indicate the presence of tree-scrap, etc., obtained from recently opened tapping areas. bisulphite streaks.--these, again, arise from defective mixing. in the dry rubber it is seen that there are streaks of colourless rubber in a general mass, which may be of varying shades of yellow; or, a length of exceedingly pale rubber is apparently streaked in patches with a darker shade of colour. a solution of sodium bisulphite is heavier than latex, and there would be a tendency, therefore, for the chemical to sink in the large mixing jar. unless stirring is thorough it is possible that portions of the latex would not be in contact with sodium bisulphite while others receive more than a fair share. especially would this effect be seen where coagulation takes place quickly, and experience bears out the truth of the suggestion. another factor which has some bearing on the point is the strength of solution in which sodium bisulphite is used. in the ordinary course of working, the acid coagulant is added immediately after sodium bisulphite has been stirred in. should a strong solution of the bisulphite be used, and if coagulation takes place quickly, it is easy to see that the possibilities of obtaining a uniform and intimate mixture are small. probably in no factory is the sodium bisulphite now added to latex in powder form, but it has been found that if care is not taken to see that all the bisulphite has dissolved before the solution is added to latex streaks may result in the dry rubber. the undissolved particles sink to the bottom of the coagulating jar or tank, and there slowly dissolve, forming local strong solutions. the effect upon the rubber in the vicinity of these strong solutions is much more marked than in the bulk of the coagulum, and hence lighter streaks or patches appear in the dry rubber. in spite of apparently complete mixture by good stirring, it will be seen that it is possible, therefore, to have failed in this direction if any undissolved powder remains in the solution of sodium bisulphite. "spot" disease.--few managers of estates preparing pale crepe rubbers are unacquainted with this defect. it is manifested by the appearance of small coloured spots varying in density (_i.e._, number to a unit area) and differing in hue. the most common colours are black and orange, but "spots" of brick-red, yellow, violet and ruby and green tints have been noted, the last named very seldom. sometimes in place of definite "spots," or colonies, the colour is spread over practically the whole surface of the rubber as a "flush." these coloured spots, or "flushes," indicate infection by minute fungi, which are present in the latex prior to coagulation. the infection of the latex takes place in the field by means of spores, which are only visible with a microscope. it is not feasible to discuss any method of preventing this infection of latex by air-borne spores, as the eventual preventive measures are so simple. but it may be believed that under ordinary weather conditions most latices are infected before reaching the factory. it is likewise true that even fine pale crepes shipped in perfect condition may contain possibilities of trouble in the form of "dormant" spores, the development of which may commence and continue if favourable conditions arise. the subject of "'spot' diseases" has been treated fully in previous publications,[ ] and it is not proposed here to enter into any lengthy discussion. [ ] "preparation of plantation rubber," sidney morgan, . "spotting of plantation rubber," keith bancroft, ; bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture. "spotting of prepared plantation rubber," a. sharpies, ; bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture. if any reader is desirous of producing the defect experimentally, all that is necessary is to prepare a piece of crepe rubber of rather more than ordinary thickness, roll it up while wet, and place aside for some days. this experiment reproduces the conditions favourable for the development of the spores, and spots of various colours may result. it will be clear that the chief factor influencing the result is the continued presence of plenty of moisture. this condition may be created inadvertently in the course of factory practice, if piles of crepe rubber are allowed to remain for any appreciable period before hanging to dry. for this reason batches of wet crepe should always be placed on edge, to allow free drainage of surface moisture, if the rubber cannot be taken at once to the drying-sheds. [illustration: three specimens of fine pale crepe suffering from "spot" disease.] the condition also is provided if the thickness of the crepe is excessive. in some factories, having no smooth-roll finishing machines, the crepes may have a distinct raised pattern upon them. it is usual to note that if "spot" disease appears in such crepes, it is incident to much greater degree in the thicker portions of the rubber--_i.e._, upon the raised pattern. the direct connection between the rate of drying and the appearance of coloured spots or flushes is thus established, and it only remains to adopt precautionary measures which will lead to an avoidance of delay ( ) between machining and hanging, ( ) in drying. it is indicated, therefore, that, if spot disease is to be avoided, the prime consideration is the preparation of a thin crepe which will dry quickly under average conditions. it may sometimes happen that even very thin crepes will sometimes be found affected on some estates. in such instances, it will be found that the design or situation of the drying-house is at fault, and that specially favourable conditions for the development of the fungi have been created by excessively wet weather. should the trouble persist in spite of the preparation of the thinnest crepe, it would be advisable either to abandon this form of no. product or to consider the installation of artificial aids to drying. we have not yet encountered any case in which it was found necessary to treat the latex with an antiseptic or disinfectant substance for the prevention of "spot" disease. there appears to be an idea held in some quarters that sodium bisulphite may be so employed as a fungicide. this does not agree with our experience, which is confirmed by sharpies (bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture). in experiments with chinosol were undertaken at the pataling laboratory of the rubber growers' association, and an account of the method of treatment was given in a printed report issued to subscribers. dr. p. arens,[ ] of the malang experimental station (java), has also recommended the use of chinosol. the substance is expensive, but is effective in very small quantity. on the whole, given average conditions in factory practice, such aids should not be necessary, and where keen supervision is not available may lead to other difficulties. [ ] "guide to the preparation of rubber," arens, ; communications from the experimental station (malang, java). it has already been remarked that it is possible for "spot" disease to develop in dry rubber which previously gave no evidence of the presence of fungi. the condition necessary to such an occurrence is supplied by the presence of moisture. thus, to state instances which are by no means uncommon, if a box of rubber is allowed to remain exposed to rain, or is damaged by flood-water, or by sea-water during transit, or (sometimes) if the rubber is packed in a damp case, the crepe on arrival at its destination may be found to be affected to a degree dependent upon the extent of wetting and the duration of the wetting period. no means are known by which these coloured spots, due to the growth of chromogenic organisms, can be removed from the rubber. naturally, although they may be present in the darker lower grades of crepe, they are not so easily visible as in pale crepe. it follows, therefore, that every possible precautionary measure must be taken when pale crepe has to be prepared. we are often asked whether it is possible for an infected piece of rubber to affect sound rubber hanging in the same building; and whether, in case of "spot" disease appearing, it is necessary to disinfect the drying-house. in a general sense, the answer to both queries is in the negative. it has not been proved possible to transmit the disease from one piece of crepe to another, except by the closest possible contact and in the presence of an abundance of moisture. a dry crepe, even when in close contact with an infected dry specimen, has not been found to be affected. unless, therefore, pieces of rubber are pressed together, under favourable conditions as to moisture, there has been observed no transfer of disease. similarly it has not been found that the presence of spotted rubber in one part of the drying-house has been responsible for an outbreak of disease in another part of the same building. furthermore, after the removal of diseased rubber from the drying-shed, freshly prepared rubber may be hung on the same supports without becoming affected, and without any intermediate treatment of the wooden bars, providing the crepe is thin and weather conditions are good. in our experience, no case has been observed in which the disease has been communicated to freshly prepared rubber by reason of the previous presence of affected rubber. in our opinion, therefore, any scheme for disinfecting the interior of a drying-house, as a preventive measure against the spread of "spot" disease, is unnecessary. all other things being equal, it is plain that much will depend, as to the incidence of coloured spots, upon the design and situation of the drying-house. sufficient has been written in previous chapters to indicate the importance of these points as affecting the rate of drying, upon which hinges the possibility of the appearance of "spot" disease. in conclusion, the chief points in any discussion of this subject may be summarised thus: . no coagulum should be left without working for longer than the ordinary period. otherwise, the prevailing conditions are very favourable for the development of the disease. . thin crepe only should be made. the quicker the rate of drying the less possibility is there of the coloured spots appearing. . crepe should never be allowed to remain folded overnight, and batches of folded wet crepe should be placed on edge to drain off surface moisture. the rubber should be hung to dry as soon as possible. . several species of fungi causing coloured spots have been recognised, and it has been proved conclusively that it is possible to infect latex and also fresh coagulum. . as far as our present knowledge goes, it appears that infection takes place chiefly, if not entirely, by means of the latex in the field-vessels. it may take place during transport also, or even during coagulation. . while it is certain that infection can be caused by contact, it has not yet been shown that infection of the finished wet rubber takes place in the drying-houses by means of air-borne spores--at least, under ordinary drying conditions. . there is reason to believe that no further infection takes place once the rubber is well into the drying stage, and that dry rubber is not infected even by contact. from this one might infer that, as long as rubber remains dry, infection cannot take place during the voyage to the port of consignment. . coloured spots do not appear until the rubber is about half dry, because that period is necessary for the development of the fungus to that stage in its life-history when it excretes colouring matter. the fungus in its earlier and colourless stage may have been present from the time the latex entered the cup. . the natural habitat of the fungi would appear to be decaying vegetable matter in the field. . finally, if it is found impossible to be rid of fungoid-spot disease after having exercised all care and observed all known precautions, nothing remains but to supersede the ordinary drying process by some system of quick drying, such as the vacuum-drying process or a hot-air draught system, in which the rubber dries so quickly that any possibility of appearance of "spots" is entirely removed. surface moulds or mildews on crepe rubber.--defects of this nature are most uncommon in the higher grades of crepe rubber, but cases of affection in the lower grades are not rare. it will be evident from all previous discussions that the incidence of these moulds must be due to an extremely slow rate of drying. the necessary conditions would be supplied by one or more of the following causes: (_a_) making the crepe too thick. (_b_) hanging the crepe in a badly ventilated or badly situated building. (_c_) occasionally by abnormally wet weather. (_d_) allowing piles of crepe to remain too long before hanging. (_e_) using excessive quantities of deteriorated sodium bisulphite. in short, any factor contributing towards a retarded rate of drying may be responsible for the appearance of surface mildews. the last mentioned cause is of not infrequent occurrence. knowing the chemical to be of poor quality, relatively more is used to produce the desired anti-oxidant effect. unless the rubber is particularly well washed on the rolls, there remains within it a residue of sodium _bisulphate_, an oxidation product of the bisulphite. this is hygroscopic to some degree--_i.e._, it takes up moisture from the atmosphere. hence drying is delayed, and even should mildews not develop the chemical may sometimes be seen on the surface of the rubber as a whitish "bloom." the enumeration of the possible causes of mildews on crepe rubber is sufficient to indicate the necessary precautions to be taken, and the discussion will not be extended further. tackiness in rubber.--"tackiness" is a term used to denote a deterioration of rubber which renders it sticky, and, beyond this, implies that some physical and chemical change in the nature of the substance has taken place. in fact, it is no longer "rubber," but an oxidation product containing much resinous matter. it does not behave as rubber, and hence its value is much depreciated. with modern ideas of erection of factories to guard against the introduction of direct sunlight, it was hoped that this defect had practically ceased to exist. in one grade of rubber it would be expected that tackiness would continue to appear. earth-rubber, often exposed to direct sunlight for a week, would naturally become tacky, and this tackiness cannot be avoided unless the earth-scrap is to be collected more frequently. but in many cases even the higher grades of rubber show signs of tackiness. experiments have been carried out at various times and in various places to determine the cause of tackiness. for some time the theory of bacterial origin was in favour, but none of the experimental results was convincing. bacteria may be present in tacky rubber; but, on the other hand, many cases of bacteria in rubber have been observed in which there was no tackiness. experiments were made by one of us some years ago with a view to testing the bacterial theory by inoculating latex with small pieces of tacky rubber. in opposition to the results which were stated to have been obtained, there was no spread of tackiness. other investigators have obtained similar results. one writer proposed to explain tackiness as caused by excess of moisture. this perfectly simple explanation unfortunately displays only a profound ignorance of the subject, and does not take into account the fact that tackiness is incident in rubber after dryness has been reached. it need not be pointed out to planters in malaya that wet sheets of rubber are often exposed to direct sunlight by workers of native holdings, with no resulting harm as long as plenty of moisture is present in the rubber. tackiness the result of a slow process of change.--as stated above, tackiness does not appear until the rubber is dry, and even then it is to be noted that it is possible for tackiness to appear in rubber arriving in london, which showed no indications of tackiness when packed for shipment. tackiness caused by traces of copper salts.--spence, as the result of investigations, has pointed out that none of the various theories put forward to account for tackiness--viz., the action of bacteria, premature putrefaction, oxidation, excess of moisture, the action of enzymes, etc.--have any basis in scientific proof, and believes that the cause of tackiness cannot be directly attributed to bacteria. it has been stated that the only known way of causing rubber to become tacky is to expose it to sunlight or heat. while agreeing that in the ordinary way this statement is correct as far as one rules out the employment of chemical substances, it must be pointed out that tackiness of the worst degree may be caused by the presence of traces of copper or copper salts. this point has already been touched upon in a preceding paragraph dealing with the defect of "green streaks" in pale crepe rubber. in the course of laboratory experiments tackiness has often been induced by the use of traces of copper salts. the rate at which tackiness is induced appears to be dependent upon the amount of copper salt used, but once it begins, the rubber molecule is very rapidly broken down, and resins are formed. as the formation of resins is accompanied by the inclusion of oxygen in the chemical constitution, it would be expected that dry rubber becoming tacky should increase in weight. this is found to be the case, and to give an idea of how this weight increases with the progress of tackiness, the results below may be studied. it will be seen that the maximum quantity of copper sulphate used amounted to · per cent, (approx.) upon the weight of latex taken. now it is highly probable that only a fraction of this quantity was retained in the rubber on coagulation, the remainder being in solution in the serum. furthermore, as the rubber was well washed and worked down to thin crepe, _the total quantity of copper salt remaining in the dry crepe must have been exceedingly small_. yet the effect is most marked and should impress upon all managers the necessity for guarding against any possible contamination caused by brass or copper. ----------+-----------------+-------------------------------------------- _sample._ | | _weight of rubber._ +------+ +------+--------+--------+--------+---------- | | | after |further |further | percent- |_amount of copper salt._| when |interval|interval|interval|age in in- | | dry. |of four |of seven|of three|crease in | | | weeks. | weeks. | weeks. | weight. ---+------------------------+------+--------+--------+--------+---------- | | grms.| grms. | grms. | grms. | | · grms. copper | | | | | |sulphate per c.c. | | | | | · |latex | | | | | | ditto | | | | | · | · grms. copper } | | | | | |sulphate, per c.c.} | | | | | |latex } | | | | | · | · grms. copper } | | | | | |acetate, per c.c. } | | | | | |latex } | | | | | | · grms. copper | | | | | |sulphate, per c.c. | | | | | · |latex | | | | | ---+------------------------+------+--------+--------+--------+---------- in view of the effect thus produced by the addition of traces to latex of a copper salt, and the observed effect on rubber of contact with copper salts, one may imagine the result produced some years ago when on an estate smoked sheets were washed with a solution of copper sulphate as a remedy for surface moulds! with the exception of this chemical action we know of no other means by which tackiness is produced, beyond those of direct sunshine and heat. cases governed by these two causes are common on estates. they are confined chiefly to the lowest grades of scrap rubber, when the component raw materials have been exposed to the sun for a period before being brought to the factory. it is now comparatively rare to find cases of tackiness in the higher grades of crepe, and when they occur, one may look for evidence of gross carelessness in the admission of direct sunshine. usually this means the failure of some individual to regulate window shutters according to the position of the sun in the sky. more rarely does it happen that tackiness may have been induced by placing thin crepe rubber too near the iron roof of the drying-shed. regarding the question as to whether tackiness may be communicated by direct contact, opinion appears to be divided. it has been stated that sound rubber left in contact with tacky specimens was found to be unaffected after two years. on the other hand, it is claimed that tackiness has been induced in a sound rubber by infecting it with small pieces which were tacky. in a preliminary article on the effect of copper and copper salts upon pieces of dried and sound crepe[ ] it was noted, after one year, that tackiness had been communicated from the treated portion to the "blank" in contact. there is sufficient evidence to warrant the injunction that tacky rubber should be excluded from contact with sound rubber. if shipped it should be packed separately. [ ] report i., (sidney morgan), rubber growers' association (malaya). compounds have been put upon the market which assumedly claim to be cures for tackiness. these are merely palliatives, consisting of starch, talc, or chalk powders, which counteract stickiness. no cure for tackiness.--at the present stage of our knowledge, there appears to be no cure for tackiness. neither do we see the necessity for a cure when the phenomenon may be avoided by taking simple precautions, which may be briefly summarised thus: ( ) any permanent openings through which it is possible for direct sunlight to enter, whether large or small, should either be totally closed or provided with some substance which cuts off the direct effect of the sunlight--_e.g._, ruby glass or ruby glazed cloth. ( ) rubber should under no circumstances be placed near any source of heat. ( ) no rubber should be hung in a drying-room in such a position adjacent to a window or door that it is possible for sunshine to reach it, even should coolies neglect to obey rules. ( ) instruments or vessels of copper or brass should not be used where acids are employed. lack of uniformity in colour.--the complaint is far less real than it was a few years ago. the introduction by the rubber growers' association of the "metrolac" led to uniform dilution of latices varying in rubber content. previously the only known method of obtaining uniformity in colour and appearance was that by which latices from all fields were mixed together in bulk. even so the uniformity applied only to the one bulking operation, and any other day's results might show considerable variation from the first standard. this does not take into account any observed differences in shade of colour attributable to natural oxidation which might vary in intensity from day to day. the introduction of sodium bisulphite as an anti-oxidant exerted a great influence upon the colour of pale crepes generally; but considerable variation would still have been notable but for the adoption of the scheme for uniform dilution, in addition to the use of small quantities of anti-oxidant. on most estates it is now possible, with slight exceptions due to abnormal conditions, so to treat the latex that the pale crepes prepared on any one day differ in no perceptible degree from the product of any other day. where this is not the case it must be suspected that there has been some carelessness in manipulating the latex or the chemicals. attention has been drawn to the fact that there may be exceptional cases, when the determining factors lie beyond the control of factory processes--_e.g._, heavy rains causing over-dilution of latex, the yielding of "yellow" latex from newly opened areas, etc. but on the whole there is now no reason why the general average product from any estate should not be uniform in colour and appearance. furthermore, it should be possible for large groups of estates, by the adoption of uniform methods, to produce similar rubber from all the plantations. moreover, apart from some differences caused by factors which still need determination, the total product in a general sense should not only be uniform in appearance but uniform in physical and chemical properties. block rubber.--this mode of preparation is employed only in comparatively few instances. the block is prepared from crepe rubber, which has been dried either in a hot-air drier or in a vacuum chamber. there is another type of block which is made by placing layers of dry crepe under considerable pressure. this is not the true type of block, and the layers are quite distinct--_i.e._, they do not amalgamate. usually this pressed rubber consists of lower grades of crepe, and it should not be popular, inasmuch as it leaves too wide an opportunity for the inclusion of dirt, bark particles, and other impurities, which cannot be seen generally on account of the protective colour of the rubber. in the true type of block, the layers are in a plastic condition, due to heat, when they leave the drying-chamber; and being immediately submitted to great pressure the result is a homogeneous mass in which the layers disappear by amalgamation. only the best grade of crepe is employed, and given the absence of defects in the layers there should be no complaint regarding the final block. prepared in slabs which are three or four inches in thickness, the product is easily handled, and should be sufficiently translucent to make it possible to distinguish the shape of the hand when held between the block and the light. this is not possible when blocks are made of greater thickness. the only complaints which it should be possible to lodge against block rubbers are: (_a_) the inclusion of dirt and other matter. (_b_) the use of layers of crepe which have some defect. (_c_) the inclusion of air-bubbles. the remedy for (_a_) and (_b_) lies in the hands of the factory superintendent. the last ground of complaint is dependent upon the style of preparation of the original layers of crepe. when layers of crepe are placed one upon the other, and submitted to great pressure, it is natural to suppose that air would be contained in spaces, and would be unable to escape. to guard against this, it would seem necessary to prepare the crepe thin and with a fairly good surface finish. it must be obvious to all acquainted with the processes involved in the preparation of block rubber, that no possibility exists for the presence of air-bells actually enclosed _in_ thin crepe. when the vacuum-dried crepe is folded preparatory to the blocking process it is apparent that between the layers there must always be a considerable volume of air, a small proportion of which is bound to be retained owing to the nature of the surface of crepe rubber. that this has always been true of the preparation of block rubber cannot be denied. it is possible, of course, for one type of block to show the presence of air-bells more than another type, the proportion of air enclosed in blocking depending upon the nature of the crepe of which the block is composed. a block built up of layers of smooth, fine crepe would be expected to contain less air-bells than a block composed of layers of a rough crepe. block rubber has been seen which was free from air-bells, but this was the thin variety of block prepared for show purposes with far greater care, probably, than would be expended in commercial preparations. chapter xviii _defects in sheet rubber_ before proceeding to deal with defects in the rubber as it is put upon the market a brief account will be given of faults which may be noted in the preparatory stages. milky residue or serum.--if the serum is not clear after the ordinary period allowed for coagulation, it indicates one of the following possible causes: (_a_) failure to obtain complete mixture by thorough stirring. (_b_) insufficiency of acid solution. this may be real or indirectly due to the presence of an excess of anti-coagulant such as formalin or sodium sulphite. (_c_) in cases where other coagulants than acetic or formic acids have been employed the failure may be due to an excess of, or an unsuitable, coagulant--_e.g._, hydrochloric acid. coloured surface blotches and unpleasant odour.--sometimes the surface of the coagulum exhibits yellowish or bluish streaks and patches. it will be found generally that the yellowish colour is possessed by a slimy substance, of offensive odour, which may be scraped from the surface. either insufficient acid has been used, or the mixing of latex and coagulant has been at fault. dark discoloration of the rubber.--this may be stated to be a natural process when fresh rubber is exposed to the atmosphere. it is usually described as "oxidation," and it will be noted to be absent, or to occur to less degree, on those portions of the rubber which are protected from the atmosphere by being below the surface of the remaining liquid. this surface change may be prevented (see chapters viii. and ix.) by the use of small quantities of sodium sulphite (for preference) or bisulphite. soft coagulum, spongy under-surface, tearing of coagulum.--if the whole mass of coagulum is too soft, while coagulation appears to be complete, over-dilution of the latex has occurred. this may apply also to the case in which the under-surface only is spongy and soft. if coagulating-tanks are employed, the upper edge may be comparatively hard, while the lower is soft and weak. often the spongy portion may adhere to the partitions. this prevents the natural rise of the coagulum, due to retraction, as the mass "sets." the pull between the free upper portion and the adhering lower edge causes splitting and tearing of the coagulum, with marked porosity (spongy appearance). the two factors to receive attention are the standard of dilution and the condition of the surfaces of the partitions. if these have minute cracks into which latex can penetrate, and in which coagulation takes place, the boards should be discarded. given the conditions indicated above, the tearing and splitting of rubber in coagulating tanks is sometimes augmented by the practice of flooding the tanks when coagulation is judged to be complete. the surface water finds its way downwards between strips of coagulum and the partitions, thus increasing the upward tension between the free and adhering portions. the main idea governing the practice of flooding the tanks is to prevent "oxidation" (darkening) of the upper edges. if a small quantity of sodium sulphite is employed as an anti-oxidant and to retard coagulation, it is not necessary to flood tanks. "pitting" of surfaces.--in pan coagulation this "pitted" appearance is usually limited to the under-surface, while coagulum prepared in tanks may exhibit the defect on both faces. the existence of these numerous "pits," or small depressions, points to the presence of bubbles of gas which have been unable to escape freely. as the formation and retention of gas-bubbles is not a normal occurrence in coagulation, we are led to infer that some special conditions must have arisen. these may be supplied by one or more of the following contributory causes: (_a_) the latex had begun to "sour" before arrival at the factory or while waiting to be treated. this premature coagulation is usually checked or diminished by the employment of anti-coagulants (see chapters viii. and ix.). it is generally accompanied by the appearance of enclosed gas-bubbles in the dry rubber. (_b_) there may have been a slight insufficiency of coagulant, or the admixture was not thorough, thus allowing a slow putrefactive change to take place in the incompletely coagulated areas. (_c_) the wooden partitions may not have been effectively cleansed. the existence of a thin slime, of bacterial origin, is sometimes noted. this is accountable for putrefactive effects in the surfaces of the coagulum, or in the serum, giving rise to the formation of gases. if these cannot escape freely, by reason of adhesion between the coagulum and the partitions, "pitting" occurs. thickened ends or edges, after rolling.--as a rule these defects may be ascribed to the employment of too rich a latex, or faulty manipulation. even if the standard of dilution should be correct it sometimes happens that, in the preliminary rolling of a long strip of rubber, coolies begin in the middle, rolling with a forward pressure and tension towards the ends of the strip. this is generally not so much the fault of the coolie as being due to the lack of proper facilities for preliminary rolling. the table should be about feet in height, so that ease of working is obtained merely by natural pressure due to the position in which the worker stands. the use of a heavy wooden roller would contribute towards this result, inasmuch as it obviates the use of force, and the pressure is almost entirely in a vertical direction. mis-shapen sheets.--it is sometimes noted that sheets may be wider and thicker at the ends than in the middle. manipulation alone, as indicated above, is not solely responsible. the primary cause is to be traced to over-dilution of latex, giving a very soft coagulum which responds too readily to tension and pressure. faulty treatment in rolling exaggerates the tendency for the strip of sheet to become narrow and thin in the middle, wider and thicker at the ends. thickened patches, torn sheets, "dog-ears," creases.--these elementary defects are all due to careless working. while occasional errors cannot be avoided, there is no real excuse for the continuance of trouble to any degree, under average supervision. thickened patches are often caused in conjunction with torn sheets, and the trouble may be ascribed to faulty practice in allowing too heavy a pile of wet strips to accumulate before machining. or a comparatively small pile may have been transported some distance. it is difficult to separate the strip, and occasionally the separation is only effected at the expense of two sheets, one of which is torn and the other has a portion of the first strip adhering to it. "dog-ears" due to the folding over of corners of the sheets, and creases due to the rumpling of the coagulum, are generally the result of haste and lack of average care. machine coolies, more often than not, will not be at any pains to straighten out folds before passing the coagulum through the rolls. greasiness before smoking.--under ordinary methods of working this should never be encountered. it may be taken to show that the machined rubber has been allowed to remain, either hanging or in piles, far too long before entering the smoke-house. the appearance is most marked if the rubber has remained in a cool and moist atmosphere--_e.g._, if it has been hanging over-night in a closed and badly-ventilated factory. in a marked degree this is to be observed in the preparation of air-dried sheets, unless they are exposed, when freshly prepared, to the action of the sun for a period. this period, in the case of rubber prepared on native small-holdings, generally extends over several days--until the sheets are more than half dry. in the preparation of smoked sheet, the greasy appearance and the cause outlined contribute to a defect which is eventually described as "stretching rusty." surface blemishes.--the coagulum, during coagulation and subsequently, can be contaminated in various ways. in most cases a little intelligence or increased care would prevent the occurrence of these defects. when the coagulum remains over-night, in the absence of a cover, it is not uncommon to note the presence of dirt (from the roof above, or blown in from the outside), the droppings of mice and rats, flies and small insects. in theory these should be seen and removed by the factory hands. in practice, except while under immediate supervision, the extraneous matter is often rolled into the soft coagulum. a fairly common cause of this surface contamination is the exhaust from the power-unit; generally the worst offender is a steam-engine. grit and smuts continually find their way into the factory, alighting on the tables, in the latex, in the water, and on the freshly prepared rubber. they are rolled into the soft rubber and lead to marked depreciation in the selling value. the radical remedy seems obvious, but is often beset with many difficulties not unconnected with financial considerations. other superficial blemishes, such as those due to the presence of rust marks, oil or grease patches, etc., are self-explanatory, if a little thought is brought to bear upon them; and it is not proposed here to discuss such defects more fully. * * * * * having now dealt with certain defects which are visible in wet rubber, we come to the discussion of others which are only perceptible either during or after the drying period. as far as is known no plantations of any size now prepare sheets other than in the form of smoke-dried rubber, with the exception of a few which make a special form of thick and partially air-dried product known as "slab" rubber. it is not proposed, therefore, to treat in any detail with air-dried sheet rubber. certain obvious defects are common to both air-dried and smoke-cured sheets, and these will be first discussed. unevenness of appearance.--this lack of uniformity may refer either to size or colour, or to both. apart from any other contributory causes, this variation is due, in pan sheet, to a neglect to standardise the dilution of all latices, or to lack of uniformity in the quantity of standardised latex placed in each receptacle. where tanks are employed all sheets from the same tank should be of the same size before rolling, and any subsequent disparity in thickness and length must be attributed to some alteration in the width of the gap between the rolls of the machines. unless all latices are standardised by means of an instrument, it is of course probable that the content of one tank may be found to differ from that of another. in a general sense, whether air-dried or smoke-cured sheets are considered, a thin strip will dry more quickly than a thick one, and should be paler in colour when viewed by transmitted light--_i.e._, when the rubber is held between the eye and the source of light. it is necessary, therefore, to guard against the possibility of variations in thickness caused by faulty manipulation. the distance between the squeezing rolls (smooth) and between the marking rolls (patterned) should be adjusted and should remain set until the conclusion of work. in a factory having nothing beyond average requirements in equipment of machines it should not be necessary to have to interrupt the work of the smooth rolls or "markers" by having to make adjustments. this is, however, inevitable if there is only one smooth-roll machine, as it is always desirable to reduce the thickness of the coagulum by at least two stages through even-speed smooth rolls. in some factories there are three light power-driven smooth-roll machines, the gaps between pairs of rolls being set so as to obtain a gradual thinning effect upon the fresh coagulum, which is then passed once between patterned rolls. with such equipment it is found possible, in some cases, to omit the preliminary hand-rolling, and the strips of coagulum from the tank are passed direct through rolls set with a wide gap. this work demands much care, as it is necessary to avoid any distortion of the coagulum which may be caused by its own weight and length. variation due to oxidation.--the subject of oxidation has been mentioned in the opening paragraphs of this chapter. it will have been learned that oxidation is a natural process, and that it may be prevented by the employment of anti-oxidants such as the sulphite or bisulphite of soda. in earlier days it was sometimes prevented by steeping the thin rubber in very hot water. in the absence of an anti-oxidant the degree of oxidation may vary daily and in different batches of latex on any one day, so that there is always the possibility of a lack of uniformity due to oxidation effects. this would be more evident in air-dried sheets than in smoke-cured rubber, as in the latter case the darkening of the surface would be masked by the colour induced by the smoke-drying process. to obviate this variation anti-oxidants are used on most estates, but the accidental or misinformed abuse of these chemicals may lead to further lack of uniformity. hence it is necessary to follow carefully the formulæ prescribed by experience. colour of smoked sheets.--it may be of interest to note that the effect known as oxidation is attributed to the presence of micro-organisms called enzymes (ferments) in the latex. it can also be produced artificially in various ways--_e.g._, by the use of the crude product of wood-distillation (pyroligneous acid) as a coagulant, or by the addition to the latex of small quantities of a phenol such as carbolic acid. it is thus possible to prepare in sheet form a rubber which has the appearance of having been smoke-cured, although it may never have been in a smoke-house. it will be clear, therefore, that apart from other causes, the colour of the cured sheets may be influenced by oxidation of the fresh coagulation, and by the constituents of the smoke. it follows that the smoke from timbers which are richer than others in certain chemical bodies set free by combustion will produce a rubber darker in colour. there is thus no real connection between colour and period of cure, although in a general sense the longer the interval the darker the colour. similarly it is now plain that when anti-oxidants are employed in excess the paleness of the rubber is in no degree truly indicative of the period during which the rubber has been smoke-cured. the influence of the effect of the hypsical condition of the wet rubber upon the final colour must be thoroughly grasped. one may take two sheets of apparently the same thickness, and smoke-cure them in juxtaposition within the same house, only to find that one dries much more rapidly than the other. as a consequence, the first, when fully cured, will be of a medium golden brown colour; while the other, owing to protracted smoking, will be dark. evidently there must be some distinct difference between the two in physical condition prior to the smoking. here the factor involved is the rubber-content of the latex. given two pieces of coagulum of identical thickness, but prepared from latices of different dry rubber content, it will be obvious that to reduce them to similar thickness, more pressure will be necessary in one case--_i.e._, that piece of coagulum will be much more dense (more consolidated)--while the other will be comparatively soft and porous. into the latter warm smoke can penetrate much more easily, and the internal moisture can escape more rapidly. the full cure may be made, say, within twelve days, while the tougher sheet may demand up to twenty days. to attain uniformity in colour, therefore, the following points must be studied and controlled as far as is possible: (_a_) uniform dilution of all latices. (_b_) uniform dimensions of coagulating receptacles. (_c_) uniform volumes of standardised latex. (_d_) uniform quality and quantities of chemicals. (_e_) uniform methods of manipulating the coagulum. (_f_) uniform conditions of fuel and accommodation during smoke-curing. surface gloss.--in the choice of fuel there is room for control if one has good timber available. this point opens up a discussion on the vexed question of "over-smoking," as the term is sometimes applied to a pronounced dry glossy appearance of the surface of sheets. three main factors are involved: ( ) the nature of the fuel. ( ) the ratio between furnace capacity and the capacity of the smoke-house. ( ) the rate of combustion. obviously any fuel which yields an excessive quantity of tarry matter or creosotic substance would conduce to the formation of a heavy glaze on the rubber. such fuel, therefore, should at most only be employed as the smaller portion in a mixture with "dead" timber. it is impossible to lay down any general rules for the guidance of estates, as the timber available varies so widely in nature. experience must be the only guide, and it should not be difficult to obviate the defect. even so, there must be minor differences between the results obtained on estates, so that it is not possible to make strict estimations of the smoke-curing period by an examination of the surface appearance of rubber, even under the best of conditions. some estates find that the rubber has a distinct gloss in ten days, while others may smoke-cure for twice that period without difficulty. evidently, therefore, the question of available fuel is of prime importance. it may be remarked that very satisfactory results are always obtained from the use of fairly dry timber obtained from thinned rubber trees, mixed with the "dead" timber of old logs and stumps found on the estates. obviously if a smoke-house has a superabundance of furnaces, producing more heat and smoke than is required, glazing will result. the point is tested by the average temperature maintained and the average rate of drying. the result of a high temperature would be the possibility of volatile tarry matter being driven in excess to the upper chamber. that this effect is eventually produced even at optimal temperatures is evident from an examination of the wood-work within the upper room. it is clear, also, that the rate of combustion exerts an influence. in a general sense a rapid consumption of fuel would augment the quantity of tarry matter passing into the upper chamber over any given period, and the possibility of glazing would be increased. on the other hand, it is possible that a surface glaze might be formed if the temperature were uniformly too low, especially if the rubber were rather thick. the rate of drying would be so slow, that if a timber rich in tarry matter were employed, the rubber might be exceedingly glossy. in order to guard against the appearance of a heavy glaze, then, the following points must be observed: . the fuel must be carefully selected by experience. . the sheets must not be thick. no sheets should be thicker than / inch measured in average section across the ribs. . the temperature must not be too high. an average working temperature of ° to ° f. should be ample. . if the sheets are fairly thick, a low average temperature should be avoided. no lower average than ° f. should be allowed. dull, black surface.--this is the opposite of the previous case, and generally is accompanied by a fairly heavy darkening of the surface due to "oxidation" effects. the fuel used is too "dead," and needs the addition of some substance containing a fair amount of creosotic matter. the appearance of the rubber does not justify the assumption that it has been over-smoked. as a matter of fact, this type of rubber often becomes affected by mildew fairly rapidly, thus showing that the smoking has been inefficient. it may happen that an estate is in the habit of using a fuel which gives even to a thin sheet a heavy glaze in a comparatively brief period. the general custom is to soak such sheets in cold water, and then to scrub the surfaces, sometimes using soap, in order to cleanse the rubber and free it from the glaze. this operation may be done too well, in which case the rubber will have a dull appearance, and may be rather more liable to develop surface mildew after a time. moist glaze, greasiness of surface.--this describes the condition of sheet rubber when taken from the smoke-house. sometimes the greasiness does not develop until the rubber has been out of the smoke-house for a day or two. as far as experience shows at present it may be due to two causes: (_a_) the use of an excess of sodium bisulphite or sodium sulphite. the use of sodium bisulphite is not recommended generally for sheet-making. it may cause the rubber to be too pale in colour, and the abuse of it may delay the drying unduly. in the latter case, a trace of the salt may remain within the rubber or upon the surface. if so, as the substance remaining is fairly hygroscopic, it will take up moisture from the atmosphere and may cause the surface of the sheets to have a moist and shiny appearance. the moist surface deposit comes away upon the hand when the sheets are touched, and is difficult to remove entirely. on some estates a very small quantity of the bisulphite is employed, as it is found to be of service in the prevention of bubbles, but in unskilled hands the method is open to abuse, and is, therefore, not recommended for general use. a large number of estates now use sodium sulphite in very small quantities as an anti-coagulant and a preservative for latex in the field. the abuse of this very useful substance carries its own penalty. the substance is hygroscopic; and if an excess is present the drying period will be protracted, and the sheets will have a very moist surface film. it may be found sometimes that only some of the sheets are affected. this indicates that, whereas uniform quantities of a solution of sodium sulphite have been served out in all fields, the proportion may have been excessive in the case of fields giving a latex of comparatively low rubber content. what suits the latex from old trees may be excessive probably for the latex of younger trees. this is not an infallible rule, as in the case of older fields in which immature bark is being tapped, it is to be noted that the dry rubber content of latex may be less than that of latex obtained from younger trees. this type of moist glaze is not easy to remove. ordinary surface washing had but a temporary effect, and the trouble recurs. the only way of dealing with the difficulty is to soak the sheets for days in running water (or in successive changes of water) and to re-smoke until dry. (_b_) the second type of moist glaze is not so difficult to deal with, and may be removed as a rule by washing the sheets when the rubber is otherwise apparently dry. it appears to be mainly a matter of unsuitable fuel for smoking and of failure to provide adequate ventilation. a large number of estates have been "thinning-out" or are doing so systematically. the logs thus obtained are often used as fuel in the very green stage. the smoke thus generated must be moist, and if the building is entirely closed, this moisture must be deposited eventually upon the rubber and racks. some estates have surmounted the difficulty by opening up the roof-ridge slightly so as to allow the moisture to escape with some of the smoke; but if the logs from rubber-trees are to be used, they should be stacked in the sun for some time. even then, preferably, they should not be used alone. a judicious admixture of dead and rotting jungle-timber appears to give very satisfactory results. virgin spots and patches.--if the description really indicates the defect it simply means that portions of the sheets are not dry. when cut they exhibit the typical whitish, opaque appearance described as "virgin." it is doubtful whether any rubber put upon the market as no. product nowadays can have this complaint levelled at it. in the extreme case it points to gross negligence on the part of the packer. sometimes what are taken to be small spots of "virgin" are really patches of tiny air or gas bubbles. the point can be easily determined by cutting through the patch and examining the cut edges. surface moulds or mildew.--during the last two years, complaints regarding the incidence of "mouldy rubber" (_i.e._, relating chiefly to the presence of mildews on the surface) have become increasingly common. to judge by the comments of producers, who as a rule never again see their rubber after it leaves the estate, one would infer that the defect is imaginary, and that the complaints are made solely with a view to repudiation of contracts or the general cheapening of an article of commerce. they can often point out, with a certain amount of truth, that there has been no change in the methods of preparation or curing, and that previously there were no complaints. it is forgotten, however, that in former years the smaller output of rubber was taken into consumption more rapidly than of recent years. that is to say, the interval between smoke-curing and the employment of the rubber in the manufacture of goods did not demand such a long period of storage. hence the effects of smoke-curing are now more likely to vanish. going still further back in the history of plantation rubber, we can point to the time when smoked sheets were allowed, or had, to remain in the curing-sheds for very extended periods. loose specimens of rubber prepared during that decade still exhibit no signs of mildew growth. in later years a demand arose for sheets paler in colour than the old type, and in order to meet that demand, a change had to be made in methods. this led to a system of working whereby it was possible to smoke-dry sheets thoroughly in from twelve to fourteen days. this interval was further reduced on many estates, until some were producing rubber which appeared to satisfy all requirements after only five or six days' curing. this does not refer to the case of estates having smoke-houses of "continuous-working" type, but to those on which smoking was confined practically to the hours of night. under former conditions of rate of production and consumption, this short period of smoke-curing would possibly have been ample; but even this is very doubtful, as often the rubber would not stand the relatively short journey from the estate to singapore without mildew-growth being incipient. we have often received specimens of rubber sent from estates for criticism, and have noted that within a comparatively brief period mildew was to be seen. the whole matter resolves itself into a question of thorough efficiency of smoking. this is not dependent on duration of smoking alone, but involves other factors, such as the kind of fuel employed, the rate of combustion of fuel, the average temperature sustained, the ventilation of the smoke-house, and the situation of the building. other occasional contributory factors are contemporary adverse climatic conditions and the possible abuse of an anti-coagulant such as sodium sulphite. it has been shown that after a time, given suitable conditions involving the presence of moisture, moulds may appear on sheets which were apparently fully smoke-cured, and that under the same conditions other and older samples were unaffected. it is argued that the latter sheets had evidently been smoked more efficiently than the others. hence it is fair to assume that, except under very special conditions, which do not apply to the ordinary procedure in the shipping, storage, and sale of rubber, moulds will not develop upon sheets which have been properly smoked. the term "properly smoked" signifies efficient smoking for all practical purposes under ordinary procedure, and implies or includes all the advantageous factors which have been discussed or alluded to in preceding paragraphs. without discussing in wearisome detail conditions which may give rise to the incidence of mildew on properly smoked rubber, it may be pointed out that the following are favourable to the growth of moulds: (_a_) storing sheets in a damp place before packing. (_b_) packing sheets in wooden cases which are not thoroughly dry. (_c_) piling up cases of rubber in a badly ventilated store-room. (_d_) placing the cases on a cement floor. (_e_) wetting of cases by sea-water or by rain during transport, etc. black streaks, spots or patches.--the origin of these is not difficult to trace. they are caused by drippings from the roof, and contain condensation products from smoke plus moisture. the ventilation of the roof-ridge should receive attention, and if the trouble persists it will be necessary to place some absorbent screen below the sloping roof. sackcloth is sometimes used, but leads to a worse state of affairs unless changed frequently. in most modern smoke-houses having an iron roof there is an inner lining of soft timber. there scarcely seems a necessity to discuss the case in which an iron roof has become perforated by the action of smoke. the remedy is too obvious to describe. whitish or grey streaks.--this is a very uncommon defect, and is generally to be traced to a building in which fairly new galvanised sheets have been employed. the zinc surface becomes oxidised, and the whitish powder which is formed "flakes," or is carried away by drops of moisture condensing on the surface of the iron sheets. rust.--sometimes if a sheet is stretched forcibly and allowed to retract quickly, the hitherto clear surface will be seen to be marred by a "rusty" deposit. the rubber is then described as "stretching rusty," and its value is depreciated. this defect has caused more trouble during recent years than any other. it is not proposed here to argue the question as to whether the presence of this film, which appears when some rubbers are stretched, is detrimental to the physical qualities of the product on vulcanisation. with the mere statement of opinion that it could do no apparent harm, we may pass to the aspect of the case as it affects the buyer and consumer. if one were to judge by the attention drawn to the appearance of smoke sheet-rubber after it has been stretched and allowed to retract, one would imagine the defect to be of comparatively sudden and recent incidence. this is not so. the peculiarity must have existed for years, and perhaps became more marked as so many estates abandoned the former common practice of allowing varying quantities of water to be placed in the collecting cups. as the substances which cause the defect to be visible are partially soluble in water, it would follow that when working with the very dilute latices which were characteristic of the earlier years of the plantation industry, the remaining liquid in the pan after coagulation would contain an appreciable quantity of soluble substances which would otherwise have been retained in the coagulum. conversely, the richer the latex, the greater the percentage of protein matter retained in the coagulum. in the case of very rich latex, it must be within the knowledge of every manager that the quantity of remaining liquid in the pans would be almost nil. we may assume that the greater part of these soluble proteins would be enclosed in the structure of the rubber, but as the fresh coagulum must retain a quantity of liquid amounting to from to per cent. by weight (we are now referring to rich latices), it follows that some of the soluble protein matter must be removed when the coagulum is placed under pressure. even after the pressure is released more of the contained liquid will exude from the surface of the rubber; and from experience it is easy to imagine that this exudation, becoming progressively feebler, will continue until the rubber begins to dry. then, with the evaporation of the surface moisture, the protein matter, either in original form or as a degradation product, remains on the surface of the rubber as a thin, solid film or crust. as drying continues, the interior moisture escaping through the pores of the rubber evaporates, leaving behind the substances hitherto held in solution. should, however, the sheet be thick and/or the temperature of drying low, the rubber may dry first on the outside, forming a thin skin of dry rubber, which delays further drying indefinitely. it will be seen, therefore, that sheets which have been prepared from rich latex or from too deep a layer of comparatively dilute latex will have a surface film of dry protein matter. moreover, these sheets will be slow in drying, and in all probability will have a surface gloss and a dark colour. hence it is not difficult to understand that some brokers regarded the presence of the so-called "rust" as an indication of over-smoking. to show that this is not so, and further that the presence of rust has nothing whatever to do with smoke-curing, it may be stated that _the presence of this protein film may be seen on unsmoked sheets_ which have been prepared from rich latex, from too deep a layer of more dilute latex, or from some thick sheets which have been rolled only very lightly. in fact, the presence of the protein film was noted on unsmoked sheet in , when it was seen to resemble a thin yellowish glaze which could be scraped off with a pen-knife. later, sufficient of this substance was removed from some very thick air-dried sheets, or thin slabs, to fill a small test-tube. when the sheets were bent or twisted, the apparent surface of the rubber (_i.e._, the protein glaze) cracked in all directions. in the case of sheets prepared from less rich latex, the surface film naturally is extremely thin, and no cracking is observed. if the fresh sheets are placed in a smoke-house, the drying film will take up colour from the constituents of the smoke, and it will be invisible. somewhat analogous to the instance of a transparent glass giving a visible and opaque powder when crushed, so the transparent film on stretching breaks up into a visible powder which is lighter in colour than the rubber on which it is superimposed. it will be noted that since the introduction of standard methods of preparation, involving uniform dilution of latex, say, to a content of - / or - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon, complaints as to "rust" have decreased considerably. it is to be further noted as a peculiar fact that while two estates may be apparently working on identical lines, both as regards manipulation of latex and subsequent treatment of the coagulum, the rubber of the one may always be free from rust, while that of the other is often, if not always, condemned for the alleged defect. obviously, in such a case, there must be an initial difference between the two latices as regards the percentage of proteins present; or there must be some small unrecognised difference at some stage of working. it will now be clear that "rust" is caused by a film of matter which is formed on the surface of the pressed coagulum, being there deposited by the exudations from within the rubber and through the pores. it is, therefore, necessary to avoid any conditions which will favour the formation of this deposit--_e.g._, allowing sheets to remain too long in a moist atmosphere before placing in the smoke-house. at present there would seem to be only two methods which are successful in the prevention of a "rusty" appearance in the dry rubber. singularly enough, the two methods appear to be directly opposed in principle. they are: a. the hot-water treatment.--this method has been in constant use on estates which have old trees giving rich latices. these latices are always diluted to a uniform standard daily. some estates which formerly suffered from the defect now experience no difficulty, and in other instances, where no complaint has yet been received, the treatment has been followed consistently. ( ) after the sheets have been through the marking rolls, it is the general custom to allow them to drip for about three hours. this interval is really excessive for the mere draining away of the surface water, but as a rule it is just sufficient to allow a portion of the liquid retained in the rubber to exude. it has been shown that this liquid may contain some protein matter in solution. sometimes in the case of thick sheets which have been subjected to pressure so much of this matter is exuded as to form a thin surface slime which is distinctly evident to the touch. if the sheets are allowed to hang overnight, the presence of the exuded matter may be detected also by its odour. ( ) obviously, any method which will remove this surface film should be of great benefit. it is found that the best results are obtained by allowing sheets to drip for about two hours, and then placing them in hot water for five or ten minutes. the water should be hot as the hand can conveniently bear, and it need hardly be pointed out that the same water should not be used for the whole day's output. for preference there should be three or four vessels, each capable of holding a fair proportion of the total number of sheets, and frequent changes of hot water. ( ) after remaining in the hot water for the period mentioned, the sheets are removed singly, each one being surface washed or swilled as it is taken out. ( ) _it is important to see that the sheets are now well washed or scrubbed under running cold water, or in frequent changes of water._ the reason for this procedure is plain. if the sheets are merely hung again to drip after removing from the hot water, some moisture is bound to remain on the surface of the sheet. as this surface moisture contains some protein matter in solution, it is evident that, as the water evaporates, the solid protein is again deposited on the surface of the rubber. this would explain why some estates were unsuccessful with the hot-water treatment. it is not essential that the running water should be cold; it may be conveniently lukewarm if drawn from the cooling tanks of the engines. but it is essential for the best results that there should be running water, so that the substance in solution is carried away. if the sheets are merely washed in a large vessel, which has been filled with clean water, it must be obvious that, by the time some scores of sheets have been washed, the protein matter in solution on the surface of the sheets has been transferred to the washing water, so that the later sheets of the batch are liable to show the defect again on drying. b. the second method is much more simple, and entails no extra labour such as is demanded by the first method. a successful issue, however, is rather more uncertain, and the method appears to give the best results with sheet-rubber prepared on young estates or from more dilute latex. in this method, the sheets after rolling are allowed to drip for a very short interval, so that the surface water is mainly removed. the sheets are then placed in the smoke-house, and smoking is commenced at once. in some cases where the defect had appeared continuously for a long period, it was found to vanish entirely as soon as the method was adopted; but when tried on some of the older estates, the results were very doubtful, and a return was made to the hot-water treatment. the explanation of the action which takes place is rather obscure, but two theories may be advanced. (_a_) it may be assumed that the interval given for dripping is too brief to allow for the exudation of the internal moisture containing dissolved protein matter. in such case, the rubber is still in a highly porous condition, and it might be advanced that the heat of the smoke may help to maintain that condition. thus the contained liquid might evaporate so quickly as to leave behind the dissolved substances in the minute cellular structure of the rubber. in other words, instead of the internal moisture exuding slowly to the surface in liquid form, it may leave the rubber, even in the first stages, in an evaporated condition, just as it does in the subsequent stages of drying. thus no dissolved protein matter would be brought to the surface of the sheet and be deposited there. (_b_) the other theory also demands the first assumption propounded in the preceding theory, but subsequently perhaps is less feasible as it assumes a chemical action of which we have no definite knowledge. the idea is that as the rubber is in a porous condition, and is placed quickly in an atmosphere of smoke, the heat may maintain that condition to such a degree, that some constituents of the smoke may enter the rubber and cause the precipitation _in situ_ of the protein matter held in solution by the contained water or other liquid. the contained liquid would be water which has in solution possibly a very slight trace of the coagulant employed, of sugars, of protein matter, and of inorganic salts. of these the substances which would evaporate would be probably the water and the coagulant in most cases. if a salt had been used as a coagulant, the dissolved trace would be deposited within the rubber in this case, whereas if a rich latex had been employed or a thicker sheet made from more dilute latex, some of the salt would be brought to the surface and there deposited together with the protein matter. this has actually been experienced in practice, and it has been possible to remove minute crystals from the edges of the rubber so prepared. it will be evident that in order for either theory to contain an element of probability, the rubber must be soft (porous) when placed in the smoke-house, and must also be fairly thin. it is observed in all cases where the method has been successfully employed that both these conditions are generally fulfilled--at all events the rubber is fairly thin. when thicker sheets are made, either from rich latex or from a deeper layer of comparatively dilute latex, the method is not uniformly successful. other views on "rust" causation.--later experimental work on "rust" formation by hellendoorn[ ] leads to the observation that "rustiness" is caused, not actually by the deposition of original serum-substances, but by the decomposition thereof, under the action of aerobic micro-organisms. [ ] "the cause of rustiness in sheet-rubber," h. j. hellendoorn, archief voor de rubbercultuur, october, (communication from the central rubber station, buitenzorg, java). without going into a full discussion of the subject, the following points noted in the experimental work may be quoted: . rustiness could apparently be produced at any time merely by keeping freshly rolled sheets for periods varying from twenty-four to forty-eight hours in a moist atmosphere. . sheets placed immediately in a temperature of, say, ° to ° f. never showed "rust"; but if air-dried at ordinary room temperature, "rust" might appear. . "rust" can be prevented by soaking freshly prepared sheets in dilute solutions of disinfectants--_e.g._, formalin, sodium bisulphite, or chinosol. if subsequently the sheets are hung for any length of time in a moist atmosphere, the protective effect of the disinfectant gradually vanishes and "rustiness" may be produced. the same disinfecting effect may be obtained by the use of steam or hot water. it was found that there was less liability to the formation of "rust" when sheets were immersed in water at a temperature of ° to ° f., whilst steeping at ° f. gave complete freedom. . it was shown that the micro-organisms which cause decomposition of the serum-products flourish only in the presence of air--_i.e._, they are aerobic in character. it is not uncommon to find, therefore, that "rust" may be incident only on those parts of a sheet which have been exposed for some time to air and moisture before being placed in a warm smoke-room. . the optimal temperature for development of the particular organisms appeared to be about ° f., in a moist atmosphere. . soaking the sheets in water (except the short immersion in hot water, which we recommend), even for a period extending over a week, does not hinder the formation of "rust." . rustiness may be prevented by placing the sheets in a sufficiently warmed smoke-house as long as there is adequate ventilation and a moist atmosphere does not persist. the simplest means of prevention is to soak the sheets first for a short period in water, and then to hang them to drip for a few hours in a well-ventilated place, outside the factory and under cover.[ ] [ ] we advise and practise hanging sheets in the open, without shade or cover. it will be gathered that, although there may be a slight difference between our previous views and those advanced by hellendoorn as to the exact cause of formation of the "rusty" film, the general conclusions are identical with those given by us in preceding paragraphs and previously advised in the malayan reports of the rubber growers' association. bubbles.--the presence of bubbles in sheet-rubber has for years been the bane of some managers' existence, and the bone of contention between sellers and buyers. taking the argument down to bed-rock, producers urge that the presence of bubbles has no influence upon the ultimate quality of the rubber on vulcanisation. they assert that the alleged defect is merely a peg upon which to hang an unreal grievance, serving the purpose of the buyer under the existing conditions of sale. all this may be true, but as long as the present system continues, it must be recognised that "kicking against the pricks" is a futile recreation. the sympathy of the writers is certainly on the side of the producers, inasmuch as they realise how extremely difficult, and even impossible at times, it is for the most careful individual to prepare sheet-rubber free from this blemish. much has been written, and many have been the discussions, on this vexed subject; and it is recognised that sometimes, in spite of all precautions, there may suddenly be an incidence of bubbles in rubber which is ordinarily free from them. it must be allowed that climatic conditions and physiological variations affecting the metabolic functions of the trees exert an influence which is difficult at times to combat, and often beyond human control. the contributory causes are many and varied. it should be premised that, although the defect is described as "air-bubbles," it is seldom that the appellation is strictly correct. rarely do the bubbles contain air. in the vast majority of cases they contain gases in minute quantity. these gases may be considered to arise, broadly, from some decomposition of substances (other than rubber), contained either in the coagulum or in the serum. in a general way, if this decomposition is evidenced by an unpleasant odour, it is described under the term of "putrefaction." we are not concerned here with the question as to how far such decomposition may be ascribed to a purely chemical action, or to the indirect result of the presence of certain bacteria or other micro-organisms. suffice it to state that, at least as far as field operations influence the result, the decomposition is generally to be attributed to the work of micro-organisms. conditions favourable to the incidence and development of these are to be found when absolute cleanliness in all details is not aimed at. with this preamble we may proceed to classify possible causes of the formation of bubbles into two groups: (_a_) those originating in field operations. (_b_) others which may arise after the arrival of the latex at the factory. in the field.--decomposition may be caused by: ( ) spouts, buckets, and cups being dirty. regular cleaning is necessary. if the buckets are allowed to be taken to the lines by tappers, trouble may ensue. within the writers' experience it has been shown that an otherwise baffling case of premature flocculation of latex was traced to the presence of acid substances in the buckets, which had been used by coolies for preparing their food. ( ) delay in commencing work. this means similar delay in collecting the latex which is exposed to greater heat than under ordinary circumstances. ( ) exposure to the sun's rays. the heating of the latex may provide improved conditions favourable to the development and action of micro-organisms. ( ) allowing latex to stand too long before collection. this usually is the result of giving tappers too great a task. ( ) the addition of water to the latex, either purposely or accidentally, in the form of rain. the water may be slightly acid in character, or it may carry micro-organisms from the bark into the latex. ( ) tapping trees at too great a height. the latex generally has an abnormal distance to travel before reaching the cup. ( ) sometimes the latex from old trees, or from trees after wintering (just prior to full renewal of leaf), contains more than the usual proportion of substances (_e.g._, sugars), which are capable of effecting flocculation or coagulation. ( ) too great a distance for transport. the trouble arising from this cause is likely to be much increased if the journey has to be made over bad roads. in such case the physical action augments the effect likely to be produced by long standing. the foregoing do not include all possible causes, but serve to indicate the directions from which trouble may be mainly anticipated. it will be plain that any latex which exhibits symptoms of premature coagulation (or minute flocculation) should be regarded as a potential source of bubbles in sheet-rubber. it will be equally obvious that the employment in the field of any harmless substance of an anti-coagulant nature is to be encouraged. this point is discussed in detail in chapter v. in the factory.--as a general rule it may be understood that the mischief has been done before the latex is handled at the factory. sometimes it is perceptible from the peculiar appearance of the latex, and in such case the batch should not be used for the preparation of sheet-rubber. often it is found that only the last to arrive at the store is visibly affected. this should not be mixed with other apparently normal latex, as it is capable of acting as a "leaven" to the bulk. contributory factors in the store are: ( ) lack of cleanliness of utensils, particularly of coagulating dishes or tanks. the trouble becomes acute sometimes where wooden tanks are employed. unless the tank and the partitions are thoroughly and regularly cleansed, the wood may become coated with a bacterial slime, which is capable of causing what may be termed "fermentation" of the latex layers in contact. the tank should be thoroughly cleaned occasionally with a weak ( per cent.) solution of sodium bisulphite. the partitions should be scrubbed and placed in the sun twice or three times a week. ( ) allowing latex to stand too long before treatment. this point needs no further expansion. ( ) the use of a latex of too high a rubber content. such latices are difficult to handle in order to secure uniform mixture with the coagulant. ( ) the use of too concentrated a solution of coagulant. in conjunction with ( ) there may be a rapid and irregular coagulation, giving rise not only to decomposition in parts (and subsequent formation of gas), but also to the formation of true "air-bubbles" by inclusion of air during stirring. ( ) the use of insufficient coagulant. coagulation is slow and incomplete. ( ) defective straining and skimming. small flocculated particles of rubber may pass, or be rubbed through, the strainer. if allowed to remain, they act as local points of danger. ( ) the proximity of the coagulating latex to some source of heat, or exposure to sunlight. ( ) any delay of drying in the preliminary stages, either before or after the rubber enters the smoke-house. blisters.--this description aptly fits the case in which sheet-rubber in the smoke-house exhibits large bubbles of gas which distend the surface of the rubber. when subjected to pressure, small "balloons" are formed, which burst with a perceptible report. it was formerly the belief that this defect was occasioned solely by an abnormally high temperature. that such is not the case can be shown by the experience of estates which have had only the rubber of a particular day or short period affected under normal factory conditions. at the same time it is not disputed that the heat of the smoke-house exerts an influence (causing expansion and distension), but it is advanced that the gases had begun to form before the rubber entered the house. the view held is that decomposition had supervened or was taking place--probably from one or more of the causes enumerated in the preceding paragraphs. the heat of the smoke-house only serves to exaggerate the effect. it is acknowledged that the degree of decomposition must be initially greater than in the ordinary incidence of "bubbles." beyond this point we are not in a position to put forward any definite supposition as to the apparently haphazard occurrence of the phenomenon. it is to be noted, fortunately, that the defect is comparatively rare, and seldom appears on estates which employ an anti-coagulant in the field. while we have examined persistent cases, one of which led to a temporary discontinuance of the preparation of smoked sheet rubber, we have not yet been able to arrive at any satisfactory idea of the exact conditions governing the incidence of "blisters." our investigations only lead us to two observations: (_a_) that blisters have appeared on the rubber of some estates after wintering, and during the period of new leaf-development. (_b_) that the defect has been noted on other estates during a period when there were frequent but not heavy rains, and when there was a comparatively low average temperature. in either case, as the factors are beyond human control, it would be expected that without any change being made in estate procedure, the trouble would vanish as mysteriously as it appeared. this is our experience; but as showing the possible intensive effect of a high temperature in the smoke-house, it may be remarked that very infrequently, in a batch of sheets exhibiting ordinary bubbles, a few hanging directly above the furnaces show signs of a slight blistering effect. "spot" disease in sheet rubber.--that "spot" disease may appear in air-dried sheets was evident at the beginning of the outbreak in the spring of . the first cases noticed took the form of pink and bluish "blushes" spreading over the whole of the sheets. later, fungoid spots began to appear. these mainly took the form of red or black blotches, and were very unsightly. as "spot" disease cannot develop in smoked rubber, the obvious and simple course to adopt was to smoke-cure the sheets. when it is stated that "spots" do not develop in smoke-cured rubber, it is understood that the smoke-curing must be efficient and must commence as soon as the rubber has been rolled, and the surface water has drained away. if the sheets are allowed to air-dry for a few days, the disease may develop, and then smoke-curing will not get rid of the coloured patches. the operation of smoke-curing will not get rid of the coloured patches. the operation of smoke-curing may tone down the colour, but the spots would still remain evident. support marks.--it frequently occurs that one sees across the middle of smoked sheets a wide mark. this is where the wooden support in the smoking-chamber has been. as a rule, even in the most careful cases a faint mark may always be seen, but in many instances this mark is exaggerated to such an extent as to point to lack of care on the part of the store supervision. if bays of racks remain empty over-night, they may possibly become covered with a light sprinkling of fine wood-ash and tarry deposit. wet rubber placed upon these racks will pick up and retain the impurities, and more often than not they cannot be washed out. it is incumbent upon the manager to see that empty racks are thoroughly cleansed before placing wet rubber upon them. the better plan is to arrange that the bars can be removed easily from sockets. there should be in stock sufficient "spares" for, say, two days' rubber. when the dry rubber is removed, the bars should likewise be taken away, to be cleansed and kept in the factory until again required. this will ensure that fresh rubber always rests upon a clean support. on some estates, in order to guard against a pronounced "bar-mark," sheets are moved and turned daily. in other smoke-houses the upper surface of the bar is chiselled in concave form, so as to admit of the passage of smoke below the surface resting on the bar. stickiness.--this is not to be confounded with "tackiness," from which the rubber does not recover. stickiness is only temporary, and may be remedied. as a general rule, it is due to packing sheets, which have not a good raised "ribbing," and which may have been coated with light tarry deposits (see glaze). this surface film may be removed by washing the sheets, or scrubbing them, with cold water. usually a further two days' air-drying will make the rubber fit for packing; and if the smoke-curing has been efficient, there should be no need to anticipate trouble from mildew. some estates adopt this practice daily with success, as a form of insurance against complaints of surface deposits. ribbing, surface pattern.--while we know that the passing of sheets of rubber between rolls, causing a particular raised pattern to appear, has no effect upon the actual quality of the rubber, there is a great deal of practical advantage gained. the practice ensures an increase of superficial area which is an aid in drying, improves the appearance of the rubber for selling purposes, and is of distinct advantage in enabling the rubber when packed to travel in better condition. sheets do not become so closely packed; sampling and general handling are easier on delivery. as long as the plane surfaces are sufficiently and regularly distorted, there would seem to be no limits to the type of pattern or "mark" which may be placed upon the rubber. but in actual practice the variety is small. the most popular type of "ribbing" is that best described as a small diamond effect, produced by a pair of rolls cut with closely placed narrow grooves running spirally. the spirals travel in the same direction on both rolls, producing close-cut ribbing running in opposite directions on the surfaces of the sheet. on sheets of standard thickness, the result approaches a diamond effect. a few other patterns are employed, notably that producing longitudinal stripes of varying thickness. on the whole, the type of pattern would seem to be immaterial, if the points already indicated are achieved. it is seldom one encounters a case nowadays in which the "marking" is unsuitable, but a few estates may be using an old type of patterned roll on which the full diamond grooving is cut. as this appears on both sides of the sheet of rubber, and as the ribbing does not coincide, a blurred effect is seen when the sheet is viewed against the light. thick ends, "sheet clippings."--it rarely happens, even with good equipment and average supervision, that the preparation of smoked sheet is unaccompanied by slight defects. for instance, in spite of rules and regulations regarding manipulation of the coagulum, it is not uncommon to find that some sheets, after rolling, have slightly thickened ends. in the ordinary course of events these might delay drying considerably. it is the practice on some estates to cut off these thickened ends while the rubber is still wet. the pieces are then machined into crepe form, but as no sodium bisulphite may have been used, the resulting rubber cannot be classed as no. standard crepe. the other alternative is to trim the ends when the bulk of the rubber is thoroughly smoke-dried. the moisture containing portions are then returned to the smoke-house until dry, and are subsequently packed without further treatment as "smoked-sheet clippings." it will be plain that, except in the particularity of form, these clippings differ in no degree from the original sheets; and, owing to extra smoke-curing, may arrive in even better condition. one must be prepared, however, to find that a slightly lower price is offered. whether the price obtained would be comparable with that commanded by the crepe made from wet sheet slipping would depend upon general ruling market conditions, and the degree of care exercised in guarding against the inclusion of any inferior pieces of rubber. in ordinary factory practice, there could be no room for abuse under the latter clause. other infrequent defects.--this chapter will be closed with a reference to other small defects which, although infrequent, cannot be classed as minor complaints. in point of fact, when they occur, they assume an importance, in the eyes of the consumer, which is not, perhaps, sufficiently appreciated by producers. dirt.--trouble from this source should be absent, but carelessness on the part of packing coolies may be responsible for occasional complaints. how the dirt is incident may remain a mystery, but it has been noted that sheets have at times been thrown upon a cement floor. a certain amount of loose dust may thus adhere to the rubber. ash.--the source of this surface deposit scarcely needs indication. where open-hearth furnaces are employed, and the wire-mesh floor screens are not perfectly sound, fine ash may find its way into the upper chamber. if this trouble is persistent in spite of precautions, the sheets should be surface-washed and air-dried before packing. bark.--complaints of the presence of particles of bark in sheet rubber used to be fairly frequent, but are now less common. the trouble may be traced to the use of defective straining sieves when the latex is being handled. splinters.--the use of packing-cases of unplaned soft timber is responsible for complaints of this nature on delivery. without here discussing the larger question of the ideal packing case, it is sufficient to emphasise that the interior surfaces of wooden chests should be planed. the cases are often so damaged in transit, that splinters of wood may be found throughout the contents. the device adopted on some estates may go far to prevent this. the cases are first lined with loose sheets, and finally other sheets are arranged to overlap at the top of the case. the bulk is thus enclosed in a wrapping of sheets, and any splinters or other deleterious substances are confined to the surface of the mass. part v general chapter xix _choice of coagulant_ almost without exception, the agent employed in the coagulation of plantation (_hevea_) rubber is acetic acid, or in some cases formic acid. under ordinary trade conditions supplies are always obtainable at reasonable prices, but during the recent war the question of possible substitutes was brought greatly to the fore. fortunately the subject of coagulation and coagulants had been previously studied to such effect in laboratory practice, that there would have been small difficulty in prescribing agents other than acetic acid in cases of expediency. as far as our knowledge extends, all the possible substances which have the power of coagulating latex have been tested. they include mineral acids, organic acids, compounds known chemically under the general term of "salts," alcohols, sugars, etc. the heading of this chapter must be seen to "beg the question," inasmuch as it leads to the assumption that a coagulant (in the popular sense) is necessary to secure coagulation. in point of fact, methods are sometimes employed which depend upon no artificial coagulant to produce the desired effect. to these methods reference will be made later. in this section it is proposed to describe briefly the more important agents which are used, or might be used, in effecting coagulation. in the class of those which are not in common use some could be used as expedients, while others are only of scientific interest. acetic acid.--there is no need to enter into a discussion of the merits of this agent. in practice it remains the cheapest and safest coagulant known at present. formic acid.--this agent is equally as safe to use as acetic acid, and as easy to handle. bulk for bulk its coagulative power is higher than that of acetic acid. its pre-war shipping price, when taken in conjunction with its coagulative power, was slightly below that of acetic acid, but local prices put the balance in favour of the latter. if prevailing costs put it on terms of parity with acetic acid, there would appear to be no reason why formic acid should not have a widely-extended use on plantations. citric acid, tartaric acid.--the acids of the extracted juices of most tropical fruits consist, to a large degree, of citric or tartaric acids. these can be used in place of acetic acid as satisfactory coagulants in case of emergency; but the questions of availability of supplies and of costs preclude their more general adoption. oxalic acid.--this is a satisfactory coagulant as far as observed effect is concerned. it produces a rubber paler than ordinary coagulants (without the use of sodium bisulphite), as it has the nature of an anti-oxidant. it would not be a safe agent in the hands of coolies, as it is classed as a poison. sulphuric acid.--during the war, in a period of shortage of acetic acid and of high prices, this agent was used with success on some estates. it scarcely need be remarked that it is a dangerous substance to handle, and that its employment must be accompanied by close european supervision. at prevailing prices during the war it was very much cheaper than acetic acid, and even at the present reduced cost of the latter the advantage still lies with sulphuric acid. it must be emphasised, however, that the abuse of this agent to any but the slightest degree is harmful to the resultant rubber. hence its use would be sanctioned _only in the absence of the commoner, and much safer, coagulants_. in view of the possible incidence of such an emergency, the following notes are given. it is impressed that strict adherence to the rules must be given. handling sulphuric acid.--(_a_) always use glass or glazed earthenware vessels. (_b_) pour slowly and avoid splashing. drops finding their way to clothing or other fibrous material will destroy it locally; and if thrown upon any part of the body may cause painful burns. (_c_) when diluting this agent always remember to pour the acid into the water (_i.e._, the lesser into the greater), and never _vice versa_. pour the acid carefully and slowly down the side of the vessel, and stir well. (_d_) should strong acid be spilled, do not throw water upon it. a supply of sand or dry earth should be kept close at hand. throw this upon the acid. storing sulphuric acid.--(_a_) jars or cases should be handled as seldom, and as carefully, as possible. if the acid is contained in a case, the top should be plainly indicated. (_b_) stocks should be stored in a detached building which should not be damp. jars or cases should not stand on a wooden floor if possible. (_c_) see (_d_) above. buying sulphuric acid.--(_a_) commercial acid of specific gravity · is the best of its kind. it contains impurities which are non-injurious to rubber preparation. (_b_) it is always advisable, if possible, to buy the acid in small jars containing not more than lbs. each. smaller jars, with a content not exceeding lbs., would be preferable. (_c_) if the acid is bought in jars, it should be stipulated that the stoppers be covered with a plaster head, and that the containing crate or case should have prominent labels or marks indicating the top of the case. formula for use of sulphuric acid.--it will be understood that as this formula has been calculated for working with latex, having a consistency of - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon, it applies in a strict degree only to such latex. in other cases, where the dilution of the latex is not known, the formula will serve as a basis for experiment until the correct quantity has been discovered. (sulphuric acid of specific gravity · .) note.--the directions must be followed carefully, and glass measuring vessels should be used if procurable. (_a_) measure out pint of strong acid, and pour it carefully and slowly _down the inner surface_ of a jar containing gallons of water. do not pour it directly into the water. the heavy acid will sink to the bottom of the jar, and a good mixture must be obtained by stirring well. (_b_) of this solution (which is approximately per cent. by weight), use gallon to gallons of latex. readers are doubtless now well aware of the corrosive action of strong sulphuric acid, and we scarcely need point out that even the dilute acid should not be kept in contact with the usual iron vessels found in factories. the mixing of solutions should be done in one of the glazed earthenware jars commonly in use. the formula given above works out at approximately part strong acid to , parts of latex (of dry rubber content - / lbs. per gallon). the formula for using acetic acid with the same latex works out at about : , . it will be apparent, therefore, that relatively sulphuric acid is a more powerful coagulant than acetic acid. in terms of dry rubber obtained from latex of the consistency indicated above-- lb. sulphuric acid will produce lbs. dry rubber. lb. acetic acid will produce lbs. dry rubber. with both acids selling at the same rate, sulphuric acid would be more economical in use; when its cost is less than that of acetic acid, which is the normal condition, the economic advantage in favour of sulphuric acid is augmented still further. it may be found that the standard formula for sulphuric acid will not always give a perfectly clear remaining serum, even though an attempt is made daily to work to a uniform consistency for all latices. it is inevitable that the manipulation of the latices should be slightly in error on occasions, or that a small mistake might occur in preparing the solution of acid. hence a clear remaining serum after coagulation may be secured less often than a slightly turbid serum. this is as it should be. the minimum quantity of acid may be adjusted so closely as to give such results. if a clear serum is obtained always, that should be an indication of continual excess of coagulant. naturally, if a milky serum is always obtained, the reverse is the case. as a last word on the subject, it may again be emphasised that the use of sulphuric acid is not advised, except in an emergency; and that the greatest possible care must be exercised in the observance of the strict formula for use. hydrochloric acid, nitric acid.--these mineral acids would prove more expensive than sulphuric acid. in addition they are much more uncertain in action. for example, the use of a certain excess of hydrochloric acid would not hasten coagulation, but would prevent it. above all their effect, in excess, is deleterious to the rubber. hydrofluoric acid.--this has a strong corrosive action on porcelain or glass. hence it has to be contained in bottles of gutta-percha or lead. it is mentioned here merely because some years ago it found a use as a coagulant, chiefly in ceylon. it was sold in the form of a per cent. solution under the name of "purub," and was the subject of a patent. it is effective as a coagulant, and has also an anti-oxidant action, which was its chief recommendation when cheap and harmless anti-oxidants were not commonly known. it is comparatively expensive, and, as indicated above, difficult to handle and store. in short, it has nothing to commend it, in comparison with acetic or formic acids. alum.--this substance has been used for years by native rubber producers as a coagulant. it fulfils the desired purpose, and its popularity was maintained because of the ease with which it could be stored and handled. unfortunately, this facility often led to the use of an excess, and native sheets were often criticised as being brittle. investigations have shown that alum, even in minimum proportions, has an appreciably harmful effect upon the quality of the rubber prepared by its use as a coagulating agent. its employment by native rubber producers has now been largely superseded by acetic acid in some form. pyroligneous acid.--this is otherwise known under the names of "crude acetic acid" and "crude wood vinegar." owing to the shortage of acetic acid during the war, attention was directed towards the possibility of making an effective coagulant locally by what is termed the "dry distillation of wood"--_i.e._, the wood is not burned but heated in a retort. the enquiries could be placed in two classes: . those which aimed at making the pure, strong acid of commerce. . those which sought information concerning a crude coagulant (pyroligneous acid) on estates. regarding the first class, we can do no better than reproduce our remarks published in the april local report of the rubber growers' association for --with the reservation that, on account of a threatened shortage of timber, a local scheme might not now be feasible: "probably the most common enquiry encountered since the rise in the price of acetic acid is concerned with the possibility of making acetic acid in this country. it may be stated that the proposition is a feasible one, even on a fairly large scale. we have the essentials necessary for such a scheme in: " . a good supply of suitable timbers, the most valuable of which, possibly, is mangrove timber, locally known as 'bakau.' other suitable timbers are known, but as far as preliminary experiments show mangrove timber gives the best yield. at present this timber is in great demand as a fuel for steam plants, but with the extension of the local coal industry the timber may become cheaper. " . there would appear to be less valuable timber which would be suitable for heating the retorts. or, local coal might be used. " . supplies of lime at reasonable rates are available, as the limestone formation in the peninsula is quite considerable in extent. " . supplies of sulphuric acid are available from japan, australia, burma, etc., even at the present time, although naturally rates are higher than normal. under ordinary conditions, supplies from england and parts of europe would be much cheaper than at current rates. "for the benefit of many readers perhaps a brief and nontechnical description of the preparation of acetic acid would not be amiss, and would explain the necessity for the essentials indicated above. in brief, the process is as follows: "(_a_) a suitable timber is heated in a closed retort. this is termed 'dry distillation,' and results eventually in the carbonisation of the wood--_i.e._, charcoal is obtained in the retort. "(_b_) tar, vapours and gases are distilled over during the carbonisation of the wood. these liquors and gases pass through condensers. the gases pass away, while the condensed liquors separate out into ( ) wood tar, ( ) a watery liquor called pyroligneous acid or crude wood vinegar. "(_c_) the pyroligneous acid is separated from the tar, and again distilled to obtain the acetic acid present. "(_d_) this crude acid is steam-heated with milk of lime, which fixes the acid, forming calcium acetate (or acetate of lime). "(_e_) eventually the calcium acetate is taken out in the form of a thick paste, which is spread to dry. when dry this 'grey acetate' is the main source of all glacial acetic acid now made. "(_f_) the acetic acid is released from the 'acetate of lime' by the action of sulphuric acid. it is then distilled several times, and under various conditions, in order to increase its strength. in the past copper tubes were used for this purpose, but owing to the fact that traces of copper were found to be injurious to rubber, some works instal tubes of glazed earthenware for the distillation. "such is the process in outline, and it will be seen that no proposal to manufacture _glacial acetic acid_ on an estate could be considered feasible, although it would not present any great difficulty on a large scale and under skilled direction. furthermore, the cost of the plant would be far too great for any estate." although it is clear that pure acetic acid is beyond the scope of an estate, crude pyroligneous acid has been produced on a varying scale in this country and in ceylon. in the latter country some success was obtained by the distillation of coconut shells with comparatively inexpensive plant. in this country, wood-distillation was practised on a few estates, but improved facilities for obtaining pure acetic led to a termination of the experiments, although sufficient crude acid could then be made at a reasonable cost. the pyroligneous acid obtained, is generally clear, after nitration, and of a dark brown colour. it has a peculiar odour reminiscent of smoked sheet-rubber, or of creosotic substances in general. its acid content depends chiefly upon: (_a_) the kind of timber heated in the retort. (_b_) the efficiency of the apparatus. (_c_) condition of the timber as to moisture. (_d_) the temperature employed, and rate of working. (_e_) the point at which distillation ceases (_i.e._, the duration of interval between commencement of heating and cessation of collection). samples received from estates for testing purposes were found to contain equivalents varying from per cent. to per cent. of acetic acid. they were all suitable coagulants when used in quantity calculated from the discovered acidity, but produced rubber darker than ordinary when air-dried. this effect was not of much importance in the preparation of smoked sheets, but to produce a pale crepe it was necessary to employ sodium bisulphite as an anti-oxidant. this darkening in colour is to be ascribed to the presence of traces of phenols,[ ] which are stated to exert an effect upon the rubber during and after vulcanisation.[ ] this subject will be discussed in another section. [ ] whitby, _journal soc. chem. industry_, vol. xxxv., no. , . [ ] see also "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture, april, . with this provision the crude pyroligneous acid which can be produced on estates, could be employed as a coagulant until such time as the price of glacial acetic acid was so low as to make the production of the crude acid non-profitable. this point would be determined from a knowledge of the cost of production per gallon, and the percentage of acetic acid per unit. for example, if the cost of production (including cost of timber for distillation, cost of fuel for heating the retort, cost of labour, etc.) was cents per gallon of crude acid containing per cent. of acetic acid, that would be equivalent approximately to buying glacial acetic acid at $ per demijohn of lbs. smoked water.--a weak solution of pyroligneous acid may also be obtained by passing smoke through water. with this object in view, a machine was designed by the federated engineering company of kuala lumpur. in this the principle of retorting was not employed. smoke was produced by ordinary combustion in a compartment of the apparatus, and was drawn through water by the action of a high-speed fan worked by hand. a solution, equivalent in effect to a per cent. solution of acetic acid, could be obtained at a comparatively cheaper cost than crude pyroligneous acid produced by dry distillation as it was then being practised. this was chiefly because of the wasteful methods of fuel combustion, in the latter process, in the heating of the retort. chinese vinegar.--this agent was found to be a satisfactory coagulant, and, _a priori_, there is no reason why it should not be suitable, as it is essentially a dilute solution of acetic acid. the qualities sold were generally colourless, and were probably the result of acetic fermentation of rice. samples tested showed a varying content of acetic acid, ranging roughly from per cent. to per cent.; but on this basis of valuation it was found generally that the price bore no relation to the degree of efficiency. it was advanced not only that the vinegar was an efficient substitute for glacial acetic acid, but that it was also cheaper. this latter claim was proved to have no foundation in fact, even at the high price of acetic acid prevailing during the period of stress. it is not likely, therefore, that vinegar can displace acetic acid, except as an expedient. sulphurous acid.--the anti-oxidant effect of sodium bisulphite and sodium sulphite is due to the liberation of the gas, sulphur dioxide. this gas dissolves easily in water, forming an acid solution called sulphurous acid. this acid solution is an effective coagulant in fairly small quantity. not only so, but it produces, in addition, the anti-oxidant effect noted in the employment of sodium bisulphite. it is thus possible to produce rubber varying in shade of paleness by means of a single solution. in the event of sulphurous acid being used, it would be necessary to import cylinders of sulphur dioxide from which the solution could be prepared in factories each day. there would be no insurmountable difficulty in this, as it is only necessary to pass the gas through a series of closed vessels containing water. enough solution could be prepared at one time for three or four days, but preferably the solutions should be as fresh as possible. altogether there would seem to be possibilities in the use of sulphurous acid for preparing pale crepe rubbers, providing the cost is within comparable limits with the commoner coagulants at present in use, and that no adverse effect on the rubber can be shown to result. if the cost did not exceed the combined cost of acetic acid and sodium bisulphite, the employment of sulphurous acid solution might be worthy of consideration. there is one drawback to the use of sulphurous acid solution, and that lies in the proximity of the limits of the quantities necessary for coagulation and that which is in excess, and prevents coagulation. thus, with ordinary field latex having about per cent. dry rubber content, the minimum necessary for coagulation per c.c. of latex is about c.c. of a per cent. solution. the maximum quantity possible for use is about c.c. of a per cent, solution, so that great care would have to be exercised in avoiding an excess of coagulant, otherwise coagulation would be effectually prevented. it is believed that the preparation of rubber by this method is the subject of a patent secured by messrs. boake, roberts, and co., london. sugars.--coagulation may be effected by the addition of small quantities of sugars.[ ] these are assumed to be effective by fermentative conversion into lactic and acetic acids. the presence of lactic acid is supposed to have a twofold effect: [ ] "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation para rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture; gorter and swart, bulletin no. , west java expt. station. (_a_) as a direct coagulant. (_b_) in its action upon certain organisms which, in the ordinary course of events, would delay or prevent coagulation. although work on an experimental scale has been done, as far as we know no practical application has been made of the employment of sugars as coagulating agents. various salts.--of experimental interest only it may be recorded that coagulation has been effected by means of various chemical "salts"--_e.g._, calcium chloride, barium chloride, magnesium chloride, sodium chloride, aluminium sulphate, magnesium sulphate, sodium sulphate, etc. none of these has been found to have any practical application, except, perhaps, calcium chloride, which is used in small quantity as an accelerating agent in a special process of anaerobic coagulation, which will receive mention in the following chapter. at one period during the war and the dearth of acetic acid, it was found that there were available in england large supplies of the acid sulphate of sodium (sodium hydrogen sulphate), which proved to be an effective coagulant. experimental work gave satisfactory results, but no practical application resulted when supplies of acetic acid were again obtainable. various proprietary compounds.--we have seen many proprietary coagulants advertised and pass into the limbo of forgotten things. they can generally be divided into two classes. the first embraces those founded upon a woefully incomplete knowledge of requirements. the second covers those which meet requirements, but for which exaggerated claims are made and excessive prices charged. as as instance of a substance which fell under both classifications might be mentioned the case of "coagulatex." pretentious claims were made, and it was emphasised that the liquid contained no _vegetable acids_. acetic and formic acids might be quoted as examples of vegetable acids, and as these have been shown to be the most satisfactory coagulants now employed one fails to imagine where lay the value of the guarantee given by the advertisers of "coagulatex." on analysis the liquid was found to consist mainly of sulphuric acid, against the indiscriminate use of which warnings have been given. thus it was a dangerous substance for common use. furthermore, comparing the value with its sulphuric acid content, it was found that the price required for "coagulatex" was roughly four times the contemporary cost of commercial sulphuric acid in the federated malay states. those in charge of estates should realise, therefore, that no proprietary coagulants should be adopted until a proper report of tests, and a comparative valuation, has been obtained from one of the research laboratories. carbonic acid gas, carbon dioxide.--now of only scientific interest, it may be noted that some years ago great claims were made for the use of carbon dioxide gas as a coagulant. in actual practice we were unable to effect coagulation by passing the dry gas into latex. it was suggested that the original investigators were misled by failure to secure a dry and clean gas. it would appear that probably the gas was prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid upon marble or limestone. unless intervening "washers" and "driers" were used, the liberated gas, when passed into latex, would carry with it traces of hydrochloric acid, which would effect coagulation. alcohol.--in the cheap form of methylated spirit, alcohol has been employed by us as a speedy coagulant for many years. latex run slowly into alcohol coagulates instantaneously. the method has been in common laboratory use. the employment of alcohol has also been made the part-subject of a patent process of coagulation, to which reference will be made in the succeeding chapter. vegetable extracts.--at various times experimental work has been directed towards the use of liquids of purely vegetable origin, such as the juices of tropical fruits, and of a waste product of tropical industry--the so-called "milk" (or water) of ripe coconuts. in the former class there is usually a natural acidity, but in coconut water the acidity is chiefly the result of fermentation of the carbohydrate (sugar) constituents. these substances were all found to effect a more or less satisfactory coagulation, but it is unlikely that they would be suitable for practical application on a large scale. as being more directly related to the subject of coagulation in general than to coagulants in particular, a discussion of several special processes will be relegated to the ensuing chapter. chapter xx _special methods of preparation_ every year appears to bring forth some new ideas in the mode of rubber preparation. some of them are based in principle upon the oldest known method--_i.e._, the native brazilian process of making "hard para." others strike a new note, and in a few cases the claims put forward are substantially confirmed by results. in other instances the claims are too pretentious, and discredit may be brought upon schemes which, although lacking in comparative success, are yet commendable for the ingenuity manifested. to the present not one of these new methods has been able to compete to any marked degree in general practice with the established methods of ordinary preparation. a few continue to find local application, but most have either been abandoned or are gradually falling into desuetude. we do not propose to discuss in fine detail all the various claims made on behalf of these special processes, or to enter into controversies. the aim is to present to the reader an outline embodying the main principles and advantages claimed. da costa process.--briefly, this was a method by which coagulation was effected with smoke. the smoke was generated by the combustion of wood in a special compartment, and was forced into latex by means of a jet of steam. it was really only applied to the preparation of coagulum intended for crepe form. the exact degree of coagulation effected was uncertain, and the final colour of the rubber precluded it from being classed as a modern no. product. "byrne curing" process.--this is a process for treating coagulum obtained by ordinary methods. it was the subject of a patent obtained by messrs. e. j. and f. a. byrne, and at one time had a considerable vogue on estates. the chief claim advanced was that the rubber produced was in all respects equal to fine hard para, and could be shipped while still moist without detriment to the physical qualities. the principle of the process was the treatment of coagulum, in either sheet or thick crepe form, with vapours produced by the volatilisation of two special fluids. this treatment was undertaken in comparatively small wooden sheds, in which the coagulum was placed. the "smoke" was conducted into the curing sheds from furnaces outside the building. the sheds were covered externally with "felt" material to prevent leakage of the vapours, and a very dense smoke was obtained. the furnaces were specially designed, and consisted essentially of a "hot-plate" heated by a powerful kerosene blast-flame. on top of the machine were two reservoirs controlled by taps. in these were placed the special fluids which were released in definite proportion. the composition of the fluids was not divulged, but it is assumed that the principal ingredients were (_a_) wood tar products, (_b_) crude pyroligneous or acetic acid. the mixture of these, dropping on the hot plate at the correct temperature, spontaneously volatilised, to form dense whitish fumes, having an intense and not disagreeable odour of wood combustion. a duct led from the back of the machine into the curing-shed, where the vapours were distributed through perforations in the pipe. the coagulum usually remained under treatment in the shed for three to four hours, and then was removed for ordinary air-drying. when taken from the curing-shed it had a pinkish colour, which later developed into a dark brown by a natural process of oxidation. the exterior of the rubber, on shipment, resembled the appearance of smoked sheets; while the interior, on cutting, was seen to be still white. as packed for shipping, the rubber contained from to per cent. of original moisture, for the usual sheet form, and even more when "slab" rubber was prepared. originally either crepe or sheet rubber was made, but later the preparation of the crepe form was displaced largely by "slab" rubber. these "slabs" were really very thick sheets, which had been subject to only slight pressure. still later the preparation of the "slab" form was displaced by "loaf" rubber. this form was built up by winding together ordinary thin sheets which had been subject to the "cure." only slight tension was needed, during the operation of winding, to cause close adhesion of the component wet layers, and the final result was a "loaf" or roll dark in colour, and apparently dry when examined superficially. on being cut, even after an interval of months, the middle portion was still so moist as to be quite white. in course of time it was discovered that all the claims made for the process could not be substantiated, and for various reasons (which need not be detailed) most of the estates which had adopted the scheme reverted to ordinary methods of preparation. at the time of writing few, if any, continue to work the process. it appears to be agreed, as the result of investigations, that in no degree does the process yield advantage over ordinary methods. freezing process.--a patent was secured a few years ago to cover a process whereby coagulation was effected by refrigeration. latex remained for several hours in the refrigerating chambers of an ordinary ice-making plant. the resulting solid mass, on being thawed, yielded a coagulum appearing in no way to differ from that obtained by ordinary methods of coagulation. provided the process exerted no influence for good or evil upon the quality of the resulting dry rubber, the value of it would appear to depend upon the relative cost of working, plus considerations of capital expenditure and depreciation on the plant. at the present time it would be difficult to imagine that the cost of preparation alone would compare favourably with that sustained by ordinary coagulative methods. furthermore, beyond the expensive refrigerating plant, the usual machinery of a factory would still be required if the ordinary market demands are to be met. finally, it has not been found[ ] that any advantage in the final physical qualities of the rubber is obtained by the employment of this process. [ ] "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture. wickham process.--this process, invented by sir henry wickham, aimed at the production of a rubber resembling fine hard para. the principle employed was that underlying the preparation of the best rubber in brazil--viz., coagulation of superimposed thin layers of latex by the action of smoke and heat. in essential the machine employed consisted of a rotating drum into which latex and smoke entered. the result was the formation of thin "skins" of rubber which, coagulating _in situ_, formed a mass corresponding to "fine hard." that the rubber was fully satisfactory as to quality is acknowledged, but economically and in practical utility the process was unsuccessful, the rate of output being so low. derry process.--the invention of mr. r. derry, late of the singapore botanic gardens, this in principle resembled the wickham and other processes. it aimed at a mechanical imitation of the native method of producing fine hard para. in place of the rotating drum, an endless belt was used. this travelled over pulleys, more or less horizontally placed. the upper of these could be raised to varying height above the level of the other, and likewise could be so adjusted as to tighten the belt. the under layer of the belt impinged, in its travel, upon the surface of a layer of latex contained in a shallow tray. the belt was operated by hand-power, and the height of the latex trays was adjustable. the trays of latex were situated at the lower end of the machine which lay outside the smoking-chamber. it will be understood that the vastly major part of the total length of belt was always within the chamber. smoke was generated by combustion of wood in an external structure, was brought into the chamber by a wide duct, and was then distributed below the belt by means of perforated pipes. the thin film of latex picked up by the belt was coagulated partly by the action of smoke constituents by evaporation due to heat. assuming ( ) that the belt was of adequate length, ( ) that the rate of travel was not excessive, ( ) that the latex was not too dilute, ( ) that the temperature of the smoke was sufficiently high, ( ) that the smoke was sufficiently dense and not too damp--then the process should be a continuous one. it will be clear that success could only be obtained by a careful adjustment of all these factors. the latex must, necessarily, be of a fairly rich consistency (at least - / lbs. dry rubber per gallon), but unfortunately there is considerable difficulty in maintaining such latex in a state of fluidity for the period demanded by this process, without loss of latex. naturally, the addition of an anti-coagulant would retard the rate of output of the machine to a marked degree. the layer of rubber thus formed on the belt was stripped off, and hung for further air-drying, as it still contained a fair percentage of moisture. as a really practicable method for treating plantation latex, the process failed by reason of its low rate of output over a given interval. this alone was sufficient to condemn it, apart from the facts ( ) that it was not shown to be a cheaper method than coagulation by acetic acid, ( ) that the resulting rubber was not proved to be of superior intrinsic value to rubber prepared by ordinary methods. spontaneous coagulation.--all readers will be aware of the phenomenon of the curdling or souring of milk. the behaviour of _hevea_ latex, under certain conditions, may be taken to be analogous. difficulty is experienced in maintaining fluidity--a difficulty which appears to vary in great degree according to locality, nature of soil, age of trees, the relative demand made upon the trees by the system of tapping employed, etc. it is sometimes found, before the latex reaches the store, that it may exhibit one of various stages of premature (spontaneous) coagulation: (_a_) to all appearances it may be quite fluid, but a close examination shows it to consist mainly of a serum containing very minute particles of rubber in suspension (microscopic coagulation). (_b_) in a later stage these particles coalesce to form larger "flocks" (macroscopic coagulation). (_c_) the whole, or practically the whole, of the latex may have coagulated, forming one mass of rubber with a milky residual serum. passing from this aspect of the question, it may be noted as peculiar facts that: ( ) a shallow layer of latex is less likely to coagulate spontaneously (_i.e._, without the addition of a coagulant) than a deeper volume. ( ) the shallow layer, and also the surface of the deeper volume (where exposed to air), on standing will be found to develop a superficial film of finely coagulated particles, yellowish in colour, and having an offensive odour due to decomposition of protein matter. ( ) while this partial coagulation is confined only to the surface of a shallow layer of latex, it will be found that below the surface film of the deeper volume a much more definite coagulation has taken place. the coagulation will be practically complete, and the coagulum, apart from a spongy appearance, is normal in character. this coagulum is free from the offensive odour noted above. ( ) on testing the surface film of both the shallow layer and the deeper volume, it will be found to be _alkaline_ in character; whilst the lower liquid surrounding the main portion of the coagulum in the deeper volume of latex is of an _acid_ nature. these observed facts are sufficient to indicate that there are apparently _two distinct types of spontaneous coagulation_, and that the latter takes place particularly where the latex is more or less out of contact with the atmosphere. we may, therefore, differentiate thus: (_a_) _in contact with air (aerobic)_: incomplete spontaneous coagulation, accompanied by yellowish slime, offensive in odour and alkaline in character. (_b_) _out of contact with air (anaerobic)_: practically or wholly complete. there is no offensive odour under normal conditions and the serum is acid in character. it is concluded[ ] that there are present in latex, on collection in the field, two types of organisms. those which work in contact with air (aerobic) show a tendency to _prevent_ coagulation and to form an alkaline yellow slime on the surface of the latex. the others, which work in the absence of air (anaerobic), may, under favourable conditions, cause complete coagulation unaccompanied by any decomposition or offensive odour within a normal period. if air is rigidly excluded, the coagulum obtained is quite satisfactory for all purposes. [ ] "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture, ; "de la coagulation naturelle du latex d'hevea brasiliensis" (denier and vernet), _comptes rendus l'académie des sciences_, no. , july, . this type of coagulation, without the employment of a chemical coagulant, and under anaerobic conditions, was the subject of a patent granted in to messrs. maude, crosse and others. the process has been in use on cicely estate (perak) for some years. with subsequent slight modifications the apparatus consisted in essential of a tank with a loose cover. the flanges of the cover were sufficiently long to dip into a water-seal surrounding the tank. thus the cover may rise and fall without an inrush of air. coagulation, in fact, can be effected thus in any kind of air-tight receptacle; and experimentally the reader can obtain a satisfactory result by filling completely with latex the bottle which has a loose stopper. under the patent held the coagulum may be prepared either for crepe-making, or for sheets by a modification of the tank. the crepe when dry does not have the bright appearance of the ordinary "fine pale" standard prepared with the aid of the anti-oxidant sodium bisulphite. unfortunately the addition of this substance to the latex in normal proportions is not possible under anaerobic conditions, as it is found to prevent coagulation, probably owing to its sterilising effect upon the anaerobic organisms. to prevent the oxidation of the rubber in actual practice, the freshly prepared crepe is soaked in a solution of sodium bisulphite before hanging to dry. the resulting colour of the rubber is quite good. it was shown by eaton and grantham that anaerobic coagulation is slightly uncertain in action. owing probably to variations in the composition of the latices, or to the extent of infection by organisms, coagulation may one day be complete and on other days less satisfactory. they found further that, by the addition of small quantities of sugars, coagulation under both aerobic and anaerobic conditions was improved. the conclusion formed was that the addition of sugars created a medium favourable to the development of anaerobic organisms and unfavourable to those which cause decomposition of the natural nitrogenous constituents of latex. this work was confirmed by gorter and swart,[ ] who attributed the action to the conversion of sugar to lactic, acetic, and succinic acids by fermentation. [ ] gorter and swart, bulletin no. , west java station. denier and vernet, whose work has already been mentioned, studied the presence of the organisms in latex, and succeeded in isolating one which, under anaerobic conditions, effects coagulation within twenty-four hours. sometimes to produce complete coagulation it was found necessary to employ small quantities of sugars--_e.g._, gramme per litre of latex ( : , ). it is to be noted also that the addition of small quantities of soluble calcium (lime) salts to latex has much the same effect as the employment of sugars. recent investigations[ ] showed that the addition of · to gramme of calcium chloride per litre of latex caused complete coagulation in closed vessels within twenty-four hours, a result agreeing with the findings of barrowcliff. [ ] "archief voor de rubbercultuur," nederlands indies, , , . on page of the same publication, experiments on the effect of sugars are described, in connection with _aerobic_ coagulation. observations from a further set of experiments tended to indicate a direct connection between the effects of tapping and spontaneous coagulation. it is suggested that heavy tapping causes a diminution in the latex of those substances which act in some way as accelerating agents in coagulation--_e.g._, sugars. the smaller the proportion of these substances, the slower and less complete is natural (spontaneous) coagulation. ilcken-down process.--this process is the subject of patents granted in to messrs. ilcken and down. it has been in fair prominence, and has been tried experimentally on several estates and in public demonstration. it is a coagulating process, and, in the original specification, employed as agents a mixture of alcohol (in the form of methylated spirit) and benzene (petrol), or alcohol with petrol and coal-tar naphtha. the mixture was injected in the form of a fine spray into the latex, contained in a tank specially fitted with paddles. later modifications covered the addition of a small quantity of glycerine; or, failing supplies of that substance, coconut oil. many advantages are claimed for the process, but most of them cannot be substantiated. the two chief claims are: . the production of a uniform standard of rubber. . the obtainment from a unit volume of latex of a greater weight of rubber than can be obtained from an equal volume of the same latex by ordinary coagulation with acetic acid. it is to be inferred that the agents employed have the power of adding to the coagulum some of the substances which usually remain in solution in the clear serum. regarding the first of these claims, it has been shown[ ] that the rubber is not uniform in its behaviour on vulcanisation, and that its variability is similar to that of rubber prepared by other processes. [ ] "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture, . the second claim has been the subject of much controversy. experiments made on estates under the supervision of, or in the absence of, the patentees have given conflicting results. when varying factors have been eliminated, the general conclusion was that no increase in weight of rubber was obtained. private laboratory investigations led to a similar verdict, and eaton[ ] records a confirmatory finding. more recently the claims made for the process were investigated in java[ ] under varying conditions. three series of experiments were made: [ ] _ibid._ [ ] "archief voor de rubbercultuur" (de vries and spoon), central rubber station, java, may, . ( ) during the rainy monsoon and at a height of , feet. ( ) during the dry monsoon on a low-country estate. ( ) in the experimental gardens at buitenzorg during bright sunny weather and the most favourable conditions. the agents used were (_a_) a mixture of alcohol and fusel oil, (_b_) alcohol and petrol (benzene). in these experiments no advantage in weight of rubber was obtained by the ilcken-down process, and it would thus appear that the principal claim fails to be substantiated. the general composition of the rubber was approximately the same as ordinary crepe obtained from undiluted latex. the rubber on vulcanisation was found to be normal in behaviour, and was similar to the controls. the coagulum ordinarily is affected by oxidation, and does not produce a fine pale crepe. to remedy this defect the freshly prepared crepe is soaked in a solution of sodium bisulphite and sulphuric acid. it may be noted that in the recent experiments coagulation was effected in vacuum in a specially designed wooden tank. from a study of the previous section on "spontaneous coagulation," the reader will perceive that results equal to those obtained by the ilcken-down process can be obtained _without_ the necessity of using such agents as alcohol, petrol, or fusel oil. slab rubber.--this type of preparation has been the subject of much discussion of recent years. there is nothing really special in the mode of preparation, and in its original form "slab" rubber is only a thick sheet which may be obtained by coagulation with acetic acid or other agents. the coagulum, when removed from the serum, is subjected to comparatively slight pressure, and the "slab" thus made is either placed to air-dry at once, or may be subject to treatment in other liquids before drying. the rubber is not allowed to remain until wholly dry, but is shipped while still containing an appreciable percentage of enclosed moisture. it is claimed[ ] that the production of "slab" rubber by standardised methods eliminates to a great degree the variability which at present characterises plantation rubber, and that a fast-curing medium is obtained. these claims will be discussed in later chapters dealing with the vulcanisation of rubber, and demand no notice in this section. [ ] "preparation and vulcanisation of plantation rubber" (eaton, grantham, and day), bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture, . from the producers' point of view, it may be noted that the preparation of slab rubber is a simple process, but not altogether as pleasant probably as might be desired, when undertaken in crude form. the appearance of the partially dry slabs is unattractive, but that does not signify if the quality of the vulcanised product satisfies requirements. for the average producer, the difficulty lies in having to meet the demands of the general market. even, therefore, if one assumes that the intrinsic qualities of slab rubber are all that the claims advance, it would be necessary for the producer to be assured of definite and regular sales. at present it would probably be fair to state that practically all the "slab" rubber being prepared is produced by those who are also consumers. they are thus in the enviable position of being able to satisfy their requirements as to the mode of preparation. until such time, therefore, as there exists a regular demand for "slab" rubber in the general market, the vast majority of estates must proceed on ordinary lines of preparation. part vi vulcanisation (by dr. h. p. stevens) chapter xxi _introductory dealing with treatment and vulcanisation_ in the foregoing chapters the methods of treating latex, coagulating, rolling and curing, or drying, have been described in great detail. these details will give the reader some idea of the precautions taken, and procedure necessary to produce rubber which will be acceptable to the market. the expressions "inferior rubber," "defective crepe," "poor quality sheets," etc., are frequently met with, but these expressions must not be taken to indicate any defect in the rubber for manufacturing purposes, but merely that the rubber is defective for selling purposes--that is to say, being unsightly, it will not fetch the full market price. raw rubber, as produced on the plantations, is almost invariably subjected to the process of vulcanisation in the production of manufactured rubber articles as we know them. previous to the advent of plantation rubber, the raw material was purchased by the manufacturer in a moist and impure condition; frequently the rubber was adulterated with sand, dirt, and even small stones. consequently it was the invariable practice of the rubber manufacturer to wash the raw rubber and convert it into crepe, which was then hung and air-dried before use. the effect on the rubber, if of high grade, was more severe than the washing and crepeing process on the plantation, because the rubber was not a soft coagulum but generally dried on the surface and semi-hard. the power required was considerable, and the resulting crepe was consequently softer and more susceptible to heat than plantation first latex crepe. much of the "wild" rubber was soft and tacky and inferior to "earth-scrap." vulcanising in its simplest aspect consists in mixing the rubber with sulphur and heating the product under regulated conditions. the effect of heat on the inferior grades of "wild" rubber is very marked. a soft, sticky, and resinous material is transformed into a relatively tough and elastic product. the effect of vulcanising on the better grades is less marked, but immediately apparent. on the other hand, the effect of vulcanising is least apparent on first latex plantation grades, because in these we have a raw rubber prepared in a manner best suited to retain its natural characteristics. the need of vulcanising in the process of manufacturing rubber goods became an axiom in pre-plantation days, and it is only quite recently that attempts have been made to utilise raw rubber directly, without vulcanisation, particularly for shoe soles. for this purpose a thick dense crepe has been found satisfactory. smoked sheet rubber is not generally suitable, apparently owing to its microphysical structure. it is possible that the process of rolling in the making of dense crepe compacts the rubber particles, yielding a harder and more resilient product. the rolling must not be carried too far, or the "working" of the rubber will approximate to a preliminary mastication, and the product will be weakened. the utilisation of crepe rubber directly has not yet been sufficiently tested to enable a definite conclusion to be reached as to its future scope, but it is obvious that for use in a raw state some modification in preparation may be advantageous. the present method--_e.g._, coagulation with acetic acid--does not yield the hardest and toughest rubber. hardness and toughness are actual drawbacks in the utilisation of rubber which is required for vulcanising. when the output of plantation rubber began to increase and to displace the inferior wild sorts, manufacturers complained of the increased power consumption of their machines. the power was required mainly to "break down" or "mill" the rubber preliminary to the mixing with sulphur and other ingredients. it is obvious that a material such as raw rubber cannot be mixed with powders such as sulphur with a pestle and mortar, or in any simple form of mixing machine. this difficulty was overcome by the earlier experimenters by immersing the rubber in a bath of molten sulphur. the latter was gradually absorbed and "dissolved" in the rubber, and the heat of the bath caused the dissolved sulphur to combine with the rubber to produce vulcanised rubber. the limitations of such a process are apparent. thus the vulcanised rubber retains the form in which it was originally shaped. moreover, other ingredients, such as mineral matters, cannot be dissolved or absorbed by the rubber in this manner. the method eventually adopted consisted in "breaking down," "milling," or "masticating" the rubber by passing it continuously between differentially geared steam-heated rollers. by this means a high-grade rubber is converted into a soft, plastic mass, which will "take up" sulphur, mineral matter, and other ingredients as desired. the mixing operation may be carried through on the same roller machine as was used for breaking down the rubber, or separate machines of other designs may be adopted. details of the process will be found in books dealing with rubber manufacturing.[ ] it will suffice here to explain that when rubber is kneaded between two hot rollers moving at different speeds the rubber forms a continuous band around the slower moving roller, and if the distance between the rollers be adjusted the excess of rubber held back by the nip of the rollers will form a "bank" or moving wedge-shaped mass on the top of the nip. this closes the space between the rollers, so that sulphur and powder placed on the rubber pass round towards the nip, and are there driven into the rubber. in this manner it is easy to mix, say, per cent. of sulphur into the rubber without a single particle falling through. in technical mixes where large quantities of powders require to be mixed there is always some caking, and part of the powder falls between the rollers into a tray underneath. this is swept up with a broom and put back on to the rollers, the process being repeated until the whole of the ingredients have been incorporated. [ ] for instance, "india-rubber and its manufacture," by h. l. terry. from this description it follows that, preliminary to mixing, it is necessary to thoroughly masticate or "plasticise" the raw rubber. much of the "wild" rubber was of so inferior a quality that it very readily broke down, and but little mastication was necessary. it was soft and resinous, and readily took up the powders which were to be mixed with it. the better grades of wild rubber, such as fine para, were more difficult to break down, but not so difficult as most plantation rubber, because they had already received a preliminary "working" in the process of washing and crepeing, and we have already explained that such treatment takes more power than the crepeing of the soft moist coagulum on the plantations. the amount of "working" or "plasticising" produced in the rubber is connected with the power expended; the greater the expenditure of power, _caeteris paribus_, the greater the working effect on the rubber. although the manufacturers possessed a relatively soft rubber in the form of washed fine para, it was customary in most cases to employ this rubber in conjunction with washed lower grades to produce a soft plastic material for further treatment. now, however, the manufacturer has little else but plantation to deal with, and most of it more difficult to break down than washed para crepe. this is the reason why a hard, tough rubber is no longer a desideratum with manufacturers, although originally taken as an indication of good quality. for the majority of purposes they want something which will break down easily. hence if a rubber could be produced answering to these requirements, without loss of vulcanising quality, it would be preferred. having incorporated sulphur and other ingredients, the plastic mass is sheeted and run between layers of calico to prevent the superimposed sheets from adhering. from this "calendered sheet" the article, whatever it may be, is built up. the calender rollers are heated so as to keep the rubber compound plastic. there is a limit to the thickness of the sheet which can be produced. it is a difficult operation to perform satisfactorily so as to yield a smooth surface and a sheet free from enclosed air. when cool the rubber hardens and is readily handled. the object to be manufactured is then built up from the calendered sheet. thus in the manufacture of a motor tyre the tread is built up on the casing or carcase by laying the sheets on the canvas and rolling these with a hand or power operated roller, so that they adhere firmly, the first layer to the canvas of the casing and subsequent layers to one another. this rough description will suffice to illustrate how important it is that the rubber when mixed should be plastic enough to give a smooth sheet, and to allow the sheet to be manipulated in building up the article in process of manufacture. the testing of rubber in regard to its plasticity and power to absorb finely divided mineral matter will be discussed in a later chapter. we may, however, point out here, that the mineral matter is not generally added as an adulterant, but because of certain specific properties it confers on the product. to proceed with our outline of vulcanisation, we have now arrived at the stage at which the goods are built up and ready for vulcanising. for this purpose they are generally enclosed in some manner, either in metal moulds bolted together, or tightly wrapped in cloth, as, _e.g._, in the manufacture of inner tubes, hose, etc. in the latter case, you can detect the cloth mark on the finished product. sometimes the rubber is spewed--that is, driven out of a barrel by means of an endless screw revolving in it. in this way rubber tubing, perambulator tyres, and such articles, may be made. more recently even tyre treads and the shaped rubber for band tyres (heavy solid tyres) have been extruded in this manner, for the process is much cheaper than building up a tyre from calendered sheet, and then cutting the mass to shape by hand. but for spewing the rubber mass must be very soft and plastic; this condition is not obtainable unless the raw rubber originally used can be made thoroughly plastic without damage. nor can it be effected with a rubber mass containing much finely divided mineral matter, as this hardens the mixture. for other purposes the rubber is swollen in a solvent, such as coal-tar naphtha, and subsequently masticated; the soft dough is then shaped or spread on cloth, and vulcanised after allowing the solvent to evaporate. here, again, the properties of the raw rubber are of immense importance. thus, the more plastic the dough, the less solvent required, and the less there is to drive off before vulcanising. the plasticity of the dough will depend on the plasticity of the raw rubber, and so forth. it is evident that the physical properties of the raw rubber are of great importance. they directly affect the manufacturing operations up to the vulcanising stage, and indirectly affect the results obtained on vulcanising. the actual vulcanising consists of heating the mass of mixed rubber for a definite time and at a definite temperature, each "heat" being chosen to suit the particular mixture. these data are arrived at empirically--that is, by trying a number of "heats" and choosing that which appears the most suitable. the suitability will depend on the nature of the article, the service to which it is to be put, and the time it is intended to last. all vulcanised rubber goods, whatever the process, have a limited life or period during which they can be relied on to give useful service. after a time, vulcanised rubber tends to harden, cracks appear on the surface when the article is bent or stretched, and eventually the rubber becomes rotten and "perished." this tendency varies with the quality of the original raw rubber and the conditions of vulcanising. before plantation rubber was available, the manufacturers were dependent on inferior wild grades for a great part of their output, and, consequently, the goods made from these inferior rubbers never showed very good mechanical properties and soon deteriorated. the severest critics of plantation rubber have admitted the advantages to the manufacturers of the replacement of the lower wild grades by plantation rubber.[ ] but even the best grades give a vulcanised product which rapidly deteriorates if the vulcanisation is carried too far. this results from too long heating, or too high a temperature, and the product is termed "overvulcanised" or "overcured."[ ] the appearance of the product is deceptive, as the physical properties are remarkably good if the overvulcanising is not more than to per cent. in excess of the normal cure. only in the case of very much overvulcanised rubber do we obtain a product which is brittle from the beginning. [ ] see williams, "the rubber industry," , p. . it must also be remembered that the inferior wild grades were derived from latices often containing a large proportion of "resinous" matter, and which could not yield a really high grade of vulcanised rubber whatever the care and skill employed in preparation. [ ] the terms "curing" and "vulcanising" are generally employed as if synonymous. twiss has suggested that the former be applied in regard to a change in physical properties, and the latter to the chemical change whereby sulphur is combined with the rubber. the term "curing" is also applied to the process of preparation of raw rubber. this must be kept in mind so as to avoid confusion. the degree of vulcanising will vary with the type of article to be produced, and where a long life is desired, the tendency will be to "undervulcanise"; but if the best mechanical properties are desired, the tendency will be towards "overvulcanising," or, more correctly, "fully" vulcanising. these considerations are aptly illustrated by reference to pneumatic tyres. the inner tube need not possess high tensile strength, provided that it is easily distensible, for the reason that, during use, it is protected by the casing of the tyre proper, which confines and supports it against the air-pressure applied. inner tubes are therefore cured to give a long life without developing the maximal physical properties. on the other hand, the casing and tread of the tyre are required to withstand severe mechanical conditions--particularly the constant flexing of the cover, and the abrasion of the road surface. tyres are not stored for any long period, and, when put into service, have a limited period of useful life. consequently it is needful to develop maximal mechanical properties, and vulcanisation is therefore carried further than in the manufacture of inner tubes. the rate of cure is controlled by a number of factors in addition to the period and temperature of vulcanisation, in particular by the proportion and nature of the other ingredients, especially sulphur and accelerators, and also by the rubber itself. the main complaint as regards plantation rubber is that it varies excessively in this respect. this matter will not be discussed here, but is only introduced in order to explain the importance of a constant rate of vulcanising to the manufacturer. plantation rubber should, therefore, be prepared so as to be as uniform as possible in this respect, and the earlier part of this book gives full details of the precautions advised, and in many cases adopted on the plantations. unfortunately, it is impossible to secure uniformity of methods among all producers, even when they are europeans, to say nothing of the native producers, who account for perhaps one-third of the output. hence the importance of branding the rubber whenever possible, so that the manufacturer may identify the rubber he purchases. if found satisfactory, he can then secure further supplies from the same estate. chapter xxii _testing of plantation rubber_ this subject may be subdivided into (_a_) tests on the raw rubber; (_b_) tests on the vulcanised rubber. the tests on the raw rubber may be carried out ( ) on the sample of sheet and crepe as received. for this purpose the rubber is cut into a strip, which is clamped between grips and gradually stretched to breaking-point. the ring testing machine can be adapted for this purpose by replacing the rollers with clamps. as the thickness of the samples to be tested will vary, it is advisable to cut the strips of such a width that the cross-sectional area of all test pieces is the same--say, sq. mm. the method is applicable to both sheet and crepe rubber. ( ) tests may be made as to the behaviour of the rubber during milling or mastication. small batches are milled under uniform conditions, preferably in an enclosed masticator such as baker and perkins supply. the power taken (as measured by the current taken to drive the motor actuating the machine) and the time are recorded. a further test may be applied to the milled or masticated rubber, to ascertain the amount and the time taken to incorporate a finely divided mineral matter, such as carbon black, zinc oxide, or one of the refined clays.[ ] the results are not very exact, and the difference in plasticity and dryness noted are usually less than found when working with full-sized machines in the factory. ( ) the rubber, either raw or masticated, may be "dissolved" in a "solvent," such as benzene, and the viscosity of the "solution" measured. generally speaking, the less viscous the solution, the more plastic the rubber. [ ] bulletin rubber growers' association, january, , p. ; august, , p. . the testing of vulcanised rubber has been treated in such detail in the recent works of whitby[ ] and de vries[ ] that a few special points only will be dealt with here. the preparation of samples for testing involves first the sheeting of the mixture of rubber, sulphur, and other ingredients, if any. the sheets may be to mm. thick. they are soft and adherent, and must be kept between layers of calico to prevent adhesion. a sheet of rubber is then built up by laying three or four sheets evenly upon one another, and pressing together to form a sheet mm. thick. the thick sheet is then roughly cut to shape and vulcanised in a mould by heating in steam under pressure. from the vulcanised sheet so obtained the rings for testing are cut ( mm. internal diameter. mm. face, and mm. thick). rings obtained in this manner will not vary in diameter or thickness (reckoned as sections of a tube), as these are controlled by the size of the punch, but will vary a little in the face, as this is controlled by the thickness of the sheet, which depends on the completeness with which the mould is closed. more recently smaller moulds have been adopted, one mould for each ring, and an annular space for moisture to develop a pressure during vulcanising and prevent porosity. the moulds are vulcanised in an oil bath, or oven of some description, in which a constant temperature is maintained. i have adopted for some years a third method. the principle is that used in the factory for making annular-shaped rubber articles, such as washers, rings, elastic bands, etc. an aluminium mandrel, mm. external diameter, is taken, and the thin rubber sheet is wrapped round this, so as to build up a tube about mm. thick, the surplus rubber is cut off, and the edge bevelled with a wet knife. the manipulation will vary somewhat with the type of compound to be treated; thus, in some cases, it is sufficient to well roll the tube with a hand roller to secure adhesion. in other cases it is better to wipe the sheet of compound with a rubber solvent previous to rolling. in the latter case time must be given for the solvent to evaporate before vulcanising. the tube is next tightly wrapped in wet cloth, and is then ready for the vulcaniser. or the tube may be enclosed in moulds which form an outer circular shell and take the place of the cloth, but for most purposes, and in particular for the rubber-sulphur mixing usually employed, it is sufficient to use cloth to obtain even and regular tubes. the tube, after vulcanising, is slipped on to a wooden mandrel and cut into rings on a lathe. of these rings the internal diameter is constant, for this is formed on the mandrel, also the face, which can be cut accurately in the lathe, but the external diameter, and consequently the thickness, may vary a little. [ ] "plantation rubber and the testing of rubber." [ ] "estate rubber." it appears, therefore, that all methods result in rings of approximately the correct size, and it is usual to check, and, if necessary, make an allowance for variation in dimensions. it is not possible to do this, even approximately, with soft rubbers, as the rubber gives under the pressure of the micrometer. no doubt a photographic method would give more accurate results, but would take too long. i have found that a very close approximation is obtainable by weighing the rings as the specific gravity of the standard rubber mix is known. it is not necessary to weigh each ring, but the whole five or ten taken for testing may be weighed together. the next point that arises is the choice of a formula for the test mix. practically all the work to date has been carried out on mixtures of rubber with to per cent. of sulphur. for some purposes--_e.g._, detecting variation in rate of cure--this mixing is satisfactory, but for other purposes it is not. nor is the behaviour of a rubber-sulphur mixing a sure guide to the behaviour of one containing other ingredients, such as litharge. thus, two samples vulcanised satisfactorily when mixed with sulphur only, but one of them gave unsatisfactory results in the presence of litharge. it has long been recognised that mineral ingredients may modify the product when vulcanised, but the modification is not necessarily uniform. consequently, tests should also be made, when practicable, with vulcanised rubber containing other ingredients in addition to sulphur. as regards physical tests on the vulcanised products, these usually involve determination of breaking load and elongation at rupture (usually recorded as final length--that is, including the original length reckoned either as unity or as units). simultaneously a load-stretch curve is recorded on an autographic attachment. the type of curve varies with ( ) state of cure, or degree to which the rubber is vulcanised; ( ) proportion of sulphur and/or other ingredients; ( ) specific nature of the rubber used. the last factor is almost negligible compared with the two former--at any rate for average quality rubber. as ( ) is kept constant for any batch of tests, or even for every test, it follows that the load-stretch curve is mainly dependent on the state of cure, and the degree of vulcanising may be measured by comparing either the elongation produced at a given load or the load produced at a given elongation. either set of figures is readily determined by measuring up the load-stretch diagram. the peculiar type of the curves has long been a subject of comment and speculation. special properties have been attributed to the "slope" or inclination of the upper and approximately straight portion of the curve. according to the writer's investigations, the "slope" is largely dependent on the degree of vulcanisation, so that it is difficult to "place" as an index of the specific nature of a rubber.[ ] moreover, it has recently been shown that the peculiar type of curve given by vulcanised rubber is the result of plotting the load against the sectional area of the unstretched test piece, whereas this area decreases progressively as the test piece stretches. if this decrease be allowed for, the curve obtained is an equilateral hyperbola.[ ] preliminary experiments with rubber compounded with large proportions of finely divided mineral matter, such as carbon black, show that the load-stretch curves obtained autographically are likewise reducible to equilateral hyperbolæ. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., october, , p. . [ ] _hatschek journal soc. chem. ind._ ; _trans._, p. . chapter xxiii _the properties of rubber_ this section, like the last, is divisible into two subsections. the first deals with raw rubber, the second with vulcanised rubber. we have already explained that, until recently, rubber was not used in the unvulcanised condition, but that the excellent physical properties of plantation rubber have made this possible. it is interesting to compare the physical properties of raw rubber with that vulcanised with sulphur. a compact sample of crepe as received from the east will give breaking strain of over kilos per sq. cm. and over per cent. elongation. when mixed with sulphur and vulcanised, a breaking strain of kilos and elongation of , per cent. are not unusual. it is possible that crepe rubber would give higher figures if it could be prepared in the form of a compact ring, as used for tests on vulcanised rubber. in any case, the figures for vulcanised rubber are much in excess of those for raw crepe rubber. it must also be remembered that a breaking strain of kilos is not permanent with vulcanised rubber, for reasons which will be explained later.[ ] to obtain a reasonably permanent vulcanised product, the vulcanisation would not be carried further than to give a figure of kilos. on the other hand, raw rubber is remarkable on account of its great permanency, although subject to some physical changes at ordinary atmospheric temperatures. tensile tests, although valuable, do not tell us all about the physical properties of a sample of rubber. abrasion tests, or tests designed to measure resistance to wear and tear, would be more valuable, but, unfortunately, these properties do not lend themselves to simple tests. there are grounds for believing that raw rubber is superior in some respects to fully vulcanised rubber, if prepared without the addition of finely divided mineral substances which exert a toughening effect. [ ] _journal soc. chem. ind._, , p. . sheet rubber gives results in some ways inferior to compact crepe rubber when subjected to physical tests. tensile strength seldom exceeds kilos, but the elongation is usually higher--up to or per cent. that is to say, it stretches more, but breaks more easily. if, however, we take into consideration the diminution in sectional area of the test piece during stretching, it will be seen that crepe and sheet rubber have compensating properties. as this matter of sectional area reduction during stretching is important, both for raw and vulcanised rubber, it may be briefly referred to here. when rubber is stretched, the volume does not appreciably alter--at any rate, as regards uncompounded rubber. hence the reduction of sectional area on stretching bears a simple relationship to the amount of stretching. if we double the length of the test piece, we halve the sectional area; if we treble the length, we reduce it to one-third, and so forth. hence, if we multiply the breaking strain by the final length (_i.e._, length at break, taking the original length = ), we obtain a figure, the "tensile product," which embodies both breaking strain and stretching capacity. in effect it gives us the breaking strain calculated on the sectional area at the _moment of rupture_ of the test piece. adopting this formula, we obtain for crepe-- _tensile _final length--i.e., _tensile strength._ elongation + ._ product._ × = and for smoked sheet × = the difference in properties between crepe and sheet may probably be attributed to the heavier rolling of the crepe; which compacts the rubber. but if the crepe is rolled too much, the tensile strength falls, and there is no increased elongation to compensate. for the same reason, crepe which has been rerolled in this country is inferior to crepe as received direct from the plantation. at the most it is permissible to unite two or three layers of thin crepe to a thicker one by a single passage through even speed rollers, if the physical properties of the original rubber are to be conserved.[ ] [ ] bulletin r.g.a., february, , p. . attempts to prepare crepe for use in a raw state, by rerolling uneven or irregular surfaced crepe in this country, only result in a rubber with inferior physical properties. nor can sheet be rerolled to give crepe of good physical properties. the power required to break down the sheet and the heat developed, even on cold rollers, are an indication of physical properties destroyed. for subsequent vulcanisation this is not a matter of importance, because the vulcanising process restores to the rubber the properties which are lost in the process of rolling and milling or mastication. raw rubber has been used to some extent for proofing purposes, as for the manufacture of material for hoods of motor-cars. in this case no attempt is made to preserve the physical properties. the rubber is masticated, mixed, taken up with solvent and spread on the cloth exactly as if it were to be vulcanised. vulcanised rubber.--we have already explained that the properties of vulcanised rubber are dependent, to some extent, on the specific nature of the raw rubber, or what de vries terms the "inner qualities." that is to say, differences appear on vulcanising which are not apparent from the tests made on the raw rubber. indeed, no investigation or analysis of the raw rubber can enable one to foresee exactly how the rubber will behave on vulcanisation. this illustrates the deficiency in our knowledge of vulcanisation. when dealing with soft, resinous, or decomposed rubbers, it is safe to anticipate a weak vulcanised product; but when we come to deal with a number of samples of "standard" crepe or sheet--_i.e._, sheet or crepe passing a certain standard of appearance--it is found that differences in vulcanising properties cannot be foreseen. this matter is, however, not so great a drawback as might be imagined, for reasonably well prepared consignments of standard crepe or sheet differ but little from one another, and the difference is mainly in the ease with which they break down, or the rate or speed with which they vulcanise, and not with the properties of the vulcanised product. many of the plantation scrap grades are equal to or nearly equal to "standard"; but some of these, as also the rubber produced by native holders, show appreciable variation, and are the source of most of the complaints which emanate from manufacturers. we shall consider in turn the different grades and the effect of the usual surface defects, such as mould, spots, etc. crepe rubber.--oil marks and tackiness are the most serious defects from the manufacturing standpoint. in the first part of this book we have shown that damage caused by the so-called oil marks is not due to the oil, but to traces of copper from the bearings of the machines. there are several metallic compounds which cause deterioration of rubber both raw and vulcanised, but copper is the most deadly, and rubber showing signs of deterioration is rightly rejected by the manufacturers. the only other defect of crepe rubber which has any bearing on its use in manufacture is mould. crepe rubber very seldom shows the ordinary surface moulds not uncommon in sheet-rubber. there are, however, microscopic growths which cause the development of coloured spots referred to in detail in the earlier part of this book. the rubber hydrocarbon itself does not appear to be affected by the moulds, but some of the serum constituents are altered, with the result that the rubber vulcanises more slowly than it otherwise would do. for this reason, crepe rubber with coloured spots may give rise to trouble in the factory. sheet rubber.--the commonest defect is mould.[ ] this is usually of a light surface type, easily brushed off, and numbers of vulcanising tests failed to trace any reduction in rate of vulcanising or other defect due to this. in spite, however, of the harmlessness of light surface moulds, they are looked upon with suspicion by the manufacturer. occasionally samples of smoked sheet are offered contaminated with a "heavy" type of mould. the sheet feels damp and "heavy" or flabby, and contains an excess of moisture; sometimes a moist exudation is noticeable on the surface, and "virgin" patches are present. such sheet vulcanises more slowly than f.a.q. samples, but does not necessarily show other defects after washing and drying. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., february, , p. ; april, , p. ; june, , p. ; november, , p. . "stretching rusty," as already explained, is due to a dry film on the surface of the sheet, and according to a recent investigation, this film consists, not of serum substances, but of a microscopic mould growth, which presumably grows on the serum substances. a sample of sheet which stretches rusty gives the rubber a "dry" appearance, and for a long time manufacturers mistook the surface film for resin. on the assumption that such rubber was "resinous" they rejected it, and to this day it is regarded as a defect, although it has no influence on the vulcanising properties of the rubber. it is hardly necessary to point out that defective appearance, such as is due to thickened edges, faint markings, bubbles, and so forth, have no effect on the vulcanising properties of the rubber. they only point to some irregularity or carelessness in preparation. the only justification for distinguishing between rubber of good and bad appearance is that the former bears the impress of careful preparation, and is therefore more likely to be uniform in rate of vulcanising. similar considerations apply to the colour of smoked sheet, which may vary from a pale yellow-brown, through various shades of red-brown to dark brown. there are various factors affecting the colour, but the buyer can see but one--viz., the "degree" of smoking--and the rubber, from his point of view, may be undersmoked or oversmoked. no doubt the degree of smoking affects the vulcanising properties, but to a less extent than was at one time imagined. in a recent paper[ ] it has been shown that the average breaking strain and rate of cure of a number of samples of smoked sheets were practically the same for light as for dark sheets. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., december, , p. . variation in physical properties.--a very large number of tests on vulcanised specimens of plantation rubber have been carried out. the rubber was almost invariably mixed with to per cent. of sulphur, and no other ingredient, and vulcanised to give the maximal breaking load. unfortunately, this determination is subject to a very appreciable experimental error, so that a large number of determinations are necessary to give a reliable figure. it is quite impracticable to make a large number of determinations in routine testing, on account of the labour involved. it is usual to make five, or possibly ten, determinations, although some investigators have been content with two. it is generally conceded that any exceptionally low figures should be ignored, as probably caused by some flaw or irregularity in the test piece. on the other hand, a study of actual determinations shows an occasional excessively high figure, and it is questioned whether this also should be left out of account. others ignore all except the highest figure, and take this to represent the true breaking strain. as a consequence, the figures published by different workers show considerable variation. de vries has analysed a large number of the figures obtained in systematic examination of estate samples, and has constructed curves to illustrate the results.[ ] it is open to question how far the variations shown are attributable to experimental error. the figures show, however, that the variation in breaking strain is relatively small, and not very different for crepe and sheet rubber. in our opinion, undue importance should not be attached to very high or exceptionally high figures for breaking strain, which are occasionally met with. provided the figure does not fall much below the average, the sample may be regarded as satisfactory. it is very seldom that any sample of first latex estate rubber does not show satisfactory figures. [ ] "estate rubber," p. . the rate of cure or rate of vulcanisation is subject to more exact measurement, whether this be based on the physical or the chemical properties of the rubber. if the testing machine be provided, as is usual, with an autographic attachment, the position of the curves traced on the recording paper gives a measurement of the rate of cure. these load-stretch curves, to which reference has already been made, take up a definite position in accordance with the physical properties; it is only the length of the curve, or the point where it terminates (which gives the breaking strain and elongation at break), which is largely fortuitous. as a measure of rate of cure we may take the actual measurements made on the record.[ ] it is convenient to measure the elongation produced by a load of kilos per sq. cm., as all fully vulcanised rings of soft rubber should give higher breaking load figures. for less cured or weaker samples a lower figure may be taken, such as kilos. we have found that when fully vulcanised to give the maximal breaking strain, the elongation at a load of kilos is in the neighbourhood of per cent. (final length per cent.). this applies to ordinary samples of estate rubber under the conditions of testing indicated above. if, however, the proportion of sulphur be considerably reduced, or mineral ingredients in a fine state of division be added to the mixing, or accelerators, whether organic or inorganic, be employed, the above relationship no longer holds. nor does it hold with regard to plantation rubber prepared in an exceptional manner, as, for instance, matured coagulum or "slab." [ ] bulletin r.g.a., june, , p. . there is a second method of determining the rate of cure--namely, by analysing a vulcanisate produced under standard conditions, and determining the amount of sulphur which has entered into chemical combination with the rubber. for this purpose the weighed sample is cut thin or creped thin, and exhaustively extracted with acetone to remove any "free" sulphur--that is, sulphur not in combination with the rubber. the sulphur remaining is then determined and calculated as a percentage of the raw rubber contained in the sample taken. this gives the so-called coefficient of vulcanisation. if we compare the coefficient with the time of cure at a constant temperature for an ordinary sample of plantation rubber, they are found to be approximately proportional, so long as the sulphur is in sufficient excess. the amount of combined sulphur is, therefore, an index of the time vulcanisation has been in progress (under standard conditions of temperature, etc.), and, therefore, the coefficient is a measure of the rate of cure. the change in position of the load-stretch curve is not directly proportional to the time of heating, and it therefore follows that it is also not directly proportional to the coefficient. for ordinary samples of crepe and sheet the relationship is, however, not very far removed from proportionality. this applies particularly to sheet rubber. the relationship is readily seen on plotting one against the other and tracing the curves. for sheet we get an almost straight line; for crepe there is some curvature.[ ] for ordinary estate samples of sheet and crepe rubber the maximal breaking strain is obtained when the coefficient reaches approximately five units, so that this corresponds to the elongation of per cent. at a load of kilos. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., june, , p. , october, , p. . either physical or chemical methods may, therefore, be used for determining the rate of cure of ordinary sheet or crepe rubber, but great care must be taken when interpreting the results obtained with rubber prepared in an unusual manner. the rate of cure may be expressed in terms of the time taken to vulcanise the rubber at a constant temperature (in our case ° c.), so as to give an elongation of per cent. at a load of kilos, or to give a coefficient of five units. the higher the figure so obtained, the slower curing the rubber. to express the results more directly as rate of cure, we have adopted the plan of taking an average crepe rubber, calling the rate of cure units, and expressing the rate of cure of other samples in these terms. thus, a sample which gave a coefficient of four only, in the time taken by the standard to give a coefficient of five, would have a rate of cure four-fifths of the standard, that is, ; or if a sample takes only two hours to give an elongation of per cent., whereas the standard takes three hours, the rate of cure of the sample will be / of standard or .[ ] [ ] _journal soc. chem. ind._, , p. . as stated, the coefficient is approximately directly proportional to the time of cure; it is also independent of the proportion of sulphur, if in fair excess, and in the presence of inert ingredients. it is also independent of the amount of mastication given to the original raw rubber, however great. on the other hand, the position of the load-stretch curve is variously modified by these factors--in some respects, therefore, the coefficient is a more reliable index. however, the coefficient is influenced by accelerators, so that here also great care must be exercised when interpreting results. for the purpose of detecting variations in rate of cure, it is best to choose a mixing which is particularly sensitive. in the first place, there must be an ample excess of sulphur; and in the second place, no ingredient should be added which will complicate the load-stretch curves, and no accelerators should be present which may possibly tend to obscure the vulcanising properties of the rubber itself. it has been found, therefore, that the best mixing to use consists of rubber with an excess of sulphur--say, in the proportion : without other ingredients. the rate of cure of a specimen of plantation rubber is attributed to the presence of certain natural vulcanising catalysts, because it is found that carefully purified raw rubber (that is, with the resinous and nitrogenous constituents removed) vulcanises very slowly or hardly at all, but that on replacing the extracted matter the rate of vulcanising is restored. the natural catalysts contained in the extracted matter are influenced to a varying degree by some of the common ingredients of manufactured rubber articles. this applies particularly to litharge (oxide of lead), to which reference has already been made. thus, acetone extraction of raw rubber to remove resinous matter has but little effect on the vulcanising properties of a mixture of rubber and sulphur. but if litharge be a constituent, it is found that acetone-extracted rubber will hardly vulcanise at all. from this, it follows that a rubber giving a low acetone extract may be found to vulcanise exceptionally slowly in a mixing containing litharge, whereas it shows no such defect when compounded with sulphur only.[ ] litharge is used to a very large extent, as it has a balancing effect in a rubber compound--that is to say, it allows of appreciable variation in vulcanising conditions, without corresponding alteration in the state of cure.[ ] [ ] _journal soc. chem. ind._, , p. . [ ] _ibid._, , p. . influence of various factors in raw rubber preparation on the "rate of cure," or "rate of vulcanisation."--as the capacity of a rubber for vulcanisation depends on the presence of small quantities of accessory substances in the serum which act as catalysts, the rate of vulcanisation (or curing) will depend on the nature and quantity of such substances present in the rubber. a very small quantity of these substances has a considerable influence on rate of vulcanising, and as the substances are difficult to isolate and identify, our knowledge of their formation and chemical nature is not as definite as is desirable. substances have been isolated having the characteristics of "simpler bases." bodies of this class are formed by putrefaction of organic matter, and can be separated in much larger quantity from coagulated latex, which has been allowed to putrefy before working up than from such which has been worked up without giving time for an appreciable amount of putrefaction to take place. further, rubber from putrefied coagulum vulcanised much faster than that ordinarily prepared, so that we are justified in connecting the putrefaction bases with the rate of vulcanisation. moreover, it has been shown that any treatment of the latex or coagulum which inhibits the development of putrefactive organisms also prevents the rubber vulcanising as fast as would otherwise have been the case.[ ] also, the crude bases isolated from fast vulcanising rubber have the power of increasing the rate of vulcanisation when added to ordinary slow vulcanising rubber.[ ] [ ] eaton and co-workers: see bulletin no. , f.m.s. department of agriculture. [ ] _journal soc. chem. ind._, , p. . on the other hand, there are one or two facts which are difficult although not impossible to fit in with theory. thus, although the putrefaction bases are very easily soluble in water and acetone, they cannot be removed by washing on the creping rollers, or by acetone extraction. this may be due to the power of colloidal substances to retain other crystalloidal substances, such as the bases, which, in consequence, cannot be washed out. a parallel case is the retention of small quantities of water soluble substances in the soil. also, the theory does not explain why rubber obtained by evaporation of latex at relatively high temperatures is fast vulcanising, although the possibility of putrefaction is excluded. as regards practical results, it follows that the rate of vulcanisation (or cure) of a sample of rubber will depend on the time allowed to elapse between the collection of the latex and treatment till the rubber is dry, as also on atmospheric conditions. thus, slow drying will result in an increased rate of cure, for it gives an opportunity for putrefactive organisms to play a part. the results will, however, be influenced by the extent to which the rubber was washed previous to hanging, and so forth. smoking is an antiseptic process and will, therefore, tend to inhibit the action of micro-organisms and produce a slower vulcanising rubber. on the other hand, sheet contains more serum than crepe, so that there is more food material for growth of micro-organisms. the net result is to give a rubber (sheet) which usually vulcanises a little faster than crepe. among other factors controlling the rate of cure, special mention should be made of the nature and amount of coagulants. weak "organic" acids, such as acetic, lactic, tartaric, etc., used in the minimal proportions ( to , of standardised latex in the case of acetic acid), give the fastest vulcanising rubber; "strong" mineral acids, such as sulphuric acid, even when used in the minimal proportions ( to , ), yield slower vulcanising rubber. acid salts, such as alum, are intermediate in effect. increased proportions of coagulant cause a reduction in rate of vulcanising with all coagulants, and the effect is least noticeable in crepe rubber, intermediate in sheet rubber, and most pronounced in "slab" rubber (discussed below).[ ] [ ] bulletin r.g.a., july, , p. ; september, , p. ; november, , p. ; october, , p. ; march, , p. . other types of plantation rubber.--we have up to now confined our attention to ordinary thin air-dried crepe and smoked sheet, as almost all plantation rubber is now marketed in one or other of these two forms. there are, however, other types, to which reference has been made. of these, the most important is the thick blanket crepe, made chiefly in ceylon by rolling together thin crepe, which has been artificially dried (colombo drier or vacuum drier). the heat of the driers causes a surface stickiness, which is got rid of by rolling several thin layers together to give one thick one. this rubber vulcanises at about the same rate as ordinary thin crepe, for the relatively high temperature of drying does not appear to influence the rate of cure. the rubber is generally softer than air-dried crepe, and is easily "let down" in naphtha; it is, therefore, suitable for some solution work. generally speaking, the properties of blanket crepe do not differ materially from ordinary thin crepe. another type of rubber seldom met with is matured slab or crepe, prepared from it. this type of rubber is being made in small quantities on one or two estates, who supply direct to the manufacturer. the method of preparation has already been described. it is unsuitable for sale in the open market, as it contains a variable amount of moisture, has the various surface defects such as slime, mould, and "rust," and there is the additional disadvantage that it is not easy to judge of its cleanliness or freedom from coarse impurities by inspection. if the slab rubber be creped and air-dried on the spot, the product is of satisfactory appearance, except that it is of low colour and may be streaked. as the crepe so produced vulcanises almost as fast as the original slab, the crepe embodies all the advantages of a fast curing rubber with few of the disadvantages of the slab itself. we have made experiments from time to time, and found that by a judicious use of sodium bisulphite it is possible to produce a fast vulcanising crepe rubber sufficiently even and light in colour to satisfy the standards committee. a fast curing raw rubber is not necessarily a desirable type for all manufacturing purposes. in the vulcanising of large masses of rubber, a slower rather than a faster vulcanising rubber may be desirable, so as to give ample time for the heat to penetrate and spread evenly throughout the mass. but for many purposes a fast curing rubber enables a larger output to be obtained, so that artificial organic accelerators are coming more and more into use. the addition of such accelerators might be obviated, if a suitable fast curing rubber were available, but it is essential that such rubber should be uniform. it is just in this respect that slab rubber or crepe made therefrom is found to be deficient.[ ] the rate of cure depends on the functions of wild bacteria, which are naturally sensitive to changes of conditions, such as temperature, etc. the coagulated rubber depends on chance circumstances for infection, and, as a natural result, the activity of the bacteria and the nature and amounts of active vulcanising agent produced will vary and be difficult to control. consequently, the rate of cure of slab rubber shows considerably greater variation than ordinary crepe or sheet.[ ] this, in our opinion, is the main difficulty of utilising "slab," or crepe prepared from it. experience in other industries, using micro-organisms, has shown that the only method of control has been to replace the wild growths by cultures of some particular strain, as, for instance, in yeasts for brewing. to control the rate of cure of slab, it might be possible to use a special culture for the purpose. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., january, , p. ; january, , p. . [ ] _ibid._, january, , p. . other less usual methods of preparation, referred to in the earlier part of this book, do not call for particular mention, as the properties of the rubber do not differ much from ordinary sheet or crepe. it is mainly a matter of variation in rate of cure. this short account of the vulcanising properties of plantation rubber would not be complete without a reference to fine hard para, the premier rubber of the amazon. this rubber has come to be regarded as the standard high-grade product with which plantation rubber may be compared, and many manufacturers are still of the opinion that it is unsurpassed by any plantation product. yet, when subjected to the ordinary vulcanising tests, we find that samples of fine hard para give figures very similar to average plantation rubber; indeed, it is not difficult to find specimens of plantation rubber which give appreciably higher figures on testing. it is claimed, however, that fine para is more uniform than plantation rubber, and can be relied on always to give the same results. yet tests on a series of fine hard para specimens gave variations in rate of cure similar to those found for plantation. some figures were published, which tended to show that the variation was smaller for fine para, but it turned out that each of the samples taken for examination consisted actually of a number of slices cut from different balls, so that greater uniformity was not unexpected.[ ] the superiority of fine para is, therefore, somewhat of a mystery. it is probable that some manufacturers prefer to use it because they feel safer with it, and know actually how it will behave from long experience. in one respect fine para is possibly superior to most plantation rubber--that is, for the preparation of raw rubber solution for sticking the seams of waterproof garments, and for similar purposes. the method of preparation may well influence the strength of the raw rubber when used for this purpose. plantation rubber has been prepared in the same manner as brazilian para, in particular on an estate in java. the product resembles brazilian para in appearance. vulcanising tests gave satisfactory figures, but, as already stated, this would not serve to show that the rubber was equal to brazilian para from the manufacturer's standpoint. [ ] bulletin r.g.a., september, , p. . index acetic acid, , acid, acetic, , --, carbonic, gas, --, formic, --, hydrochloric, --, hydrofluoric, --, mixing, with latex, --, nitric, --, oxalic, --, pyroligneous, --, quantity of, --, sulphuric, , acids for coagulation, effect of, on rate of cure, --, quantities necessary for modern requirements, air-drying, aids to normal, --, of crepe, rate of, --, progress of, alcohol, coagulation with, alum, coagulation with, anti-coagulant for transport, anti-coagulants, artificial driers, , ash on sheet, assembling cases for shipment, bags for packing, bakau, bales for packing, bark in crepe, -- -- shavings, , -- -- sheet, bases in vulcanised rubber, basket plants, blanket crepe, properties of, blemishes of surface, blister in sheet, block rubber, , breaking down of rubber, -- load of test piece, bubbles in sheet, buildings, bulking latex, byrne curing process, calendered sheet, carbon dioxide, carbonic acid gas, cases, choice of, for packing, catalysts, natural, in rubber, --, vulcanising, centralisation of factories, chinese vinegar, chinosol, "chula" drier, clippings, sheet, coagulant, --, choice of, , --, quantity of, coagulation, , -- centres, --, premature, --, spontaneous, -- with alcohol, -- -- sugars, -- -- various salts, coagulum, soft, --, spongy undersurface of, --, tearing of, --, transport of, , --, working of, coefficient of vulcanisation, collecting latex, -- pails, collection, advantages of early, combustion, rate of, in smoke house, compound crepes, -- -- no. , -- -- no. , contents of cases, weight of, copper salts, cause of tackiness, cotton fibre in crepe, creosotic substances, crepe, air-drying of, --, bark in, --, bearing of defects in, on manufacture, --, bisulphite streaks in, --, colour of fine, --, dirt in, --, dirty edges of, --, drying houses for, --, fibre in, --, general style of finish, --, grades of, --, greenish, tacky streaks in, --, iron stains on, crepe, no. fine pale, --, oil marks on, --, oxidation streaks in, --, rate of air-drying of, --, rust stains on, --, smoked, --, surface moulds on, --, weight increased in drying house, --, yellow latex streaks in, -- rubber, defects in, -- --, lower grades of, -- --, preparation of, -- --, tensile strength of, cups, cleaning, --, water in, cure, rate of, curing, da costa process, decentralisation of factories, defects of sheet, infrequent, derry process, designs and "layout" of tanks, dirt in sheet, discoloration of rubber, dark, drains for tanks, drier, colombo commercial company's, driers, artificial--for crepe rubber, -- --, for sheet rubber, --, "chula," --, vacuum, drum furnaces, horizontal, drying chamber, floor of, -- --, arrangements of, -- houses for crepe, -- --, hot air, -- --, ventilation of, -- --, windows of, -- of rubber, --, period of, --, rate of, effect on rate of cure, earth scrap, -- --, collection of, edges, thickened, after rolling, elongation of test piece, ends, thickened, after rolling, engines, --, position of, factories, --, centralisation of, --, decentralisation of, --, number of floors, , --, ventilation of, --, windows of, factory buildings, situation of, --, choosing site for, --, ideal arrangement of, -- operation, fibre cotton, in crepe, field maintenance, fine hard para properties of, first latex and other grades, percentage of, floor of drying chamber, -- factories, -- furnace room, formalin, formic acid, , formula for test mix, freezing (coagulation) process, fuel, consumption of, fuels for smoking, furnace room, floor of, -- --, petaling type of, furnaces, horizontal drum, --, "pot," germination, grades, number of, grading, grafting, grass squares, greasiness before smoking, -- of surface, grit in crepe, hand rolling sheets, hevea brasiliensis, hot air drying houses, hydrochloric acid, hydrofluoric acid, ilcken-down process, instruments, method of using, --, recording, --, standardising, lallang, eradication of, latex, bulking, -- cups, choice of, --, decomposition of, in the field, --, first and other grades, percentage of, --, first quality, --, mixing acid with, --, mixing sodium bisulphite solution with, --, preliminary treatment of, --, reception of, at the store, --, standard, --, standardisation of, , --, straining, --, transport of, light, importance of, in factories, litharge, load stretch curve, , , , low grade rubbers, fibrous matter in, lower grade rubber, care in manufacture, lubrication of machines, lump rubber, naturally coagulated, machinery, machines, access to, --, adequacy of, --, arrangement of, --, lubrication of, --, position of, --, sheeting, --, speed of, mangrove, marking sheets, metrolac, , michie-golledge system, mildew on surface, milky residue on serum, mixing acid with latex, moist glaze of surface, mould on surface, moulds, surface, on crepe, natural catalysts, nitric acid, nurseries, overcured, overvulcanised, oxalic acid, oxidation, prevention of, --, variation due to, packing, --, bags for, --, bales for, --, cases, choice of, --, folding for, --, methods of, --, rooms, pale crepe, no. fine, --, rubber, former methods of making, --, sheet, patches, , --, virgin, payment by result, perished rubber, physical properties of rubber, variation of, pits for smoke houses, pitting of surface, plantation rubber, testing of, planting, plasticising of rubber, plasticity of plantation rubber, "pot" furnaces, power units, premature coagulation, preparation, special methods of, pyroligneous acid, racks, rate of cure, raw rubber, physical properties of, -- --, tests on, -- --, uses of, recommendations, rubber growers' association, recording instruments, ribbing of sheet, rolling, rolls, grooving of, -- running hot, -- -- "free," roof of smoke house, rubber, drying of, rubber growers' association, recommendations, rubber, properties of, --, smoking, rust, cause of, -- on sheet, --, treatment to prevent, scrap washers, , screw plug, unsatisfactory, seed at stake, seeds, selection, senang folder, serum, milky residue on, sheet, ash on, --, bark in, --, bearing of defects on, in manufacture, --, blisters in, --, bubbles in, --, clippings, , --, creases in, --, dirt in, --, "dog ears," --, grades of, --, infrequent defects of, --, pale, --, ribbing of, -- rubber, artificial driers for, -- --, defects in, -- --, preparation of, sheet rubber, rolling and marking of, -- --, tensile strength of, --, rust on, --, splinters in, --, stickiness in, --, style of, --, support marks on, --, surface pattern of, --, thick ends of, sheeting machines, sheets, mis-shapen, --, thickened patches in, --, torn, --, unevenness of appearance, short weights, skimming, skimmings, slab rubber, -- --, properties of, slope, smoke curing of sheet rubber, -- --, temperature of, --, houses, -- --, barker patent, -- --, devon type, -- --, iron stoves for, -- --, jackson type, -- -- of brick, -- -- rate of combustion in, -- --, roof of, -- --, "third mile" type, -- --, types of, smoked crepe, -- sheets, colour of, -- water for coagulation, smoking, effect on rate of cure, --, greasiness before, -- rubber, smooth rolling of sheets, sodium bisulphite, , -- --, abuse of, -- --, care of, -- --, deterioration of, -- --, evaluation of, -- --, making a solution of, -- --, quantity of, -- --, residual traces of, -- -- solution, mixing, with latex, -- sulphite, -- --, deterioration of, -- --, evaluation of, sorting, , -- rooms, spewing, splinters in sheet, spontaneous coagulation, spot disease, -- -- in sheet rubber, spots, , --, virgin, standard latex, -- sheet, standardising instruments, stickiness in sheet, stock solution, method of making, storage of rubber, , stoves, iron, for smoke houses, straining latex, streaks, stumps, sugars, coagulation with, sulphuric acid, , -- --, buying, -- --, formula for use of, -- --, storing, sun-drying sheet rubber, support marks on sheet, surface blotches, coloured, --, dull or black, -- pattern of sheet, tackiness, cause of, --, copper salts cause of, -- in rubber, tanks, --, care of, --, designs and "layout," --, drains for, --, installation of, --, situation of, --, water-supply for, tapping, --, former systems of, -- knives, -- systems, tartaric acid, tensile product, test mix, formula for, -- pieces, making of, testing of plantation rubber, thick ends of sheet, thinning, timber for smoking, tool sheds, transport, -- by coolie, -- of coagulum, , -- of latex, trays, treatment of rubber in the factory, -- to prevent rust, tree scrap, , -- --, care of, -- --, oxidation of, trees per acre, trenches, silt catchment, uniformity, -- in colour, lack of, vacuum driers, variation due to oxidation, vegetable extracts, ventilation of drying houses, -- factories, verandas, virgin spots, viscosity of rubber solution, vulcanisation, --, rate of, vulcanised rubber, -- --, tests on, vulcanising, -- catalysts, --, "heat," washers, scrap, , washings, water-supply for tanks, weeding, clean, weights, "short," wickham process, windows of drying houses, -- factories, working of rubber, yields, , oxy-acetylene welding and cutting electric, forge and thermit welding together with related methods and materials used in metal working and the oxygen process for removal of carbon by harold p. manly preface in the preparation of this work, the object has been to cover not only the several processes of welding, but also those other processes which are so closely allied in method and results as to make them a part of the whole subject of joining metal to metal with the aid of heat. the workman who wishes to handle his trade from start to finish finds that it is necessary to become familiar with certain other operations which precede or follow the actual joining of the metal parts, the purpose of these operations being to add or retain certain desirable qualities in the materials being handled. for this reason the following subjects have been included: annealing, tempering, hardening, heat treatment and the restoration of steel. in order that the user may understand the underlying principles and the materials employed in this work, much practical information is given on the uses and characteristics of the various metals; on the production, handling and use of the gases and other materials which are a part of the equipment; and on the tools and accessories for the production and handling of these materials. an examination will show that the greatest usefulness of this book lies in the fact that all necessary information and data has been included in one volume, making it possible for the workman to use one source for securing a knowledge of both principle and practice, preparation and finishing of the work, and both large and small repair work as well as manufacturing methods used in metal working. an effort has been made to eliminate all matter which is not of direct usefulness in practical work, while including all that those engaged in this trade find necessary. to this end, the descriptions have been limited to those methods and accessories which are found in actual use today. for the same reason, the work includes the application of the rules laid down by the insurance underwriters which govern this work as well as instructions for the proper care and handling of the generators, torches and materials found in the shop. special attention has been given to definite directions for handling the different metals and alloys which must be handled. the instructions have been arranged to form rules which are placed in the order of their use during the work described and the work has been subdivided in such a way that it will be found possible to secure information on any one point desired without the necessity of spending time in other fields. the facts which the expert welder and metalworker finds it most necessary to have readily available have been secured, and prepared especially for this work, and those of most general use have been combined with the chapter on welding practice to which they apply. the size of this volume has been kept as small as possible, but an examination of the alphabetical index will show that the range of subjects and details covered is complete in all respects. this has been accomplished through careful classification of the contents and the elimination of all repetition and all theoretical, historical and similar matter that is not absolutely necessary. free use has been made of the information given by those manufacturers who are recognized as the leaders in their respective fields, thus insuring that the work is thoroughly practical and that it represents present day methods and practice. the author. contents chapter i metals and alloys--heat treatment:--the use and characteristics of the industrial alloys and metal elements--annealing, hardening, tempering and case hardening of steel chapter ii welding materials:--production, handling and use of the gases, oxygen and acetylene--welding rods--fluxes--supplies and fixtures chapter iii acetylene generators:--generator requirements and types--construction--care and operation of generators. chapter iv welding instruments:--tank and regulating valves and gauges--high, low and medium pressure torches--cutting torches--acetylene-air torches chapter v oxy-acetylene welding practice:--preparation of work--torch practice-- control of the flame--welding various metals and alloys--tables of information required in welding operations chapter vi electric welding:--resistance method--butt, spot and lap welding--troubles and remedies--electric arc welding chapter vii hand forging and welding:--blacksmithing, forging and bending--forge welding methods chapter viii soldering, brazing and thermit welding:--soldering materials and practice-- brazing--thermit welding chapter ix oxygen process for removal of carbon index oxy-acetylene welding and cutting, electric and thermit welding chapter i metals and their alloys--heat treatment the metals _iron._--iron, in its pure state, is a soft, white, easily worked metal. it is the most important of all the metallic elements, and is, next to aluminum, the commonest metal found in the earth. mechanically speaking, we have three kinds of iron: wrought iron, cast iron and steel. wrought iron is very nearly pure iron; cast iron contains carbon and silicon, also chemical impurities; and steel contains a definite proportion of carbon, but in smaller quantities than cast iron. pure iron is never obtained commercially, the metal always being mixed with various proportions of carbon, silicon, sulphur, phosphorus, and other elements, making it more or less suitable for different purposes. iron is magnetic to the extent that it is attracted by magnets, but it does not retain magnetism itself, as does steel. iron forms, with other elements, many important combinations, such as its alloys, oxides, and sulphates. [illustration: figure .--section through a blast furnace] _cast iron._--metallic iron is separated from iron ore in the blast furnace (figure ), and when allowed to run into moulds is called cast iron. this form is used for engine cylinders and pistons, for brackets, covers, housings and at any point where its brittleness is not objectionable. good cast iron breaks with a gray fracture, is free from blowholes or roughness, and is easily machined, drilled, etc. cast iron is slightly lighter than steel, melts at about , degrees in practice, is about one-eighth as good an electrical conductor as copper and has a tensile strength of , to , pounds per square inch. its compressive strength, or resistance to crushing, is very great. it has excellent wearing qualities and is not easily warped and deformed by heat. chilled iron is cast into a metal mould so that the outside is cooled quickly, making the surface very hard and difficult to cut and giving great resistance to wear. it is used for making cheap gear wheels and parts that must withstand surface friction. _malleable cast iron._--this is often called simply malleable iron. it is a form of cast iron obtained by removing much of the carbon from cast iron, making it softer and less brittle. it has a tensile strength of , to , pounds per square inch, is easily machined, will stand a small amount of bending at a low red heat and is used chiefly in making brackets, fittings and supports where low cost is of considerable importance. it is often used in cheap constructions in place of steel forgings. the greatest strength of a malleable casting, like a steel forging, is in the surface, therefore but little machining should be done. _wrought iron._--this grade is made by treating the cast iron to remove almost all of the carbon, silicon, phosphorus, sulphur, manganese and other impurities. this process leaves a small amount of the slag from the ore mixed with the wrought iron. wrought iron is used for making bars to be machined into various parts. if drawn through the rolls at the mill once, while being made, it is called "muck bar;" if rolled twice, it is called "merchant bar" (the commonest kind), and a still better grade is made by rolling a third time. wrought iron is being gradually replaced in use by mild rolled steels. wrought iron is slightly heavier than cast iron, is a much better electrical conductor than either cast iron or steel, has a tensile strength of , to , pounds per square inch and costs slightly more than steel. unlike either steel or cast iron, wrought iron does not harden when cooled suddenly from a red heat. _grades of irons._--the mechanical properties of cast iron differ greatly according to the amount of other materials it contains. the most important of these contained elements is carbon, which is present to a degree varying from to - / per cent. when iron containing much carbon is quickly cooled and then broken, the fracture is nearly white in color and the metal is found to be hard and brittle. when the iron is slowly cooled and then broken the fracture is gray and the iron is more malleable and less brittle. if cast iron contains sulphur or phosphorus, it will show a white fracture regardless of the rapidity of cooling, being brittle and less desirable for general work. _steel._--steel is composed of extremely minute particles of iron and carbon, forming a network of layers and bands. this carbon is a smaller proportion of the metal than found in cast iron, the percentage being from / to - / per cent. carbon steel is specified according to the number of "points" of carbon, a point being one one-hundredth of one per cent of the weight of the steel. steel may contain anywhere from to points, which is equivalent to saying, anywhere from / to - / per cent, as above. a -point steel would contain / of one per cent or / of one per cent of carbon by weight. the percentage of carbon determines the hardness of the steel, also many other qualities, and its suitability for various kinds of work. the more carbon contained in the steel, the harder the metal will be, and, of course, its brittleness increases with the hardness. the smaller the grains or particles of iron which are separated by the carbon, the stronger the steel will be, and the control of the size of these particles is the object of the science of heat treatment. in addition to the carbon, steel may contain the following: silicon, which increases the hardness, brittleness, strength and difficulty of working if from to per cent is present. phosphorus, which hardens and weakens the metal but makes it easier to cast. three-tenths per cent of phosphorus serves as a hardening agent and may be present in good steel if the percentage of carbon is low. more than this weakens the metal. sulphur, which tends to make the metal hard and filled with small holes. manganese, which makes the steel so hard and tough that it can with difficulty be cut with steel tools. its hardness is not lessened by annealing, and it has great tensile strength. alloy steel has a varying but small percentage of other elements mixed with it to give certain desired qualities. silicon steel and manganese steel are sometimes classed as alloy steels. this subject is taken up in the latter part of this chapter under _alloys_, where the various combinations and their characteristics are given consideration. steel has a tensile strength varying from , to , pounds per square inch, depending on the carbon percentage and the other alloys present, as well as upon the texture of the grain. steel is heavier than cast iron and weighs about the same as wrought iron. it is about one-ninth as good a conductor of electricity as copper. steel is made from cast iron by three principal processes: the crucible, bessemer and open hearth. _crucible steel_ is made by placing pieces of iron in a clay or graphite crucible, mixed with charcoal and a small amount of any desired alloy. the crucible is then heated with coal, oil or gas fires until the iron melts, and, by absorbing the desired elements and giving up or changing its percentage of carbon, becomes steel. the molten steel is then poured from the crucible into moulds or bars for use. crucible steel may also be made by placing crude steel in the crucibles in place of the iron. this last method gives the finest grade of metal and the crucible process in general gives the best grades of steel for mechanical use. [illustration: figure .--a bessemer converter] _bessemer steel_ is made by heating iron until all the undesirable elements are burned out by air blasts which furnish the necessary oxygen. the iron is placed in a large retort called a converter, being poured, while at a melting heat, directly from the blast furnace into the converter. while the iron in the converter is molten, blasts of air are forced through the liquid, making it still hotter and burning out the impurities together with the carbon and manganese. these two elements are then restored to the iron by adding spiegeleisen (an alloy of iron, carbon and manganese). a converter holds from to tons of metal and requires about minutes to finish a charge. this makes the cheapest steel. [illustration: figure .--an open hearth furnace] _open hearth steel_ is made by placing the molten iron in a receptacle while currents of air pass over it, this air having itself been highly heated by just passing over white hot brick (figure. ). open hearth steel is considered more uniform and reliable than bessemer, and is used for springs, bar steel, tool steel, steel plates, etc. _aluminum_ is one of the commonest industrial metals. it is used for gear cases, engine crank cases, covers, fittings, and wherever lightness and moderate strength are desirable. aluminum is about one-third the weight of iron and about the same weight as glass and porcelain; it is a good electrical conductor (about one-half as good as copper); is fairly strong itself and gives great strength to other metals when alloyed with them. one of the greatest advantages of aluminum is that it will not rust or corrode under ordinary conditions. the granular formation of aluminum makes its strength very unreliable and it is too soft to resist wear. _copper_ is one of the most important metals used in the trades, and the best commercial conductor of electricity, being exceeded in this respect only by silver, which is but slightly better. copper is very malleable and ductile when cold, and in this state may be easily worked under the hammer. working in this way makes the copper stronger and harder, but less ductile. copper is not affected by air, but acids cause the formation of a green deposit called verdigris. copper is one of the best conductors of heat, as well as electricity, being used for kettles, boilers, stills and wherever this quality is desirable. copper is also used in alloys with other metals, forming an important part of brass, bronze, german silver, bell metal and gun metal. it is about one-eighth heavier than steel and has a tensile strength of about , to , pounds per square inch. _lead._--the peculiar properties of lead, and especially its quality of showing but little action or chemical change in the presence of other elements, makes it valuable under certain conditions of use. its principal use is in pipes for water and gas, coverings for roofs and linings for vats and tanks. it is also used to coat sheet iron for similar uses and as an important part of ordinary solder. lead is the softest and weakest of all the commercial metals, being very pliable and inelastic. it should be remembered that lead and all its compounds are poisonous when received into the system. lead is more than one-third heavier than steel, has a tensile strength of only about , pounds per square inch, and is only about one-tenth as good a conductor of electricity as copper. _zinc._--this is a bluish-white metal of crystalline form. it is brittle at ordinary temperatures and becomes malleable at about to degrees fahrenheit, but beyond this point becomes even more brittle than at ordinary temperatures. zinc is practically unaffected by air or moisture through becoming covered with one of its own compounds which immediately resists further action. zinc melts at low temperatures, and when heated beyond the melting point gives off very poisonous fumes. the principal use of zinc is as an alloy with other metals to form brass, bronze, german silver and bearing metals. it is also used to cover the surface of steel and iron plates, the plates being then called galvanized. zinc weighs slightly less than steel, has a tensile strength of , pounds per square inch, and is not quite half as good as copper in conducting electricity. _tin_ resembles silver in color and luster. tin is ductile and malleable and slightly crystalline in form, almost as heavy as steel, and has a tensile strength of , pounds per square inch. the principal use of tin is for protective platings on household utensils and in wrappings of tin-foil. tin forms an important part of many alloys such as babbitt, britannia metal, bronze, gun metal and bearing metals. _nickel_ is important in mechanics because of its combinations with other metals as alloys. pure nickel is grayish-white, malleable, ductile and tenacious. it weighs almost as much as steel and, next to manganese, is the hardest of metals. nickel is one of the three magnetic metals, the others being iron and cobalt. the commonest alloy containing nickel is german silver, although one of its most important alloys is found in nickel steel. nickel is about ten per cent heavier than steel, and has a tensile strength of , pounds per square inch. _platinum._--this metal is valuable for two reasons: it is not affected by the air or moisture or any ordinary acid or salt, and in addition to this property it melts only at the highest temperatures. it is a fairly good electrical conductor, being better than iron or steel. it is nearly three times as heavy as steel and its tensile strength is , pounds per square inch. alloys an alloy is formed by the union of a metal with some other material, either metal or non-metallic, this union being composed of two or more elements and usually brought about by heating the substances together until they melt and unite. metals are alloyed with materials which have been found to give to the metal certain characteristics which are desired according to the use the metal will be put to. the alloys of metals are, almost without exception, more important from an industrial standpoint than the metals themselves. there are innumerable possible combinations, the most useful of which are here classed under the head of the principal metal entering into their composition. _steel._--steel may be alloyed with almost any of the metals or elements, the combinations that have proven valuable numbering more than a score. the principal ones are given in alphabetical order, as follows: aluminum is added to steel in very small amounts for the purpose of preventing blow holes in castings. boron increases the density and toughness of the metal. bronze, added by alloying copper, tin and iron, is used for gun metal. carbon has already been considered under the head of steel in the section devoted to the metals. carbon, while increasing the strength and hardness, decreases the ease of forging and bending and decreases the magnetism and electrical conductivity. high carbon steel can be welded only with difficulty. when the percentage of carbon is low, the steel is called "low carbon" or "mild" steel. this is used for rods and shafts, and called "machine" steel. when the carbon percentage is high, the steel is called "high carbon" steel, and it is used in the shop as tool steel. one-tenth per cent of carbon gives steel a tensile strength of , to , pounds per square inch; two-tenths per cent gives from , to , ; four-tenths per cent gives , to , , and six-tenths per cent gives , to , . chromium forms chrome steel, and with the further addition of nickel is called chrome nickel steel. this increases the hardness to a high degree and adds strength without much decrease in ductility. chrome steels are used for high-speed cutting tools, armor plate, files, springs, safes, dies, etc. manganese has been mentioned under _steel_. its alloy is much used for high-speed cutting tools, the steel hardening when cooled in the air and being called self-hardening. molybdenum is used to increase the hardness to a high degree and makes the steel suitable for high-speed cutting and gives it self-hardening properties. nickel, with which is often combined chromium, increases the strength, springiness and toughness and helps to prevent corrosion. silicon has already been described. it suits the metal for use in high-speed tools. silver added to steel has many of the properties of nickel. tungsten increases the hardness without making the steel brittle. this makes the steel well suited for gas engine valves as it resists corrosion and pitting. chromium and manganese are often used in combination with tungsten when high-speed cutting tools are made. vanadium as an alloy increases the elastic limit, making the steel stronger, tougher and harder. it also makes the steel able to stand much bending and vibration. _copper._--the principal copper alloys include brass, bronze, german silver and gun metal. brass is composed of approximately one-third zinc and two-thirds copper. it is used for bearings and bushings where the speeds are slow and the loads rather heavy for the bearing size. it also finds use in washers, collars and forms of brackets where the metal should be non-magnetic, also for many highly finished parts. brass is about one-third as good an electrical conductor as copper, is slightly heavier than steel and has a tensile strength of , pounds when cast and about , to , pounds when drawn into wire. bronze is composed of copper and tin in various proportions, according to the use to which it is to be put. there will always be from six-tenths to nine-tenths of copper in the mixture. bronze is used for bearings, bushings, thrust washers, brackets and gear wheels. it is heavier than steel, about / as good an electrical conductor as pure copper and has a tensile strength of , to , pounds. aluminum bronze, composed of copper, zinc and aluminum has high tensile strength combined with ductility and is used for parts requiring this combination. bearing bronze is a variable material, its composition and proportion depending on the maker and the use for which it is designed. it usually contains from to per cent of copper combined with one or more elements, such as tin, zinc, antimony and lead. white metal is one form of bearing bronze containing over per cent of zinc together with copper, tin, antimony and lead. another form is made with nearly per cent of tin combined with copper and antimony. gun metal bronze is made from per cent copper with per cent of tin and is used for heavy bearings, brackets and highly finished parts. phosphor bronze is used for very strong castings and bearings. it is similar to gun metal bronze, except that about - / per cent of phosphorus has been added. manganese bronze contains about per cent of manganese and is used for parts requiring great strength while being free from corrosion. german silver is made from per cent of copper with per cent each of zinc and nickel. its high electrical resistance makes it valuable for regulating devices and rheostats. _tin_ is the principal part of _babbitt_ and _solder_. a commonly used babbitt is composed of per cent tin, per cent antimony and per cent of copper. a grade suitable for repairing is made from per cent of lead and per cent antimony. this last formula should not be used for particular work or heavy loads, being more suitable for spacers. innumerable proportions of metals are marketed under the name of babbitt. solder is made from per cent tin and per cent lead, this grade being called "half-and-half." hard solder is made from two-thirds tin and one-third lead. aluminum forms many different alloys, giving increased strength to whatever metal it unites with. aluminum brass is composed of approximately per cent copper, per cent zinc and per cent aluminum. it forms a metal with high tensile strength while being ductile and malleable. aluminum zinc is suitable for castings which must be stiff and hard. nickel aluminum has a tensile strength of , pounds per square inch. magnalium is a silver-white alloy of aluminum with from to per cent of magnesium, forming a metal even lighter than aluminum and strong enough to be used in making high-speed gasoline engines. heat treatment of steel the processes of heat treatment are designed to suit the steel for various purposes by changing the size of the grain in the metal, therefore the strength; and by altering the chemical composition of the alloys in the metal to give it different physical properties. heat treatment, as applied in ordinary shop work, includes the three processes of annealing, hardening and tempering, each designed to accomplish a certain definite result. all of these processes require that the metal treated be gradually brought to a certain predetermined degree of heat which shall be uniform throughout the piece being handled and, from this point, cooled according to certain rules, the selection of which forms the difference in the three methods. _annealing._--this is the process which relieves all internal strains and distortion in the metal and softens it so that it may more easily be cut, machined or bent to the required form. in some cases annealing is used only to relieve the strains, this being the case after forging or welding operations have been performed. in other cases it is only desired to soften the metal sufficiently that it may be handled easily. in some cases both of these things must be accomplished, as after a piece has been forged and must be machined. no matter what the object, the procedure is the same. the steel to be annealed must first be heated to a dull red. this heating should be done slowly so that all parts of the piece have time to reach the same temperature at very nearly the same time. the piece may be heated in the forge, but a much better way is to heat in an oven or furnace of some type where the work is protected against air currents, either hot or cold, and is also protected against the direct action of the fire. [illustration: figure .--a gaspipe annealing oven] probably the simplest of all ovens for small tools is made by placing a piece of ordinary gas pipe in the fire (figure ), and heating until the inside of the pipe is bright red. parts placed in this pipe, after one end has been closed, may be brought to the desired heat without danger of cooling draughts or chemical change from the action of the fire. more elaborate ovens may be bought which use gas, fuel oils or coal to produce the heat and in which the work may be placed on trays so that the fire will not strike directly on the steel being treated. if the work is not very important, it may be withdrawn from the fire or oven, after heating to the desired point, and allowed to cool in the air until all traces of red have disappeared when held in a dark place. the work should be held where it is reasonably free from cold air currents. if, upon touching a pine stick to the piece being annealed, the wood does not smoke, the work may then be cooled in water. better annealing is secured and harder metal may be annealed if the cooling is extended over a number of hours by placing the work in a bed of non-heat-conducting material, such as ashes, charred bone, asbestos fibre, lime, sand or fire clay. it should be well covered with the heat retaining material and allowed to remain until cool. cooling may be accomplished by allowing the fire in an oven or furnace to die down and go out, leaving the work inside the oven with all openings closed. the greater the time taken for gradual cooling from the red heat, the more perfect will be the results of the annealing. while steel is annealed by slow cooling, copper or brass is annealed by bringing to a low red heat and quickly plunging into cold water. _hardening._--steel is hardened by bringing to a proper temperature, slowly and evenly as for annealing, and then cooling more or less quickly, according to the grade of steel being handled. the degree of hardening is determined by the kind of steel, the temperature from which the metal is cooled and the temperature and nature of the bath into which it is plunged for cooling. steel to be hardened is often heated in the fire until at some heat around to degrees is reached, then placed in a heating bath of molten lead, heated mercury, fused cyanate of potassium, etc., the heating bath itself being kept at the proper temperature by fires acting on it. while these baths have the advantage of heating the metal evenly and to exactly the temperature desired throughout without any part becoming over or under heated, their disadvantages consist of the fact that their materials and the fumes are poisonous in most all cases, and if not poisonous, are extremely disagreeable. the degree of heat that a piece of steel must be brought to in order that it may be hardened depends on the percentage of carbon in the steel. the greater the percentage of carbon, the lower the heat necessary to harden. [illustration: figure .--cooling the test bar for hardening] to find the proper heat from which any steel must be cooled, a simple test may be carried out provided a sample of the steel, about six inches long can be secured. one end of this test bar should be heated almost to its melting point, and held at this heat until the other end just turns red. now cool the piece in water by plunging it so that both ends enter at the same time (figure ), that is, hold it parallel with the surface of the water when plunged in. this serves the purpose of cooling each point along the bar from a different heat. when it has cooled in the water remove the piece and break it at short intervals, about / inch, along its length. the point along the test bar which was cooled from the best possible temperature will show a very fine smooth grain and the piece cannot be cut by a file at this point. it will be necessary to remember the exact color of that point when taken from the fire, making another test if necessary, and heat all pieces of this same steel to this heat. it will be necessary to have the cooling bath always at the same temperature, or the results cannot be alike. while steel to be hardened is usually cooled in water, many other liquids may be used. if cooled in strong brine, the heat will be extracted much quicker, and the degree of hardness will be greater. a still greater degree of hardness is secured by cooling in a bath of mercury. care should be used with the mercury bath, as the fumes that arise are poisonous. should toughness be desired, without extreme hardness, the steel may be cooled in a bath of lard oil, neatsfoot oil or fish oil. to secure a result between water and oil, it is customary to place a thick layer of oil on top of water. in cooling, the piece will pass through the oil first, thus avoiding the sudden shock of the cold water, yet producing a degree of hardness almost as great as if the oil were not used. it will, of course, be necessary to make a separate test for each cooling medium used. if the fracture of the test piece shows a coarse grain, the steel was too hot at that point; if the fracture can be cut with a file, the metal was not hot enough at that point. when hardening carbon tool steel its heat should be brought to a cherry red, the exact degree of heat depending on the amount of carbon and the test made, then plunged into water and held there until all hissing sound and vibration ceases. brine may be used for this purpose; it is even better than plain water. as soon as the hissing stops, remove the work from the water or brine and plunge in oil for complete cooling. [illustration: figure .--cooling the tool for tempering] in hardening high-speed tool steel, or air hardening steels, the tool should be handled as for carbon steel, except that after the body reaches a cherry red, the cutting point must be quickly brought to a white heat, almost melting, so that it seems ready for welding. then cool in an oil bath or in a current of cool air. hardening of copper, brass and bronze is accomplished by hammering or working them while cold. _tempering_ is the process of making steel tough after it has been hardened, so that it will hold a cutting edge and resist cracking. tempering makes the grain finer and the metal stronger. it does not affect the hardness, but increases the elastic limit and reduces the brittleness of the steel. in that tempering is usually performed immediately after hardening, it might be considered as a continuation of the former process. the work or tool to be tempered is slowly heated to a cherry red and the cutting end is then dipped into water to a depth of / to / inch above the point (figure ). as soon as the point cools, still leaving the tool red above the part in water, remove the work from the bath and quickly rub the end with a fine emery cloth. as the heat from the uncooled part gradually heats the point again, the color of the polished portion changes rapidly. when a certain color is reached, the tool should be completely immersed in the water until cold. for lathe, planer, shaper and slotter tools, this color should be a light straw. reamers and taps should be cooled from an ordinary straw color. drills, punches and wood working tools should have a brown color. blue or light purple is right for cold chisels and screwdrivers. dark blue should be reached for springs and wood saws. darker colors than this, ranging through green and gray, denote that the piece has reached its ordinary temper, that is, it is partially annealed. after properly hardening a spring by dipping in lard or fish oil, it should be held over a fire while still wet with the oil. the oil takes fire and burns off, properly tempering the spring. remember that self-hardening steels must never be dipped in water, and always remember for all work requiring degrees of heat, that the more carbon, the less heat. _case hardening._--this is a process for adding more carbon to the surface of a piece of steel, so that it will have good wear-resisting qualities, while being tough and strong on the inside. it has the effect of forming a very hard and durable skin on the surface of soft steel, leaving the inside unaffected. the simplest way, although not the most efficient, is to heat the piece to be case hardened to a red heat and then sprinkle or rub the part of the surface to be hardened with potassium ferrocyanide. this material is a deadly poison and should be handled with care. allow the cyanide to fuse on the surface of the metal and then plunge into water, brine or mercury. repeating the process makes the surface harder and the hard skin deeper each time. another method consists of placing the piece to be hardened in a bed of powdered bone (bone which has been burned and then powdered) and cover with more powdered bone, holding the whole in an iron tray. now heat the tray and bone with the work in an oven to a bright red heat for minutes to an hour and then plunge the work into water or brine. chapter ii oxy-acetylene welding and cutting materials _welding._--oxy-acetylene welding is an autogenous welding process, in which two parts of the same or different metals are joined by causing the edges to melt and unite while molten without the aid of hammering or compression. when cool, the parts form one piece of metal. the oxy-acetylene flame is made by mixing oxygen and acetylene gases in a special welding torch or blowpipe, producing, when burned, a heat of , degrees, which is more than twice the melting temperature of the common metals. this flame, while being of intense heat, is of very small size. _cutting._--the process of cutting metals with the flame produced from oxygen and acetylene depends on the fact that a jet of oxygen directed upon hot metal causes the metal itself to burn away with great rapidity, resulting in a narrow slot through the section cut. the action is so fast that metal is not injured on either side of the cut. _carbon removal._--this process depends on the fact that carbon will burn and almost completely vanish if the action is assisted with a supply of pure oxygen gas. after the combustion is started with any convenient flame, it continues as long as carbon remains in the path of the jet of oxygen. _materials._--for the performance of the above operations we require the two gases, oxygen and acetylene, to produce the flames; rods of metal which may be added to the joints while molten in order to give the weld sufficient strength and proper form, and various chemical powders, called fluxes, which assist in the flow of metal and in doing away with many of the impurities and other objectionable features. _instruments._--to control the combustion of the gases and add to the convenience of the operator a number of accessories are required. the pressure of the gases in their usual containers is much too high for their proper use in the torch and we therefore need suitable valves which allow the gas to escape from the containers when wanted, and other specially designed valves which reduce the pressure. hose, composed of rubber and fabric, together with suitable connections, is used to carry the gas to the torch. the torches for welding and cutting form a class of highly developed instruments of the greatest accuracy in manufacture, and must be thoroughly understood by the welder. tables, stands and special supports are provided for holding the work while being welded, and in order to handle the various metals and allow for their peculiarities while heated use is made of ovens and torches for preheating. the operator requires the protection of goggles, masks, gloves and appliances which prevent undue radiation of the heat. _torch practice._--the actual work of welding and cutting requires preliminary preparation in the form of heat treatment for the metals, including preheating, annealing and tempering. the surfaces to be joined must be properly prepared for the flame, and the operation of the torches for best results requires careful and correct regulation of the gases and the flame produced. finally, the different metals that are to be welded require special treatment for each one, depending on the physical and chemical characteristics of the material. it will thus be seen that the apparently simple operations of welding and cutting require special materials, instruments and preparation on the part of the operator and it is a proved fact that failures, which have been attributed to the method, are really due to lack of these necessary qualifications. oxygen oxygen, the gas which supports the rapid combustion of the acetylene in the torch flame, is one of the elements of the air. it is the cause and the active agent of all combustion that takes place in the atmosphere. oxygen was first discovered as a separate gas in , when it was produced by heating red oxide of mercury and was given its present name by the famous chemist, lavoisier. oxygen is prepared in the laboratory by various methods, these including the heating of chloride of lime and peroxide of cobalt mixed in a retort, the heating of chlorate of potash, and the separation of water into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen, by the passage of an electric current. while the last process is used on a large scale in commercial work, the others are not practical for work other than that of an experimental or temporary nature. this gas is a colorless, odorless, tasteless element. it is sixteen times as heavy as the gas hydrogen when measured by volume under the same temperature and pressure. under all ordinary conditions oxygen remains in a gaseous form, although it turns to a liquid when compressed to , pounds to the square inch and at a temperature of ° below zero. oxygen unites with almost every other element, this union often taking place with great heat and much light, producing flame. steel and iron will burn rapidly when placed in this gas if the combustion is started with a flame of high heat playing on the metal. if the end of a wire is heated bright red and quickly plunged into a jar containing this gas, the wire will burn away with a dazzling light and be entirely consumed except for the molten drops that separate themselves. this property of oxygen is used in oxy-acetylene cutting of steel. the combination of oxygen with other substances does not necessarily cause great heat, in fact the combination may be so slow and gradual that the change of temperature can not be noticed. an example of this slow combustion, or oxidation, is found in the conversion of iron into rust as the metal combines with the active gas. the respiration of human beings and animals is a form of slow combustion and is the source of animal heat. it is a general rule that the process of oxidation takes place with increasing rapidity as the temperature of the body being acted upon rises. iron and steel at a red heat oxidize rapidly with the formation of a scale and possible damage to the metal. _air._--atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen with traces of carbonic acid gas and water vapor. twenty-one per cent of the air, by volume, is oxygen and the remaining seventy-nine per cent is the inactive gas, nitrogen. but for the presence of the nitrogen, which deadens the action of the other gas, combustion would take place at a destructive rate and be beyond human control in almost all cases. these two gases exist simply as a mixture to form the air and are not chemically combined. it is therefore a comparatively simple matter to separate them with the processes now available. _water._--water is a combination of oxygen and hydrogen, being composed of exactly two volumes of hydrogen to one volume of oxygen. if these two gases be separated from each other and then allowed to mix in these proportions they unite with explosive violence and form water. water itself may be separated into the gases by any one of several means, one making use of a temperature of , ° to bring about this separation. [illustration: figure .--obtaining oxygen by electrolysis] the easiest way to separate water into its two parts is by the process called electrolysis (figure ). water, with which has been mixed a small quantity of acid, is placed in a vat through the walls of which enter the platinum tipped ends of two electrical conductors, one positive and the other negative. tubes are placed directly above these wire terminals in the vat, one tube being over each electrode and separated from each other by some distance. with the passage of an electric current from one wire terminal to the other, bubbles of gas rise from each and pass into the tubes. the gas that comes from the negative terminal is hydrogen and that from the positive pole is oxygen, both gases being almost pure if the work is properly conducted. this method produces electrolytic oxygen and electrolytic hydrogen. _the liquid air process._--while several of the foregoing methods of securing oxygen are successful as far as this result is concerned, they are not profitable from a financial standpoint. a process for separating oxygen from the nitrogen in the air has been brought to a high state of perfection and is now supplying a major part of this gas for oxy-acetylene welding. it is known as the linde process and the gas is distributed by the linde air products company from its plants and warehouses located in the large cities of the country. the air is first liquefied by compression, after which the gases are separated and the oxygen collected. the air is purified and then compressed by successive stages in powerful machines designed for this purpose until it reaches a pressure of about , pounds to the square inch. the large amount of heat produced is absorbed by special coolers during the process of compression. the highly compressed air is then dried and the temperature further reduced by other coolers. the next point in the separation is that at which the air is introduced into an apparatus called an interchanger and is allowed to escape through a valve, causing it to turn to a liquid. this liquid air is sprayed onto plates and as it falls, the nitrogen return to its gaseous state and leaves the oxygen to run to the bottom of the container. this liquid oxygen is then allowed to return to a gas and is stored in large gasometers or tanks. the oxygen gas is taken from the storage tanks and compressed to approximately , pounds to the square inch, under which pressure it is passed into steel cylinders and made ready for delivery to the customer. this oxygen is guaranteed to be ninety-seven per cent pure. another process, known as the hildebrandt process, is coming into use in this country. it is a later process and is used in germany to a much greater extent than the linde process. the superior oxygen co. has secured the american rights and has established several plants. _oxygen cylinders_.--two sizes of cylinders are in use, one containing cubic feet of gas when it is at atmospheric pressure and the other containing cubic feet under similar conditions. the cylinders are made from one piece of steel and are without seams. these containers are tested at double the pressure of the gas contained to insure safety while handling. one hundred cubic feet of oxygen weighs nearly nine pounds ( . ), and therefore the cylinders will weigh practically nine pounds more when full than after emptying, if of the cubic feet size. the large cylinders weigh about eighteen and one-quarter pounds more when full than when empty, making approximately pounds empty and pounds full. the following table gives the number of cubic feet of oxygen remaining in the cylinders according to various gauge pressures from an initial pressure of , pounds. the amounts given are not exactly correct as this would necessitate lengthy calculations which would not make great enough difference to affect the practical usefulness of the table: cylinder of cu. ft. capacity at ° fahr. gauge volume gauge volume pressure remaining pressure remaining / cylinder of cu. ft. capacity at ° fahr. gauge volume gauge volume pressure remaining pressure remaining - / the temperature of the cylinder affects the pressure in a large degree, the pressure increasing with a rise in temperature and falling with a fall in temperature. the variation for a cubic foot cylinder at various temperatures is given in the following tabulation: at ° fahr........................ pounds. at ° fahr........................ pounds. at ° fahr........................ pounds. at ° fahr........................ pounds. at ° fahr........................ pounds. at ° fahr........................ pounds. at fahr........................ pounds. at - ° fahr........................ pounds. _chlorate of potash method._--in spite of its higher cost and the inferior gas produced, the chlorate of potash method of producing oxygen is used to a limited extent when it is impossible to secure the gas in cylinders. [illustration: figure .--oxygen from chlorate of potash] an iron retort (figure ) is arranged to receive about fifteen pounds of chlorate of potash mixed with three pounds of manganese dioxide, after which the cylinder is closed with a tight cap, clamped on. this retort is carried above a burner using fuel gas or other means of generating heat and this burner is lighted after the chemical charge is mixed and compressed in the tube. the generation of gas commences and the oxygen is led through water baths which wash and cool it before storing in a tank connected with the plant. from this tank the gas is compressed into portable cylinders at a pressure of about pounds to the square inch for use as required in welding operations. each pound of chlorate of potash liberates about three cubic feet of oxygen, and taking everything into consideration, the cost of gas produced in this way is several times that of the purer product secured by the liquid air process. these chemical generators are oftentimes a source of great danger, especially when used with or near the acetylene gas generator, as is sometimes the case with cheap portable outfits. their use should not be tolerated when any other method is available, as the danger from accident alone should prohibit the practice except when properly installed and cared for away from other sources of combustible gases. acetylene in a chemist, woehler, announced the discovery of the preparation of acetylene gas from calcium carbide, which he had made by heating to a high temperature a mixture of charcoal with an alloy of zinc and calcium. his product would decompose water and yield the gas. for nearly thirty years these substances were neglected, with the result that acetylene was practically unknown, and up to an acetylene flame was seen by very few persons and its possibilities were not dreamed of. with the development of the modern electric furnace the possibility of calcium carbide as a commercial product became known. in the above year, thomas l. willson, an electrical engineer of spray, north carolina, was experimenting in an attempt to prepare metallic calcium, for which purpose he employed an electric furnace operating on a mixture of lime and coal tar with about ninety-five horse power. the result was a molten mass which became hard and brittle when cool. this apparently useless product was discarded and thrown in a nearby stream, when, to the astonishment of onlookers, a large volume of gas was immediately liberated, which, when ignited, burned with a bright and smoky flame and gave off quantities of soot. the solid material proved to be calcium carbide and the gas acetylene. thus, through the incidental study of a by-product, and as the result of an accident, the possibilities in carbide were made known, and in the spring of the first factory in the world for the production of this substance was established by the willson aluminum company. when water and calcium carbide are brought together an action takes place which results in the formation of acetylene gas and slaked lime. carbide calcium carbide is a chemical combination of the elements carbon and calcium, being dark brown, black or gray with sometimes a blue or red tinge. it looks like stone and will only burn when heated with oxygen. calcium carbide may be preserved for any length of time if protected from the air, but the ordinary moisture in the atmosphere gradually affects it until nothing remains but slaked lime. it always possesses a penetrating odor, which is not due to the carbide itself but to the fact that it is being constantly affected by moisture and producing small quantities of acetylene gas. this material is not readily dissolved by liquids, but if allowed to come in contact with water, a decomposition takes place with the evolution of large quantities of gas. carbide is not affected by shock, jarring or age. a pound of absolutely pure carbide will yield five and one-half cubic feet of acetylene. absolute purity cannot be attained commercially, and in practice good carbide will produce from four and one-half to five cubic feet for each pound used. carbide is prepared by fusing lime and carbon in the electric furnace under a heat in excess of , degrees fahrenheit. these materials are among the most difficult to melt that are known. lime is so infusible that it is frequently employed for the materials of crucibles in which the highest melting metals are fused, and for the pencils in the calcium light because it will stand extremely high temperatures. carbon is the material employed in the manufacture of arc light electrodes and other electrical appliances that must stand extreme heat. yet these two substances are forced into combination in the manufacture of calcium carbide. it is the excessively high temperature attainable in the electric furnace that causes this combination and not any effect of the electricity other than the heat produced. a mixture of ground coke and lime is introduced into the furnace through which an electric arc has been drawn. the materials unite and form an ingot of very pure carbide surrounded by a crust of less purity. the poorer crust is rejected in breaking up the mass into lumps which are graded according to their size. the largest size is by - / inches and is called "lump," a medium size is / by inches and is called "egg," an intermediate size for certain types of generators is / by - / inches and called "nut," and the finely crushed pieces for use in still other types of generators are / by / inch in size and are called "quarter." instructions as to the size best suited to different generators are furnished by the makers of those instruments. these sizes are packed in air-tight sheet steel drums containing pounds each. the union carbide company of chicago and new york, operating under patents, manufactures and distributes the supply of calcium carbide for the entire united states. plants for this manufacture are established at niagara falls, new york, and sault ste. marie, michigan. this company maintains a system of warehouses in more than one hundred and ten cities, where large stocks of all sizes are carried. the national board of fire underwriters gives the following rules for the storage of carbide: calcium carbide in quantities not to exceed six hundred pounds may be stored, when contained in approved metal packages not to exceed one hundred pounds each, inside insured property, provided that the place of storage be dry, waterproof and well ventilated and also provided that all but one of the packages in any one building shall be sealed and that seals shall not be broken so long as there is carbide in excess of one pound in any other unsealed package in the building. calcium carbide in quantities in excess of six hundred pounds must be stored above ground in detached buildings, used exclusively for the storage of calcium carbide, in approved metal packages, and such buildings shall be constructed to be dry, waterproof and well ventilated. _properties of acetylene._--this gas is composed of twenty-four parts of carbon and two parts of hydrogen by weight and is classed with natural gas, petroleum, etc., as one of the hydrocarbons. this gas contains the highest percentage of carbon known to exist in any combination of this form and it may therefore be considered as gaseous carbon. carbon is the fuel that is used in all forms of combustion and is present in all fuels from whatever source or in whatever form. acetylene is therefore the most powerful of all fuel gases and is able to give to the torch flame in welding the highest temperature of any flame. acetylene is a colorless and tasteless gas, possessed of a peculiar and penetrating odor. the least trace in the air of a room is easily noticed, and if this odor is detected about an apparatus in operation, it is certain to indicate a leakage of gas through faulty piping, open valves, broken hose or otherwise. this leakage must be prevented before proceeding with the work to be done. all gases which burn in air will, when mixed with air previous to ignition, produce more or less violent explosions, if fired. to this rule acetylene is no exception. one measure of acetylene and twelve and one-half of air are required for complete combustion; this is therefore the proportion for the most perfect explosion. this is not the only possible mixture that will explode, for all proportions from three to thirty per cent of acetylene in air will explode with more or less force if ignited. the igniting point of acetylene is lower than that of coal gas, being about degrees fahrenheit as against eleven hundred degrees for coal gas. the gas issuing from a torch will ignite if allowed to play on the tip of a lighted cigar. it is still further true that acetylene, at some pressures, greater than normal, has under most favorable conditions for the effect, been found to explode; yet it may be stated with perfect confidence that under no circumstances has anyone ever secured an explosion in it when subjected to pressures not exceeding fifteen pounds to the square inch. although not exploded by the application of high heat, acetylene is injured by such treatment. it is partly converted, by high heat, into other compounds, thus lessening the actual quantity of the gas, wasting it and polluting the rest by the introduction of substances which do not belong there. these compounds remain in part with the gas, causing it to burn with a persistent smoky flame and with the deposit of objectionable tarry substances. where the gas is generated without undue rise of temperature these difficulties are avoided. _purification of acetylene._--impurities in this gas are caused by impurities in the calcium carbide from which it is made or by improper methods and lack of care in generation. impurities from the material will be considered first. impurities in the carbide may be further divided into two classes: those which exert no action on water and those which act with the water to throw off other gaseous products which remain in the acetylene. those impurities which exert no action on the water consist of coke that has not been changed in the furnace and sand and some other substances which are harmless except that they increase the ash left after the acetylene has been generated. an analysis of the gas coming from a typical generator is as follows: per cent acetylene ................................ . oxygen ................................... . nitrogen ................................. . hydrogen ................................. . sulphuretted hydrogen .................... . phosphoretted hydrogen ................... . ammonia .................................. . silicon hydride .......................... . carbon monoxide .......................... . methane .................................. . the oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, methane and carbon monoxide are either harmless or are present in such small quantities as to be neglected. the phosphoretted hydrogen and silicon hydride are self-inflammable gases when exposed to the air, but their quantity is so very small that this possibility may be dismissed. the ammonia and sulphuretted hydrogen are almost entirely dissolved by the water used in the gas generator. the surest way to avoid impure gas is to use high-grade calcium carbide in the generator and the carbide of american manufacture is now so pure that it never causes trouble. the first and most important purification to which the gas is subjected is its passage through the body of water in the generator as it bubbles to the top. it is then filtered through felt to remove the solid particles of lime dust and other impurities which float in the gas. further purification to remove the remaining ammonia, sulphuretted hydrogen and phosphorus containing compounds is accomplished by chemical means. if this is considered necessary it can be easily accomplished by readily available purifying apparatus which can be attached to any generator or inserted between the generator and torch outlets. the following mixtures have been used. "_heratol,_" a solution of chromic acid or sulphuric acid absorbed in porous earth. "_acagine,_" a mixture of bleaching powder with fifteen per cent of lead chromate. "_puratylene,_" a mixture of bleaching powder and hydroxide of lime, made very porous, and containing from eighteen to twenty per cent of active chlorine. "_frankoline,_" a mixture of cuprous and ferric chlorides dissolved in strong hydrochloric acid absorbed in infusorial earth. a test for impure acetylene gas is made by placing a drop of ten per cent solution of silver nitrate on a white blotter and holding the paper in a stream of gas coming from the torch tip. blackening of the paper in a short length of time indicates impurities. _acetylene in tanks._--acetylene is soluble in water to a very limited extent, too limited to be of practical use. there is only one liquid that possesses sufficient power of containing acetylene in solution to be of commercial value, this being the liquid acetone. acetone is produced in various ways, oftentimes from the distillation of wood. it is a transparent, colorless liquid that flows with ease. it boils at ° fahrenheit, is inflammable and burns with a luminous flame. it has a peculiar but rather agreeable odor. acetone dissolves twenty-four times its own bulk of acetylene at ordinary atmospheric pressure. if this pressure is increased to two atmospheres, . pounds above ordinary pressure, it will dissolve just twice as much of the gas and for each atmosphere that the pressure is increased it will dissolve as much more. if acetylene be compressed above fifteen pounds per square inch at ordinary temperature without first being dissolved in acetone a danger is present of self-ignition. this danger, while practically nothing at fifteen pounds, increases with the pressure until at forty atmospheres it is very explosive. mixed with acetone, the gas loses this dangerous property and is safe for handling and transportation. as acetylene is dissolved in the liquid the acetone increases its volume slightly so that when the gas has been drawn out of a closed tank a space is left full of free acetylene. this last difficulty is removed by first filling the cylinder or tank with some porous material, such as asbestos, wood charcoal, infusorial earth, etc. asbestos is used in practice and by a system of packing and supporting the absorbent material no space is left for the free gas, even when the acetylene has been completely withdrawn. the acetylene is generated in the usual way and is washed, purified and dried. great care is used to make the gas as free as possible from all impurities and from air. the gas is forced into containers filled with acetone as described and is compressed to one hundred and fifty pounds to the square inch. from these tanks it is transferred to the smaller portable cylinders for consumers' use. the exact volume of gas remaining in a cylinder at atmospheric temperature may be calculated if the weight of the cylinder empty is known. one pound of the gas occupies . cubic feet, so that if the difference in weight between the empty cylinder and the one considered be multiplied by . . the result will be the number of cubic feet of gas contained. the cylinders contain from to cubic feet of acetylene under pressure. they cannot be filled with the ordinary type of generator as they require special purifying and compressing apparatus, which should never be installed in any building where other work is being carried on, or near other buildings which are occupied, because of the danger of explosion. dissolved acetylene is manufactured by the prest-o-lite company, the commercial acetylene company and the searchlight gas company and is distributed from warehouses in various cities. these tanks should not be discharged at a rate per hour greater than one-seventh of their total capacity, that is, from a tank of cubic feet capacity, the discharge should not be more than fourteen cubic feet per hour. if discharge is carried on at an excessive rate the acetone is drawn out with the gas and reduces the heat of the welding flame. for this reason welding should not be attempted with cylinders designed for automobile and boat lighting. when the work demands a greater delivery than one of the larger tanks will give, two or more tanks may be connected with a special coupler such as may be secured from the makers and distributers of the gas. these couplers may be arranged for two, three, four or five tanks in one battery by removing the plugs on the body of the coupler and attaching additional connecting pipes. the coupler body carries a pressure gauge and the valve for controlling the pressure of the gas as it flows to the welding torches. the following capacities should be provided for: acetylene consumption combined capacity of of torches per hour cylinders in use up to feet....................... cubic feet to feet....................... cubic feet to feet....................... cubic feet to feet....................... cubic feet to feet....................... cubic feet welding rods the best welding cannot be done without using the best grade of materials, and the added cost of these materials over less desirable forms is so slight when compared to the quality of work performed and the waste of gases with inferior supplies, that it is very unprofitable to take any chances in this respect. the makers of welding equipment carry an assortment of supplies that have been standardized and that may be relied upon to produce the desired result when properly used. the safest plan is to secure this class of material from the makers. welding rods, or welding sticks, are used to supply the additional metal required in the body of the weld to replace that broken or cut away and also to add to the joint whenever possible so that the work may have the same or greater strength than that found in the original piece. a rod of the same material as that being welded is used when both parts of the work are the same. when dissimilar metals are to be joined rods of a composition suited to the work are employed. these filling rods are required in all work except steel of less than gauge. alloy iron rods are used for cast iron. these rods have a high silicon content, the silicon reacting with the carbon in the iron to produce a softer and more easily machined weld than would otherwise be the case. these rods are often made so that they melt at a slightly lower point than cast iron. this is done for the reason that when the part being welded has been brought to the fusing heat by the torch, the filling material can be instantly melted in without allowing the parts to cool. the metal can be added faster and more easily controlled. rods or wires of norway iron are used for steel welding in almost all cases. the purity of this grade of iron gives a homogeneous, soft weld of even texture, great ductility and exceptionally good machining qualities. for welding heavy steel castings, a rod of rolled carbon steel is employed. for working on high carbon steel, a rod of the steel being welded must be employed and for alloy steels, such as nickel, manganese, vanadium, etc., special rods of suitable alloy composition are preferable. aluminum welding rods are made from this metal alloyed to give the even flowing that is essential. aluminum is one of the most difficult of all the metals to handle in this work and the selection of the proper rod is of great importance. brass is filled with brass wire when in small castings and sheets. for general work with brass castings, manganese bronze or tobin bronze may be used. bronze is welded with manganese bronze or tobin bronze, while copper is filled with copper wire. these welding rods should always be used to fill the weld when the thickness of material makes their employment necessary, and additional metal should always be added at the weld when possible as the joint cannot have the same strength as the original piece if made or dressed off flush with the surfaces around the weld. this is true because the metal welded into the joint is a casting and will never have more strength than a casting of the material used for filling. great care should be exercised when adding metal from welding rods to make sure that no metal is added at a point that is not itself melted and molten when the addition is made. when molten metal is placed upon cooler surfaces the result is not a weld but merely a sticking together of the two parts without any strength in the joint. fluxes difficulty would be experienced in welding with only the metal and rod to work with because of the scale that forms on many materials under heat, the oxides of other metals and the impurities found in almost all metals. these things tend to prevent a perfect joining of the metals and some means are necessary to prevent their action. various chemicals, usually in powder form, are used to accomplish the result of cleaning the weld and making the work of the operator less difficult. they are called fluxes. a flux is used to float off physical impurities from the molten metal; to furnish a protecting coating around the weld; to assist in the removal of any objectionable oxide of the metals being handled; to lower the temperature at which the materials flow; to make a cleaner weld and to produce a better quality of metal in the finished work. the flux must be of such composition that it will accomplish the desired result without introducing new difficulties. they may be prepared by the operator in many cases or may be secured from the makers of welding apparatus, the same remarks applying to their quality as were made regarding the welding rods, that is, only the best should be considered. the flux used for cast iron should have a softening effect and should prevent burning of the metal. in many cases it is possible and even preferable to weld cast iron without the use of a flux, and in any event the smaller the quantity used the better the result should be. flux should not be added just before the completion of the work because the heat will not have time to drive the added elements out of the metal or to incorporate them with the metal properly. aluminum should never be welded without using a flux because of the oxide formed. this oxide, called alumina, does not melt until a heat of , ° fahrenheit is reached, four times the heat needed to melt the aluminum itself. it is necessary that this oxide be broken down or dissolved so that the aluminum may have a chance to flow together. copper is another metal that requires a flux because of its rapid oxidation under heat. while the flux is often thrown or sprinkled along the break while welding, much better results will be obtained by dipping the hot end of the welding rod into the flux whenever the work needs it. sufficient powder will stick on the end of the rod for all purposes, and with some fluxes too much will adhere. care should always be used to avoid the application of excessive flux, as this is usually worse than using too little. supplies and fixtures _goggles._--the oxy-acetylene torch should not be used without the protection to the eyes afforded by goggles. these not only relieve unnecessary strain, but make it much easier to watch the exact progress of the work with the molten metal. the difficulty of protecting the sight while welding is even greater than when cutting metal with the torch. acetylene gives a light which is nearest to sunlight of any artificial illuminant. but for the fact that this gas light gives a little more green and less blue in its composition, it would be the same in quality and practically the same in intensity. this light from the gas is almost absent during welding, being lost with the addition of the extra oxygen needed to produce the welding heat. the light that is dangerous comes from the molten metal which flows under the torch at a bright white heat. goggles for protection against this light and the heat that goes with it may be secured in various tints, the darker glass being for welding and the lighter for cutting. those having frames in which the metal parts do not touch the flesh directly are most desirable because of the high temperature reached by these parts. _gloves._--while not as necessary as are the goggles, gloves are a convenience in many cases. those in which leather touches the hands directly are really of little value as the heat that protection is desired against makes the leather so hot that nothing is gained in comfort. gloves are made with asbestos cloth, which are not open to this objection in so great a degree. [illustration: figure .--frame for welding stand] _tables and stands._--tables for holding work while being welded (figure ) are usually made from lengths of angle steel welded together. the top should be rectangular, about two feet wide and two and one-half feet long. the legs should support the working surface at a height of thirty-two to thirty-six inches from the floor. metal lattice work may be fastened or laid in the top framework and used to support a layer of firebrick bound together with a mixture of one-third cement and two-thirds fireclay. the piece being welded is braced and supported on this table with pieces of firebrick so that it will remain stationary during the operation. holders for supporting the tanks of gas may be made or purchased in forms that rest directly on the floor or that are mounted on wheels. these holders are quite useful where the floor or ground is very uneven. _hose._--all permanent lines from tanks and generators to the torches are made with piping rigidly supported, but the short distance from the end of the pipe line to the torch itself is completed with a flexible hose so that the operator may be free in his movements while welding. an accident through which the gases mix in the hose and are ignited will burst this part of the equipment, with more or less painful results to the person handling it. for that reason it is well to use hose with great enough strength to withstand excessive pressure. a poor grade of hose will also break down inside and clog the flow of gas, both through itself and through the parts of the torch. to avoid outside damage and cuts this hose is sometimes encased with coiled sheet metal. hose may be secured with a bursting strength of more than , pounds to the square inch. many operators prefer to distinguish between the oxygen and acetylene lines by their color and to allow this, red is used for the oxygen and black for acetylene. _other materials._--sheet asbestos and asbestos fibre in flakes are used to cover parts of the work while preparing them for welding and during the operation itself. the flakes and small pieces that become detached from the large sheets are thrown into a bin where the completed small work is placed to allow slow and even cooling while protected by the asbestos. asbestos fibre and also ordinary fireclay are often used to make a backing or mould into a form that may be placed behind aluminum and some other metals that flow at a low heat and which are accordingly difficult to handle under ordinary methods. this forms a solid mould into which the metal is practically cast as melted by the torch so that the desired shape is secured without danger of the walls of metal breaking through and flowing away. carbon blocks and rods are made in various shapes and sizes so that they may be used to fill threaded holes and other places that it is desired to protect during welding. these may be secured in rods of various diameters up to one inch and in blocks of several different dimensions. chapter iii acetylene generators acetylene generators used for producing the gas from the action of water on calcium carbide are divided into three principal classes according to the pressure under which they operate. low pressure generators are designed to operate at one pound or less per square inch. medium pressure systems deliver the gas at not to exceed fifteen pounds to the square inch while high pressure types furnish gas above fifteen pounds per square inch. high pressure systems are almost unknown in this country, the medium pressure type being often referred to as "high pressure." another important distinction is formed by the method of bringing the carbide and water together. the majority of those now in use operate by dropping small quantities of carbide into a large volume of water, allowing the generated gas to bubble up through the water before being collected above the surface. this type is known as the "carbide to water" generator. a less used type brings a measured and small quantity of water to a comparatively large body of the carbide, the gas being formed and collected from the chamber in which the action takes place. this is called the "water to carbide" type. another way of expressing the difference in feed is that of designating the two types as "carbide feed" for the former and "water feed" for the latter. a further division of the carbide to water machines is made by mentioning the exact method of feeding the carbide. one type, called "gravity feed" operates by allowing the carbide to escape and fall by the action of its own weight, or gravity; the other type, called "forced feed," includes a separate mechanism driven by power. this mechanism feeds definite amounts of the carbide to the water as required by the demands on the generator. the action of either feed is controlled by the withdrawal of gas from the generator, the aim being to supply sufficient carbide to maintain a nearly constant supply. _generator requirements._--the qualities of a good generator are outlined as follows: [footnote: see pond's "calcium carbide and acetylene."] it must allow no possibility of the existence of an explosive mixture in any of its parts at any time. it is not enough to argue that a mixture, even if it exists, cannot be exploded unless kindled. it is necessary to demand that a dangerous mixture can at no time be formed, even if the machine is tampered with by an ignorant person. the perfect machine must be so constructed that it shall be impossible at any time, under any circumstances, to blow it up. it must insure cool generation. since this is a relative term, all machines being heated somewhat during the generation of gas, this amounts to saying that a machine must heat but little. a pound of carbide decomposed by water develops the same amount of heat under all circumstances, but that heat can be allowed to increase locally to a high point, or it can be equalized by water so that no part of the material becomes heated enough to do damage. it must be well constructed. a good generator does not need, perhaps, to be "built like a watch," but it should be solid, substantial and of good material. it should be built for service, to last and not simply to sell; anything short of this is to be avoided as unsafe and unreliable. it must be simple. the more complicated the machine the sooner it will get out of order. understand your generator. know what is inside of it and beware of an apparatus, however attractive its exterior, whose interior is filled with pipes and tubes, valves and diaphragms whose functions you do not perfectly understand. it should be capable of being cleaned and recharged and of receiving all other necessary attention without loss of gas, both for economy's sake, and more particularly to avoid danger of fire. it should require little attention. all machines have to be emptied and recharged periodically; but the more this process is simplified and the more quickly this can be accomplished, the better. it should be provided with a suitable indicator to designate how low the charge is in order that the refilling may be done in good season. it should completely use up the carbide, generating the maximum amount of gas. _overheating._--a large amount of heat is liberated when acetylene gas is formed from the union of calcium carbide and water. overheating during this process, that is to say, an intense local heat rather than a large amount of heat well distributed, brings about the phenomenon of polymerization, converting the gas, or part of it, into oily matters, which can do nothing but harm. this tarry mass coming through the small openings in the torches causes them to become partly closed and alters the proportions of the gases to the detriment of the welding flame. the only remedy for this trouble is to avoid its cause and secure cool generation. overheating can be detected by the appearance of the sludge remaining after the gas has been made. discoloration, yellow or brown, shows that there has been trouble in this direction and the resultant effects at the torches may be looked for. the abundance of water in the carbide to water machines effects this cooling naturally and is a characteristic of well designed machines of this class. it has been found best and has practically become a fundamental rule of generation that a gallon of water must be provided for each pound of carbide placed in the generator. with this ratio and a generator large enough for the number of torches to be supplied, little trouble need be looked for with overheating. _water to carbide generators._--it is, of course, much easier to obtain a measured and regular flow of water than to obtain such a flow of any solid substance, especially when the solid substance is in the form of lumps, as is carbide this fact led to the use of a great many water-feed generators for all classes of work, and this type is still in common use for the small portable machines, such, for instance, as those used on motor cars for the lamps. the water-feed machine is not, however, favored for welding plants, as is the carbide feed, in spite of the greater difficulties attending the handling of the solid material. a water-feed generator is made up of the gas producing part and a holder for the acetylene after it is made. the carbide is held in a tray formed of a number of small compartments so that the charge in each compartment is nearly equal to that in each of the others. the water is allowed to flow into one of these compartments in a volume sufficient to produce the desired amount of gas and the carbide is completely used from this one division. the water then floods the first compartment and finally overflows into the next one, where the same process is repeated. after using the carbide in this division, it is flooded in turn and the water passing on to those next in order, uses the entire charge of the whole tray. these generators are charged with the larger sizes of carbide and are easily taken care of. the residue is removed in the tray and emptied, making the generator ready for a fresh supply of carbide. _carbide to water generators._--this type also is made up of two principal parts, the generating chamber and a gas holder, the holder being part of the generating chamber or a separate device. the generator (figure ) contains a hopper to receive the charge of carbide and is fitted with the feeding mechanism to drop the proper amount of carbide into the water as required by the demands of the torches. the charge of carbide is of one of the smaller sizes, usually "nut" or "quarter." _feed mechanisms._--the device for dropping the carbide into the water is the only part of the machine that is at all complicated. this complication is brought about by the necessity of controlling the mass of carbide so that it can never be discharged into the water at an excessive rate, feeding it at a regular rate and in definite amounts, feeding it positively whenever required and shutting off the feed just as positively when the supply of gas in the holder is enough for the immediate needs. [illustration: figure .--carbide to water generator. a. feed motor weight; b. carbide feed motor; c. carbide hopper; d. water for gas generation; e. agitator for loosening residuum; f. water seal in gas bell; g. filter; h. hydraulic valve; j. motor control levers.] the charge of carbide is unavoidably acted upon by the water vapor in the generator and will in time become more or less pasty and sticky. this is more noticeable if the generator stands idle for a considerable length of time this condition imposes another duty on the feeding mechanism; that is, the necessity of self-cleaning so that the carbide, no matter in what condition, cannot prevent the positive action of this part of the device, especially so that it cannot prevent the supply from being stopped at the proper time. the gas holder is usually made in the bell form so that the upper portion rises and falls with the addition to or withdrawal from the supply of gas in the holder. the rise and fall of this bell is often used to control the feed mechanism because this movement indicates positively whether enough gas has been made or that more is required. as the bell lowers it sets the feed mechanism in motion, and when the gas passing into the holder has raised the bell a sufficient distance, the movement causes the feed mechanism to stop the fall of carbide into the water. in practice, the movement of this part of the holder is held within very narrow limits. _gas holders._--no matter how close the adjustment of the feeding device, there will always be a slight amount of gas made after the fall of carbide is stopped, this being caused by the evolution of gas from the carbide with which water is already in contact. this action is called "after generation" and the gas holder in any type of generator must provide sufficient capacity to accommodate this excess gas. as a general rule the water to carbide generator requires a larger gas holder than the carbide to water type because of the greater amount of carbide being acted upon by the water at any one time, also because the surface of carbide presented to the moist air within the generating chamber is greater with this type. _freezing._--because of the rather large body of water contained in any type of generator, there is always danger of its freezing and rendering the device inoperative unless placed in a temperature above the freezing point of the water. it is, of course, dangerous and against the insurance rules to place a generator in the same room with a fire of any kind, but the room may be heated by steam or hot water coils from a furnace in another building or in another part of the same building. when the generator is housed in a separate structure the walls should be made of materials or construction that prevents the passage of heat or cold through them to any great extent. this may be accomplished by the use of hollow tile or concrete blocks or by any other form of double wall providing air spaces between the outer and inner facings. the space between the parts of the wall may be filled with materials that further retard the loss of heat if this is necessary under the conditions prevailing. _residue from generators._--the sludge remaining in the carbide to water generator may be drawn off into the sewer if the piping is run at a slant great enough to give a fall that carries the whole quantity, both water and ash, away without allowing settling and consequent clogging. generators are provided with agitators which are operated to stir the ash up with the water so that the whole mass is carried off when the drain cock is opened. if sewer connections cannot be made in such a way that the ash is entirely carried away, it is best to run the liquid mass into a settling basin outside of the building. this should be in the form of a shallow pit which will allow the water to pass off by soaking into the ground and by evaporation, leaving the comparatively dry ash in the pit. this ash which remains is essentially slaked lime and can often be disposed of to more or less advantage to be used in mortar, whitewash, marking paths and any other use for which slaked lime is suited. the disposition of the ash depends entirely on local conditions. an average analysis of this ash is as follows: sand....................... . per cent. carbon..................... . " oxide of iron and alumina.. . " lime....................... . " water and carbonic acid.... . " ------ . generator construction the water for generating purposes is carried in the large tank-like compartment directly below the carbide chamber. see figure . this water compartment is filled through a pipe of such a height that the water level cannot be brought above the proper point or else the water compartment is provided with a drain connection which accomplishes this same result by allowing an excess to flow away. the quantity of water depends on the capacity of the generator inasmuch as there must be one gallon for each pound of carbide required. the generator should be of sufficient capacity to furnish gas under working conditions from one charge of carbide to all torches installed for at least five hours continuous use. after calculating the withdrawal of the whole number of torches according to the work they are to do for this period of five hours the proper generator capacity may be found on the basis of one cubic foot of gas per hour for each pound of carbide. thus if the torches were to use sixty cubic feet of gas per hour, five hours would call for three hundred cubic feet and a three hundred pound generator should be installed. generators are rated according to their carbide capacity in pounds. _charging._--the carbide capacity of the generator should be great enough to furnish a continuous supply of gas for the maximum operating time, basing the quantity of gas generated on four and one-half cubic feet from each pound of lump carbide and on four cubic feet from each pound of quarter, intermediate sizes being in proportion. generators are built in such a way that it is impossible for the acetylene to escape from the gas holding compartment during the recharging process. this is accomplished ( ) by connecting the water inlet pipe opening with a shut off valve in such a way that the inlet cannot be uncovered or opened without first closing the shut off valve with the same movement of the operator; ( ) by incorporating an automatic or hydraulic one-way valve so that this valve closes and acts as a check when the gas attempts to flow from the holder back to the generating chamber, or by any other means that will positively accomplish this result. in generators having no separate gas holding chamber but carrying the supply in the same compartment in which it is generated, the gas contained under pressure is allowed to escape through vent pipes into the outside air before recharging with carbide. as in the former case, the parts are so interlocked that it is impossible to introduce carbide or water without first allowing the escape of the gas in the generator. it is required by the insurance rules that the entire change of carbide while in the generator be held in such a way that it may be entirely removed without difficulty in case the necessity should arise. generators should be cleaned and recharged at regular stated intervals. this work should be done during daylight hours only and likewise all repairs should be made at such a time that artificial light is not needed. where it is absolutely necessary to use artificial light it should be provided only by incandescent electric lamps enclosed in gas tight globes. in charging generating chambers the old ash and all residue must first be cleaned out and the operator should be sure that no drain or other pipe has become clogged. the generator should then be filled with the required amount of water. in charging carbide feed machines be careful not to place less than a gallon of water in the water compartment for each pound of carbide to be used and the water must be brought to, but not above, the proper level as indicated by the mark or the maker's instructions. the generating chamber must be filled with the proper amount of water before any attempt is made to place the carbide in its holder. this rule must always be followed. it is also necessary that all automatic water seals and valves, as well as any other water tanks, be filled with clean water at this time. never recharge with carbide without first cleaning the generating chamber and completely refilling with clean water. never test the generator or piping for leaks with any flame, and never apply flame to any open pipe or at any point other than the torch, and only to the torch after it has a welding or cutting nozzle attached. never use a lighted match, lamp, candle, lantern, cigar or any open flame near a generator. failure to observe these precautions is liable to endanger life and property. _operation and care of generators._--the following instructions apply especially to the davis bournonville pressure generator, illustrated in figure . the motor feed mechanism is illustrated in figure . before filling the machine, the cover should be removed and the hopper taken out and examined to see that the feeding disc revolves freely; that no chains have been displaced or broken, and that the carbide displacer itself hangs barely free of the feeding disc when it is revolved. after replacing the cover, replace the bolts and tighten them equally, a little at a time all around the circumference of the cover--not screwing tight in one place only. do not screw the cover down any more than is necessary to make a tight fit. to charge the generator, proceed as follows: open the vent valve by turning the handle which extends over the filling tube until it stands at a right angle with the generator. open the valve in the water filling pipe, and through this fill with water until it runs out of the overflow pipe of the drainage chamber, then close the valve in the water filling pipe and vent valve. remove the carbide filling plugs and fill the hopper with - / "x / " carbide ("nut" size). then replace the plugs and the safety-locking lever chains. now rewind the motor weight. run the pressure up to about five pounds by raising the controlling diaphragm valve lever by hand (figure , lever marked _e_). then raise the blow-off lever, allowing the gas to blow off until the gauge shows about two pounds; this to clear the generator of air mixture. then run the pressure up to about eight pounds by raising the controlling valve lever _e_, or until this controlling lever rests against the upper wing of the fan governor, and prevents operation of the feed motor. after this is done, the motor will operate automatically as the gas is consumed. [illustration: figure .--pressure generator (davis bournonville). _a_, feed motor weight; _b_, carbide feed motor; _c_, motor control diaphragm; _d_, carbide hopper; _e_, carbide feed disc; _f_, overflow pipe; _g_, overflow pipe seal; _h_, overflow pipe valve; _j_, filling funnel; _k_, hydraulic valve; _l_, expansion chamber; _m_, escape pipe; _n_, feed pipe; _o_, agitator for residuum; _p_, residuum valve; _q_, water level] [illustration: figure .--feed mechanism of pressure generator] should the pressure rise much above the blow-off point, the safety controlling diaphragm valve will operate and throw the safety clutch in interference and thus stop the motor. this interference clutch will then have to be returned to its former position before the motor will operate, but cannot be replaced before the pressure has been reduced below the blow-off point. the parts of the feed mechanism illustrated in figure are as follows: _a_, motor drum for weight cable. _b_, carbide filling plugs. _c_, chains for connecting safety locking lever of motor to pins on the top of the carbide plugs. _d_, interference clutch of motor. _e_, lever on feed controlling diaphragm valve. _f_, lever of interference controlling diaphragm valve that operates interference clutch. _g_, feed controlling diaphragm valve. _h_, diaphragm valve controlling operation of interference clutch. _i_, interference pin to engage emergency clutch. _j_, main shaft driving carbide feeding disc. _y_, safety locking lever. _recharging generator._--turn the agitator handle rapidly for several revolutions, and then open the residuum valve, having five or six pounds gas pressure on the machine. if the carbide charge has been exhausted and the motor has stopped, there is generally enough carbide remaining in the feeding disc that can be shaken off, and fed by running the motor to obtain some pressure in the generator. the desirability of discharging the residuum with some gas pressure is because the pressure facilitates the discharge and at the same time keeps the generator full of gas, preventing air mixture to a great extent. as soon as the pressure is relieved by the withdrawal of the residuum, the vent valve should be opened, as if the pressure is maintained until all of the residuum is discharged gas would escape through the discharge valve. having opened the vent pipe valve and relieved the pressure, open the valve in the water filling tube. close the residuum valve, then run in several gallons of water and revolve the agitator, after which draw out the remaining residuum; then again close the residuum valve and pour in water until it discharges from the overflow pipe of the drainage chamber. it is desirable in filling the generator to pour the water in rapidly enough to keep the filling pipe full of water, so that air will not pass in at the same time. after the generator is cleaned and filled with water, fill with carbide and proceed in the same manner as when first charging. _carbide feed mechanism._--any form of carbide to water machine should be so designed that the carbide never falls directly from its holder into the water, but so that it must take a more or less circuitous path. this should be true, no matter what position the mechanism is in. one of the commonest types of forced feed machine carries the carbide in a hopper with slanting sides, this hopper having a large opening in the bottom through which the carbide passes to a revolving circular plate. as the pieces of carbide work out toward the edge of the plate under the influence of the mass behind them, they are thrown off into the water by small stationary fins or plows which are in such a position that they catch the pieces nearest the edges and force them off as the plate revolves. this arrangement, while allowing a free passage for the carbide, prevents an excess from falling should the machine stop in any position. when, as is usually the case, the feed mechanism is actuated by the rise or fall of pressure in the generator or of the level of some part of the gas holder, it must be built in such a way that the feeding remains inoperative as long as the filling opening on the carbide holder remains open. the feed of carbide should always be shut off and controlled so that under no condition can more gas be generated than could be cared for by the relief valve provided. it is necessary also to have the feed mechanism at least ten inches above the surface of the water so that the parts will never become clogged with damp lime dust. _motor feed._--the feed mechanism itself is usually operated by power secured from a slowly falling weight which, through a cable, revolves a drum. to this drum is attached suitable gearing for moving the feed parts with sufficient power and in the way desired. this part, called the motor, is controlled by two levers, one releasing a brake and allowing the motor to operate the feed, the other locking the gearing so that no more carbide will be dropped into the water. these levers are moved either by the quantity of gas in the holder or by the pressure of the gas, depending on the type of machine. with a separate gas holder, such as used with low pressure systems, the levers are operated by the rise and fall of the bell of the holder or gasometer, alternately starting and stopping the motor as the bell falls and rises again. medium pressure generators are provided with a diaphragm to control the feed motor. this diaphragm is carried so that the pressure within the generator acts on one side while a spring, whose tension is under the control of the operator, acts on the other side. the diaphragm is connected to the brake and locking device on the motor in such a way that increasing the tension on the spring presses the diaphragm and moves a rod that releases the brake and starts the feed. the gas pressure, increasing with the continuation of carbide feed, acts on the other side and finally overcomes the pressure of the spring tension, moving the control rod the other way and stopping the motor and carbide feed. this spring tension is adjusted and checked with the help of a pressure gauge attached to the generating chamber. _gravity feed._--this type of feed differs from the foregoing in that the carbide is simply released and is allowed to fall into the water without being forced to do so. any form of valve that is sufficiently powerful in action to close with the carbide passing through is used and is operated by the power secured from the rise and fall of the gas holder bell. when this valve is first opened the carbide runs into the water until sufficient pressure and volume of gas is generated to raise the bell. this movement operates the arm attached to the carbide shut off valve and slowly closes it. a fall of the bell occasioned by gas being withdrawn again opens the valve and more gas is generated. _mechanical feed._--the previously described methods of feeding carbide to the water have all been automatic in action and do not depend on the operator for their proper action. some types of large generating plants have a power-driven feed, the power usually being from some kind of motor other than one operated by a weight, such as a water motor, for instance. this motor is started and stopped by the operator when, in his judgment, more gas is wanted or enough has been generated. this type of machine, often called a "non-automatic generator," is suitable for large installations and is attached to a gas holder of sufficient size to hold a day's supply of acetylene. the generator can then be operated until a quantity of gas has been made that will fill the large holder, or gasometer, and then allowed to remain idle for some time. _gas holders._--the commonest type of gas container is that known as a gasometer. this consists of a circular tank partly filled with water, into which is lowered another circular tank, inverted, which is made enough smaller in diameter than the first one so that three-quarters of an inch is left between them. this upper and inverted portion, called the bell, receives the gas from the generator and rises or falls in the bath of water provided in the lower tank as a greater or less amount of gas is contained in it. these holders are made large enough so that they will provide a means of caring for any after generation and so that they maintain a steady and even flow. the generator, however, must be of a capacity great enough so that the gas holder will not be drawn on for part of the supply with all torches in operation. that is, the holder must not be depended on for a reserve supply. the bell of the holder is made so that when full of gas its lower edge is still under a depth of at least nine inches of water in the lower tank. any further rise beyond this point should always release the gas, or at least part of it, to the escape pipe so that the gas will under no circumstances be forced into the room from, between the bell and tank. the bell is guided in its rise and fall by vertical rods so that it will not wedge at any point in its travel. a condensing chamber to receive the water which condenses from the acetylene gas in the holder is usually placed under this part and is provided with a drain so that this water of condensation may be easily removed. _filtering._--a small chamber containing some closely packed but porous material such as felt is placed in the pipe leading to the torch lines. as the acetylene gas passes through this filter the particles of lime dust and other impurities are extracted from it so that danger of clogging the torch openings is avoided as much as possible. the gas is also filtered to a large extent by its passage through the water in the generating chamber, this filtering or "scrubbing" often being facilitated by the form of piping through which the gas must pass from the generating chamber into the holder. if the gas passes out of a number of small openings when going into the holder the small bubbles give a better washing than large ones would. _piping._--connections from generators to service pipes should preferably be made with right and left couplings or long thread nipples with lock nuts. if unions are used, they should be of a type that does not require gaskets. the piping should be carried and supported so that any moisture condensing in the lines will drain back toward the generator and where low points occur they should be drained through tees leading into drip cups which are permanently closed with screw caps or plugs. no pet cocks should be used for this purpose. for the feed pipes to the torch lines the following pipe sizes are recommended. / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. - / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. - / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. - / inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. inch pipe. feet long. cubic feet per hour. when drainage is possible into a sewer, the generator should not be connected directly into the sewer but should first discharge into an open receptacle, which may in turn be connected to the sewer. no valves or pet cocks should open into the generator room or any other room when it would be possible, by opening them for draining purposes, to allow any escape of gas. any condensation must be removed without the use of valves or other working parts, being drained into closed receptacles. it should be needless to say that all the piping for gas must be perfectly tight at every point in its length. _safety devices._--good generators are built in such a way that the operator must follow the proper order of operation in charging and cleaning as well as in all other necessary care. it has been mentioned that the gas pressure is released or shut off before it is possible to fill the water compartment, and this same idea is carried further in making the generator inoperative and free from gas pressure before opening the residue drain of the carbide filling opening on top of the hopper. some machines are made so that they automatically cease to generate should there be a sudden and abnormal withdrawal of gas such as would be caused by a bad leak. this method of adding safety by automatic means and interlocking parts may be carried to any extent that seems desirable or necessary to the maker. all generators should be provided with escape or relief pipes of large size which lead to the open air. these pipes are carried so that condensation will drain back toward the generator and after being led out of the building to a point at least twelve feet above ground, they end in a protecting hood so that no rain or solid matter can find its way into them. any escape of gas which might ordinarily pass into the generator room is led into these escape pipes, all parts of the system being connected with the pipe so that the gas will find this way out. safety blow off valves are provided so that any excess gas which cannot be contained by the gas holder may be allowed to escape without causing an undue rise in pressure. this valve also allows the escape of pressure above that for which the generator was designed. gas released in this way passes into the escape pipe just described. inasmuch as the pressure of the oxygen is much greater than that of the acetylene when used in the torch, it will be seen that anything that caused the torch outlet to become closed would allow the oxygen to force the acetylene back into the generator and the oxygen would follow it, making a very explosive mixture. this return of the gas is prevented by a hydraulic safety valve or back pressure valve, as it is often called. mechanical check valves have been found unsuitable for this use and those which employ water as a seal are now required by the insurance rules. the valve itself (figure ) consists of a large cylinder containing water to a certain depth, which is indicated on the valve body. two pipes come into the upper end of this cylinder and lead down into the water, one being longer than the other. the shorter pipe leads to the escape pipe mentioned above, while the longer one comes from the generator. the upper end of the cylinder has an opening to which is attached the pipe leading to the torches. [illustration: figure .--hydraulic back-pressure valve. _a_, acetylene supply line; _b_, vent pipe; _c_, water filling plug; _d_, acetylene service cock; _e_, plug to gauge height of water; _f_, gas openings under water; _g_, return pipe for sealing water; _h_, tube to carry gas below water line; _i_, tube to carry gas to escape pipe; _j_, gas chamber; _k_, plug in upper gas chamber; _l_, high water level; _m_, opening through which water returns; _o_, bottom clean out casting] the gas coming from the generator through the longer pipe passes out of the lower end of the pipe which is under water and bubbles up through the water to the space in the top of the cylinder. from there the gas goes to the pipe leading to the torches. the shorter pipe is closed by the depth of water so that the gas does not escape to the relief pipe. as long as the gas flows in the normal direction as described there will be no escape to the air. should the gas in the torch line return into the hydraulic valve its pressure will lower the level of water in the cylinder by forcing some of the liquid up into the two pipes. as the level of the water lowers, the shorter pipe will be uncovered first, and as this is the pipe leading to the open air the gas will be allowed to escape, while the pipe leading back to the generator is still closed by the water seal. as soon as this reverse flow ceases, the water will again resume its level and the action will continue. because of the small amount of water blown out of the escape pipe each time the valve is called upon to perform this duty, it is necessary to see that the correct water level is always maintained. while there are modifications of this construction, the same principle is used in all types. the pressure escape valve is often attached to this hydraulic valve body. _construction details._--flexible tubing (except at torches), swing pipe joints, springs, mechanical check valves, chains, pulleys and lead or fusible piping should never be used on acetylene apparatus except where the failure of those parts will not affect the safety of the machine or permit, either directly or indirectly, the escape of gas into a room. floats should not be used except where failure will only render the machine inoperative. it should be said that the national board of fire underwriters have established an inspection service for acetylene generators and any apparatus which bears their label, stating that that particular model and type has been passed, is safe to use. this service is for the best interests of all concerned and looks toward the prevention of accidents. such inspection is a very important and desirable feature of any outfit and should be insisted upon. _location of generators._--generators should preferably be placed outside of insured buildings and in properly constructed generator houses. the operating mechanism should have ample room to work in and there should be room enough for the attendant to reach the various parts and perform the required duties without hindrance or the need of artificial light. they should also be protected from tampering by unauthorized persons. generator houses should not be within five feet of any opening into, nor have any opening toward, any adjacent building, and should be kept under lock and key. the size of the house should be no greater than called for by the requirements mentioned above and it should be well ventilated. the foundation for the generator itself should be of brick, stone, concrete or iron, if possible. if of wood, they should be extra heavy, located in a dry place and open to circulation of air. a board platform is not satisfactory, but the foundation should be of heavy planking or timber to make a firm base and so that the air can circulate around the wood. the generator should stand level and no strain should be placed on any of the pipes or connections or any parts of the generator proper. chapter iv welding instruments valves _tank valves._--the acetylene tank valve is of the needle type, fitted with suitable stuffing box nuts and ending in an exposed square shank to which the special wrench may be fitted when the valve is to be opened or closed. the valve used on linde oxygen cylinders is also a needle type, but of slightly more complex construction. the body of the valve, which screws into the top of the cylinder, has an opening below through which the gas comes from the cylinder, and another opening on the side through which it issues to the torch line. a needle screws down from above to close this lower opening. the needle which closes the valve is not connected directly to the threaded member, but fits loosely into it. the threaded part is turned by a small hand wheel attached to the upper end. when this hand wheel is turned to the left, or up, as far as it will go, opening the valve, a rubber disc is compressed inside of the valve body and this disc serves to prevent leakage of the gas around the spindle. the oxygen valve also includes a safety nut having a small hole through it closed by a fusible metal which melts at ° fahrenheit. melting of this plug allows the gas to exert its pressure against a thin copper diaphragm, this diaphragm bursting under the gas pressure and allowing the oxygen to escape into the air. the hand wheel and upper end of the valve mechanism are protected during shipment by a large steel cap which covers them when screwed on to the end of the cylinder. this cap should always be in place when tanks are received from the makers or returned to them. [illustration: figure .--regulating valve] _regulating valves._--while the pressure in the gas containers may be anything from zero to , pounds, and will vary as the gas is withdrawn, the pressure of the gas admitted to the torch must be held steady and at a definite point. this is accomplished by various forms of automatic regulating valves, which, while they differ somewhat in details of construction, all operate on the same principle. the regulator body (figure ) carries a union which attaches to the side outlet on the oxygen tank valve. the gas passes through this union, following an opening which leads to a large gauge which registers the pressure on the oxygen remaining in the tank and also to a very small opening in the end of a tube. the gas passes through this opening and into the interior of the regulator body. inside of the body is a metal or rubber diaphragm placed so that the pressure of the incoming gas causes it to bulge slightly. attached to the diaphragm is a sleeve or an arm tipped with a small piece of fibre, the fibre being placed so that it is directly opposite the small hole through which the gas entered the diaphragm chamber. the slight movement of the diaphragm draws the fibre tightly over the small opening through which the gas is entering, with the result that further flow is prevented. against the opposite side of the diaphragm is the end of a plunger. this plunger is pressed against the diaphragm by a coiled spring. the tension on the coiled spring is controlled by the operator through a threaded spindle ending in a wing or milled nut on the outside of the regulator body. screwing in on the nut causes the tension on the spring to increase, with a consequent increase of pressure on the side of the diaphragm opposite to that on which the gas acts. inasmuch as the gas pressure acted to close the small gas opening and the spring pressure acts in the opposite direction from the gas, it will be seen that the spring pressure tends to keep the valve open. when the nut is turned way out there is of course, no pressure on the spring side of the diaphragm and the first gas coming through automatically closes the opening through which it entered. if now the tension on the spring be slightly increased, the valve will again open and admit gas until the pressure of gas within the regulator is just sufficient to overcome the spring pressure and again close the opening. there will then be a pressure of gas within the regulator that corresponds to the pressure placed on the spring by the operator. an opening leads from the regulator interior to the torch lines so that all gas going to the torches is drawn from the diaphragm chamber. any withdrawal of gas will, of course, lower the pressure of that remaining inside the regulator. the spring tension, remaining at the point determined by the operator, will overcome this lessened pressure of the gas, and the valve will again open and admit enough more gas to bring the pressure back to the starting point. this action continues as long as the spring tension remains at this point and as long as any gas is taken from the regulator. increasing the spring tension will require a greater gas pressure to close the valve and the pressure of that in the regulator will be correspondingly higher. when the regulator is not being used, the hand nut should be unscrewed until no tension remains on the spring, thus closing the valve. after the oxygen tank valve is open, the regulator hand nut is slowly screwed in until the spring tension is sufficient to give the required pressure in the torch lines. another gauge is attached to the regulator so that it communicates with the interior of the diaphragm chamber, this gauge showing the gas pressure going to the torch. it is customary to incorporate a safety valve in the regulator which will blow off at a dangerous pressure. in regulating valves and tank valves, as well as all other parts with which the oxygen comes in contact, it is not permissible to use any form of oil or grease because of danger of ignition and explosion. the mechanism of a regulator is too delicate to be handled in the ordinary shop and should any trouble or leakage develop in this part of the equipment it should be sent to a company familiar with this class of work for the necessary repairs. gas must never be admitted to a regulator until the hand nut is all the way out, because of danger to the regulator itself and to the operator as well. a regulator can only be properly adjusted when the tank valve and torch valves are fully opened. [illustration: figure .--high and low pressure gauges with regulator] acetylene regulators are used in connection with tanks of compressed gas. they are built on exactly the same lines as the oxygen regulating valve and operate in a similar way. one gauge only, the low pressure indicator, is used for acetylene regulators, although both high and low pressure may be used if desired. (see figure .) torches flame is always produced by the combustion of a gas with oxygen and in no other way. when we burn oil or candles or anything else, the material of the fuel is first turned to a gas by the heat and is then burned by combining with the oxygen of the air. if more than a normal supply of air is forced into the flame, a greater heat and more active burning follows. if the amount of air, and consequently oxygen, is reduced, the flame becomes smaller and weaker and the combustion is less rapid. a flame may be easily extinguished by shutting off all of its air supply. the oxygen of the combustion only forms one-fifth of the total volume of air; therefore, if we were to supply pure oxygen in place of air, and in equal volume, the action would be several times as intense. if the oxygen is mixed with the fuel gas in the proportion that burns to the very best advantage, the flame is still further strengthened and still more heat is developed because of the perfect combustion. the greater the amount of fuel gas that can be burned in a certain space and within a certain time, the more heat will be developed from that fuel. the great amount of heat contained in acetylene gas, greater than that found in any other gaseous fuel, is used by leading this gas to the oxy-acetylene torch and there combining it with just the right amount of oxygen to make a flame of the greatest power and heat than can possibly be produced by any form of combustion of fuels of this kind. the heat developed by the flame is about ° fahrenheit and easily melts all the metals, as well as other solids. other gases have been and are now being used in the torch. none of them, however, produce the heat that acetylene does, and therefore the oxy-acetylene process has proved the most useful of all. hydrogen was used for many years before acetylene was introduced in this field. the oxy-hydrogen flame develops a heat far below that of oxy-acetylene, namely ° fahrenheit. coal gas, benzine gas, blaugas and others have also been used in successful applications, but for the present we will deal exclusively with the acetylene fuel. it was only with great difficulty that the obstacles in the way of successfully using acetylene were overcome by the development of practicable controlling devices and torches, as well as generators. at present the oxy-acetylene process is the most universally adaptable, and probably finds the most widely extended field of usefulness of any welding process. the theoretical proportion of the gases for perfect combustion is two and one-half volumes of oxygen to one of acetylene. in practice this proportion is one and one-eighth or one and one-quarter volumes of oxygen to one volume of acetylene, so that the cost is considerably reduced below what it would be if the theoretical quantity were really necessary, as oxygen costs much more than acetylene in all cases. while the heat is so intense as to fuse anything brought into the path of the flame, it is localized in the small "welding cone" at the torch tip so that the torch is not at all difficult to handle without special protection except for the eyes, as already noted. the art of successful welding may be acquired by any operator of average intelligence within a reasonable time and with some practice. one trouble met with in the adoption of this process has been that the operation looks so simple and so easy of performance that unskilled and unprepared persons have been tempted to try welding, with results that often caused condemnation of the process, when the real fault lay entirely with the operator. the form of torch usually employed is from twelve to twenty-four inches long and is composed of a handle at one end with tubes leading from this handle to the "welding head" or torch proper. at or near one end of the handle are adjustable cocks or valves for allowing the gases to flow into the torch or to prevent them from doing so. these cocks are often used for regulating the pressure and amount of gas flowing to the welding head, but are not always constructed for this purpose and should not be so used when it is possible to secure pressure adjustment at the regulators (figure ). figure shows three different sizes of torches. the number torch is designed especially for jewelers' work and thin sheet steel welding. it is eleven inches in length and weighs nineteen ounces. the tips for the number torch are interchangeable with the number . the number torch is adapted for general use on light and medium heavy work. it has six tips and its length is sixteen inches, with a weight of twenty-three ounces. the number torch is designed for heavy work, being twenty-five inches in length, permitting the operator to stand away from the heat of the metal being worked. these heavy tips are in two parts, the oxygen check being renewable. [illustration: figure .--three sizes of torches, with tips] figures and show two sizes of another welding torch. still another type is shown in figure with four interchangeable tips, the function of each being as follows: no. . for heavy castings. no. . light castings and heavy sheet metal. no. . light sheet metal. no. . very light sheet metal and wire. [illustration: figure .--cox welding torch (no. )] [illustration: figure .--cox welding torch (no. )] [illustration: figure .--monarch welding torch] at the side of the shut off cock away from the torch handle the gas tubes end in standard forms of hose nozzles, to which the rubber hose from the gas supply tanks or generators can be attached. the tubes from the handle to the head may be entirely separate from each other, or one may be contained within the other. as a general rule the upper one of two separate tubes carries the oxygen, while this gas is carried in the inside tube when they are concentric with each other. in the welding head is the mixing chamber designed to produce an intimate mixture of the two gases before they issue from the nozzle to the flame. the nozzle, or welding tip, of a suitable size are design for the work to be handled and the pressure of gases being used, is attached to the welding head and consists essentially of the passage at the outer end of which the flame appears. the torch body and tubes are usually made of brass, although copper is sometimes used. the joint must be very strong, and are usually threaded and soldered with silver solder. the nozzle proper is made from copper, because it withstands the heat of the flame better than other less suitable metals. the torch must be built in such a way that it is not at all liable to come apart under the influence of high temperatures. all torches are constructed in such a way that it is impossible for the gases to mix by any possible chance before they reach the head, and the amount of gas contained in the head and tip after being mixed is made as small as possible. in order to prevent the return of the flame through the acetylene tube under the influence of the high pressure oxygen some form of back flash preventer is usually incorporated in the torch at or near the point at which the acetylene enters. this preventer takes the form of some porous and heat absorbing material, such as aluminum shavings, contained in a small cavity through which the gas passes on its way to the head. _high pressure torches._--torches are divided into the same classes as are the generators; that is, high pressure, medium pressure and low pressure. as mentioned before, the medium pressure is usually called the high pressure, because there are very few true high pressure systems in use, and comparatively speaking the medium pressure type is one of high pressure. [illustration: figure .--high pressure torch head] with a true high pressure torch (figure ) the gases are used at very nearly equal heads so that the mixing before ignition is a simple matter. this type admits the oxygen at the inner end of a straight passage leading to the tip of the nozzle. the acetylene comes into this same passage from openings at one side and near the inner end. the difference in direction of the two gases as they enter the passage assists in making a homogeneous mixture. the construction of this nozzle is perfectly simple and is easily understood. the true high pressure torch nozzle is only suited for use with compressed and dissolved acetylene, no other gas being at a sufficient pressure to make the action necessary in mixing the gases. _medium pressure torches._--the medium pressure (usually called high pressure) torch (figure ) uses acetylene from a medium pressure generator or from tanks of compressed gas, but will not take the acetylene from low pressure generators. [illustration: figure .--medium pressure torch head] the construction of the mixing chamber and nozzle is very similar to that of the high pressure torch, the gases entering in the same way and from the same positions of openings. the pressure of the acetylene is but little lower than that of the oxygen, and the two gases, meeting at right angles, form a very intimate mixture at this point of juncture. the mixture in its proportions of gases depends entirely on the sizes of the oxygen and acetylene openings into the mixing chamber and on the pressures at which the gases are admitted. there is a very slight injector action as the fast moving stream of oxygen tends to draw the acetylene from the side openings into the chamber, but the operation of the torch does not depend on this action to any extent. _low pressure torches._--the low pressure torch (figure ) will use gas from low pressure generators from medium pressure machines or from tanks in which it has been compressed and dissolved. this type depends for a perfect mixture of gas upon the principle of the injector just as it is applied in steam boiler practice. [illustration: figure .--low pressure torch with separate injector nozzle] the oxygen enters the head at considerable pressure and passes through its tube to a small jet within the head. the opening of this jet is directly opposite the end of the opening through the nozzle which forms the mixing chamber and the path of the gases to the flame. a small distance remains between the opening from which the oxygen issues and the inner opening into the mixing passage. the stream of oxygen rushes across this space and enters the mixing chamber, being driven by its own pressure. the acetylene enters the head in an annular space surrounding the oxygen tube. the space between oxygen jet and mixing chamber opening is at one end of this acetylene space and the stream of oxygen seizes the acetylene and under the injector action draws it into the mixing chamber, it being necessary only to have a sufficient supply of acetylene flowing into the head to allow the oxygen to draw the required proportion for a proper mixture. the volume of gas drawn into the mixing chamber depends on the size of the injector openings and the pressure of the oxygen. in practice the oxygen pressure is not altered to produce different sized flames, but a new nozzle is substituted which is designed to give the required flame. each nozzle carries its own injector, so that the design is always suited to the conditions. while torches are made having the injector as a permanent part of the torch body, the replaceable nozzle is more commonly used because it makes the one torch suitable for a large range of work and a large number of different sized flames. with the replaceable head a definite pressure of oxygen is required for the size being used, this pressure being the one for which the injector and corresponding mixing chamber were designed in producing the correct mixture. _adjustable injectors._-another form of low pressure torch operates on the injector principle, but the injector itself is a permanent part of the torch, the nozzle only being changed for different sizes of work and flame. the injector is placed in or near the handle and its opening is the largest required by any work that can be handled by this particular torch. the opening through the tip of the injector through which the oxygen issues on its way to the mixing chamber may be wholly or partly closed by a needle valve which may be screwed into the opening or withdrawn from it, according to the operator's judgment. the needle valve ends in a milled nut outside the torch handle, this being the adjustment provided for the different nozzles. _torch construction._--a well designed torch is so designed that the weight distribution is best for holding it in the proper position for welding. when a torch is grasped by its handle with the gas hose attached, it should balance so that it does not feel appreciably heavier on one end than on the other. the head and nozzle may be placed so that the flame issues in a line at right angles with the torch body, or they may be attached at an angle convenient for the work to be done. the head set at an angle of from to degrees with the body is usually preferred for general work in welding, while the cutting torch usually has its head at right angles to the body. removable nozzles have various size openings through them and the different sizes are designated by numbers from up. the same number does not always indicate the same size opening in torches of different makes, nor does it indicate a nozzle of the same capacity. the design of the nozzle, the mixing chamber, the injector, when one is used, and the size of the gas openings must be such that all these things are suited to each other if a proper mixture of gas is to be secured. parts that are not made to work together are unsafe if used because of the danger of a flash back of the flame into the mixing chamber and gas tubes. it is well known that flame travels through any inflammable gas at a certain definite rate of speed, depending on the degree of inflammability of the gas. the easier and quicker the gas burns, the faster will the flame travel through it. if the gas in the nozzle and mixing chamber stood still, the flame would immediately travel back into these parts and produce an explosion of more or less violence. the speed with which the gases issue from the nozzle prevent this from happening because the flame travels back through the gas at the same speed at which the gas issues from the torch tip. should the velocity of the gas be greater than the speed of flame propagation through it, it will be impossible to keep the flame at the tip, the tendency being for a space of unburned gas to appear between tip and flame. on the other hand, should the speed of the flame exceed the velocity with which the gas comes from the torch there will result a flash back and explosion. _care of torches._--an oxy-acetylene torch is a very delicate and sensitive device, much more so that appears on the surface. it must be given equally as good care and attention as any other high-priced piece of machinery if it is to be maintained in good condition for use. it requires cleaning of the nozzles at regular intervals if used regularly. this cleaning is accomplished with a piece of copper or brass wire run through the opening, and never with any metal such as steel or iron that is harder than the nozzle itself, because of the danger of changing the size of the openings. the torch head and nozzle can often be cleaned by allowing the oxygen to blow through at high pressure without the use of any tools. in using a torch a deposit of carbon will gradually form inside of the head, and this deposit will be more rapid if the operator lights the stream of acetylene before turning any oxygen into the torch. this deposit may be removed by running kerosene through the nozzle while it is removed from the torch, setting fire to the kerosene and allowing oxygen to flow through while the oil is burning. should a torch become clogged in the head or tubes, it may usually be cleaned by removing the oxygen hose from the handle end, closing the acetylene cock on the torch, placing the end of the oxygen hose over the opening in the nozzle and turning on the oxygen under pressure to blow the obstruction back through the passage that it has entered. by opening the acetylene cock and closing the oxygen cock at the handle, the acetylene passages may then be cleaned in the same way. under no conditions should a torch be taken apart any more than to remove the changeable nozzle, except in the hands of those experienced in this work. _nozzle sizes._--the size of opening through the nozzle is determined according to the thickness and kind of metal being handled. the following sizes are recommended for steel: davis-bournonville. oxweld low thickness of metal (medium pressure.) pressure / tip no. head no. / / / / / / / / / / / very heavy _cutting torches._--steel may be cut with a jet of oxygen at a rate of speed greater than in any other practicable way under usual conditions. the action consists of burning away a thin section of the metal by allowing a stream of oxygen to flow onto it while the gas is at high pressure and the metal at a white heat. [illustration: figure .--cutting torch] the cutting torch (figure ) has the same characteristics as the welding torch, but has an additional nozzle or means for temporarily using the welding opening for the high pressure oxygen. the oxygen issues from the opening while cutting at a pressure of from ten to pounds to the square inch. the work is first heated to a white heat by adjusting the torch for a welding flame. as soon as the metal reaches this temperature, the high pressure oxygen is turned on to the white-hot portion of the steel. when the jet of gas strikes the metal it cuts straight through, leaving a very narrow slot and removing but little metal. thicknesses of steel up to ten inches can be economically handled in this way. the oxygen nozzle is usually arranged so that it is surrounded by a number of small jets for the heating flame. it will be seen that this arrangement makes the heating flame always precede the oxygen jet, no matter in which direction the torch is moved. the torch is held firmly, either by hand or with the help of special mechanism for guiding it in the desired path, and is steadily advanced in the direction it is desired to extend the cut, the rate of advance being from three inches to two feet per minute through metal from nine inches down to one-quarter of an inch in thickness. the following data on cutting is given by the davis-bournonville company: cubic feet cost of thickness of gas inches gases of cutting heating per foot oxygen cut per per foot steel oxygen oxygen of cut acetylene min. of cut / lbs. lbs. . . $ . / . . . / . . . . . . / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . _acetylene-air torch._--a form of torch which burns the acetylene after mixing it with atmospheric air at normal pressure rather than with the oxygen under higher pressures has been found useful in certain pre-heating, brazing and similar operations. this torch (figure ) is attached by a rubber gas hose to any compressed acetylene tank and is regulated as to flame size and temperature by opening or closing the tank valve more or less. after attaching the torch to the tank, the gas is turned on very slowly and is lighted at the torch tip. the adjustment should cause the presence of a greenish-white cone of flame surrounded by a larger body of burning gas, the cone starting at the mouth of the torch. [illustration: figure .--acetylene-air torch] by opening the tank valve more, a longer and hotter flame is produced, the length being regulated by the tank valve also. this torch will give sufficient heat to melt steel, although not under conditions suited to welding. because of the excess of acetylene always present there is no danger of oxidizing the metal being heated. the only care required by this torch is to keep the small air passages at the nozzle clean and free from carbon deposits. the flame should be extinguished when not in use rather than turned low, because this low flame rapidly deposits large quantities of soot in the burner. chapter v oxy-acetylene welding practice preparation of work _preheating._--the practice of heating the metal around the weld before applying the torch flame is a desirable one for two reasons. first, it makes the whole process more economical; second, it avoids the danger of breakage through expansion and contraction of the work as it is heated and as it cools. when it is desired to join two surfaces by welding them, it is, of course, necessary to raise the metal from the temperature of the surrounding air to its melting point, involving an increase in temperature of from one thousand to nearly three thousand degrees. to obtain this entire increase of temperature with the torch flame is very wasteful of fuel and of the operator's time. the total amount of heat necessary to put into metal is increased by the conductivity of that metal because the heat applied at the weld is carried to other parts of the piece being handled until the whole mass is considerably raised in temperature. to secure this widely distributed increase the various methods of preheating are adopted. as to the second reason for preliminary heating. it is understood that the metal added to the joint is molten at the time it flows into place. all the metals used in welding contract as they cool and occupy a much smaller space than when molten. if additional metal is run between two adjoining surfaces which are parts of a surrounding body of cool metal, this added metal will cool while the surfaces themselves are held stationary in the position they originally occupied. the inevitable result is that the metal added will crack under the strain, or, if the weld is exceptionally strong, the main body of the work will be broken by the force of contraction. to overcome these difficulties is the second and most important reason for preheating and also for slow cooling following the completion of the weld. there are many ways of securing this preheating. the work may be brought to a red heat in the forge if it is cast iron or steel; it may be heated in special ovens built for the purpose; it may be placed in a bed of charcoal while suitably supported; it may be heated by gas or gasoline preheating torches, and with very small work the outer flame of the welding torch automatically provides means to this end. the temperature of the parts heated should be gradually raised in all cases, giving the entire mass of metal a chance to expand equally and to adjust itself to the strains imposed by the preheating. after the region around the weld has been brought to a proper temperature the opening to be filled is exposed so that the torch flame can reach it, while the remaining surfaces are still protected from cold air currents and from cooling through natural radiation. one of the commonest methods and one of the best for handling work of rather large size is to place the piece to be welded on a bed of fire brick and build a loose wall around it with other fire brick placed in rows, one on top of the other, with air spaces left between adjacent bricks in each row. the space between the brick retaining wall and the work is filled with charcoal, which is lighted from below. the top opening of the temporary oven is then covered with asbestos and the fire kept up until the work has been uniformly raised in temperature to the desired point. when much work of the same general character and size is to be handled, a permanent oven may be constructed of fire brick, leaving a large opening through the top and also through one side. charcoal may be used in this form of oven as with the temporary arrangement, or the heat may be secured from any form of burner or torch giving a large volume of flame. in any method employing flame to do the heating, the work itself must be protected from the direct blast of the fire. baffles of brick or metal should be placed between the mouth of the torch and the nearest surface of the work so that the flame will be deflected to either side and around the piece being heated. the heat should be applied to bring the point of welding to the highest temperature desired and, except in the smallest work, the heat should gradually shade off from this point to the other parts of the piece. in the case of cast iron and steel the temperature at the point to be welded should be great enough to produce a dull red heat. this will make the whole operation much easier, because there will be no surrounding cool metal to reduce the temperature of the molten material from the welding rod below the point at which it will join the work. from this red heat the mass of metal should grow cooler as the distance from the weld becomes greater, so that no great strain is placed upon any one part. with work of a very irregular shape it is always best to heat the entire piece so that the strains will be so evenly distributed that they can cause no distortion or breakage under any conditions. the melting point of the work which is being preheated should be kept in mind and care exercised not to approach it too closely. special care is necessary with aluminum in this respect, because of its low melting temperature and the sudden weakening and flowing without warning. workmen have carelessly overheated aluminum castings and, upon uncovering the piece to make the weld, have been astonished to find that it had disappeared. six hundred degrees is about the safe limit for this metal. it is possible to gauge the exact temperature of the work with a pyrometer, but when this instrument cannot be procured, it might be well to secure a number of "temperature cones" from a chemical or laboratory supply house. these cones are made from material that will soften at a certain heat and in form they are long and pointed. placed in position on the part being heated, the point may be watched, and when it bends over it is sure that the metal itself has reached a temperature considerably in excess of the temperature at which that particular cone was designed to soften. the object in preheating the metal around the weld is to cause it to expand sufficiently to open the crack a distance equal to the contraction when cooling from the melting point. in the case of a crack running from the edge of a piece into the body or of a crack wholly within the body, it is usually satisfactory to heat the metal at each end of the opening. this will cause the whole length of the crack to open sufficiently to receive the molten material from the rod. the judgment of the operator will be called upon to decide just where a piece of metal should be heated to open the weld properly. it is often possible to apply the preheating flame to a point some distance from the point of work if the parts are so connected that the expansion of the heated part will serve to draw the edges of the weld apart. whatever part of the work is heated to cause expansion and separation, this part must remain hot during the entire time of welding and must then cool slowly at the same time as the metal in the weld cools. [illustration: figure .--preheating at _a_ while welding at _b_. _c_ also may be heated.] an example of heating points away from the crack might be found in welding a lattice work with one of the bars cracked through (figure ). if the strips parallel and near to the broken bar are heated gradually, the work will be so expanded that the edges of the break are drawn apart and the weld can be successfully made. in this case, the parallel bars next to the broken one would be heated highest, the next row not quite so hot and so on for some distance away. if only the one row were heated, the strains set up in the next ones would be sufficient to cause a new break to appear. [illustration: figure .--cutting through the rim of a wheel (cut shown at a)] if welding is to be done near the central portion of a large piece, the strains will be brought to bear on the parts farthest away from the center. should a fly wheel spoke be broken and made ready to weld, the greatest strain will come on the rim of the wheel. in cases like this it is often desirable to cut through at the point of greatest strain with a saw or cutting torch, allowing free movement while the weld is made at the original break (figure ). after the inside weld is completed, the cut may be welded without danger, for the reason that it will always be at some point at which severe strains cannot be set up by the contraction of the cooling metal. [illustration: figure .--using a wedge while welding] in materials that will spring to some extent without breakage, that is, in parts that are not brittle, it may be possible to force the work out of shape with jacks or wedges (figure ) in the same way that it would be distorted by heating and expanding some portion of it as described. a careful examination will show whether this method can be followed in such a way as to force the edges of the break to separate. if the plan seems feasible, the wedges may be put in place and allowed to remain while the weld is completed. as soon as the work is finished the wedges should be removed so that the natural contraction can take place without damage. it should always be remembered that it is not so much the expansion of the work when heated as it is the contraction caused by cooling that will do the damage. a weld may be made that, to all appearances, is perfect and it may be perfect when completed; but if provision has not been made to allow for the contraction that is certain to follow, there will be a breakage at some point. it is not possible to weld the simplest shapes, other than straight bars, without considering this difficulty and making provision to take care of it. the exact method to employ in preheating will always call for good judgment on the part of the workman, and he should remember that the success or failure of his work will depend fully as much on proper preparation as on correct handling of the weld itself. it should be remembered that the outer flame of the oxy-acetylene torch may be depended on for a certain amount of preheating, as this flame gives a very large volume of heat, but a heat that is not so intense nor so localized as the welding flame itself. the heat of this part of the flame should be fully utilized during the operation of melting the metal and it should be so directed, when possible, that it will bring the parts next to be joined to as high a temperature as possible. when the work has been brought to the desired temperature, all parts except the break and the surface immediately surrounding it on both sides should be covered with heavy sheet asbestos. this protecting cover should remain in place throughout the operation and should only be moved a distance sufficient to allow the torch flame to travel in the path of the weld. the use of asbestos in this way serves a twofold purpose. it retains the heat in the work and prevents the breakage that would follow if a draught of air were to strike the heated metal, and it also prevents such a radiation of heat through the surrounding air as would make it almost impossible for the operator to perform his work, especially in the case of large and heavy castings when the amount of heat utilized is large. _cleaning and champfering._--a perfect weld can never be made unless the surfaces to be joined have been properly prepared to receive the new metal. all spoiled, burned, corroded and rough particles must positively be removed with chisel and hammer and with a free application of emery cloth and wire brush. the metal exposed to the welding flame should be perfectly clean and bright all over, or else the additional material will not unite, but will only stick at best. [illustration: figure .--tapering the opening formed by a break] following the cleaning it is always necessary to bevel, or champfer, the edges except in the thinnest sheet metal. to make a weld that will hold, the metal must be made into one piece, without holes or unfilled portions at any point, and must be solid from inside to outside. this can only be accomplished by starting the addition of metal at one point and gradually building it up until the outside, or top, is reached. with comparatively thin plates the molten metal may be started from the side farthest from the operator and brought through, but with thicker sections the addition is started in the middle and brought flush with one side and then with the other. it will readily be seen that the molten material cannot be depended upon to flow between the tightly closed surfaces of a crack in a way that can be at all sure to make a true weld. it will be necessary for the operator to reach to the farthest side with the flame and welding rod, and to start the new surfaces there. to allow this, the edges that are to be joined are beveled from one side to the other (figure ), so that when placed together in approximately the position they are to occupy they will leave a grooved channel between them with its sides at an angle with each other sufficient in size to allow access to every point of each surface. [illustration: figure .--beveling for thin work] [illustration: figure .--beveling for thick work] with work less than one-fourth inch thick, this angle should be forty-five degrees on each piece (figure ), so that when they are placed together the extreme edges will meet at the bottom of a groove whose sides are square, or at right angles, to each other. this beveling should be done so that only a thin edge is left where the two parts come together, just enough points in contact to make the alignment easy to hold. with work of a thickness greater than a quarter of an inch, the angle of bevel on each piece may be sixty degrees (figure ), so that when placed together the angle included between the sloping sides will also be sixty degrees. if the plate is less than one-eighth of an inch thick the beveling is not necessary, as the edges may be melted all the way through without danger of leaving blowholes at any point. [illustration: figure .--beveling both sides of a thick piece] [illustration: figure .--beveling the end of a pipe] this beveling may be done in any convenient way. a chisel is usually most satisfactory and also quickest. small sections may be handled by filing, while metal that is too hard to cut in either of these ways may be shaped on the emery wheel. it is not necessary that the edges be perfectly finished and absolutely smooth, but they should be of regular outline and should always taper off to a thin edge so that when the flame is first applied it can be seen issuing from the far side of the crack. if the work is quite thick and is of a shape that will allow it to be turned over, the bevel may be brought from both sides (figure ), so that there will be two grooves, one on each surface of the work. after completing the weld on one side, the piece is reversed and finished on the other side. figure shows the proper beveling for welding pipe. figure shows how sheet metal may be flanged for welding. welding should not be attempted with the edges separated in place of beveled, because it will be found impossible to build up a solid web of new metal from one side clear through to the other by this method. the flame cannot reach the surfaces to make them molten while receiving new material from the rod, and if the flame does not reach them it will only serve to cause a few drops of the metal to join and will surely cause a weak and defective weld. [illustration: figure .--flanging sheet metal for welding] _supporting work._--during the operation of welding it is necessary that the work be well supported in the position it should occupy. this may be done with fire brick placed under the pieces in the correct position, or, better still, with some form of clamp. the edges of the crack should touch each other at the point where welding is to start and from there should gradually separate at the rate of about one-fourth inch to the foot. this is done so that the cooling of the molten metal as it is added will draw the edges together by its contraction. care must be used to see that the work is supported so that it will maintain the same relative position between the parts as must be present when the work is finished. in this connection it must be remembered that the expansion of the metal when heated may be great enough to cause serious distortion and to provide against this is one of the difficulties to be overcome. perfect alignment should be secured between the separate parts that are to be joined and the two edges must be held up so that they will be in the same plane while welding is carried out. if, by any chance, one drops below the other while molten metal is being added, the whole job may have to be undone and done over again. one precaution that is necessary is that of making sure that the clamping or supporting does not in itself pull the work out of shape while melted. torch practice [illustration: figure .--rotary movement of torch in welding] the weld is made by bringing the tip of the welding flame to the edges of the metals to be joined. the torch should be held in the right hand and moved slowly along the crack with a rotating motion, traveling in small circles (figure ), so that the welding flame touches first on one side of the crack and then on the other. on large work the motion may be simply back and forth across the crack, advancing regularly as the metal unites. it is usually best to weld toward the operator rather than from him, although this rule is governed by circumstances. the head of the torch should be inclined at an angle of about degrees to the surface of the work. the torch handle should extend in the same line with the break (figure ) and not across it, except when welding very light plates. [illustration: figure .--torch held in line with the break] if the metal is / inch or less in thickness it is only necessary to circle along the crack, the metal itself furnishing enough material to complete the weld without additions. heat both sides evenly until they flow together. material thicker than the above requires the addition of more metal of the same or different kind from the welding rod, this rod being held by the left hand. the proper size rod for cast iron is one having a diameter equal to the thickness of metal being welded up to a one-half inch rod, which is the largest used. for steel the rod should be one-half the thickness of the metal being joined up to one-fourth inch rod. as a general rule, better results will be obtained by the use of smaller rods, the very small sizes being twisted together to furnish enough material while retaining the free melting qualities. [illustration: figure .--the welding rod should be held in the molten metal] the tip of the rod must at all times be held in contact with the pieces being welded and the flame must be so directed that the two sides of the crack and the end of the rod are melted at the same time (figure ). before anything is added from the rod, the sides of the crack are melted down sufficiently to fill the bottom of the groove and join the two sides. afterward, as metal comes from the rod in filling the crack, the flame is circled along the joint being made, the rod always following the flame. [illustration: figure .--welding pieces of unequal thickness] figure illustrates the welding of pieces of unequal thickness. figure illustrates welding at an angle. the molten metal may be directed as to where it should go by the tip of the welding flame, which has considerable force, but care must be taken not to blow melted metal on to cooler surfaces which it cannot join. if, while welding, a spot appears which does not unite with the weld, it may be handled by heating all around it to a white heat and then immediately welding the bad place. [illustration: figure .--welding at an angle] never stop in the middle of a weld, as it is extremely difficult to continue smoothly when resuming work. _the flame._--the welding flame must have exactly the right proportions of each gas. if there is too much oxygen, the metal will be burned or oxidized; the presence of too much acetylene carbonizes the metal; that is to say, it adds carbon and makes the work harder. just the right mixture will neither burn nor carbonize and is said to be a "neutral" flame. the neutral flame, if of the correct size for the work, reduces the metal to a melted condition, not too fluid, and for a width about the same as the thickness of the metal being welded. when ready to light the torch, after attaching the right tip or head as directed in accordance with the thickness of metal to be handled, it will be necessary to regulate the pressure of gases to secure the neutral flame. the oxygen will have a pressure of from to pounds, according to the nozzle used. the acetylene will have much less. even with the compressed gas, the pressure should never exceed pounds for the largest work, and it will usually be from to . in low pressure systems, the acetylene will be received at generator pressure. it should first be seen that the hand-screws on the regulators are turned way out so that the springs are free from any tension. it will do no harm if these screws are turned back until they come out of the threads. this must be done with both oxygen and acetylene regulators. next, open the valve from the generator, or on the acetylene tank, and carefully note whether there is any odor of escaping gas. any leakage of this gas must be stopped before going on with the work. the hand wheel controlling the oxygen cylinder valve should now be turned very slowly to the left as far as it will go, which opens the valve, and it should be borne in mind the pressure that is being released. turn in the hand screw on the oxygen regulator until the small pressure gauge shows a reading according to the requirements of the nozzle being used. this oxygen regulator adjustment should be made with the cock on the torch open, and after the regulator is thus adjusted the torch cock may be closed. open the acetylene cock on the torch and screw in on the acetylene regulator hand-screw until gas commences to come through the torch. light this flow of acetylene and adjust the regulator screw to the pressure desired, or, if there is no gauge, so that there is a good full flame. with the pressure of acetylene controlled by the type of generator it will only be necessary to open the torch cock. with the acetylene burning, slowly open the oxygen cock on the torch and allow this gas to join the flame. the flame will turn intensely bright and then blue white. there will be an outer flame from four to eight inches long and from one to three inches thick. inside of this flame will be two more rather distinctly defined flames. the inner one at the torch tip is very small, and the intermediate one is long and pointed. the oxygen should be turned on until the two inner flames unite into one blue-white cone from one-fourth to one-half inch long and one-eighth to one-fourth inch in diameter. if this single, clearly defined cone does not appear when the oxygen torch cock has been fully opened, turn off some of the acetylene until it does appear. if too much oxygen is added to the flame, there will still be the central blue-white cone, but it will be smaller and more or less ragged around the edges (figure ). when there is just enough oxygen to make the single cone, and when, by turning on more acetylene or by turning off oxygen, two cones are caused to appear, the flame is neutral (figure ), and the small blue-white cone is called the welding flame. [illustration: figure .--oxidizing flame--too much oxygen] [illustration: figure .--neutral flame] [illustration: figure .--reducing flame--showing an excess of acetylene] while welding, test the correctness of the flame adjustment occasionally by turning on more acetylene or by turning off some oxygen until two flames or cones appear. then regulate as before to secure the single distinct cone. too much oxygen is not usually so harmful as too much acetylene, except with aluminum. (see figure .) an excessive amount of sparks coming from the weld denotes that there is too much oxygen in the flame. should the opening in the tip become partly clogged, it will be difficult to secure a neutral flame and the tip should be cleaned with a brass or copper wire--never with iron or steel tools or wire of any kind. while the torch is doing its work, the tip may become excessively hot due to the heat radiated from the molten metal. the tip may be cooled by turning off the acetylene and dipping in water with a slight flow of oxygen through the nozzle to prevent water finding its way into the mixing chamber. the regulators for cutting are similar to those for welding, except that higher pressures may be handled, and they are fitted with gauges reading up to or pounds pressure. in welding metals which conduct the heat very rapidly it is necessary to use a much larger nozzle and flame than for metals which have not this property. this peculiarity is found to the greatest extent in copper, aluminum and brass. should a hole be blown through the work, it may be closed by withdrawing the flame for a few seconds and then commencing to build additional metal around the edges, working all the way around and finally closing the small opening left at the center with a drop or two from the welding rod. welding various metals because of the varying melting points, rates of expansion and contraction, and other peculiarities of different metals, it is necessary to give detailed consideration to the most important ones. _characteristics of metals._--the welder should thoroughly understand the peculiarities of the various metals with which he has to deal. the metals and their alloys are described under this heading in the first chapter of this book and a tabulated list of the most important points relating to each metal will be found at the end of the present chapter. all this information should be noted by the operator of a welding installation before commencing actual work. because of the nature of welding, the melting point of a metal is of great importance. a metal melting at a low temperature should have more careful treatment to avoid undesired flow than one which melts at a temperature which is relatively high. when two dissimilar metals are to be joined, the one which melts at the higher temperature must be acted upon by the flame first and when it is in a molten condition the heat contained in it will in many cases be sufficient to cause fusion of the lower melting metal and allow them to unite without playing the flame on the lower metal to any great extent. the heat conductivity bears a very important relation to welding, inasmuch as a metal with a high rate of conductance requires more protection from cooling air currents and heat radiation than one not having this quality to such a marked extent. a metal which conducts heat rapidly will require a larger volume of flame, a larger nozzle, than otherwise, this being necessary to supply the additional heat taken away from the welding point by this conductance. the relative rates of expansion of the various metals under heat should be understood in order that parts made from such material may have proper preparation to compensate for this expansion and contraction. parts made from metals having widely varying rates of expansion must have special treatment to allow for this quality, otherwise breakage is sure to occur. _cast iron._--all spoiled metal should be cut away and if the work is more than one-eighth inch in thickness the sides of the crack should be beveled to a degree angle, leaving a number of points touching at the bottom of the bevel so that the work may be joined in its original relation. the entire piece should be preheated in a bricked-up oven or with charcoal placed on the forge, when size does not warrant building a temporary oven. the entire piece should be slowly heated and the portion immediately surrounding the weld should be brought to a dull red. care should be used that the heat does not warp the metal through application to one part more than the others. after welding, the work should be slowly cooled by covering with ashes, slaked lime, asbestos fibre or some other non-conductor of heat. these precautions are absolutely essential in the case of cast iron. a neutral flame, from a nozzle proportioned to the thickness of the work, should be held with the point of the blue-white cone about one-eighth inch from the surface of the iron. a cast iron rod of correct diameter, usually made with an excess of silicon, is used by keeping its end in contact with the molten metal and flowing it into the puddle formed at the point of fusion. metal should be added so that the weld stands about one-eighth inch above the surrounding surface of the work. various forms of flux may be used and they are applied by dipping the end of the welding rod into the powder at intervals. these powders may contain borax or salt, and to prevent a hard, brittle weld, graphite or ferro-silicon may be added. flux should be added only after the iron is molten and as little as possible should be used. no flux should be used just before completion of the work. the welding flame should be played on the work around the crack and gradually brought to bear on the work. the bottom of the bevel should be joined first and it will be noted that the cast iron tends to run toward the flame, but does not stick together easily. a hard and porous weld should be carefully guarded against, as described above, and upon completion of the work the welded surface should be scraped with a file, while still red hot, in order to remove the surface scale. _malleable iron._--this material should be beveled in the same way that cast iron is handled, and preheating and slow cooling are equally desirable. the flame used is the same as for cast iron and so is the flux. the welding rod may be of cast iron, although better results are secured with norway iron wire or else a mild steel wire wrapped with a coil of copper wire. it will be understood that malleable iron turns to ordinary cast iron when melted and cooled. welds in malleable iron are usually far from satisfactory and a better joint is secured by brazing the edges together with bronze. the edges to be joined are brought to a heat just a little below the point at which they will flow and the opening is then quickly-filled from a rod of tobin bronze or manganese bronze, a brass or bronze flux being used in this work. _wrought iron or semi-steel._--this metal should be beveled and heated in the same way as described for cast iron. the flame should be neutral, of the same size as for steel, and used with the tip of the blue-white cone just touching the work. the welding rod should be of mild steel, or, if wrought iron is to be welded to steel, a cast iron rod may be used. a cast iron flux is well suited for this work. it should be noted that wrought iron turns to ordinary cast iron if kept heated for any length of time. _steel._--steel should be beveled if more than one-eighth inch in thickness. it requires only a local preheating around the point to be welded. the welding flame should be absolutely neutral, without excess of either gas. if the metal is one-sixteenth inch or less in thickness, the tip of the blue-white cone must be held a short distance from the surface of the work; in all other cases the tip of this cone is touched to the metal being welded. the welding rod may be of mild, low carbon steel or of norway iron. nickel steel rods may be used for parts requiring great strength, but vanadium alloys are very difficult to handle. a very satisfactory rod is made by twisting together two wires of the required material. the rod must be kept constantly in contact with the work and should not be added until the edges are thoroughly melted. the flux may or may not be used. if one is wanted, it may be made from three parts iron filings, six parts borax and one part sal ammoniac. it will be noticed that the steel runs from the flame, but tends to hold together. should foaming commence in the molten metal, it shows an excess of oxygen and that the metal is being burned. high carbon steels are very difficult to handle. it is claimed that a drop or two of copper added to the weld will assist the flow, but will also harden the work. an excess of oxygen reduces the amount of carbon and softens the steel, while an excess of acetylene increases the proportion of carbon and hardens the metal. high speed steels may sometimes be welded if first coated with semi-steel before welding. _aluminum._--this is the most difficult of the commonly found metals to weld. this is caused by its high rate of expansion and contraction and its liability to melt and fall away from under the flame. the aluminum seems to melt on the inside first, and, without previous warning, a portion of the work will simply vanish from in front of the operator's eyes. the metal tends to run from the flame and separate at the same time. to keep the metal in shape and free from oxide, it is worked or puddled while in a plastic condition by an iron rod which has been flattened at one end. several of these rods should be at hand and may be kept in a jar of salt water while not being used. these rods must not become coated with aluminum and they must not get red hot while in the weld. the surfaces to be joined, together with the adjacent parts, should be cleaned thoroughly and then washed with a per cent solution of nitric acid in hot water, used on a swab. the parts should then be rinsed in clean water and dried with sawdust. it is also well to make temporary fire clay moulds back of the parts to be heated, so that the metal may be flowed into place and allowed to cool without danger of breakage. aluminum must invariably be preheated to about degrees, and the whole piece being handled should be well covered with sheet asbestos to prevent excessive heat radiation. the flame is formed with an excess of acetylene such that the second cone extends about an inch, or slightly more, beyond the small blue-white point. the torch should be held so that the end of this second cone is in contact with the work, the small cone ordinarily used being kept an inch or an inch and a half from the surface of the work. welding rods of special aluminum are used and must be handled with their end submerged in the molten metal of the weld at all times. when aluminum is melted it forms alumina, an oxide of the metal. this alumina surrounds small masses of the metal, and as it does not melt at temperatures below degrees (while aluminum melts at about ), it prevents a weld from being made. the formation of this oxide is retarded and the oxide itself is dissolved by a suitable flux, which usually contains phosphorus to break down the alumina. _copper._--the whole piece should be preheated and kept well covered while welding. the flame must be much larger than for the same thickness of steel and neutral in character. a slight excess of acetylene would be preferable to an excess of oxygen, and in all cases the molten metal should be kept enveloped with the flame. the welding rod is of copper which contains phosphorus; and a flux, also containing phosphorus, should be spread for about an inch each side of the joint. these assist in preventing oxidation, which is sure to occur with heated copper. copper breaks very easily at a heat slightly under the welding temperature and after cooling it is simply cast copper in all cases. _brass and bronze._--it is necessary to preheat these metals, although not to a very high temperature. they must be kept well covered at all times to prevent undue radiation. the flame should be produced with a nozzle one size larger than for the same thickness of steel and the small blue-white cone should be held from one-fourth to one-half inch above the surface of the work. the flame should be neutral in character. a rod or wire of soft brass containing a large percentage of zinc is suitable for adding to brass, while copper requires the use of copper or manganese bronze rods. special flux or borax may be used to assist the flow. the emission of white smoke indicates that the zinc contained in these alloys is being burned away and the heat should immediately be turned away or reduced. the fumes from brass and bronze welding are very poisonous and should not be breathed. restoration of steel the result of the high heat to which the steel has been subjected is that it is weakened and of a different character than before welding. the operator may avoid this as much as possible by first playing the outer flame of the torch all over the surfaces of the work just completed until these faces are all of uniform color, after which the metal should be well covered with asbestos and allowed to cool without being disturbed. if a temporary heating oven has been employed, the work and oven should be allowed to cool together while protected with the sheet asbestos. if the outside air strikes the freshly welded work, even for a moment, the result will be breakage. a weld in steel will always leave the metal with a coarse grain and with all the characteristics of rather low grade cast steel. as previously mentioned in another chapter, the larger the grain size in steel the weaker the metal will be, and it is the purpose of the good workman to avoid, as far as possible, this weakening. the structure of the metal in one piece of steel will differ according to the heat that it has under gone. the parts of the work that have been at the melting point will, therefore, have the largest grain size and the least strength. those parts that have not suffered any great rise in temperature will be practically unaffected, and all the parts between these two extremes will be weaker or stronger according to their distance from the weld itself. to restore the steel so that it will have the best grain size, the operator may resort to either of two methods: ( ) the grain may be improved by forging. that means that the metal added to the weld and the surfaces that have been at the welding heat are hammered much as a blacksmith would hammer his finished work to give it greater strength. the hammering should continue from the time the metal first starts to cool until it has reached the temperature at which the grain size is best for strength. this temperature will vary somewhat with the composition of the metal being handled, but in a general way, it may be stated that the hammering should continue without intermission from the time the flame is removed from the weld until the steel just begins to show attraction for a magnet presented to it. this temperature of magnetic attraction will always be low enough and the hammering should be immediately discontinued at this point. ( ) a method that is more satisfactory, although harder to apply, is that of reheating the steel to a certain temperature throughout its whole mass where the heat has had any effect, and then allowing slow and even cooling from this temperature. the grain size is affected by the temperature at which the reheating is stopped, and not by the cooling, yet the cooling should be slow enough to avoid strains caused by uneven contraction. after the weld has been completed the steel must be allowed to cool until below ° fahrenheit. the next step is to heat the work slowly until all those parts to be restored have reached a temperature at which the magnet just ceases to be attracted. while the very best temperature will vary according to the nature and hardness of the steel being handled, it will be safe to carry the heating to the point indicated by the magnet in the absence of suitable means of measuring accurately these high temperatures. in using a magnet for testing, it will be most satisfactory if it is an electromagnet and not of the permanent type. the electric current may be secured from any small battery and will be the means of making sure of the test. the permanent magnet will quickly lose its power of attraction under the combined action of the heat and the jarring to which it will be subjected. in reheating the work it is necessary to make sure that no part reaches a temperature above that desired for best grain size and also to see that all parts are brought to this temperature. here enters the greatest difficulty in restoring the metal. the heating may be done so slowly that no part of the work on the outside reaches too high a temperature and then keeps the outside at this heat until the entire mass is at the same temperature. a less desirable way is to heat the outside higher than this temperature and allow the conductivity of the metal to distribute the excess to the inside. the most satisfactory method, where it can be employed, is to make use of a bath of some molten metal or some chemical mixture that can be kept at the exact heat necessary by means of gas fires that admit of close regulation. the temperature of these baths may be maintained at a constant point by watching a pyrometer, and the finished work may be allowed to remain in the bath until all parts have reached the desired temperature. welding information the following tables include much of the information that the operator must use continually to handle the various metals successfully. the temperature scales are given for convenience only. the composition of various alloys will give an idea of the difficulties to be contended with by consulting the information on welding various metals. the remaining tables are of self-evident value in this work. temperature scales centigrade fahrenheit centigrade fahrenheit ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° metal alloys (society of automobile engineers) babbitt-- tin........................... . % antimony...................... . % copper........................ . % brass, white-- copper........................ . % to . % tin (minimum) ................ . % zinc.......................... . % to . % brass, red cast-- copper........................ . % tin........................... . % lead.......................... . % zinc.......................... . % brass, yellow-- copper........................ . % to . % lead.......................... . % to . % zinc.......................... . % to . % bronze, hard-- copper........................ . % to . % tin........................... . % to . % zinc.......................... . % to . % bronze, phosphor-- copper........................ . % tin........................... . % lead.......................... . % phosphorus.................... . % to . % bronze, manganese-- copper (approximate) ......... . % zinc (approximate) ........... . % manganese (variable) ......... small bronze, gear-- copper........................ . % to . % tin........................... . % to . % aluminum alloys-- aluminum copper zinc manganese no. .. . % . - . % no. .. . % . - . % % not over . % no. .. . % . % cast iron-- gray iron malleable total carbon........ . to . % combined carbon..... . to . % manganese........... . to . % . to . % phosphorus.......... . to . % not over . % sulphur...........not over . % not over . % silicon............ . to . % not over . % carbon steel ( point)-- carbon........................ . % to . % manganese..................... . % to . % phosphorus (maximum).......... . % sulphur (maximum)............. . % ( point)-- carbon........................ . % to . % manganese..................... . % to . % phosphorus (maximum).......... . % sulphur (maximum)............. . % ( point)-- manganese..................... . % to . % carbon........................ . % to . % phosphorus (maximum).......... . % sulphur (maximum)............. . % ( point)-- carbon........................ . % to . % manganese..................... . % to . % phosphorus (maximum).......... . % sulphur (maximum)............. . % heating power of fuel gases (in b.t.u. per cubic foot.) acetylene....... . ethylene....... . hydrogen........ . methane........ . alcohol......... . melting points of metals platinum.................... ° iron, wrought............... ° malleable................. ° cast...................... ° pure...................... ° steel, mild................. ° medium.................... ° hard...................... ° copper...................... ° brass....................... ° silver...................... ° bronze...................... ° aluminum.................... ° antimony.................... ° zinc........................ ° lead........................ ° babbitt.................. - ° solder................... - ° tin......................... ° _note.--these melting points are for average compositions and conditions. the exact proportion of elements entering into the metals affects their melting points one way or the other in practice._ tensile strength of metals alloy steels can be made with tensile strengths as high as , pounds per square inch. some carbon steels are given below according to "points": pounds per square inch steel, point................ , to , point..................... , to , point..................... , to , point..................... , to , iron, cast..................... , to , wrought...................... , to , malleable.................... , to , copper......................... , to , bronze......................... , to , brass, cast.................... , to , rolled....................... , to , wire......................... , to , aluminum....................... , to , zinc........................... , to , tin............................ , to , lead........................... , to , conductivity of metals (based on the value of silver as ) heat electricity silver.................... copper.................... aluminum.................. brass..................... zinc...................... tin....................... wrought iron.............. steel..................... . cast iron................. bronze.................... lead...................... weight of metals (per cubic inch) pounds pounds lead............ . wrought iron..... . copper.......... . tin.............. . bronze.......... . cast iron........ . brass........... . zinc............. . steel........... . aluminum......... . expansion of metals (measured in thousandths of an inch per foot of length when raised degrees in temperature) inch inch lead............ . brass............ . zinc............ . copper........... . aluminum........ . steel............ . silver.......... . wrought iron..... . bronze.......... . cast iron........ . chapter vi electric welding resistance method two distinct forms of electric welding apparatus are in use, one producing heat by the resistance of the metal being treated to the passage of electric current, the other using the heat of the electric arc. the resistance process is of the greatest use in manufacturing lines where there is a large quantity of one kind of work to do, many thousand pieces of one kind, for instance. the arc method may be applied in practically any case where any other form of weld may be made. the resistance process will be described first. it is a well known fact that a poor conductor of electricity will offer so much resistance to the flow of electricity that it will heat. copper is a good conductor, and a bar of iron, a comparatively poor conductor, when placed between heavy copper conductors of a welder, becomes heated in attempting to carry the large volume of current. the degree of heat depends on the amount of current and the resistance of the conductor. in an electric circuit the ends of two pieces of metal brought together form the point of greatest resistance in the electric circuit, and the abutting ends instantly begin to heat. the hotter this metal becomes, the greater the resistance to the flow of current; consequently, as the edges of the abutting ends heat, the current is forced into the adjacent cooler parts, until there is a uniform heat throughout the entire mass. the heat is first developed in the interior of the metal so that it is welded there as perfectly as at the surface. [illustration: figure .--spot welding machine] the electric welder (figure ) is built to hold the parts to be joined between two heavy copper dies or contacts. a current of three to five volts, but of very great volume (amperage), is allowed to pass across these dies, and in going through the metal to be welded, heats the edges to a welding temperature. it may be explained that the voltage of an electric current measures the pressure or force with which it is being sent through the circuit and has nothing to do with the quantity or volume passing. amperes measure the rate at which the current is passing through the circuit and consequently give a measure of the quantity which passes in any given time. volts correspond to water pressure measured by pounds to the square inch; amperes represent the flow in gallons per minute. the low voltage used avoids all danger to the operator, this pressure not being sufficient to be felt even with the hands resting on the copper contacts. current is supplied to the welding machine at a higher voltage and lower amperage than is actually used between the dies, the low voltage and high amperage being produced by a transformer incorporated in the machine itself. by means of windings of suitable size wire, the outside current may be received at voltages ranging from to and converted to the low pressure needed. the source of current for the resistance welder must be alternating, that is, the current must first be negative in value and then positive, passing from one extreme to the other at rates varying from to times a second. this form is known as alternating current, as opposed to direct current, in which there is no changing of positive and negative. the current must also be what is known as single phase, that is, a current which rises from zero in value to the highest point as a positive current and then recedes to zero before rising to the highest point of negative value. two-phase of three-phase currents would give two or three positive impulses during this time. as long as the current is single phase alternating, the voltage and cycles (number of alternations per second) may be anything convenient. various voltages and cycles are taken care of by specifying all these points when designing the transformer which is to handle the current. direct current is not used because there is no way of reducing the voltage conveniently without placing resistance wires in the circuit and this uses power without producing useful work. direct current may be changed to alternating by having a direct current motor running an alternating current dynamo, or the change may be made by a rotary converter, although this last method is not so satisfactory as the first. the voltage used in welding being so low to start with, it is absolutely necessary that it be maintained at the correct point. if the source of current supply is not of ample capacity for the welder being used, it will be very hard to avoid a fall of voltage when the current is forced to pass through the high resistance of the weld. the current voltage for various work is calculated accurately, and the efficiency of the outfit depends to a great extent on the voltage being constant. a simple test for fall of voltage is made by connecting an incandescent electric lamp across the supply lines at some point near the welder. the lamp should burn with the same brilliancy when the weld is being made as at any other time. if the lamp burns dim at any time, it indicates a drop in voltage, and this condition should be corrected. the dynamo furnishing the alternating current may be in the same building with the welder and operated from a direct current motor, as mentioned above, or operated from any convenient shafting or source of power. when the dynamo is a part of the welding plant it should be placed as close to the welding machine as possible, because the length of the wire used affects the voltage appreciably. in order to hold the voltage constant, the toledo electric welder company has devised connections which include a rheostat to insert a variable resistance in the field windings of the dynamo so that the voltage may be increased by cutting this resistance out at the proper time. an auxiliary switch is connected to the welder switch so that both switches act together. when the welder switch is closed in making a weld, that portion of the rheostat resistance between two arms determining the voltage is short circuited. this lowers the resistance and the field magnets of the dynamo are made stronger so that additional voltage is provided to care for the resistance in the metal being heated. a typical machine is shown in the accompanying cut (figure ). on top of the welder are two jaws for holding the ends of the pieces to be welded. the lower part of the jaws is rigid while the top is brought down on top of the work, acting as a clamp. these jaws carry the copper dies through which the current enters the work being handled. after the work is clamped between the jaws, the upper set is forced closer to the lower set by a long compression lever. the current being turned on with the surfaces of the work in contact, they immediately heat to the welding point when added pressure on the lever forces them together and completes the weld. [illustration: figure --operating parts of a toledo spot welder] [illustration: figure a.--method of testing electric welder] [illustration: figure .--detail of water-cooled spot welding head] the transformer is carried in the base of the machine and on the left-hand side is a regulator for controlling the voltage for various kinds of work. the clamps are applied by treadles convenient to the foot of the operator. a treadle is provided which instantly releases both jaws upon the completion of the weld. one or both of the copper dies may be cooled by a stream of water circulating through it from the city water mains (figure ). the regulator and switch give the operator control of the heat, anything from a dull red to the melting point being easily obtained by movement of the lever (figure ). [illustration: figure .--welding head of a water-cooled welder] _welding._--it is not necessary to give the metal to be welded any special preparation, although when very rusty or covered with scale, the rust and scale should be removed sufficiently to allow good contact of clean metal on the copper dies. the cleaner and better the stock, the less current it takes, and there is less wear on the dies. the dies should be kept firm and tight in their holders to make a good contact. all bolts and nuts fastening the electrical contacts should be clean and tight at all times. the scale may be removed from forgings by immersing them in a pickling solution in a wood, stone or lead-lined tank. the solution is made with five gallons of commercial sulphuric acid in gallons of water. to get the quickest and best results from this method, the solution should be kept as near the boiling point as possible by having a coil of extra heavy lead pipe running inside the tank and carrying live steam. a very few minutes in this bath will remove the scale and the parts should then be washed in running water. after this washing they should be dipped into a bath of pounds of unslaked lime in gallons of water to neutralize any trace of acid. cast iron cannot be commercially welded, as it is high in carbon and silicon, and passes suddenly from a crystalline to a fluid state when brought to the welding temperature. with steel or wrought iron the temperature must be kept below the melting point to avoid injury to the metal. the metal must be heated quickly and pressed together with sufficient force to push all burnt metal out of the joint. high carbon steel can be welded, but must be annealed after welding to overcome the strains set up by the heat being applied at one place. good results are hard to obtain when the carbon runs as high as points, and steel of this class can only be handled by an experienced operator. if the steel is below points in carbon content, good welds will always be the result. to weld high carbon to low carbon steel, the stock should be clamped in the dies with the low carbon stock sticking considerably further out from the die than the high carbon stock. nickel steel welds readily, the nickel increasing the strength of the weld. iron and copper may be welded together by reducing the size of the copper end where it comes in contact with the iron. when welding copper and brass the pressure must be less than when welding iron. the metal is allowed to actually fuse or melt at the juncture and the pressure must be sufficient to force the burned metal out. the current is cut off the instant the metal ends begin to soften, this being done by means of an automatic switch which opens when the softening of the metal allows the ends to come together. the pressure is applied to the weld by having the sliding jaw moved by a weight on the end of an arm. copper and brass require a larger volume of current at a lower voltage than for steel and iron. the die faces are set apart three times the diameter of the stock for brass and four times the diameter for copper. light gauges of sheet steel can be welded to heavy gauges or to solid bars of steel by "spot" welding, which will be described later. galvanized iron can be welded, but the zinc coating will be burned off. sheet steel can be welded to cast iron, but will pull apart, tearing out particles of the iron. sheet copper and sheet brass may be welded, although this work requires more experience than with iron and steel. some grades of sheet aluminum can be spot-welded if the slight roughness left on the surface under the die is not objectionable. _butt welding._--this is the process which joins the ends of two pieces of metal as described in the foregoing part of this chapter. the ends are in plain sight of the operator at all times and it can easily be seen when the metal reaches the welding heat and begins to soften (figure ). it is at this point that the pressure must be applied with the lever and the ends forced together in the weld. [illustration: figure .--butt welder] the parts are placed in the clamping jaws (figure ) with / to / inch of metal extending beyond the jaw. the ends of the metal touch each other and the current is turned on by means of a switch. to raise the ends to the proper heat requires from seconds for / -inch rods to seconds for a - / -inch bar. this method is applicable to metals having practically the same area of metal to be brought into contact on each end. when such parts are forced together a slight projection will be left in the form of a fin or an enlarged portion called an upset. the degree of heat required for any work is found by moving the handle of the regulator one way or the other while testing several parts. when this setting is right the work can continue as long as the same sizes are being handled. [illustration: figure .--clamping dies of a butt welder] copper, brass, tool steel and all other metals that are harmed by high temperatures must be heated quickly and pressed together with sufficient force to force all burned metal from the weld. in case it is desired to make a weld in the form of a capital letter t, it is necessary to heat the part corresponding to the top bar of the t to a bright red, then bring the lower bar to the pre-heated one and again turn on the current, when a weld can be quickly made. _spot welding._--this is a method of joining metal sheets together at any desired point by a welded spot about the size of a rivet. it is done on a spot welder by fusing the metal at the point desired and at the same instant applying sufficient pressure to force the particles of molten metal together. the dies are usually placed one above the other so that the work may rest on the lower one while the upper one is brought down on top of the upper sheet to be welded. one of the dies is usually pointed slightly, the opposing one being left flat. the pointed die leaves a slight indentation on one side of the metal, while the other side is left smooth. the dies may be reversed so that the outside surface of any work may be left smooth. the current is allowed to flow through the dies by a switch which is closed after pressure is applied to the work. there is a limit to the thickness of sheet metal that can be welded by this process because of the fact that the copper rods can only carry a certain quantity of current without becoming unduly heated themselves. another reason is that it is difficult to make heavy sections of metal touch at the welding point without excessive pressure. _lap welding_ is the process used when two pieces of metal are caused to overlap and when brought to a welding heat are forced together by passing through rollers, or under a press, thus leaving the welded joint practically the same thickness as the balance of the work. where it is desirable to make a continuous seam, a special machine is required, or an attachment for one of the other types. in this form of work the stock must be thoroughly cleaned and is then passed between copper rollers which act in the same capacity as the copper dies. _other applications._--hardening and tempering can be done by clamping the work in the welding dies and setting the control and time to bring the metal to the proper color, when it is cooled in the usual manner. brazing is done by clamping the work in the jaws and heating until the flux, then the spelter has melted and run into the joint. riveting and heading of rivets can be done by bringing the dies down on opposite ends of the rivet after it has been inserted in the hole, the dies being shaped to form the heads properly. hardened steel may be softened and annealed so that it can be machined by connecting the dies of the welder to each side of the point to be softened. the current is then applied until the work has reached a point at which it will soften when cooled. _troubles and remedies._--the following methods have been furnished by the toledo electric welder company and are recommended for this class of work whenever necessary. to locate grounds in the primary or high voltage side of the circuit, connect incandescent lamps in series by means of a long piece of lamp cord, as shown, in figure a. for volts use one lamp, for volts use two lamps and for volts use four lamps. attach one end of the lamp cord to one side of the switch, and close the switch. take the other end of the cord in the hand and press it against some part of the welder frame where the metal is clean and bright. paint, grease and dirt act as insulators and prevent electrical contact. if the lamp lights, the circuit is in electrical contact with the frame; in other words, grounded. if the lamps do not light, connect the wire to a terminal block, die or slide. if the lamps then light, the circuit, coils or leads are in electrical contact with the large coil in the transformer or its connections. if, however, the lamps do not light in either case, the lamp cord should be disconnected from the switch and connected to the other side, and the operations of connecting to welder frame, dies, terminal blocks, etc., as explained above, should be repeated. if the lamps light at any of these connections, a "ground" is indicated. "grounds" can usually be found by carefully tracing the primary circuit until a place is found where the insulation is defective. reinsulate and make the above tests again to make sure everything is clear. if the ground can not be located by observation, the various parts of the primary circuit should be disconnected, and the transformer, switch, regulator, etc., tested separately. to locate a ground in the regulator or other part, disconnect the lines running to the welder from the switch. the test lamps used in the previous tests are connected, one end of lamp cord to the switch, the other end to a binding post of the regulator. connect the other side of the switch to some part of the regulator housing. (this must be a clean connection to a bolt head or the paint should be scraped off.) close the switch. if the lamps light, the regulator winding or some part of the switch is "grounded" to the iron base or core of the regulator. if the lamps do not light, this part of the apparatus is clear. this test can be easily applied to any part of the welder outfit by connecting to the current carrying part of the apparatus, and to the iron base or frame that should not carry current. if the lamps light, it indicates that the insulation is broken down or is defective. an a.c. voltmeter can, of course, be substituted for the lamps, or a d.c. voltmeter with d.c. current can be used in making the tests. a short circuit in the primary is caused by the insulation of the coils becoming defective and allowing the bare copper wires to touch each other. this may result in a "burn out" of one or more of the transformer coils, if the trouble is in the transformer, or in the continued blowing of fuses in the line. feel of each coil separately. if a short circuit exists in a coil it will heat excessively. examine all the wires; the insulation may have worn through and two of them may cross, or be in contact with the frame or other part of the welder. a short circuit in the regulator winding is indicated by failure of the apparatus to regulate properly, and sometimes, though not always, by the heating of the regulator coils. the remedy for a short circuit is to reinsulate the defective parts. it is a good plan to prevent trouble by examining the wiring occasionally and see that the insulation is perfect. _to locate grounds and short circuits in the secondary, or low voltage side._--trouble of this kind is indicated by the machine acting sluggish or, perhaps, refusing to operate. to make a test, it will be necessary to first ascertain the exciting current of your particular transformer. this is the current the transformer draws on "open circuit," or when supplied with current from the line with no stock in the welder dies. the following table will give this information close enough for all practical purposes: k.w. ----------------- amperes at ---------------- rating volts volts volts volts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . remove the fuses from the wall switch and substitute fuses just large enough to carry the "exciting" current. if no suitable fuses are at hand, fine strands of copper from an ordinary lamp cord may be used. these strands are usually no. gauge wire and will fuse at about amperes. one or more strands should be used, depending on the amount of exciting current, and are connected across the fuse clips in place of fuse wire. place a piece of wood or fibre between the welding dies in the welder as though you were going to weld them. see that the regulator is on the highest point and close the welder switch. if the secondary circuit is badly grounded, current will flow through the ground, and the small fuses or small strands of wire will burn out. this is an indication that both sides of the secondary circuit are grounded or that a short circuit exists in a primary coil. in either case the welder should not be operated until the trouble is found and removed. if, however, the small fuses do not "blow," remove same and replace the large fuses, then disconnect wires running from the wall switch to the welder and substitute two pieces of no. or no. insulated copper wire, after scraping off the insulation for an inch or two at each end. connect one wire from the switch to the frame of welder; this will leave one loose end. hold this a foot or so away from the place where the insulation is cut off; then turn on the current and strike the free end of this wire lightly against one of the copper dies, drawing it away quickly. if no sparking is produced, the secondary circuit is free from ground, and you will then look for a broken connection in the circuit. some caution must be used in making the above test, as in case one terminal is heavily grounded the testing wire may be fused if allowed to stay in contact with the die. _the remedy._--clean the slides, dies and terminal blocks thoroughly and dry out the fibre insulation if it is damp. see that no scale or metal has worked under the sliding parts, and that the secondary leads do not touch the frame. if the ground is very heavy it may be necessary to remove the slides in order to facilitate the examination and removal of the ground. insulation, where torn or worn through, must be carefully replaced or taped. if the transformer coils are grounded to the iron core of the transformer or to the secondary, it may be necessary to remove the coils and reinsulate them at the points of contact. a short circuited coil will heat excessively and eventually burn out. this may mean a new coil if you are unable to repair the old one. in all cases the transformer windings should be protected from mechanical injury or dampness. unless excessively overloaded, transformers will last for years without giving a moment's trouble, if they are not exposed to moisture or are not injured mechanically. the most common trouble arises from poor electrical contacts, and they are the cause of endless trouble and annoyance. see that all connections are clean and bright. take out the dies every day or two and see that there is no scale, grease or dirt between them and the holders. clean them thoroughly before replacing. tighten the bolts running from the transformer leads to the work jaws. electric arc welding this method bears no relation to the one just considered, except that the source of heat is the same in both cases. arc welding makes use of the flame produced by the voltaic arc in practically the same way that oxy-acetylene welding uses the flame from the gases. if the ends of two pieces of carbon through which a current of electricity is flowing while they are in contact are separated from each other quite slowly, a brilliant arc of flame is formed between them which consists mainly of carbon vapor. the carbons are consumed by combination with the oxygen in the air and through being turned to a gas under the intense heat. the most intense action takes place at the center of the carbon which carries the positive current and this is the point of greatest heat. the temperature at this point in the arc is greater than can be produced by any other means under human control. an arc may be formed between pieces of metal, called electrodes, in the same way as between carbon. the metallic arc is called a flaming arc and as the metal of the electrode burns with the heat, it gives the flame a color characteristic of the material being used. the metallic arc may be drawn out to a much greater length than one formed between carbon electrodes. arc welding is carried out by drawing a piece of carbon which is of negative polarity away from the pieces of metal to be welded while the metal is made positive in polarity. the negative wire is fastened to the carbon electrode and the work is laid on a table made of cast or wrought iron to which the positive wire is made fast. the direction of the flame is then from the metal being welded to the carbon and the work is thus prevented from being saturated with carbon, which would prove very detrimental to its strength. a secondary advantage is found in the fact that the greatest heat is at the metal being welded because of its being the positive electrode. the carbon electrode is usually made from one quarter to one and a half inches in diameter and from six to twelve inches in length. the length of the arc may be anywhere from one inch to four inches, depending on the size of the work being handled. while the parts are carefully insulated to avoid danger of shock, it is necessary for the operator to wear rubber gloves as a further protection, and to wear some form of hood over the head to shield him against the extreme heat liberated. this hood may be made from metal, although some material that does not conduct electricity is to be preferred. the work is watched through pieces of glass formed with one sheet, which is either blue or green, placed over another which is red. screens of glass are sometimes used without the head protector. some protection for the eyes is absolutely necessary because of the intense white light. it is seldom necessary to preheat the work as with the gas processes, because the heat is localized at the point of welding and the action is so rapid that the expansion is not so great. the necessity of preheating, however, depends entirely on the material, form and size of the work being handled. the same advice applies to arc welding as to the gas flame method but in a lesser degree. filling rods are used in the same way as with any other flame process. it is the purpose of this explanation to state the fundamental principles of the application of the electric arc to welding metals, and by applying the principles the following questions will be answered: what metals can be welded by the electric arc? what difficulties are to be encountered in applying the electric arc to welding? what is the strength of the weld in comparison with the original piece? what is the function of the arc welding machine itself? what is the comparative application of the electric arc and the oxy-acetylene method and others of a similar nature? the answers to these questions will make it possible to understand the application of this process to any work. in a great many places the use of the arc is cutting the cost of welding to a very small fraction of what it would be by any other method, so that the importance of this method may be well understood. any two metals which are brought to the melting temperature and applied to each other will adhere so that they are no more apt to break at the weld than at any other point outside of the weld. it is the property of all metals to stick together under these conditions. the electric arc is used in this connection merely as a heating agent. this is its only function in the process. it has advantages in its ease of application and the cheapness with which heat can be liberated at any given point by its use. there is nothing in connection with arc welding that the above principles will not answer; that is, that metals at the melting point will weld and that the electric arc will furnish the heat to bring them to this point. as to the first question, what metals can be welded, all metals can be welded. the difficulties which are encountered are as follows: in the case of brass or zinc, the metals will be covered with a coat of zinc oxide before they reach a welding heat. this zinc oxide makes it impossible for two clean surfaces to come together and some method has to be used for eliminating this possibility and allowing the two surfaces to join without the possibility of the oxide intervening. the same is true of aluminum, in which the oxide, alumina, will be formed, and with several other alloys comprising elements of different melting points. in order to eliminate these oxides, it is necessary in practical work, to puddle the weld; this is, to have a sufficient quantity of molten metal at the weld so that the oxide is floated away. when this is done, the two surfaces which are to be joined are covered with a coat of melted metal on which floats the oxide and other impurities. the two pieces are thus allowed to join while their surfaces are protected. this precaution is not necessary in working with steel except in extreme cases. another difficulty which is met with in the welding of a great many metals is their expansion under heat, which results in so great a contraction when the weld cools that the metal is left with a considerable strain on it. in extreme cases this will result in cracking at the weld or near it. to eliminate this danger it is necessary to apply heat either all over the piece to be welded or at certain points. in the case of cast iron and sometimes with copper it is necessary to anneal after welding, since otherwise the welded pieces will be very brittle on account of the chilling. this is also true of malleable iron. very thin metals which are welded together and are not backed up by something to carry away the excess heat, are very apt to burn through, leaving a hole where the weld should be. this difficulty can be eliminated by backing up the weld with a metal face or by decreasing the intensity of the arc so that this melting through will not occur. however, the practical limit for arc welding without backing up the work with a metal face or decreasing the intensity of the arc is approximately gauge, although thinner metal can be welded by a very skillful and careful operator. one difficulty with arc welding is the lack of skillful operators. this method is often looked upon as being something out of the ordinary and governed by laws entirely different from other welding. as a matter of fact, it does not take as much skill to make a good arc weld as it does to make a good weld in a forge fire as the blacksmith does it. there are few jobs which cannot be handled successfully by an operator of average intelligence with one week's instructions, although his work will become better and better in quality as he continues to use the arc. now comes the question of the strength of the weld after it has been made. this strength is equally as great as that of the metal that is used to make the weld. it should be remembered, however, that the metal which goes into the weld is put in there as a casting and has not been rolled. this would make the strength of the weld as great as the same metal that is used for filling if in the cast form. two pieces of steel could be welded together having a tensile strength at the weld of , pounds. higher strengths than this can be obtained by the use of special alloys for the filling material or by rolling. welds with a tensile strength as great as mentioned will give a result which is perfectly satisfactory in almost all cases. there are a great many jobs where it is possible to fill up the weld, that is, make the section at the point of the weld a little larger than the section through the rest of the piece. by doing this, the disadvantages of the weld being in the form of a casting in comparison with the rest of the piece being in the form of rolled steel can be overcome, and make the weld itself even stronger than the original piece. the next question is the adaptability of the electric arc in comparison with forge fire, oxy-acetylene or other method. the answer is somewhat difficult if made general. there are no doubt some cases where the use of a drop hammer and forge fire or the use of the oxy-acetylene torch will make, all things being considered, a better job than the use of the electric arc, although a case where this is absolutely proved is rare. the electric arc will melt metal in a weld for less than the same metal can be melted by the use of the oxy-acetylene torch, and, on account of the fact that the heat can be applied exactly where it is required and in the amount required, the arc can in almost all cases supply welding heat for less cost than a forge fire or heating furnace. the one great advantage of the oxy-acetylene method in comparison with other methods of welding is the fact that in some cases of very thin sheet, the weld can be made somewhat sooner than is possible otherwise. with metal of gauge or thicker, this advantage is eliminated. in cutting steel, the oxy-acetylene torch is superior to almost any other possible method. _arc welding machines._--a consideration of the function and purpose of the various types of arc welding machines shows that the only reason for the use of any machine is either for conversion of the current from alternating to direct, or, if the current is already direct, then the saving in the application of this current in the arc. it is practically out of the question to apply an alternating current arc to welding for the reason that in any arc practically all the heat is liberated at the positive electrode, which means that, in alternating current, half the heat is liberated at each electrode as the current changes its direction of flow or alternates. another disadvantage of the alternating arc is that it is difficult of control and application. in all arc welding by the use of the carbon arc, the positive electrode is made the piece to be welded, while in welding with metallic electrodes this may be either the piece to be welded of the rod that is used as a filler. the voltage across the arc is a variable quantity, depending on the length of the flame, its temperature and the gases liberated in the arc. with a carbon electrode the voltage will vary from zero to forty-five volts. with the metallic electrode the voltage will vary from zero to thirty volts. it is, therefore, necessary for the welding machine to be able to furnish to the arc the requisite amount of current, this amount being varied, and furnish it at all times at the voltage required. the simplest welding apparatus is a resistance in series with the arc. this is entirely satisfactory in every way except in cost of current. by the use of resistance in series with the arc and using volts as the supply, from eighty to ninety per cent of the current is lost in heat at the resistance. another disadvantage is the fact that most materials change their resistance as their temperature changes, thus making the amount of current for the arc a variable quantity, depending on the temperature of the resistance. there have been various methods originated for saving the power mentioned and a good many machines have been put on the market for this purpose. all of them save some power over what a plain resistance would use. practically all arc welding machines at the present time are motor generator sets, the motor of which is arranged for the supply voltage and current, this motor being direct connected to a compound wound generator delivering approximately seventy-five volts direct current. then by the use of a resistance, this seventy-five volt supply is applied to the arc. since the voltage across the arc will vary from zero to fifty volts, this machine will save from zero up to seventy per cent of the power that the machine delivers. the rest of the power, of course, has to be dissipated in the resistance used in series with the arc. a motor generator set which can be purchased from any electrical company, with a long piece of fence wire wound around a piece of asbestos, gives results equally as good and at a very small part of the first cost. it is possible to construct a machine which will eliminate all losses in the resistance; in other words, eliminate all resistance in series with the arc. a machine of this kind will save its cost within a very short time, providing the welder is used to any extent. putting it in figures, the results are as follows for average conditions. current at c per kilowatt hour, metallic electrode arc of amperes, carbon arc amperes; voltage across the metallic electrode arc , voltage across the carbon arc . supply current volts, direct. in the case of the metallic electrode, if resistance is used, the cost of running this arc is sixty-six cents per hour. with the carbon electrode, $ . per hour. if a motor generator set with a seventy volt constant potential machine is used for a welder, the cost will be as follows: metallic electrode . c. carbon electrode c per hour. with a machine which will deliver the required voltage at the arc and eliminate all the resistance in series with the arc, the cost will be as follows: metallic electrode . c per hour; carbon electrode c per hour. this is with the understanding that the arc is held constant and continuously at its full value. this, however, is practically impossible and the actual load factor is approximately fifty per cent, which would mean that operating a welder as it is usually operated, this result will be reduced to one-half of that stated in all cases. chapter vii hand forging and welding smithing, or blacksmithing, is the process of working heated iron, steel or other metals by forging, bending or welding them. _the forge._--the metal is heated in a forge consisting of a shallow pan for holding the fire, in the center of which is an opening from below through which air is forced to make a hot fire. [illustration: figure .--tuyere construction on a forge] air is forced through this hole, called a "tuyere" (figure ) by means of a hand bellows, a rotary fan operated with crank or lever, or with a fan driven from an electric motor. the harder the air is driven into the fire above the tuyere the more oxygen is furnished and the hotter the fire becomes. directly below the tuyere is an opening through which the ashes that drop from the fire may be cleaned out. _the fire._--the fire is made by placing a small piece of waste soaked in oil, kerosene or gasoline, over the tuyere, lighting the waste, then starting the fan or blower slowly. gradually cover the waste, while it is burning brightly, with a layer of soft coal. the coal will catch fire and burn after the waste has been consumed. a piece of waste half the size of a person's hand is ample for this purpose. the fuel should be "smithing coal." a lump of smithing coal breaks easily, shows clean and even on all sides and should not break into layers. the coal is broken into fine pieces and wet before being used on the fire. the fire should be kept deep enough so that there is always three or four inches of fire below the piece of metal to be heated and there should be enough fire above the work so that no part of the metal being heated comes in contact with the air. the fire should be kept as small as possible while following these rules as to depth. to make the fire larger, loosen the coal around the edges. to make the fire smaller, pack wet coal around the edges in a compact mass and loosen the fire in the center. add fresh coal only around the edges of the fire. it will turn to coke and can then be raked onto the fire. blow only enough air into the fire to keep it burning brightly, not so much that the fire is blown up through the top of the coal pack. to prevent the fire from going out between jobs, stick a piece of soft wood into it and cover with fresh wet coal. _tools._--the _hammer_ is a ball pene, or blacksmith's hammer, weighing about a pound and a half. the _sledge_ is a heavy hammer, weighing from to pounds and having a handle to inches long. the _anvil_ is a heavy piece of wrought iron (figure ), faced with steel and having four legs. it has a pointed horn on one end, an overhanging tail on the other end and a flat top. in the tail there is a square hole called the "hardie" hole and a round one called the "spud" hole. [illustration: figure .--anvil, showing horn, tail, hardie hole and spud hole] _tongs_, with handles about one foot long and jaws suitable for holding the work, are used. to secure a firm grip on the work, the jaws may be heated red hot and hammered into shape over the piece to be held, thus giving a properly formed jaw. jaws should touch the work along their entire length. the _set hammer_ is a hammer, one end of whose head is square and flat, and from this face the head tapers evenly to the other face. the large face is about - / inches square. the _flatter_ is a hammer having one face of its head flat and about - / inches square. _swages_ are hammers having specially formed faces for finishing rounds, squares, hexagons, ovals, tapers, etc. _fullers_ are hammers having a rounded face, long in one direction. they are used for spreading metal in one direction only. the _hardy_ is a form of chisel with a short, square shank which may be set into the hardie hole for cutting off hot bars. _operations._--blacksmithing consists of bending, drawing or upsetting with the various hammers, or in punching holes. bending is done over the square corners of the anvil if square cornered bends are desired, or over the horn of the anvil if rounding bends, eyes, hooks, etc., are wanted. to bend a ring or eye in the end of a bar, first figure the length of stock needed by multiplying the diameter of the hole by / , then heat the piece to a good full red at a point this distance back from the end. next bend the iron over at a degree angle (square) at this point. next, heat the iron from the bend just made clear to the point and make the eye by laying the part that was bent square over the horn of the anvil and bending the extreme tip into part of a circle. keep pushing the piece farther and farther over the horn of the anvil, bending it as you go. do not hammer directly over the horn of the anvil, but on the side where you are doing the bending. to make the outside of a bend square, sharp and full, rather than slightly rounding, the bent piece must be laid edgewise on the face of the anvil. that is, after making the bend over the corner of the anvil, lay the piece on top of the anvil so that its edge and not the flat side rests on the anvil top. with the work in this position, strike directly against the corner with the hammer so that the blows come in line, first with one leg of the work, then the other, and always directly on the corner of the piece. this operation cannot be performed by laying the work so that one leg hangs over the anvil's corner. to make a shoulder on a rod or bar, heat the work and lay flat across the top of the anvil with the point at which the shoulder is desired at the edge of the anvil. then place the set hammer on top of the piece, with the outside edge of the set hammer directly over the edge of the anvil. while hammering in this position keep the work turning continually. to draw stock means to make it longer and thinner by hammering. a piece to be drawn out is usually laid across the horn of the anvil while being struck with the hammer. the metal is then spread in only one direction in place of being spread in every direction, as it would be if laid on the anvil face. to draw the work, heat it to as high a temperature as it will stand without throwing sparks and burning. the fuller may be used for drawing metal in place of laying the work over the horn of the anvil. when drawing round stock, it should be first drawn out square, and when almost down to size it may be rounded. when pointing stock, the same rule of first drawing out square applies. upsetting means to make a piece shorter in length and greater in thickness or width, or both shorter and thicker. to upset short pieces, heat to a bright red at the place to be upset, then stand on end on the anvil face and hammer directly down on top until of the right form. longer pieces may be swung against the anvil or placed upright on a heavy piece of metal lying on the floor or that is sunk into the floor. while standing on this heavy piece the metal may be upset by striking down on the end with a heavy hammer or the sledge. if a bend appears while upsetting, it should be straightened by hammering back into shape on the anvil face. light blows affect the metal for only a short distance from the point of striking, but heavy blows tend to swell the metal more equally through its entire length. in driving rivets that should fill the holes, heavy blows should be struck, but to shape the end of a rivet or to make a head on a rod, light blows should be used. the part of the piece that is heated most will upset the most. to punch a hole through metal, use a tool steel punch with its end slightly tapering to a size a little smaller than the hole to be punched. the end of the punch must be square across and never pointed or rounded. first drive the punch part way through from one side and then turn the work over. when you turn it over, notice where the bulge appears and in that way locate the hole and drive the punch through from the second side. this makes a cleaner and more even hole than to drive completely through from one side. when the punch is driven in from the second side, the place to be punched through should be laid over the spud hole in the tail of the anvil and the piece driven out of the work. work when hot is larger than it will be after cooling. this must be remembered when fitting parts or trouble will result. a two-foot bar of steel will be / inch longer when red hot than when cold. the temperatures of iron correspond to the following colors: dullest red seen in the dark... ° dullest red seen in daylight... ° dull red....................... ° full red....................... ° light red...................... ° orange......................... ° light orange................... ° yellow......................... ° light yellow................... ° _bending pipes and tubes._--it is difficult to make bends or curves in pipes and tubing without leaving a noticeable bulge at some point of the work. seamless steel tubing may be handled without very great danger of this trouble if care is used, but iron pipe, having a seam running lengthwise, must be given special attention to avoid opening the seam. bends may be made without kinking if the tube or pipe is brought to a full red heat all the way around its circumference and at the place where the bend is desired. hold the cool portion solidly in a vise and, by taking hold of the free end, bend very slowly and with a steady pull. the pipe must be kept at full red heat with the flames from one or more torches and must not be hammered to produce the bend. if a sufficient purchase cannot be secured on the free end by the hand, insert a piece of rod or a smaller pipe into the opening. while making the bend, should small bulges appear, they may be hammered back into shape before proceeding with the work. tubing or pipes may be bent while being held between two flat metal surfaces while at a bright red heat. the metal plates at each side of the work prevent bulging. another method by which tubing may be bent consists of filling completely with tightly packed sand and fitting a solid cap or plug at each end. thin brass tubing may be filled with melted resin and may be bent after the resin cools. to remove the resin it is necessary to heat the tube, allowing it to run out. large jobs of bending should be handled in special pipe bending machines in which the work is forced through formed rolls which prevent its bulging. welding welding with the heat of a blacksmith forge fire, or a coal or illuminating gas fire, can only be performed with iron and steel because of the low heat which is not localized as with the oxy-acetylene and electric processes. iron to be welded in this manner is heated until it reaches the temperature indicated by an orange color, not white, as is often stated, this orange color being slightly above degrees fahrenheit. steel is usually welded at a bright red heat because of the danger of oxidizing or burning the metal if the temperature is carried above this point. _the fire._--if made in a forge, the fire should be built from good smithing coal or, better still, from coke. gas fires are, of course, produced by suitable burners and require no special preparation except adjustment of the heat to the proper degree for the size and thickness of the metal being welded so that it will not be burned. a coal fire used for ordinary forging operations should not be used for welding because of the impurities it contains. a fresh fire should be built with a rather deep bed of coal, four to eight inches being about right for work ordinarily met with. the fire should be kept burning until the coal around the edges has been thoroughly coked and a sufficient quantity of fuel should be on and around the fire so that no fresh coal will have to be added while working. after the coking process has progressed sufficiently, the edges should be packed down and the fire made as small as possible while still surrounding the ends to be joined. the fire should not be altered by poking it while the metal is being heated. the best form of fire to use is one having rather high banks of coked coal on each side of the mass, leaving an opening or channel from end to end. this will allow the added fuel to be brought down on top of the fire with a small amount of disturbance. _preparing to weld._--if the operator is not familiar with the metal to be handled, it is best to secure a test piece if at all possible and try heating it and joining the ends. various grades of iron and steel call for different methods of handling and for different degrees of heat, the proper method and temperature being determined best by actual test under the hammer. the form of the pieces also has a great deal to do with their handling, especially in the case of a more or less inexperienced workman. if the pieces are at all irregular in shape, the motions should be gone through with before the metal is heated and the best positions on the anvil as well as in the fire determined with regard to the convenience of the workman and speed of handling the work after being brought to a welding temperature. unnatural positions at the anvil should be avoided as good work is most difficult of performance under these conditions. _scarfing._--while there are many forms of welds, depending on the relative shape of the pieces to be joined, the portions that are to meet and form one piece are always shaped in the same general way, this shape being called a "scarf." the end of a piece of work, when scarfed, is tapered off on one side so that the extremity comes to a rather sharp edge. the other side of the piece is left flat and a continuation in the same straight plane with its side of the whole piece of work. the end is then in the form of a bevel or mitre joint (figure ). [illustration: figure .--scarfing ends of work ready for welding] scarfing may be produced in any one of several ways. the usual method is to bring the ends to a forging heat, at which time they are upset to give a larger body of metal at the ends to be joined. this body of metal is then hammered down to the taper on one side, the length of the tapered portion being about one and a half times the thickness of the whole piece being handled. each piece should be given this shape before proceeding farther. the scarf may be produced by filing, sawing or chiseling the ends, although this is not good practice because it is then impossible to give the desired upset and additional metal for the weld. this added thickness is called for by the fact that the metal burns away to a certain extent or turns to scale, which is removed before welding. when the two ends have been given this shape they should not fit as closely together as might be expected, but should touch only at the center of the area to be joined (figure ). that is to say, the surface of the beveled portion should bulge in the middle or should be convex in shape so that the edges are separated by a little distance when the pieces are laid together with the bevels toward each other. this is done so that the scale which is formed on the metal by the heat of the fire can have a chance to escape from the interior of the weld as the two parts are forced together. [illustration: figure .--proper shape of scarfed ends] if the scarf were to be formed with one or more of the edges touching each other at the same time or before the centers did so, the scale would be imprisoned within the body of the weld and would cause the finished work to be weak, while possibly giving a satisfactory appearance from the outside. _fluxes._--in order to assist in removing the scale and other impurities and to make the welding surfaces as clean as possible while being joined, various fluxing materials are used as in other methods of welding. for welding iron, a flux of white sand is usually used, this material being placed on the metal after it has been brought to a red heat in the fire. steel is welded with dry borax powder, this flux being applied at the same time as the iron flux just mentioned. borax may also be used for iron welding and a mixture of borax with steel borings may also be used for either class of work. mixtures of sal ammoniac with borax have been successfully used, the proportions being about four parts of borax to one of sal ammoniac. various prepared fluxing powders are on the market for this work, practically all of them producing satisfactory results. after the metal has been in the fire long enough to reach a red heat, it is removed temporarily and, if small enough in size, the ends are dipped into a box of flux. if the pieces are large, they may simply be pulled to the edge of the fire and the flux then sprinkled on the portions to be joined. a greater quantity of flux is required in forge welding than in electric or oxy-acetylene processes because of the losses in the fire. after the powder has been applied to the surfaces, the work is returned to the fire and heated to the welding temperature. _heating the work._--after being scarfed, the two pieces to be welded are placed in the fire and brought to the correct temperature. this temperature can only be recognized by experiment and experience. the metal must be just below that point at which small sparks begin to be thrown out of the fire and naturally this is a hard point to distinguish. at the welding heat the metal is almost ready to flow and is about the consistency of putty. against the background of the fire and coal the color appears to be a cream or very light yellow and the work feels soft as it is handled. it is absolutely necessary that both parts be heated uniformly and so that they reach the welding temperature at the same time. for this reason they should be as close together in the fire as possible and side by side. when removed to be hammered together, time is saved if they are picked up in such a way that when laid together naturally the beveled surfaces come together. this makes it necessary that the workman remember whether the scarfed side is up or down, and to assist in this it is a good thing to mark the scarfed side with chalk or in some other noticeable manner, so that no mistake will be made in the hurry of placing the work on the anvil. the common practice in heating allows the temperature to rise until the small white sparks are seen to come from the fire. any heating above this point will surely result in burning that will ruin the iron or steel being handled. the best welding heat can be discerned by the appearance of the metal and its color after experience has been gained with this particular material. test welds can be made and then broken, if possible, so that the strength gained through different degrees of heat can be known before attempting more important work. _welding._--when the work has reached the welding temperature after having been replaced in the fire with the flux applied, the two parts are quickly tapped to remove the loose scale from their surfaces. they are then immediately laid across the top of the anvil, being placed in a diagonal position if both pieces are straight. the lower piece is rested on the anvil first with the scarf turned up and ready to receive the top piece in the position desired. the second piece must be laid in exactly the position it is to finally occupy because the two parts will stick together as soon as they touch and they cannot well be moved after having once been allowed to come in contact with each other. this part of the work must be done without any unnecessary loss of time because the comparatively low heat at which the parts weld allows them to cool below the working temperature in a few seconds. the greatest difficulty will be experienced in withdrawing the metal from the fire before it becomes burned and in getting it joined before it cools below this critical point. the beveled edges of the scarf are, of course, the first parts to cool and the weld must be made before they reach a point at which they will not join, or else the work will be defective in appearance and in fact. if the parts being handled are of such a shape that there is danger of bending a portion back of the weld, this part may be cooled by quickly dipping it into water before laying the work on the anvil to be joined. the workman uses a heavy hand hammer in making the joint, and his helper, if one is employed, uses a sledge. with the two parts of the work in place on the anvil, the workman strikes several light blows, the first ones being at a point directly over the center of the weld, so that the joint will start from this point and be worked toward the edges. after the pieces have united the helper strikes alternate blows with his sledge, always striking in exactly the same place as the last stroke of the workman. the hammer blows are carried nearer and nearer to the edges of the weld and are made steadily heavier as the work progresses. the aim during the first part of the operation should be to make a perfect joint, with every part of the surfaces united, and too much attention should not be paid to appearance, at least not enough to take any chance with the strength of the work. it will be found, after completion of the weld, that there has been a loss in length equal to one-half the thickness of the metal being welded. this loss is occasioned by the burned metal and the scale which has been formed. _finishing the weld._--if it is possible to do so, the material should be hammered into the shape that it should remain with the same heat that was used for welding. it will usually be found, however, that the metal has cooled below the point at which it can be worked to advantage. it should then be replaced in the fire and brought back to a forging heat. [illustration: figure .--upsetting and scarfing the end of a rod] while shaping the work at this forging heat every part that has been at a red heat should be hammered with uniformly light and even blows as it cools. this restores the grain and strength of the iron or steel to a great extent and makes the unavoidable weakness as small as possible. _forms of welds._--the simplest of all welds is that called a "lap weld." this is made between the ends of two pieces of equal size and similar form by scarfing them as described and then laying one on top of the other while they are hammered together. a butt weld (figure ) is made between the ends of two pieces of shaft or other bar shapes by upsetting the ends so that they have a considerable flare and shaping the face of the end so that it is slightly higher in the center than around the edges, this being done to make the centers come together first. the pieces are heated and pushed into contact, after which the hammering is done as with any other weld. [illustration: figure .--scarfing for a t weld] a form similar to the butt weld in some ways is used for joining the end of a bar to a flat surface and is called a jump weld. the bar is shaped in the same way as for a butt weld. the flat plate may be left as it is, but if possible a depression should be made at the point where the shaft is to be placed. with the two parts heated as usual, the bar is dropped into position and hammered from above. as soon as the center of the weld has been made perfect, the joint may be finished with a fuller driven all the way around the edge of the joint. when it is required to join a bar to another bar or to the edge of any piece at right angles the work is called a "t" weld from its shape when complete (figure ). the end of the bar is scarfed as described and the point of the other bar or piece where the weld is to be made is hammered so that it tapers to a thin edge like one-half of a circular depression. the pieces are then laid together and hammered as for a lap weld. the ends of heavy bar shapes are often joined with a "v," or cleft, weld. one bar end is shaped so that it is tapering on both sides and comes to a broad edge like the end of a chisel. the other bar is heated to a forging temperature and then slit open in a lengthwise direction so that the v-shaped opening which is formed will just receive the pointed edge of the first piece. with the work at welding heat, the two parts are driven together by hammering on the rear ends and the hammering then continues as with a lap weld, except that the work is turned over to complete both sides of the joint. [illustration: figure .-splitting ends to be welded in thin work] the forms so far described all require that the pieces be laid together in the proper position after removal from the fire, and this always causes a slight loss of time and a consequent lowering of the temperature. with very light stock, this fall of temperature would be so rapid that the weld would be unsuccessful, and in this case the "lock" weld is resorted to. the ends of the two pieces to be joined are split for some distance back, and one-half of each end is bent up and the other half down (figure ). the two are then pushed together and placed in the fire in this position. when the welding heat is reached, it is only necessary to take the work out of the fire and hammer the parts together, inasmuch as they are already in the correct position. other forms of welds in which the parts are too small to retain their heat, can be made by first riveting them together or cutting them so that they can be temporarily fastened in any convenient way when first placed in the fire. chapter viii soldering, brazing and thermit welding soldering common solder is an alloy of one-half lead with one-half tin, and is called "half and half." hard solder is made with two-thirds tin and one-third lead. these alloys, when heated, are used to join surfaces of the same or dissimilar metals such as copper, brass, lead, galvanized iron, zinc, tinned plate, etc. these metals are easily joined, but the action of solder with iron, steel and aluminum is not so satisfactory and requires greater care and skill. the solder is caused to make a perfect union with the surfaces treated with the help of heat from a soldering iron. the soldering iron is made from a piece of copper, pointed at one end and with the other end attached to an iron rod and wooden handle. a flux is used to remove impurities from the joint and allow the solder to secure a firm union with the metal surface. the iron, and in many cases the work, is heated with a gasoline blow torch, a small gas furnace, an electric heater or an acetylene and air torch. the gasoline torch which is most commonly used should be filled two-thirds full of gasoline through the hole in the bottom, which is closed by a screw plug. after working the small hand pump for to strokes, hold the palm of your hand over the end of the large iron tube on top of the torch and open the gasoline needle valve about a half turn. hold the torch so that the liquid runs down into the cup below the tube and fills it. shut the gasoline needle valve, wipe the hands dry, and set fire to the fuel in the cup. just as the gasoline fire goes out, open the gasoline needle valve about a half turn and hold a lighted match at the end of the iron tube to ignite the mixture of vaporized gasoline and air. open or close the needle valve to secure a flame about inches long. on top of the iron tube from which the flame issues there is a rest for supporting the soldering iron with the copper part in the flame. place the iron in the flame and allow it to remain until the copper becomes very hot, not quite red, but almost so. a new soldering iron or one that has been misused will have to be "tinned" before using. to do this, take the iron from the fire while very hot and rub the tip on some flux or dip it into soldering acid. then rub the tip of the iron on a stick of solder or rub the solder on the iron. if the solder melts off the stick without coating the end of the iron, allow a few drops to fall on a piece of tin plate, then nil the end of the iron on the tin plate with considerable force. alternately rub the iron on the solder and dip into flux until the tip has a coating of bright solder for about half an inch from the end. if the iron is in very bad shape, it may be necessary to scrape or file the end before dipping in the flux for the first time. after the end of the iron is tinned in this way, replace it on the rest of the torch so that the tinned point is not directly in the flame, turning the flame down to accomplish this. _flux._--the commonest flux, which is called "soldering acid," is made by placing pieces of zinc in muriatic (hydrochloric) acid contained in a heavy glass or porcelain dish. there will be bubbles and considerable heat evolved and zinc should be added until this action ceases and the zinc remains in the liquid, which is now chloride of zinc. this soldering acid may be used on any metal to be soldered by applying with a brush or swab. for electrical work, this acid should be made neutral by the addition of one part ammonia and one part water to each three parts of the acid. this neutralized flux will not corrode metal as will the ordinary acid. powdered resin makes a good flux for lead, tin plate, galvanized iron and aluminum. tallow, olive oil, beeswax and vaseline are also used for this purpose. muriatic acid may be used for zinc or galvanized iron without the addition of the zinc, as described in making zinc chloride. the addition of two heaping teaspoonfuls of sal ammoniac to each pint of the chloride of zinc is sometimes found to improve its action. _soldering metal parts._--all surfaces to be joined should be fitted to each other as accurately as possible and then thoroughly cleaned with a file, emery cloth, scratch bush or by dipping in lye. work may be cleaned by dipping it into nitric acid which has been diluted with an equal volume of water. the work should be heated as hot as possible without danger of melting, as this causes the solder to flow better and secure a much better hold on the surfaces. hard solder gives better results than half and half, but is more difficult to work. it is very important that the soldering iron be kept at a high heat during all work, otherwise the solder will only stick to the surfaces and will not join with them. sweating is a form of soldering in which the surfaces of the work are first covered with a thin layer of solder by rubbing them with the hot iron after it has been dipped in or touched to the soldering stick. these surfaces are then placed in contact and heated to a point at which the solder melts and unites. sweating is much to be preferred to ordinary soldering where the form of the work permits it. this is the only method which should ever be used when a fitting is to be placed over the end of a length of tube. _soldering holes._--clean the surfaces for some distance around the hole until they are bright, and apply flux while holding the hot iron near the hole. touch the tip of the iron to some solder until the solder is picked up on the iron, and then place this solder, which was just picked up, around the edge of the hole. it will leave the soldering iron and stick to the metal. keep adding solder in this way until the hole has been closed up by working from the edges and building toward the center. after the hole is closed, apply more flux to the job and smooth over with the hot iron until there are no rough spots. should the solder refuse to flow smoothly, the iron is not hot enough. _soldering seams._--clean back from the seam or split for at least half an inch all around and then build up the solder in the same way as was done with the hole. after closing the opening, apply more flux to the work and run the hot iron lengthwise to smooth the job. _soldering wires._--clean all insulation from the ends to be soldered and scrape the ends bright. lay the ends parallel to each other and, starting at the middle of the cleaned portion, wrap the ends around each other, one being wrapped to the right, the other to the left. hold the hot iron under the twisted joint and apply flux to the wire. then dip the iron in the solder and apply to the twisted portion until the spaces between the wires are filled with solder. finish by smoothing the joint and cleaning away all excess metal by rubbing the hot iron lengthwise. the joint should now be covered with a layer of rubber tape and this covered with a layer of ordinary friction tape. _steel and iron._--steel surfaces should be cleaned, then covered with clear muriatic acid. while the acid is on the metal, rub with a stick of zinc and then tin the surfaces with the hot iron as directed. cast iron should be cleaned and dipped in strong lye to remove grease. wash the lye away with clean water and cover with muriatic acid as with steel. then rub with a piece of zinc and tin the surfaces by using resin as a flux. it is very difficult to solder aluminum with ordinary solder. a special aluminum solder should be secured, which is easily applied and makes a strong joint. zinc or phosphor tin may be used in place of ordinary solder to tin the surfaces or to fill small holes or cracks. the aluminum must be thoroughly heated before attempting to solder and the flux may be either resin or soldering acid. the aluminum must be thoroughly cleaned with dilute nitric acid and kept hot while the solder is applied by forcible rubbing with the hot iron. brazing this is a process for joining metal parts, very similar to soldering, except that brass is used to make the joint in place of the lead and zinc alloys which form solder. brazing must not be attempted on metals whose melting point is less than that of sheet brass. two pieces of brass to be brazed together are heated to a temperature at which the brass used in the process will melt and flow between the surfaces. the brass amalgamates with the surfaces and makes a very strong and perfect joint, which is far superior to any form of soldering where the work allows this process to be used, and in many cases is the equal of welding for the particular field in which it applies. _brazing heat and tools._--the metal commonly used for brazing will melt at heats between ° and ° fahrenheit. to bring the parts to this temperature, various methods are in use, using solid, liquid or gaseous fuels. while brazing may be accomplished with the fire of the blacksmith forge, this method is seldom satisfactory because of the difficulty of making a sufficiently clean fire with smithing coal, and it should not be used when anything else is available. large jobs of brazing may be handled with a charcoal fire built in the forge, as this fuel produces a very satisfactory and clean fire. the only objection is in the difficulty of confining the heat to the desired parts of the work. the most satisfactory fire is that from a fuel gas torch built for this work. these torches are simply forms of bunsen burners, mixing the proper quantity of air with the gas to bring about a perfect combustion. hose lines lead to the mixing tube of the gas torch, one line carrying the gas and the other air under a moderate pressure. the air line is often dispensed with, allowing the gas to draw air into the burner on the injector principle, much the same as with illuminating gas burners for use with incandescent mantles. valves are provided with which the operator may regulate the amount of both gas and air, and ordinarily the quality and intensity of the flame. when gas is not available, recourse may be had to the gasoline torch made for brazing. this torch is built in the same way as the small portable gasoline torches for soldering operations, with the exception that two regulating needle valves are incorporated in place of only one. the torches are carried on a framework, which also supports the work being handled. fuel is forced to the torch from a large tank of gasoline into which air pressure is pumped by hand. the torches are regulated to give the desired flame by means of the needle valves in much the same way as with any other form of pressure torch using liquid fuel. another very satisfactory form of torch for brazing is the acetylene-air combination described in the chapter on welding instruments. this torch gives the correct degree of heat and may be regulated to give a clean and easily controlled flame. regardless of the source of heat, the fire or flame must be adjusted so that no soot is deposited on the metal surfaces of the work. this can only be accomplished by supplying the exact amounts of gas and air that will produce a complete burning of the fuel. with the brazing torches in common use two heads are furnished, being supplied from the same source of fuel, but with separate regulating devices. the torches are adjustably mounted in such a way that the flames may be directed toward each other, heating two sides of the work at the same time and allowing the pieces to be completely surrounded with the flame. except for the source of heat, but one tool is required for ordinary brazing operations, this being a spatula formed by flattening one end of a quarter-inch steel rod. the spatula is used for placing the brazing metal on the work and for handling the flux that is required in this work as in all other similar operations. _spelter._--the metal that is melted into the joint is called spelter. while this name originally applied to but one particular grade or composition of metal, common use has extended the meaning until it is generally applied to all grades. spelter is variously composed of alloys containing copper, zinc, tin and antimony, the mixture employed depending on the work to be done. the different grades are of varying hardness, the harder kinds melting at higher temperatures than the soft ones and producing a stronger joint when used. the reason for not using hard spelter in all cases is the increased difficulty of working it and the fact that its melting point is so near to some of the metals brazed that there is great danger of melting the work as well as the spelter. the hardest grade of spelter is made from three-fourths copper with one-fourth zinc and is used for working on malleable and cast iron and for steel. this hard spelter melts at about ° and is correspondingly difficult to handle. a spelter suitable for working with copper is made from equal parts of copper and zinc, melting at about ° fahrenheit, ° below the melting point of the copper itself. a still softer brazing metal is composed of half copper, three-eighths zinc and one-eighth tin. this grade is used for fastening brass to iron and copper and for working with large pieces of brass to brass. for brazing thin sheet brass and light brass castings, a metal is used which contains two-thirds tin and one-third antimony. the low melting point of this last composition makes it very easy to work with and the danger of melting the work is very slight. however, as might be expected, a comparatively weak joint is secured, which will not stand any great strain. all of the above brazing metals are used in powder form so that they may be applied with the spatula where the joint is exposed on the outside of the work. in case it is necessary to braze on the inside of a tube or any deep recess, the spelter may be placed on a flat rod long enough to reach to the farthest point. by distributing the spelter at the proper points along the rod it may be placed at the right points by turning the rod over after inserting into the recess. _flux._--in order to remove the oxides produced under brazing heat and to allow the brazing metal to flow freely into place, a flux of some kind must be used. the commonest flux is simply a pure calcined borax powder, that is, a borax powder that has been heated until practically all the water has been driven off. calcined borax may also be mixed with about per cent of sal ammoniac to make a satisfactory fluxing powder. it is absolutely necessary to use flux of some kind and a part of whatever is used should be made into a paste with water so that it can be applied to the joint to be brazed before heating. the remainder of the powder should be kept dry for use during the operation and after the heat has been applied. _preparing the work._--the surfaces to be brazed are first thoroughly cleaned with files, emery cloth or sand paper. if the work is greasy, it should be dipped into a bath of lye or hot soda water so that all trace of oil is removed. the parts are then placed in the relation to each other that they are to occupy when the work has been completed. the edges to be joined should make a secure and tight fit, and should match each other at all points so that the smallest possible space is left between them. this fit should not be so tight that it is necessary to force the work into place, neither should it be loose enough to allow any considerable space between the surfaces. the molten spelter will penetrate between surfaces that water will flow between when the work and spelter have both been brought to the proper heat. it is, of course, necessary that the two parts have a sufficient number of points of contact so that they will remain in the proper relative position. the work is placed on the surface of the brazing table in such a position that the flame from the torches will strike the parts to be heated, and with the joint in such a position that the melted spelter will flow down through it and fill every possible part of the space between the surfaces under the action of gravity. that means that the edge of the joint must be uppermost and the crack to be filled must not lie horizontal, but at the greatest slant possible. better than any degree of slant would be to have the line of the joint vertical. the work is braced up or clamped in the proper position before commencing to braze, and it is best to place fire brick in such positions that it will be impossible for cooling draughts of air to reach the heated metal should the flame be removed temporarily during the process. in case there is a large body of iron, steel or copper to be handled, it is often advisable to place charcoal around the work, igniting this with the flame of the torch before starting to braze so that the metal will be maintained at the correct heat without depending entirely on the torch. when handling brass pieces having thin sections there is danger of melting the brass and causing it to flow away from under the flame, with the result that the work is ruined. if, in the judgment of the workman, this may happen with the particular job in hand, it is well to build up a mould of fire clay back of the thin parts or preferably back of the whole piece, so that the metal will have the necessary support. this mould may be made by mixing the fire clay into a stiff paste with water and then packing it against the piece to be supported tightly enough so that the form will be retained even if the metal softens. _brazing._--with the work in place, it should be well covered with the paste of flux and water, then heated until this flux boils up and runs over the surfaces. spelter is then placed in such a position that it will run into the joint and the heat is continued or increased until the spelter melts and flows in between the two surfaces. the flame should surround the work during the heating so that outside air is excluded as far as is possible to prevent excessive oxidization. when handling brass or copper, the flame should not be directed so that its center strikes the metal squarely, but so that it glances from one side or the other. directing the flame straight against the work is often the cause of melting the pieces before the operation is completed. when brazing two different metals, the flame should play only on the one that melts at the higher temperature, the lower melting part receiving its heat from the other. this avoids the danger of melting one before the other reaches the brazing point. the heat should be continued only long enough to cause the spelter to flow into place and no longer. prolonged heating of any metal can do nothing but oxidize and weaken it, and this practice should be avoided as much as possible. if the spelter melts into small globules in place of flowing, it may be caused to spread and run into the joint by lightly tapping the work. more dry flux may be added with the spatula if the tapping does not produce the desired result. excessive use of flux, especially toward the end of the work, will result in a very hard surface on all the work, a surface which will be extremely difficult to finish properly. this trouble will be present to a certain extent anyway, but it may be lessened by a vigorous scraping with a wire brush just as soon as the work is removed from the fire. if allowed to cool before cleaning, the final appearance will not be as good as with the surplus metal and scale removed immediately upon completing the job. after the work has been cleaned with the brush it may be allowed to cool and finished to the desired shape, size and surface by filing and polishing. when filed, a very thin line of brass should appear where the crack was at the beginning of the work. if it is desired to avoid a square shoulder and fill in an angle joint to make it rounding, the filling is best accomplished by winding a coil of very thin brass wire around the part of the work that projects and then causing this to flow itself or else allow the spelter to fill the spaces between the layers of wire. copper wire may also be used for this purpose, the spaces being filled with melted spelter. thermit welding the process of welding which makes use of the great heat produced by oxygen combining with aluminum is known as the thermit process and was perfected by dr. hans goldschmidt. the process, which is controlled by the goldschmidt thermit company, makes use of a mixture of finely powdered aluminum with an oxide of iron called by the trade name, thermit. the reaction is started with a special ignition powder, such as barium superoxide and aluminum, and the oxygen from the iron oxide combining with the aluminum, producing a mass of superheated steel at about degrees fahrenheit. after the reaction, which takes from. seconds to a minute, the molten metal is drawn from the crucible on to the surfaces to be joined. its extreme heat fuses the metal and a perfect joint is the result. this process is suited for welding iron or steel parts of comparatively large size. _preparation._--the parts to be joined are thoroughly cleaned on the surfaces and for several inches back from the joint, after which they are supported in place. the surfaces between which the metal will flow are separated from / to inch, depending on the size of the parts, but cutting or drilling part of the metal away. after this separation is made for allowing the entrance of new metal, the effects of contraction of the molten steel are cared for by preheating adjacent parts or by forcing the ends apart with wedges and jacks. the amount of this last separation must be determined by the shape and proportions of the parts in the same way as would be done for any other class of welding which heats the parts to a melting point. yellow wax, which has been warmed until plastic, is then placed around the joint to form a collar, the wax completely filling the space between the ends and being provided with vent holes by imbedding a piece of stout cord, which is pulled out after the wax cools. a retaining mould (figure ) made from sheet steel or fire brick is then placed around the parts. this mould is then filled with a mixture of one part fire clay, one part ground fire brick and one part fire sand. these materials are well mixed and moistened with enough water so that they will pack. this mixture is then placed in the mould, filling the space between the walls and the wax, and is packed hard with a rammer so that the material forms a wall several inches thick between any point of the mould and the wax. the mixture must be placed in the mould in small quantities and packed tight as the filling progresses. [illustration: figure .--thermit mould construction] three or more openings are provided through this moulding material by the insertion of wood or pipe forms. one of these openings will lead from the lowest point of the wax pattern and is used for the introduction of the preheating flame. another opening leads from the top of the mould into this preheating gate, opening into the preheating gate at a point about one inch from the wax pattern. openings, called risers, are then provided from each of the high points of the wax pattern to the top of the mould, these risers ending at the top in a shallow basin. the molten metal comes up into these risers and cares for contraction of the casting, as well as avoiding defects in the collar of the weld. after the moulding material is well packed, these gate patterns are tapped lightly and withdrawn, except in the case of the metal pipes which are placed at points at which it would be impossible to withdraw a pattern. _preheating._--the ends to be welded are brought to a bright red heat by introducing the flame from a torch through the preheating gate. the torch must use either gasoline or kerosene, and not crude oil, as the crude oil deposits too much carbon on the parts. preheating of other adjacent parts to care for contraction is done at this time by an additional torch burner. the heating flame is started gently at first and gradually increased. the wax will melt and may be allowed to run out of the preheating gate by removing the flame at intervals for a few seconds. the heat is continued until the mould is thoroughly dried and the parts to be joined are brought to the red heat required. this leaves a mould just the shape of the wax pattern. the heating gate should then be plugged with a sand core, iron plug or piece of fitted fire brick, and backed up with several shovels full of the moulding mixture, well packed. [illustration: figure .--thermit crucible plug. _a_, hard burn magnesia stone; _b_, magnesia thimble; _c_, refractory sand; _d_, metal disc; _e_, asbestos washer; _f_, tapping pin] _thermit metal._--the reaction takes place in a special crucible lined with magnesia tar, which is baked at a red heat until the tar is driven off and the magnesia left. this lining should last from twelve to fifteen reactions. this magnesia lining ends at the bottom of the crucible in a ring of magnesia stone and this ring carries a magnesia thimble through which the molten steel passes on its way to the mould. it will usually be necessary to renew this thimble after each reaction. this lower opening is closed before filling the crucible with thermit by means of a small disc or iron carrying a stem, which is called a tapping pin (figure ). this pin, _f_, is placed in the thimble with the stem extending down through the opening and exposing about two inches. the top of this pin is covered with an asbestos, washer, _e_, then with another iron disc. _d_, and finally with a layer of refractory sand. the crucible is tapped by knocking the stem of the pin upwards with a spade or piece of flat iron about four feet long. the charge of thermit is added by placing a few handfuls over the refractory sand and then pouring in the balance required. the amount of thermit required is calculated from the wax used. the wax is weighed before and after filling _the entire space that the thermit will occupy_. this does not mean only the wax collar, but the space of the mould with all gates filled with wax. the number of pounds of wax required for this filling multiplied by will give the number of pounds of thermit to be used. to this quantity of thermit should be added i per cent of pure manganese, per cent nickel thermit and per cent of steel punchings. it is necessary, when more than pounds of thermit will be used, to mix steel punchings not exceeding / inch diameter by / inch thick with the powder in order to sufficiently retard the intensity of the reaction. half a teaspoonful of ignition powder is placed on top of the thermit charge and ignited with a storm match or piece of red hot iron. the cover should be immediately closed on the top of the crucible and the operator should get away to a safe distance because of the metal that may be thrown out of the crucible. after allowing about seconds to a minute for the reaction to take place and the slag to rise to the top of the crucible, the tapping pin is struck from below and the molten metal allowed to run into the mould. the mould should be allowed to remain in place as long as possible, preferably over night, so as to anneal the steel in the weld, but in no case should it be disturbed for several hours after pouring. after removing the mould, drill through the metal left in the riser and gates and knock these sections off. no part of the collar should be removed unless absolutely necessary. chapter ix oxygen process for removal of carbon until recently the methods used for removing carbon deposits from gas engine cylinders were very impractical and unsatisfactory. the job meant dismantling the motor, tearing out all parts, and scraping the pistons and cylinder walls by hand. the work was never done thoroughly. it required hours of time to do it, and then there was always the danger of injuring the inside of the cylinders. these methods have been to a large extent superseded by the use of oxygen under pressure. the various devices that are being manufactured are known as carbon removers, decarbonizers, etc., and large numbers of them are in use in the automobile and gasoline traction motor industry. _outfit._--the oxygen carbon cleaner consists of a high pressure oxygen cylinder with automatic reducing valve, usually constructed on the diaphragm principle, thus assuring positive regulation of pressure. this valve is fitted with a pressure gauge, rubber hose, decarbonizing torch with shut off and flexible tube for insertion into the chamber from which the carbon is to be removed. there should also be an asbestos swab for swabbing out the inside of the cylinder or other chamber with kerosene previous to starting the operation. the action consists in simply burning the carbon to a fine dust in the presence of the stream of oxygen, this dust being then blown out. _operation._--the following are instructions for operating the cleaner:-- ( ) close valve in gasoline supply line and start the motor, letting it run until the gasoline is exhausted. ( ) if the cylinders be t or l head, remove either the inlet or the exhaust valve cap, or a spark plug if the cap is tight. if the cylinders have overhead valves, remove a spark plug. if any spark plug is then remaining in the cylinder it should be removed and an old one or an iron pipe plug substituted. ( ) raise the piston of the cylinder first to be cleaned to the top of the compression stroke and continue this from cylinder to cylinder as the work progresses. ( ) in motors where carbon has been burned hard, the cylinder interior should then be swabbed with kerosene before proceeding. work the swab, saturated with kerosene, around the inside of the cylinder until all the carbon has been moistened with the oil. this same swab may be used to ignite the gas in the cylinder in place of using a match or taper. ( ) make all connections to the oxygen cylinder. ( ) insert the torch nozzle in the cylinder, open the torch valve gradually and regulate to about two lbs. pressure. manipulate the nozzle inside the cylinder and light a match or other flame at the opening so that the carbon starts to burn. cover the various points within the cylinder and when there is no further burning the carbon has been removed. the regulating and oxygen tank valves are operated in exactly the same way as for welding as previously explained. it should be carefully noted that when the piston is up, ready to start the operation, both valves must be closed. there will be a considerable display of sparks while this operation is taking place, but they will not set fire to the grease and oil. care should be used to see that no gasoline is about. index acetylene filtering generators in tanks piping properties of purification of acetylene-air torches air oxygen from alloys table of alloy steel aluminum alloys welding annealing anvil arc welding, electric machines asbestos, use of, in welding babbitt bending pipes and tubes bessemer steel beveling brass welding brazing electric heat and tools spelter bronze welding butt welding calcium carbide carbide storage of, fire underwriters' rules to water generator carbon removal by oxygen process case hardening steel cast iron welding champfering charging generator chlorate of potash oxygen conductivity of metals copper alloys welding crucible steel cutting, oxy-acetylene torches dissolved acetylene electric arc welding electric welding troubles and remedies expansion of metals flame, welding fluxes for brazing for soldering forge fire practice tools tuvere construction of welding welding preparation welds, forms of forging gas holders gases, heating power of generator, acetylene carbide to water construction generator location of operation and care of overheating requirements water to carbide german silver gloves goggles hand forging hardening steel heat treatment of steel hildebrandt process hose injectors, adjuster iron cast grades of malleable cast wrought jump weld lap welding lead linde process liquid air oxygen magnalium malleable iron welding melting points of metals metal alloys, table of metals characteristics of conductivity of expansion of heat treatment of melting points of tensile strength of weight of nickel nozzle sizes, torch open hearth steel oxy-acetylene cutting welding practice oxygen cylinders weight of pipes, bending platinum preheating removal of carbon by oxygen process resistance method of electric welding restoration of steel rods, welding safety devices scarfing solder soldering flux holes seams steel and iron wires spelter spot welding steel alloys bessemer crucible heat treatment of open hearth restoration of tensile strength of welding strength of metals tank valves tapering tables of welding information tempering steel thermit metal preheating preparation welding tin torch acetylene-air care construction cutting high pressure low pressure medium pressure nozzles practice valves, regulating tank water to carbide generator welding aluminum brass bronze butt cast iron copper electric electric arc flame forge information and tables instruments lap malleable iron materials practice, oxy-acetylene rods spot steel table thermit torches various metals wrought iron wrought iron welding zinc transcribed by charles e. nichols shop management by frederick winslow taylor through his business in changing the methods of shop management, the writer has been brought into intimate contact over a period of years with the organization of manufacturing and industrial establishments, covering a large variety and range of product, and employing workmen in many of the leading trades. in taking a broad view of the field of management, the two facts which appear most noteworthy are: (a) what may be called the great unevenness, or lack of uniformity shown, even in our best run works, in the development of the several elements, which together constitute what is called the management. (b) the lack of apparent relation between good shop management and the payment of dividends. although the day of trusts is here, still practically each of the component companies of the trusts was developed and built up largely through the energies and especial ability of some one or two men who were the master spirits in directing its growth. as a rule, this leader rose from a more or less humble position in one of the departments, say in the commercial or the manufacturing department, until he became the head of his particular section. having shown especial ability in his line, he was for that reason made manager of the whole establishment. in examining the organization of works of this class, it will frequently be found that the management of the particular department in which this master spirit has grown up towers to a high point of excellence, his success having been due to a thorough knowledge of all of the smallest requirements of his section, obtained through personal contact, and the gradual training of the men under him to their maximum efficiency. the remaining departments, in which this man has had but little personal experience, will often present equally glaring examples of inefficiency. and this, mainly because management is not yet looked upon as an art, with laws as exact, and as clearly defined, for instance, as the fundamental principles of engineering, which demand long and careful thought and study. management is still looked upon as a question of men, the old view being that if you have the right man the methods can be safely left to him. the following, while rather an extreme case, may still be considered as a fairly typical illustration of the unevenness of management. it became desirable to combine two rival manufactories of chemicals. the great obstacle to this combination, however, and one which for several years had proved insurmountable was that the two men, each of whom occupied the position of owner and manager of his company, thoroughly despised one another. one of these men had risen to the top of his works through the office at the commercial end, and the other had come up from a workman in the factory. each one was sure that the other was a fool, if not worse. when they were finally combined it was found that each was right in his judgment of the other in a certain way. a comparison of their books showed that the manufacturer was producing his chemicals more than forty per cent cheaper than his rival, while the business man made up the difference by insisting on maintaining the highest quality, and by his superiority in selling, buying, and the management of the commercial side of the business. a combination of the two, however, finally resulted in mutual respect, and saving the forty per cent formerly lost by each man. the second fact that has struck the writer as most noteworthy is that there is no apparent relation in many, if not most cases, between good shop management and the success or failure of the company, many unsuccessful companies having good shop management while the reverse is true of many which pay large dividends. we, however, who are primarily interested in the shop, are apt to forget that success, instead of hinging upon shop management, depends in many cases mainly upon other elements, namely,--the location of the company, its financial strength and ability, the efficiency of its business and sales departments, its engineering ability, the superiority of its plant and equipment, or the protection afforded either by patents, combination, location or other partial monopoly. and even in those cases in which the efficiency of shop management might play an important part it must be remembered that for success no company need be better organized than its competitors. the most severe trial to which any system can be subjected is that of a business which is in keen competition over a large territory, and in which the labor cost of production forms a large element of the expense, and it is in such establishments that one would naturally expect to find the best type of management. yet it is an interesting fact that in several of the largest and most important classes of industries in this country shop practice is still twenty to thirty years behind what might be called modern management. not only is no attempt made by them to do tonnage or piece work, but the oldest of old-fashioned day work is still in vogue under which one overworked foreman manages the men. the workmen in these shops are still herded in classes, all of those in a class being paid the same wages, regardless of their respective efficiency. in these industries, however, although they are keenly competitive, the poor type of shop management does not interfere with dividends, since they are in this respect all equally bad. it would appear, therefore, that as an index to the quality of shop management the earning of dividends is but a poor guide. any one who has the opportunity and takes the time to study the subject will see that neither good nor bad management is confined to any one system or type. he will find a few instances of good management containing all of the elements necessary for permanent prosperity for both employers and men under ordinary day work, the task system, piece work, contract work, the premium plan, the bonus system and the differential rate; and he will find a very much larger number of instances of bad management under these systems containing as they do the elements which lead to discord and ultimate loss and trouble for both sides. if neither the prosperity of the company nor any particular type or system furnishes an index to proper management, what then is the touchstone which indicates good or bad management? the art of management has been defined, "as knowing exactly what you want men to do, and then seeing that they do it in the best and cheapest way.'" no concise definition can fully describe an art, but the relations between employers and men form without question the most important part of this art. in considering the subject, therefore, until this part of the problem has been fully discussed, the other phases of the art may be left in the background. the progress of many types of management is punctuated by a series of disputes, disagreements and compromises between employers and men, and each side spends more than a considerable portion of its time thinking and talking over the injustice which it receives at the hands of the other. all such types are out of the question, and need not be considered. it is safe to say that no system or scheme of management should be considered which does not in the long run give satisfaction to both employer and employee, which does not make it apparent that their best interests are mutual, and which does not bring about such thorough and hearty cooperation that they can pull together instead of apart. it cannot be said that this condition has as yet been at all generally recognized as the necessary foundation for good management. on the contrary, it is still quite generally regarded as a fact by both sides that in many of the most vital matters the best interests of employers are necessarily opposed to those of the men. in fact, the two elements which we will all agree are most wanted on the one hand by the men and on the other hand by the employers are generally looked upon as antagonistic. what the workmen want from their employers beyond anything else is high wages, and what employers want from their workmen most of all is a low labor cost of manufacture. these two conditions are not diametrically opposed to one another as would appear at first glance. on the contrary, they can be made to go together in all classes of work, without exception, and in the writer's judgment the existence or absence of these two elements forms the best index to either good or bad management. this book is written mainly with the object of advocating high wages and low labor cost as the foundation of the best management, of pointing out the general principles which render it possible to maintain these conditions even under the most trying circumstances, and of indicating the various steps which the writer thinks should be taken in changing from a poor system to a better type of management. the condition of high wages and low labor cost is far from being accepted either by the average manager or the average workman as a practical working basis. it is safe to say that the majority of employers have a feeling of satisfaction when their workmen are receiving lower wages than those of their competitors. on the other hand very many workmen feel contented if they find themselves doing the same amount of work per day as other similar workmen do and yet are getting more pay for it. employers and workmen alike should look upon both of these conditions with apprehension, as either of them are sure, in the long run, to lead to trouble and loss for both parties. through unusual personal influence and energy, or more frequently through especial conditions which are but temporary, such as dull times when there is a surplus of labor, a superintendent may succeed in getting men to work extra hard for ordinary wages. after the men, however, realize that this is the case and an opportunity comes for them to change these conditions, in their reaction against what they believe unjust treatment they are almost sure to lean so far in the other direction as to do an equally great injustice to their employer. on the other hand, the men who use the opportunity offered by a scarcity of labor to exact wages higher than the average of their class, without doing more than the average work in return, are merely laying up trouble for themselves in the long run. they grow accustomed to a high rate of living and expenditure, and when the inevitable turn comes and they are either thrown out of employment or forced to accept low wages, they are the losers by the whole transaction. the only condition which contains the elements of stability and permanent satisfaction is that in which both employer and employees are doing as well or better than their competitors are likely to do, and this in nine cases out of ten means high wages and low labor cost, and both parties should be equally anxious for these conditions to prevail. with them the employer can hold his own with his competitors at all times and secure sufficient work to keep his men busy even in dull times. without them both parties may do well enough in busy times, but both parties are likely to suffer when work becomes scarce. the possibility of coupling high wages with a low labor cost rests mainly upon the enormous difference between the amount of work which a first-class man can do under favorable circumstances and the work which is actually done by the average man. that there is a difference between the average and the first-class man is known to all employers, but that the first-class man can do in most cases from two to four times as much as is done by an average man is known to but few, and is fully realized only by those who have made a thorough and scientific study of the possibilities of men. the writer has found this enormous difference between the first-class and average man to exist in all of the trades and branches of labor which he has investigated, and these cover a large field, as he, together with several of his friends, has been engaged with more than usual opportunities for thirty years past in carefully and systematically studying this subject. the difference in the output of first-class and average men is as little realized by the workmen as by their employers. the first-class men know that they can do more work than the average, but they have rarely made any careful study of the matter. and the writer has over and over again found them utterly incredulous when he informed them, after close observation and study, how much they were able to do. in fact, in most cases when first told that they are able to do two or three times as much as they have done they take it as a joke and will not believe that one is in earnest. it must be distinctly understood that in referring to the possibilities of a first-class man the writer does not mean what he can do when on a spurt or when he is over-exerting himself, but what a good man can keep up for a long term of years without injury to his health. it is a pace under which men become happier and thrive. the second and equally interesting fact upon which the possibility of coupling high wages with low labor cost rests, is that first-class men are not only willing but glad to work at their maximum speed, providing they are paid from to per cent more than the average of their trade. the exact percentage by which the wages must be increased in order to make them work to their maximum is not a subject to be theorized over, settled by boards of directors sitting in solemn conclave, nor voted upon by trades unions. it is a fact inherent in human nature and has only been determined through the slow and difficult process of trial and error. the writer has found, for example, after making many mistakes above and below the proper mark, that to get the maximum output for ordinary shop work requiring neither especial brains, very close application, skill, nor extra hard work, such, for instance, as the more ordinary kinds of routine machine shop work, it is necessary to pay about per cent more than the average. for ordinary day labor requiring little brains or special skill, but calling for strength, severe bodily exertion, and fatigue, it is necessary to pay from per cent to per cent above the average. for work requiring especial skill or brains, coupled with close application, but without severe bodily exertion, such as the more difficult and delicate machinist's work, from per cent to per cent beyond the average. and for work requiring skill, brains, close application, strength, and severe bodily exertion, such, for instance, as that involved in operating a well run steam hammer doing miscellaneous work, from per cent to per cent beyond the average. there are plenty of good men ready to do their best for the above percentages of increase, but if the endeavor is made to get the right men to work at this maximum for less than the above increase, it will be found that most of them will prefer their old rate of speed with the lower pay. after trying the high speed piece work for a while they will one after another throw up their jobs and return to the old day work conditions. men will not work at their best unless assured a good liberal increase, which must be permanent. it is the writer's judgment, on the other hand, that for their own good it is as important that workmen should not be very much over-paid, as it is that they should not be under-paid. if over-paid, many will work irregularly and tend to become more or less shiftless, extravagant, arid dissipated. it does not do for most men to get rich too fast. the writer's observation, however, would lead him to the conclusion that most men tend to become more instead of less thrifty when they receive the proper increase for an extra hard day's work, as, for example, the percentages of increase referred to above. they live rather better, begin to save money, become more sober, and work more steadily. and this certainly forms one of the strongest reasons for advocating this type of management. in referring to high wages and low labor cost as fundamental in good management, the writer is most desirous not to be misunderstood. by high wages he means wages which are high only with relation to the average of the class to which the man belongs and which are paid only to those who do much more or better work than the average of their class. he would not for an instant advocate the use of a high-priced tradesman to do the work which could be done by a trained laborer or a lower-priced man. no one would think of using a fine trotter to draw a grocery wagon nor a percheron to do the work of a little mule. no more should a mechanic be allowed to do work for which a trained laborer can be used, and the writer goes so far as to say that almost any job that is repeated over and over again, however great skill and dexterity it may require, providing there is enough of it to occupy a man throughout a considerable part of the year, should be done by a trained laborer and not by a mechanic. a man with only the intelligence of an average laborer can be taught to do the most difficult and delicate work if it is repeated enough times; and his lower mental caliber renders him more fit than the mechanic to stand the monotony of repetition. it would seem to be the duty of employers, therefore, both in their own interest and in that of their employees, to see that each workman is given as far as possible the highest class of work for which his brains and physique fit him. a man, however, whose mental caliber and education do not fit him to become a good mechanic (and that grade of man is the one referred to as belonging to the "laboring class"), when he is trained to do some few especial jobs, which were formerly done by mechanics, should not expect to be paid the wages of a mechanic. he should get more than the average laborer, but less than a mechanic; thus insuring high wages to the workman, and low labor cost to the employer, and in this way making it most apparent to both that their interests are mutual. to summarize, then, what the aim in each establishment should be: (a) that each workman should be given as far as possible the highest grade of work for which his ability and physique fit him. (b) that each workman should be called upon to turn out the maximum amount of work which a first-rate man of his class can do and thrive. (c) that each workman, when he works at the best pace of a first-class man, should be paid from per cent to per cent according to the nature of the work which he does, beyond the average of his class. and this means high wages and a low labor cost. these conditions not only serve the best interests of the employer, but they tend to raise each workman to the highest level which he is fitted to attain by making him use his best faculties, forcing him to become and remain ambitious and energetic, and giving him sufficient pay to live better than in the past. under these conditions the writer has seen many first-class men developed who otherwise would have remained second or third class all of their lives. is not the presence or absence of these conditions the best indication that any system of management is either well or badly applied? and in considering the relative merits of different types of management, is not that system the best which will establish these conditions with the greatest certainty, precision, and speed? in comparing the management of manufacturing and engineering companies by this standard, it is surprising to see how far they fall short. few of those which are best organized have attained even approximately the maximum output of first-class men. many of them are paying much higher prices per piece than are required to secure the maximum product while owing to a bad system, lack of exact knowledge of the time required to do work, and mutual suspicion and misunderstanding between employers and men, the output per man is so small that the men receive little if any more than average wages, both sides being evidently the losers thereby. the chief causes which produce this loss to both parties are: first (and by far the most important), the profound ignorance of employers and their foremen as to the time in which various kinds of work should be done, and this ignorance is shared largely by the workmen. second: the indifference of the employers and their ignorance as to the proper system of management to adopt and the method of applying it, and further their indifference as to the individual character, worth, and welfare of their men. on the part of the men the greatest obstacle to the attainment of this standard is the slow pace which they adopt, or the loafing or "soldiering,'" marking time, as it is called. this loafing or soldiering proceeds from two causes. first, from the natural instinct and tendency of men to take it easy, which may be called natural soldiering. second, from more intricate second thought and reasoning caused by their relations with other men, which may be called systematic soldiering. there is no question that the tendency of the average man (in all walks of life) is toward working at a slow, easy gait, and that it is only after a good deal of thought and observation on his part or as a result of example, conscience, or external pressure that he takes a more rapid pace. there are, of course, men of unusual energy, vitality, and ambition who naturally choose the fastest gait, set up their own standards, and who will work hard, even though it may be against their best interests. but these few uncommon men only serve by affording a contrast to emphasize the tendency of the average. this common tendency to "take it easy" is greatly increased by bringing a number of men together on similar work and at a uniform standard rate of pay by the day. under this plan the better men gradually but surely slow down their gait to that of the poorest and least efficient. when a naturally energetic man works for a few days beside a lazy one, the logic of the situation is unanswerable: "why should i work hard when that lazy fellow gets the same pay that i do and does only half as much work?" a careful time study of men working under these conditions will disclose facts which are ludicrous as well as pitiable. to illustrate: the writer has timed a naturally energetic workman who, while going and coming from work, would walk at a speed of from three to four miles per hour, and not infrequently trot home after a day's work. on arriving at his work he would immediately slow down to a speed of about one mile an hour. when, for example, wheeling a loaded wheelbarrow he would go at a good fast pace even up hill in order to be as short a time as possible under load, and immediately on the return walk slow down to a mile an hour, improving every opportunity for delay short of actually sitting down. in order to be sure not to do more than his lazy neighbor he would actually tire himself in his effort to go slow. these men were working under a foreman of good reputation and one highly thought of by his employer who, when his attention was called to this state of things, answered: "well, i can keep them from sitting down, but the devil can't make them get a move on while they are at work." the natural laziness of men is serious, but by far the greatest evil from which both workmen and employers are suffering is the systematic soldiering which is almost universal under all of the ordinary schemes of management and which results from a careful study on the part of the workmen of what they think will promote their best interests. the writer was much interested recently to hear one small but experienced golf caddy boy of twelve explaining to a green caddy who had shown special energy and interest the necessity of going slow and lagging behind his man when he came up to the ball, showing him that since they were paid by the hour, the faster they went the less money they got, and finally telling him that if he went too fast the other boys would give him a licking. this represents a type of systematic soldiering which is not, however, very serious, since it is done with the knowledge of the employer, who can quite easily break it up if he wishes. the greater part of the systematic soldiering, however, is done by the men with the deliberate object of keeping their employers ignorant of how fast work can be done. so universal is soldiering for this purpose, that hardly a competent workman can be found in a large establishment, whether he works by the day or on piece work, contract work or under any of the ordinary systems of compensating labor, who does not devote a considerable part of his time to studying just how slowly he can work and still convince his employer that he is going at a good pace. the causes for this are, briefly, that practically all employers determine upon a maximum sum which they feel it is right for each of their classes of employees to earn per day, whether their men work by the day or piece. each workman soon finds out about what this figure is for his particular case, and he also realizes that when his employer is convinced that a man is capable of doing more work than he has done, he will find sooner or later some way of compelling him to do it with little or no increase of pay. employers derive their knowledge of how much of a given class of work can be done in a day from either their own experience, which has frequently grown hazy with age, from casual and unsystematic observation of their men, or at best from records which are kept, showing, the quickest time in which each job has been done. in many cases the employer will feel almost certain that a given job can be done faster than it has been, but he rarely cares to take the drastic measures necessary to force men to do it in the quickest time, unless he has an actual record, proving conclusively how fast the work can be done. it evidently becomes for each man's interest, then, to see that no job is done faster than it has been in the past. the younger and less experienced men are taught this by their elders, and all possible persuasion and social pressure is brought to bear upon the greedy and selfish men to keep them from making new records which result in temporarily increasing their wages, while all those who come after them are made to work harder for the same old pay. under the best day work of the ordinary type, when accurate records are kept of the amount of work done by each man and of his efficiency, and when each man's wages are raised as he improves, and those who fail to rise to a certain standard are discharged and a fresh supply of carefully selected men are given work in their places, both the natural loafing and systematic soldiering can be largely broken up. this can be done, however, only when the men are thoroughly convinced that there is no intention of establishing piece work even in the remote future, and it is next to impossible to make men believe this when the work is of such a nature that they believe piece work to be practicable. in most cases their fear of making a record which will be used as a basis for piece work will cause them to soldier as much as they dare. it is, however, under piece work that the art of systematic soldiering is thoroughly developed. after a workman has had the price per piece of the work he is doing lowered two or three times as a result of his having worked harder and increased his output, he is likely to entirely lose sight of his employer's side of the case and to become imbued with a grim determination to have no more cuts if soldiering can prevent it. unfortunately for the character of the workman, soldiering involves a deliberate attempt to mislead and deceive his employer, and thus upright and straight-forward workmen are compelled to become more or less hypocritical. the employer is soon looked upon as an antagonist, if not as an enemy, and the mutual confidence which should exist between a leader and his men, the enthusiasm, the feeling that they are all working for the same end and will share in the results, is entirely lacking. the feeling of antagonism under the ordinary piecework system becomes in many cases so marked on the part of the men that any proposition made by their employers, however reasonable, is looked upon with suspicion. soldiering becomes such a fixed habit that men will frequently take pains to restrict the product of machines which they are running when even a large increase in output would involve no more work on their part. on work which is repeated over and over again and the volume of which is sufficient to permit it, the plan of making a contract with a competent workman to do a certain class of work and allowing him to employ his own men subject to strict limitations, is successful. as a rule, the fewer the men employed by the contactor and the smaller the variety of the work, the greater will be the success under the contract system, the reason for this being that the contractor, under the spur of financial necessity, makes personally so close a study of the quickest time in which the work can be done that soldiering on the part of his men becomes difficult and the best of them teach laborers or lower-priced helpers to do the work formerly done by mechanics. the objections to the contract system are that the machine tools used by the contractor are apt to deteriorate rapidly, his chief interest being to get a large output, whether the tools are properly cared for or not, and that through the ignorance and inexperience of the contractor in handling men, his employees are frequently unjustly treated. these disadvantages are, however, more than counterbalanced by the comparative absence of soldiering on the part of the men. the greatest objection to this system is the soldiering which the contractor himself does in many cases, so as to secure a good price for his next contract. it is not at all unusual for a contractor to restrict the output of his own men and to refuse to adopt improvements in machines, appliances, or methods while in the midst of a contract, knowing that his next contract price will be lowered in direct proportion to the profits which he has made and the improvements introduced. under the contract system, however, the relations between employers and men are much more agreeable and normal than under piece work, and it is to be regretted that owing to the nature of the work done in most shops this system is not more generally applicable. the writer quotes as follows from his paper on "a piece rate system," read in , before the american society of mechanical engineers: "cooperation, or profit sharing, has entered the mind of every student of the subject as one of the possible and most attractive solutions of the problem; and there have been certain instances, both in england and france, of at least a partial success of cooperative experiments. "so far as i know, however, these trials have been made either in small towns, remote from the manufacturing centers, or in industries which in many respects are not subject to ordinary manufacturing conditions. "cooperative experiments have failed, and, i think, are generally destined to fail, for several reasons, the first and most important of which is, that no form of cooperation has yet been devised in which each individual is allowed free scope for his personal ambition. personal ambition always has been and will remain a more powerful incentive to exertion than a desire for the general welfare. the few misplaced drones, who do the loafing and share equally in the profits with the rest, under cooperation are sure to drag the better men down toward their level. "the second and almost equally strong reason for failure lies in the remoteness of the reward. the average workman (i don't say all men) cannot look forward to a profit which is six months or a year away. the nice time which they are sure to have today, if they take things easily, proves more attractive than hard work, with a possible reward to be shared with others six months later. "other and formidable difficulties in the path of cooperation are, the equitable division of the profits, and the fact that, while workmen are always ready to share the profits, they are neither able nor willing to share the losses. further than this, in many cases, it is neither right nor just that they should share either in the profits or the losses, since these may be due in great part to causes entirely beyond their influence or control, and to which they do not contribute." of all the ordinary systems of management in use (in which no accurate scientific study of the time problem is undertaken, and no carefully measured tasks are assigned to the men which must be accomplished in a given time) the best is the plan fundamentally originated by mr. henry r. towne, and improved and made practical by mr. f. a. halsey. this plan is described in papers read by mr. towne before the american society of mechanical engineers in , and by mr. halsey in , and has since been criticized and ably defended in a series of articles appearing in the "american machinist." the towne-halsey plan consists in recording the quickest time in which a job has been done, and fixing this as a standard. if the workman succeeds in doing the job in a shorter time, he is still paid his same wages per hour for the time he works on the job, and in addition is given a premium for having worked faster, consisting of from one-quarter to one-half the difference between the wages earned and the wages originally paid when the job was done in standard time. mr. halsey recommends the payment of one third of the difference as the best premium for most cases. the difference between this system and ordinary piece work is that the workman on piece work gets the whole of the difference between the actual time of a job and the standard time, while under the towne-halsey plan he gets only a fraction of this difference. it is not unusual to hear the towne-halsey plan referred to as practically the same as piece work. this is far from the truth, for while the difference between the two does not appear to a casual observer to be great, and the general principles of the two seem to be the same, still we all know that success or failure in many cases hinges upon small differences. in the writer's judgment, the towne-halsey plan is a great invention, and, like many other great inventions, its value lies in its simplicity. this plan has already been successfully adopted by a large number of establishments, and has resulted in giving higher wages to many workmen, accompanied by a lower labor cost to the employer, and at the same time materially improving their relations by lessening the feeling of antagonism between the two. this system is successful because it diminishes soldiering, and this rests entirely upon the fact that since the workman only receives say one-third of the increase in pay that he would get under corresponding conditions on piece work, there is not the same temptation for the employer to cut prices. after this system has been in operation for a year or two, if no cuts in prices have been made, the tendency of the men to soldier on that portion of the work which is being done under the system is diminished, although it does not entirely cease. on the other hand, the tendency of the men to soldier on new work which is started, and on such portions as are still done on day work, is even greater under the towne-halsey plan than under piece work. to illustrate: workmen, like the rest of mankind, are more strongly influenced by object lessons than by theories. the effect on men of such an object lesson as the following will be apparent. suppose that two men, named respectively smart and honest, are at work by the day and receive the same pay, say cents per hour. each of these men is given a new piece of work which could be done in one hour. smart does his job in four hours (and it is by no means unusual for men to soldier to this extent). honest does his in one and one-half hours. now, when these two jobs start on this basis under the towne-halsey plan and are ultimately done in one hour each, smart receives for his job cents per hour + a premium of cents = a total of cents. honest receives for his job cents per hour + a premium of / cents = a total of / cents. most of the men in the shop will follow the example of smart rather than that of honest and will "soldier" to the extent of three or four hundred per cent if allowed to do so. the towne-halsey system shares with ordinary piece work then, the greatest evil of the latter, namely that its very foundation rests upon deceit, and under both of these systems there is necessarily, as we have seen, a great lack of justice and equality in the starting-point of different jobs. some of the rates will have resulted from records obtained when a first-class man was working close to his maximum speed, while others will be based on the performance of a poor man at one-third or one quarter speed. the injustice of the very foundation of the system is thus forced upon the workman every day of his life, and no man, however kindly disposed he may be toward his employer, can fail to resent this and be seriously influenced by it in his work. these systems are, therefore, of necessity slow and irregular in their operation in reducing costs. they "drift" gradually toward an increased output, but under them the attainment of the maximum output of a first-class man is almost impossible. objection has been made to the use of the word "drifting" in this connection. it is used absolutely without any intention of slurring the towne-halsey system or in the least detracting from its true merit. it appears to me, however, that "drifting" very accurately describes it, for the reason that the management, having turned over the entire control of the speed problem to the men, the latter being influenced by their prejudices and whims, drift sometimes in one direction and sometimes in another; but on the whole, sooner or later, under the stimulus of the premium, move toward a higher rate of speed. this drifting, accompanied as it is by the irregularity and uncertainty both as to the final result which will be attained and as to how long it will take to reach this end, is in marked contrast to the distinct goal which is always kept in plain sight of both parties under task management, and the clear-cut directions which leave no doubt as to the means which are to be employed nor the time in which the work must be done; and these elements constitute the fundamental difference between the two systems. mr. halsey, in objecting to the use of the word "drifting" as describing his system, has referred to the use of his system in england in connection with a "rate-fixing" or planning department, and quotes as follows from his paper to show that he contemplated control of the speed of the work by the management: "on contract work undertaken for the first time the method is the same except that the premium is based on the estimated time for the execution of the work." in making this claim mr. halsey appears to have entirely lost sight of the real essence of the two plans. it is task management which is in use in england, not the towne-halsey system; and in the above quotation mr. halsey describes not his system but a type of task management, in which the men are paid a premium for carrying out the directions given them by the management. there is no doubt that there is more or less confusion in the minds of many of those who have read about the task management and the towne-halsey system. this extends also to those who are actually using and working under these systems. this is practically true in england, where in some cases task management is actually being used under the name of the "premium plan." it would therefore seem desirable to indicate once again and in a little different way the essential difference between the two. the one element which the towne-halsey system and task management have in common is that both recognize the all-important fact that workmen cannot be induced to work extra hard without receiving extra pay. under both systems the men who succeed are daily and automatically, as it were, paid an extra premium. the payment of this daily premium forms such a characteristic feature in both systems, and so radically differentiates these systems from those which were in use before, that people are apt to look upon this one element as the essence of both systems and so fail to recognize the more important, underlying principles upon which the success of each of them is based. in their essence, with the one exception of the payment of a daily premium, the systems stand at the two opposite extremes in the field of management; and it is owing to the distinctly radical, though opposite, positions taken by them that each one owes its success; and it seems to me a matter of importance that this should be understood. in any executive work which involves the cooperation of two different men or parties, where both parties have anything like equal power or voice in its direction, there is almost sure to be a certain amount of bickering, quarreling, and vacillation, and the success of the enterprise suffers accordingly. if, however, either one of the parties has the entire direction, the enterprise will progress consistently and probably harmoniously, even although the wrong one of the two parties may be in control. broadly speaking, in the field of management there are two parties--the superintendents, etc., on one side and the men on the other, and the main questions at issue are the speed and accuracy with which the work shall be done. up to the time that task management was introduced in the midvale steel works, it can be fairly said that under the old systems of management the men and the management had about equal weight in deciding how fast the work should be done. shop records showing the quickest time in which each job had been done and more or less shrewd guessing being the means on which the management depended for bargaining with and coercing the men; and deliberate soldiering for the purpose of misinforming the management being the weapon used by the men in self-defense. under the old system the incentive was entirely lacking which is needed to induce men to cooperate heartily with the management in increasing the speed with which work is turned out. it is chiefly due, under the old systems, to this divided control of the speed with which the work shall be done that such an amount of bickering, quarreling, and often hard feeling exists between the two sides. the essence of task management lies in the fact that the control of the speed problem rests entirely with the management; and, on the other hand, the true strength of the towne-halsey system rests upon the fact that under it the question of speed is settled entirely by the men without interference on the part of the management. thus in both cases, though from diametrically opposite causes, there is undivided control, and this is the chief element needed for harmony. the writer has seen many jobs successfully nursed in several of our large and well managed establishments under these drifting systems, for a term of ten to fifteen years, at from one-third to one-quarter speed. the workmen, in the meanwhile, apparently enjoyed the confidence of their employers, and in many cases the employers not only suspected the deceit, but felt quite sure of it. the great defect, then, common to all the ordinary systems of management (including the towne-halsey system, the best of this class) is that their starting-point, their very foundation, rests upon ignorance and deceit, and that throughout their whole course in the one element which is most vital both to employer and workmen, namely, the speed at which work is done, they are allowed to drift instead of being intelligently directed and controlled. the writer has found, through an experience of thirty years, covering a large variety in manufactures, as well as in the building trades, structural and engineering work, that it is not only practicable but comparatively easy to obtain, through a systematic and scientific time study, exact information as to how much of any given kind of work either a first-class or an average man can do in a day, and with this information as a foundation, he has over and over again seen the fact demonstrated that workmen of all classes are not only willing, but glad to give up all idea of soldiering, and devote all of their energies to turning out the maximum work possible, providing they are sure of a suitable permanent reward. with accurate time knowledge as a basis, surprisingly large results can be obtained under any scheme of management from day work up; there is no question that even ordinary day work resting upon this foundation will give greater satisfaction than any of the systems in common use, standing as they do upon soldiering as a basis. to many of the readers of this book both the fundamental objects to be aimed at, namely, high wages with low labor cost, and the means advocated by the writer for attaining this end; namely, accurate time study, will appear so theoretical and so far outside of the range of their personal observation and experience that it would seem desirable, before proceeding farther, to give a brief illustration of what has been accomplished in this line. the writer chooses from among a large variety of trades to which these principles have been applied, the yard labor handling raw materials in the works of the bethlehem steel company at south bethlehem, pa., not because the results attained there have been greater than in many other instances, but because the case is so elementary that the results are evidently due to no other cause than thorough time study as a basis, followed by the application of a few simple principles with which all of us are familiar. in almost all of the other more complicated cases the large increase in output is due partly to the actual physical changes, either in the machines or small tools and appliances, which a preliminary time study almost always shows to be necessary, so that for purposes of illustration the simple case chosen is the better, although the gain made in the more complicated cases is none the less legitimately due to the system. up to the spring of the year , all of the materials in the yard of the bethlehem steel company had been handled by gangs of men working by the day, and under the foremanship of men who had themselves formerly worked at similar work as laborers. their management was about as good as the average of similar work, although it was bad all of the men being paid the ruling wages of laborers in this section of the country, namely, $ . per day, the only means of encouraging or disciplining them being either talking to them or discharging them; occasionally, however, a man was selected from among these men and given a better class of work with slightly higher wages in some of the companies' shops, and this had the effect of slightly stimulating them. from four to six hundred men were employed on this class of work throughout the year. the work of these men consisted mainly of unloading from railway cars and shoveling on to piles, and from these piles again loading as required, the raw materials used in running three blast furnaces and seven large open-hearth furnaces, such as ore of various kinds, varying from fine, gravelly ore to that which comes in large lumps, coke, limestone, special pig, sand, etc., unloading hard and soft coal for boilers gas-producers, etc., and also for storage and again loading the stored coal as required for use, loading the pig-iron produced at the furnaces for shipment, for storage, and for local use, and handling billets, etc., produced by the rolling mills. the work covered a large variety as laboring work goes, and it was not usual to keep a man continuously at the same class of work. before undertaking the management of these men, the writer was informed that they were steady workers, but slow and phlegmatic, and that nothing would induce them to work fast. the first step was to place an intelligent, college-educated man in charge of progress in this line. this man had not before handled this class of labor, although he understood managing workmen. he was not familiar with the methods pursued by the writer, but was soon taught the art of determining how much work a first-class man can do in a day. this was done by timing with a stop watch a first-class man while he was working fast. the best way to do this, in fact almost the only way in which the timing can be done with certainty, is to divide the man's work into its elements and time each element separately. for example, in the case of a man loading pig-iron on to a car, the elements should be: (a) picking up the pig from the ground or pile (time in hundredths of a minute); (b) walking with it on a level (time per foot walked); (c) walking with it up an incline to car (time per foot walked); (d) throwing the pig down (time in hundredths of a minute), or laying it on a pile (time in hundredths of a minute); (e) walking back empty to get a load (time per foot walked). in case of important elements which were to enter into a number of rates, a large number of observations were taken when practicable on different first-class men, and at different times, and they were averaged. the most difficult elements to time and decide upon in this, as in most cases, are the percentage of the day required for rest, and the time to allow for accidental or unavoidable delays. in the case of the yard labor at bethlehem, each class of work was studied as above, each element being timed separately, and, in addition, a record was kept in many cases of the total amount of work done by the man in a day. the record of the gross work of the man (who is being timed) is, in most cases, not necessary after the observer is skilled in his work. as the bethlehem time observer was new to this work, the gross time was useful in checking his detailed observations and so gradually educating him and giving him confidence in the new methods. the writer had so many other duties that his personal help was confined to teaching the proper methods and approving the details of the various changes which were in all cases outlined in written reports before being carried out. as soon as a careful study had been made of the time elements entering into one class of work, a single first-class workman was picked out and started on ordinary piece work on this job. his task required him to do between three and one-half and four times as much work in a day as had been done in the past on an average. between twelve and thirteen tons of pig-iron per man had been carried from a pile on the ground, up an inclined plank, and loaded on to a gondola car by the average pig-iron handler while working by the day. the men in doing this work had worked in gangs of from five to twenty men. the man selected from one of these gangs to make the first start under the writer's system was called upon to load on piece work from forty-five to forty-eight tons ( , lbs. each) per day. he regarded this task as an entirely fair one, and earned on an average, from the start, $ . per day, which was per cent more than he had been paid by the day. this man happened to be considerably lighter than the average good workman at this class of work. he weighed about pounds. he proved however, to be especially well suited to this job, and was kept at it steadily throughout the time that the writer was in bethlehem, and some years later was still at the same work. being the first piece work started in the works, it excited considerable opposition, both on the part of the workmen and of several of the leading men in the town, their opposition being based mainly on the old fallacy that if piece work proved successful a great many men would be thrown out of work, and that thereby not only the workmen but the whole town would suffer. one after another of the new men who were started singly on this job were either persuaded or intimidated into giving it up. in many cases they were given other work by those interested in preventing piece work, at wages higher than the ruling wages. in the meantime, however, the first man who started on the work earned steadily $ . per day, and this object lesson gradually wore out the concerted opposition, which ceased rather suddenly after about two months. from this time on there was no difficulty in getting plenty of good men who were anxious to start on piece work, and the difficulty lay in making with sufficient rapidity the accurate time study of the elementary operations or "unit times" which forms the foundation of this kind of piece work. throughout the introduction of piece work, when after a thorough time study a new section of the work was started, one man only was put on each new job, and not more than one man was allowed to work at it until he had demonstrated that the task set was a fair one by earning an average of $ . per day. after a few sections of the work had been started in this way, the complaint on the part of the better workmen was that they were not allowed to go on to piece work fast enough. it required about two years to transfer practically all of the yard labor from day to piece work. and the larger part of the transfer was made during the last six months of this time. as stated above, the greater part of the time was taken up in studying "unit times," and this time study was greatly delayed by having successively the two leading men who had been trained to the work leave because they were offered much larger salaries elsewhere. the study of "unit times" for the yard labor took practically the time of two trained men for two years. throughout this time the day and piece workers were under entirely separate and distinct management. the original foremen continued to manage the day work, and day and piece workers were never allowed to work together. gradually the day work gang was diminished and the piece workers were increased as one section of work after another was transformed from the former to the latter. two elements which were important to the success of this work should be noted: first, on the morning following each day's work, each workman was given a slip of paper informing him in detail just how much work he had done the day before, and the amount he had earned. this enabled him to measure his performance against his earnings while the details were fresh in his mind. without this there would have been great dissatisfaction among those who failed to climb up to the task asked of them, and many would have gradually fallen off in their performance. second, whenever it was practicable, each man's work was measured by itself. only when absolutely necessary was the work of two men measured up together and the price divided between them, and then care was taken to select two men of as nearly as possible the same capacity. only on few occasions, and then upon special permission, signed by the writer, were more than two men allowed to work on gang work, dividing their earnings between them. gang work almost invariably results in a failing off in earnings and consequent dissatisfaction. an interesting illustration of the desirability of individual piece work instead of gang work came to our attention at bethlehem. several of the best piece workers among the bethlehem yard laborers were informed by their friends that a much higher price per ton was paid for shoveling ore in another works than the rate given at bethlehem. after talking the matter over with the writer he advised them to go to the other works, which they accordingly did. in about a month they were all back at work in bethlehem again, having found that at the other works they were obliged to work with a gang of men instead of on individual piece work, and that the rest of the gang worked so slowly that in spite of the high price paid per ton they earned much less than bethlehem. table , on page , gives a summary of the work done by the piece-work laborers in handling raw materials, such as ores, anthracite and bituminous coal, coke, pig-iron, sand, limestone, cinder, scale, ashes, etc., in the works of the bethlehem steel company, during the year ending april , . this work consisted mainly in loading and unloading cars on arrival or departure from the works, and for local transportation, and was done entirely by hand, i.e., without the use of cranes or other machinery. the greater part of the credit for making the accurate time study and actually managing the men on this work should be given to mr. a. b. wadleigh, the writer's assistant in this section at that time. table . -showing relative cost of yard labor under task piece work and old style day work [transcriber's note -- table omitted] when the writer left the steel works, the bethlehem piece workers were the finest body of picked laborers that he has ever seen together. they were practically all first-class men, because in each case the task which they were called upon to perform was such that only a first-class man could do it. the tasks were all purposely made so severe that not more than one out of five laborers (perhaps even a smaller percentage than this) could keep up. [footnotes to table ] ) it was our intention to fix piece work rates which should enable first-class workmen to average about per cent more than they had been earning on day work, namely $ . per day. a year's average shows them to have earned $ . per day, or three cents per man per day more than we expected--an error of / per cent. ) the piece workers handled on an average / times as many tons per day as the day workers. [end footnotes to table ] it was clearly understood by each newcomer as he went to work that unless he was able to average at least $ . per day he would have to make way for another man who could do so. as a result, first-class men from all over that part of the country, who were in most cases earning from $ . to $ . per day, were anxious to try their hands at earning $ . per day. if they succeeded they were naturally contented, and if they failed they left, sorry that they were unable to maintain the proper pace, but with no hard feelings either toward the system or the management. throughout the time that the writer was there, labor was as scarce and as difficult to get as it ever has been in the history of this country, and yet there was always a surplus of first-class men ready to leave other jobs and try their hand at bethlehem piece work. perhaps the most notable difference between these men and ordinary piece workers lay in their changed mental attitude toward their employers and their work, and in the total absence of soldiering on their part. the ordinary piece worker would have spent a considerable part of his time in deciding just how much his employer would allow him to earn without cutting prices and in then trying to come as close as possible to this figure, while carefully guarding each job so as to keep the management from finding out how fast it really could be done. these men, however, were faced with a new but very simple and straightforward proposition, namely, am i a first-class laborer or not? each man felt that if he belonged in the first class all he had to do was to work at his best and he would be paid sixty per cent more than he had been paid in the past. each piece work price was accepted by the men without question. they never bargained over nor complained about rates, and there was no occasion to do so, since they were all equally fair, and called for almost exactly the same amount of work and fatigue per dollar of wages. a careful inquiry into the condition of these men when away from work developed the fact that out of the whole gang only two were said to be drinking men. this does not, of course, imply that many of them did not take an occasional drink. the fact is that a steady drinker would find it almost impossible to keep up with the pace which was set, so that they were practically all sober. many if not most of them were saving money, and they all lived better than they had before. the results attained under this system were most satisfactory both to employer and workmen, and show in a convincing way the possibility of uniting high wages with a low labor cost. this is virtually a labor union of first-class men, who are united together to secure the extra high wages, which belong to them by right and which in this case are begrudged them by none, and which will be theirs through dull times as well as periods of activity. such a union commands the unqualified admiration and respect of all classes of the community; the respect equally of workmen, employers, political economists, and philanthropists. there are no dues for membership, since all of the expenses are paid by the company. the employers act as officers of the union, to enforce its rules and keep its records, since the interests of the company are identical and bound up with those of the men. it is never necessary to plead with, or persuade men to join this union, since the employers themselves organize it free of cost; the best workmen in the community are always anxious to belong to it. the feature most to be regretted about it is that the membership is limited. the words "labor union" are, however, unfortunately so closely associated in the minds of most people with the idea of disagreement and strife between employers and men that it seems almost incongruous to apply them to this case. is not this, however, the ideal "labor union," with character and special ability of a high order as the only qualifications for membership. it is a curious fact that with the people to whom the writer has described this system, the first feeling, particularly among those more philanthropically inclined, is one of pity for the inferior workmen who lost their jobs in order to make way for the first-class men. this sympathy is entirely misplaced. there was such a demand for labor at the time that no workman was obliged to be out of work for more than a day or two, and so the poor workmen were practically as well off as ever. the feeling, instead of being one of pity for the inferior workmen, should be one of congratulation and rejoicing that many first-class men--who through unfortunate circumstances had never had the opportunity of proving their worth--at last were given the chance to earn high wages and become prosperous. what the writer wishes particularly to emphasize is that this whole system rests upon an accurate and scientific study of unit times, which is by far the most important element in scientific management. with it, greater and more permanent results can be attained even under ordinary day work or piece work than can be reached under any of the more elaborate systems without it. in the writer read a paper before the american society of mechanical engineers entitled "a piece rate system." his chief object in writing it was to advocate the study of unit times as the foundation of good management. unfortunately, he at the same time described the "differential rate" system of piece work, which had been introduced by him in the midvale steel works. although he called attention to the fact that the latter was entirely of secondary importance, the differential rate was widely discussed in the journals of this country and abroad while practically nothing was said about the study of "unit times." thirteen members of the society discussed the piece rate system at length, and only two briefly referred to the study of the "unit times." the writer most sincerely trusts that his leading object in writing this book will not be overlooked, and that scientific time study will receive the attention which it merits. bearing in mind the bethlehem yard labor as an illustration of the application of the study of unit times as the foundation of success in management, the following would seem to him a fair comparison of the older methods with the more modern plan. for each job there is the quickest time in which it can be done by a first-class man. this time may be called the "quickest time," or the "standard time" for the job. under all the ordinary systems, this "quickest time" is more or less completely shrouded in mist. in most cases, however, the workman is nearer to it and sees it more clearly than the employer. under ordinary piece work the management watch every indication given them by the workmen as to what the "quickest time" is for each job, and endeavor continually to force the men toward this "standard time," while the workmen constantly use every effort to prevent this from being done and to lead the management in the wrong direction. in spite of this conflict, however, the "standard time" is gradually approached. under the towne-halsey plan the management gives up all direct effort to reach this "quickest time," but offers mild inducements to the workmen to do so, and turns over the whole enterprise to them. the workmen, peacefully as far as the management is concerned, but with considerable pulling and hauling among themselves, and without the assistance of a trained guiding hand, drift gradually and slowly in the direction of the "standard time," but rarely approach it closely. with accurate time study as a basis, the "quickest time" for each job is at all times in plain sight of both employers and workmen, and is reached with accuracy, precision, and speed, both sides pulling hard in the same direction under the uniform simple and just agreement that whenever a first-class man works his best he will receive from to per cent more than the average of his trade. probably a majority of the attempts that are made to radically change the organization of manufacturing companies result in a loss of money to the company, failure to bring about the change sought for, and a return to practically the original organization. the reason for this being that there are but few employers who look upon management as an art, and that they go at a difficult task without either having understood or appreciated the time required for organization or its cost, the troubles to be met with, or the obstacles to be overcome, and without having studied the means to be employed in doing so. before starting to make any changes in the organization of a company the following matters should be carefully considered: first, the importance of choosing the general type of management best suited to the particular case. second, that in all cases money must be spent, and in many cases a great deal of money, before the changes are completed which result in lowering cost. third, that it takes time to reach any result worth aiming at. fourth, the importance of making changes in their proper order, and that unless the right steps are taken, and taken in their proper sequence, there is great danger from deterioration in the quality of the output and from serious troubles with the workmen, often resulting in strikes. as to the type of management to be ultimately aimed at, before any changes whatever are made, it is necessary, or at least highly desirable, that the most careful consideration should be given to the type to be chosen; and once a scheme is decided upon it should be carried forward step by step without wavering or retrograding. workmen will tolerate and even come to have great respect for one change after another made in logical sequence and according to a consistent plan. it is most demoralizing, however, to have to recall a step once taken, whatever may be the cause, and it makes any further changes doubly difficult. the choice must be made between some of the types of management in common use, which the writer feels are properly designated by the word "drifting," and the more modern scientific management based on an accurate knowledge of how long it should take to do the work. if, as is frequently the case, the managers of an enterprise find themselves so overwhelmed with other departments of the business that they can give but little thought to the management of the shop, then some one of the various "drifting" schemes should be adopted; and of these the writer believes the towne-halsey plan to be the best, since it drifts safely and peacefully though slowly in the right direction; yet under it the best results can never be reached. the fact, however, that managers are in this way overwhelmed by their work is the best proof that there is something radically wrong with the plan of their organization and in self defense they should take immediate steps toward a more thorough study of the art. it is not at all generally realized that whatever system may be used, --providing a business is complex in its nature--the building up of an efficient organization is necessarily slow and sometimes very expensive. almost all of the directors of manufacturing companies appreciate the economy of a thoroughly modern, up-to-date, and efficient plant, and are willing to pay for it. very few of them, however, realize that the best organization, whatever its cost may be, is in many cases even more important than the plant; nor do they clearly realize that no kind of an efficient organization can be built up without spending money. the spending of money for good machinery appeals to them because they can see machines after they are bought; but putting money into anything so invisible, intangible, and to the average man so indefinite, as an organization seems almost like throwing it away. there is no question that when the work to be done is at all complicated, a good organization with a poor plant will give better results than the best plant with a poor organization. one of the most successful manufacturers in this country was asked recently by a number of financiers whether he thought that the difference between one style of organization and another amounted to much providing the company had an up-to-date plant properly located. his answer was, "if i had to choose now between abandoning my present organization and burning down all of my plants which have cost me millions, i should choose the latter. my plants could be rebuilt in a short while with borrowed money, but i could hardly replace my organization in a generation." modern engineering can almost be called an exact science; each year removes it further from guess work and from rule-of-thumb methods and establishes it more firmly upon the foundation of fixed principles. the writer feels that management is also destined to become more of an art, and that many of the, elements which are now believed to be outside the field of exact knowledge will soon be standardized tabulated, accepted, and used, as are now many of the elements of engineering. management will be studied as an art and will rest upon well recognized, clearly defined, and fixed principles instead of depending upon more or less hazy ideas received from a limited observation of the few organizations with which the individual may have come in contact. there will, of course, be various successful types, and the application of the underlying principles must be modified to suit each particular case. the writer has already indicated that he thinks the first object in management is to unite high wages with a low labor cost. he believes that this object can be most easily attained by the application of the following principles: (a) a large daily task. --each man in the establishment, high or low, should daily have a clearly defined task laid out before him. this task should not in the least degree be vague nor indefinite, but should be circumscribed carefully and completely, and should not be easy to accomplish. (b) standard conditions. --each man's task should call for a full day's work, and at the same time the workman should be given such standardized conditions and appliances as will enable him to accomplish his task with certainty. (c) high pay for success. --he should be sure of large pay when he accomplishes his task. (d) loss in case of failure. --when he fails he should be sure that sooner or later he will be the loser by it. when an establishment has reached an advanced state of organization, in many cases a fifth element should be added, namely: the task should be made so difficult that it can only be accomplished by a first-class man. there is nothing new nor startling about any of these principles and yet it will be difficult to find a shop in which they are not daily violated over and over again. they call, however, for a greater departure from the ordinary types of organization than would at first appear. in the case, for instance, of a machine shop doing miscellaneous work, in order to assign daily to each man a carefully measured task, a special planning department is required to lay out all of the work at least one day ahead. all orders must be given to the men in detail in writing; and in order to lay out the next day's work and plan the entire progress of work through the shop, daily returns must be made by the men to the planning department in writing, showing just what has been done. before each casting or forging arrives in the shop the exact route which it is to take from machine to machine should be laid out. an instruction card for each operation must be written out stating in detail just how each operation on every piece of work is to be done and the time required to do it, the drawing number, any special tools, jigs, or appliances required, etc. before the four principles above referred to can be successfully applied it is also necessary in most shops to make important physical changes. all of the small details in the shop, which are usually regarded as of little importance and are left to be regulated according to the individual taste of the workman, or, at best, of the foreman, must be thoroughly and carefully standardized; such. details, for instance, as the care and tightening of the belts; the exact shape and quality of each cutting tool; the establishment of a complete tool room from which properly ground tools, as well as jigs, templates, drawings, etc., are issued under a good check system, etc.; and as a matter of importance (in fact, as the foundation of scientific management) an accurate study of unit times must be made by one or more men connected with the planning department, and each machine tool must be standardized and a table or slide rule constructed for it showing how to run it to the best advantage. at first view the running of a planning department, together with the other innovations, would appear to involve a large amount of additional work and expense, and the most natural question would be is whether the increased efficiency of the shop more than offsets this outlay? it must be borne in mind, however, that, with the exception of the study of unit times, there is hardly a single item of work done in the planning department which is not already being done in the shop. establishing a planning department merely concentrates the planning and much other brainwork in a few men especially fitted for their task and trained in their especial lines, instead of having it done, as heretofore, in most cases by high priced mechanics, well fitted to work at their trades, but poorly trained for work more or less clerical in its nature. there is a close analogy between the methods of modern engineering and this type of management. engineering now centers in the drafting room as modern management does in the planning department. the new style engineering has all the appearance of complication and extravagance, with its multitude of drawings; the amount of study and work which is put into each detail; and its corps of draftsmen, all of whom would be sneered at by the old engineer as "non-producers." for the same reason, modern management, with its minute time study and a managing department in which each operation is carefully planned, with its many written orders and its apparent red tape, looks like a waste of money; while the ordinary management in which the planning is mainly done by the workmen themselves, with the help of one or two foremen, seems simple and economical in the extreme. the writer, however, while still a young man, had all lingering doubt as to the value of a drafting room dispelled by seeing the chief engineer, the foreman of the machine shop, the foreman of the foundry, and one or two workmen, in one of our large and successful engineering establishments of the old school, stand over the cylinder of an engine which was being built, with chalk and dividers, and discuss for more than an hour the proper size and location of the studs for fastening on the cylinder head. this was simplicity, but not economy. about the same time he became thoroughly convinced of the necessity and economy of a planning department with time study, and with written instruction cards and returns. he saw over and over again a workman shut down his machine and hunt up the foreman to inquire, perhaps, what work to put into his machine next, and then chase around the shop to find it or to have a special tool or template looked up or made. he saw workmen carefully nursing their jobs by the hour and doing next to nothing to avoid making a record, and he was even more forcibly convinced of the necessity for a change while he was still working as a machinist by being ordered by the other men to slow down to half speed under penalty of being thrown over the fence. no one now doubts the economy of the drafting room, and the writer predicts that in a very few years from now no one will doubt the economy and necessity of the study of unit times and of the planning department. another point of analogy between modern engineering and modern management lies in the fact that modern engineering proceeds with comparative certainty to the design and construction of a machine or structure of the maximum efficiency with the minimum weight and cost of materials, while the old style engineering at best only approximated these results and then only after a series of breakdowns, involving the practical reconstruction of the machine and the lapse of a long period of time. the ordinary system of management, owing to the lack of exact information and precise methods, can only approximate to the desired standard of high wages accompanied by low labor cost and then only slowly, with marked irregularity in results, with continued opposition, and, in many cases, with danger from strikes. modern management, on the other hand, proceeds slowly at first, but with directness and precision, step by step, and, after the first few object lessons, almost without opposition on the part of the men, to high wages and low labor cost; and as is of great importance, it assigns wages to the men which are uniformly fair. they are not demoralized, and their sense of justice offended by receiving wages which are sometimes too low and at other times entirely too high. one of the marked advantages of scientific management lies in its freedom from strikes. the writer has never been opposed by a strike, although he has been engaged for a great part of his time since in introducing this type of management in different parts of the country and in a great variety of industries. the only case of which the writer can think in which a strike under this system might be unavoidable would be that in which most of the employees were members of a labor union, and of a union whose rules were so inflexible and whose members were so stubborn that they were unwilling to try any other system, even though it assured them larger wages than their own. the writer has seen, however, several times after the introduction of this system, the members of labor unions who were working under it leave the union in large numbers because they found that they could do better under the operation of the system than under the laws of the union. there is no question that the average individual accomplishes the most when he either gives himself, or some one else assigns him, a definite task, namely, a given amount of work which he must do within a given time; and the more elementary the mind and character of the individual the more necessary does it become that each task shall extend over a short period of time only. no school teacher would think of telling children in a general way to study a certain book or subject. it is practically universal to assign each day a definite lesson beginning on one specified page and line and ending on another; and the best progress is made when the conditions are such that a definite study hour or period can be assigned in. which the lesson must be learned. most of us remain, through a great part of our lives, in this respect, grown-up children, and do our best only under pressure of a task of comparatively short duration. another and perhaps equally great advantage of assigning a daily task as against ordinary piece work lies in the fact that the success of a good workman or the failure of a poor one is thereby daily and prominently called to the attention of the management. many a poor workman might be willing to go along in a slipshod way under ordinary piece work, careless as to whether he fell off a little in his output or not. very few of them, however, would be willing to record a daily failure to accomplish their task even if they were allowed to do so by their foreman; and also since on ordinary piece work the price alone is specified without limiting the time which the job is to take, a quite large falling off in output can in many cases occur without coming to the attention of the management at all. it is for these reasons that the writer has above indicated "a large daily task" for each man as the first of four principles which should be included in the best type of management. it is evident, however, that it is useless to assign a task unless at the same time adequate measures are taken to enforce its accomplishment. as artemus ward says, "i can call the spirits from the windy deep, but damn `em they won't come!" it is to compel the completion of the daily task then that two of the other principles are required, namely, "high pay for success" and "loss in case of failure." the advantage of mr. h. l. gantt's system of "task work with a bonus," and the writer's "differential rate piece work" over the other systems lies in the fact that with each of these the men automatically and daily receive either an extra reward in case of complete success, or a distinct loss in case they fall off even a little. the four principles above referred to can be successfully applied either under day work, piece work, task work with a bonus, or differential rate piece work, and each of these systems has its own especial conditions under which it is to be preferred to either of the other three. in no case, however, should an attempt be made to apply these principles unless accurate and thorough time study has previously been made of every item entering into the day's task. they should be applied under day work only when a number of miscellaneous jobs have to be done day after day, none of which can occupy the entire time of a man throughout the whole of a day and when the time required to do each of these small jobs is likely to vary somewhat each day. in this case a number of these jobs can be grouped into a daily task which should be assigned, if practicable, to one man, possibly even to two or three, but rarely to a gang of men of any size. to illustrate: in a small boiler house in which there is no storage room for coal, the work of wheeling the coal to the fireman, wheeling out the ashes, helping clean fires and keeping the boiler room and the outside of the boilers clean can be made into the daily task for a man, and if these items do not sum up into a full day's work, on the average, other duties can be added until a proper task is assured. or, the various details of sweeping, cleaning, and keeping a certain section of a shop floor windows, machines, etc., in order can be united to form a task. or, in a small factory which turns out a uniform product and in uniform quantities day after day, supplying raw materials to certain parts of the factory and removing finished product from others may be coupled with other definite duties to form a task. the task should call for a large day's work, and the man should be paid more than the usual day's pay so that the position will be sought for by first-class, ambitious men. clerical work can very properly be done by the task in this way, although when there is enough of it, piece work at so much per entry is to be preferred. in all cases a clear cut, definite inspection of the task is desirable at least once a day and sometimes twice. when a shop is not running at night, a good time for this inspection is at seven o'clock in the morning, for instance. the inspector should daily sign a printed card, stating that he has inspected the work done by ----, and enumerating the various items of the task. the card should state that the workman has satisfactorily performed his task, "except the following items," which should be enumerated in detail. when men are working on task work by the day they should be made to start to work at the regular starting hour. they should, however, have no regular time for leaving. as soon as the task is finished they should be allowed to go home; and, on the other hand, they should be made to stay at work until their task is done, even if it lasts into the night, no deduction being made for shorter hours nor extra pay allowed for overtime. it is both inhuman and unwise to ask a man, working on task work, to stay in the shop after his task is finished "to maintain the discipline of the shop," as is frequently done. it only tends to make men eye servants. an amusing instance of the value of task work with freedom to leave when the task is done was given the writer by his friend, mr. chas. d. rogers, for many years superintendent of the american screw works, of providence, r. i., one of the greatest mechanical geniuses and most resourceful managers that this country has produced, but a man who, owing to his great modesty, has never been fully appreciated outside of those who know him well. mr. rogers tried several modifications of day and piece work in an unsuccessful endeavor to get the children who were engaged in sorting over the very small screws to do a fair day's work. he finally met with great success by assigning to each child a fair day's task and allowing him to go home and play as soon as his task was done. each child's playtime was his own and highly prized while the greater part of his wages went to his parents. piece work embodying the task idea can be used to advantage when there is enough work of the same general character to keep a number of men busy regularly; such work, for instance, as the bethlehem yard labor previously described, or the work of bicycle ball inspection referred to later on. in piece work of this class the task idea should always be maintained by keeping it clearly before each man that his average daily earnings must amount to a given high sum (as in the case of the bethlehem laborers, $ . per day), and that failure to average this amount will surely result in his being laid off. it must be remembered that on plain piece work the less competent workmen will always bring what influence and pressure they can to cause the best men to slow down towards their level and that the task idea is needed to counteract this influence. where the labor market is large enough to secure in a reasonable time enough strictly first-class men, the piece work rates should be fixed on such a basis that only a first-class man working at his best can earn the average amount called for. this figure should be, in the case of first-class men as stated above, from per cent to per cent beyond the wages usually paid. the task idea is emphasized with this style of piece work by two things--the high wages and the laying off, after a reasonable trial, of incompetent men; and for the success of the system, the number of men employed on practically the same class of work should be large enough for the workmen quite often to have the object lesson of seeing men laid off for failing to earn high wages and others substituted in their places. there are comparatively few machine shops, or even manufacturing establishments, in which the work is so uniform in its nature as to employ enough men on the same grade of work and in sufficiently close contact to one another to render piece work preferable to the other systems. in the great majority of cases the work is so miscellaneous in its nature as to call for the employment of workmen varying greatly in their natural ability and attainments, all the way, for instance, from the ordinary laborer, through the trained laborer, helper, rough machinist, fitter, machine hand, to the highly skilled special or all-round mechanic. and while in a large establishment there may be often enough men of the same grade to warrant the adoption of piece work with the task idea, yet, even in this case, they are generally so scattered in different parts of the shop that laying off one of their number for incompetence does not reach the others with sufficient force to impress them with the necessity of keeping up with their task. it is evident then that, in the great majority of cases, the four leading principles in management can be best applied through either task work with a bonus or the differential piece rate in spite of the slight additional clerical work and the increased difficulty in planning ahead incident to these systems of paying wages. three of the principles of management given above, namely, (a) a large daily task, (b) high pay for success, and (c) loss in case of failure form the very essence of both of these systems and act as a daily stimulant for the men. the fourth principle of management is a necessary preliminary, since without having first thoroughly standardized all of the conditions surrounding work, neither of these two plans can be successfully applied. in many cases the greatest good resulting from the application of these systems of paying wages is the indirect gain which comes from the enforced standardization of all details and conditions, large and small, surrounding the work. all of the ordinary systems can be and are almost always applied without adopting and maintaining thorough shop standards. but the task idea can not be carried out without them. the differential rate piece work is rather simpler in its application than task work with bonus and is the more forceful of the two. it should be used wherever it is practicable, but in no case until after all the accompanying conditions have been perfected and completely standardized and a thorough time study has been made of all of the elements of the work. this system is particularly useful where the same kind of work is repeated day after day, and also whenever the maximum possible output is desired, which is almost always the case in the operation of expensive machinery or of a plant occupying valuable ground or a large building. it is more forceful than task work with a bonus because it not only pulls the man up from the top but pushes him equally hard from the bottom. both of these systems give the workman a large extra reward when he accomplishes his full task within the given time. with the differential rate, if for any reason he fails to do his full task, he not only loses the large extra premium which is paid for complete success, but in addition he suffers the direct loss of the piece price for each piece by which he falls short. failure under the task with a bonus system involves a corresponding loss of the extra premium or bonus, but the workman, since he is paid a given price per hour, receives his ordinary day's pay in case of failure and suffers no additional loss beyond that of the extra premium whether he may have fallen short of the task to the extent of one piece or a dozen. in principle, these two systems appear to be almost identical, yet this small difference, the slightly milder nature of task work with a bonus, is sufficient to render it much more flexible and therefore applicable to a large number of cases in which the differential rate system cannot be used. task work with a bonus was invented by mr. h. l. gantt, while he was assisting the writer in organizing the bethlehem steel company. the possibilities of his system were immediately recognized by all of the leading men engaged on the work, and long before it would have been practicable to use the differential rate, work was started under this plan. it was successful from the start, and steadily grew in volume and in favor, and today is more extensively used than ever before. mr. gantt's system is especially useful during the difficult and delicate period of transition from the slow pace of ordinary day work to the high speed which is the leading characteristic of good management. during this period of transition in the past, a time was always reached when a sudden long leap was taken from improved day work to some form of piece work; and in making this jump many good men inevitably fell and were lost from the procession. mr. gantt's system bridges over this difficult stretch and enables the workman to go smoothly and with gradually accelerated speed from the slower pace of improved day work to the high speed of the new system. it does not appear that mr. gantt has recognized the full advantages to be derived through the proper application of his system during this period of transition, at any rate he has failed to point them out in his papers and to call the attention to the best method of applying his plan in such cases. no workman can be expected to do a piece of work the first time as fast as he will later. it should also be recognized that it takes a certain time for men who have worked at the ordinary slow rate of speed to change to high speed. mr. gantt's plan can be adapted to meet both of these conditions by allowing the workman to take a longer time to do the job at first and yet earn his bonus; and later compelling him to finish the job in the quickest time in order to get the premium. in all cases it is of the utmost importance that each instruction card should state the quickest time in which the workman will ultimately be called upon to do the work. there will then be no temptation for the man to soldier since he will see that the management know accurately how fast the work can be done. there is also a large class of work in addition to that of the period of transition to which task work with a bonus is especially adapted. the higher pressure of the differential rate is the stimulant required by the workman to maintain a high rate of speed and secure high wages while he has the steady swing that belongs to work which is repeated over and over again. when, however, the work is of such variety that each day presents an entirely new task, the pressure of the differential rate is some times too severe. the chances of failing to quite reach the task are greater in this class of work than in routine work; and in many such cases it is better, owing to the increased difficulties, that the workman should feel sure at least of his regular day's rate, which is secured him by mr. gantt's system in case he falls short of the full task. there is still another case of quite frequent occurrence in which the flexibility of mr. gantt's plan makes it the most desirable. in many establishments, particularly those doing an engineering business of considerable variety or engaged in constructing and erecting miscellaneous machinery, it is necessary to employ continuously a number of especially skilful and high-priced mechanics. the particular work for which these men are wanted comes, however, in many cases, at irregular intervals, and there are frequently quite long waits between their especial jobs. during such periods these men must be provided with work which is ordinarily done by less efficient, lower priced men, and if a proper piece price has been fixed on this work it would naturally be a price suited to the less skilful men, and therefore too low for the men in question. the alternative is presented of trying to compel these especially skilled men to work for a lower price than they should receive, or of fixing a special higher piece price for the work. fixing two prices for the same piece of work, one for the man who usually does it and a higher price for the higher grade man, always causes the greatest feeling of injustice and dissatisfaction in the man who is discriminated against. with mr. gantt's plan the less skilledworkman would recognize the justice of paying his more experienced companion regularly a higher rate of wages by the day, yet when they were both working on the same kind of work each man would receive the same extra bonus for doing the full day's task. thus, with mr. gantt's system, the total day's pay of the higher classed man would be greater than that of the less skilled man, even when on the same work, and the latter would not begrudge it to him. we may say that the difference is one of sentiment, yet sentiment plays an important part in all of our lives; and sentiment is particularly strong in the workman when he believes a direct injustice is being done him. mr. james m. dodge, the distinguished past president of the american society of mechanical engineers, has invented an ingenious system of piece work which is adapted to meet this very case, and which has especial advantages not possessed by any of the other plans. it is clear, then, that in carrying out the task idea after the required knowledge has been obtained through a study of unit times, each of the four systems, (a) day work, (b) straight piece work, (c) task work with a bonus, and (d) differential piece work, has its especial field of usefulness, and that in every large establishment doing a variety of work all four of these plans can and should be used at the same time. three of these systems were in use at the bethlehem steel company when the writer left there, and the fourth would have soon been started if he had remained. before leaving this part of the book which has been devoted to pointing out the value of. the daily task in management, it would seem desirable to give an illustration of the value of the differential rate piece work and also of the desirability of making each task as simple and short as practicable. the writer quotes as follows from a paper entitled "a piece rate system," read by him before the american society of mechanical engineers in : "the first case in which a differential rate was applied during the year , furnishes a good illustration of what can be accomplished by it. a standard steel forging, many thousands of which are used each year, had for several years been turned at the rate of from four to five per day under the ordinary system of piece work, cents per piece being the price paid for the work. after analyzing the job, and determining the shortest time required to do each of the elementary operations of which it was composed, and then summing up the total, the writer became convinced that it was possible to turn ten pieces a day. to finish the forgings at this rate, however, the machinists were obliged to work at their maximum pace from morning to night, and the lathes were run as fast as the tools would allow, and under a heavy feed. ordinary tempered tools inch by / inch, made of carbon tool steel, were used for this work. "it will be appreciated that this was a big day's work, both for men and machines, when it is understood that it involved removing, with a single -inch lathe, having two saddles, an average of more than lbs of steel chips in ten hours. in place of the cent rate, that they had been paid before, the men were given cents per piece when they turned them at the speed of per day; and when they produced less than ten they received only cents per piece. "it took considerable trouble to induce the men to turn at this high speed, since they did not at first fully appreciate that it was the intention of the firm to allow them to earn permanently at the rate of $ . per day. but from the day they first turned ten pieces to the present time, a period of more than ten years, the men who understood their work have scarcely failed a single day to turn at this rate. throughout that time until the beginning of the recent fall in the scale of wages throughout the country, the rate was not cut. "during this whole period, the competitors of the company never succeeded in averaging over half of this production per lathe, although they knew and even saw what was being done at midvale. they, however, did not allow their men to earn from over $ . to $ . per day, and so never even approached the maximum output. "the following table will show the economy of paying high wages under the differential rate in doing the above job: "cost of production per lathe per day ordinary system of piece work--man's wages $ . machine cost . total cost per day . pieces produced; cost per piece $ . differential rate system--man's wages $ . machine cost . total cost per day . pieces produced; cost per piece $ . "the above result was mostly though not entirely due to the differential rate. the superior system of managing all of the small details of the shop counted for considerable." the exceedingly dull times that began in july, , and were accompanied by a great fall in prices, rendered it necessary to lower the wages of machinists throughout the country. the wages of the men in a. the midvale steel works were reduced at this time, and the change was accepted by them as fair and just. throughout the works, however, the principle of the differential rate was maintained, and was, and is still, fully appreciated by both the management and men. through some error at the time of the general reduction of wages in , the differential rate on the particular job above referred to was removed, and a straight piece work rate of cents per piece was substituted for it. the result of abandoning the differential proved to be the best possible demonstration of its value. under straight piece work, the output immediately fell to between six and eight pieces per day, and remained at this figure for several years, although under the differential rate it had held throughout a long term of years steadily at ten per day. when work is to be repeated many times, the time study should be minute and exact. each job should be carefully subdivided into its elementary operations, and each of these unit times should receive the most thorough time study. in fixing the times for the tasks, and the piece work rates on jobs of this class, the job should be subdivided into a number of divisions, and a separate time and price assigned to each division rather than to assign a single time and price for the whole job. this should be done for several reasons, the most important of which is that the average workman, in order to maintain a rapid pace, should be given the opportunity of measuring his performance against the task set him at frequent intervals. many men are incapable of looking very far ahead, but if they see a definite opportunity of earning so many cents by working hard for so many minutes, they will avail themselves of it. as an illustration, the steel tires used on car wheels and locomotives were originally turned in the midvale steel works on piece work, a single piece-work rate being paid for all of the work which could be done on a tire at a single setting. a fixed price was paid for this work, whether there was much or little metal to be removed, and on the average this price was fair to the men. the apparent advantage of fixing a fair average rate was, that it made rate-fixing exceedingly simple, and saved clerk work in the time, cost and record keeping. a careful time study, however, convinced the writer that for the reasons given above most of the men failed to do their best. in place of the single rate and time for all of the work done at a setting, the writer subdivided tire-turning into a number of short operations, and fixed a proper time and price, varying for each small job, according to the amount of metal to be removed, and the hardness and diameter of the tire. the effect of this subdivision was to increase the output, with the same men, methods, and machines, at least thirty-three per cent. as an illustration of the minuteness of this subdivision, an instruction card similar to the one used is reproduced in figure on the next page. (this card was about inches long by inches wide.) [transcriber's note -- figure not shown] the cost of the additional clerk work involved in this change was so insignificant that it practically did not affect the problem. this principle of short tasks in tire turning was introduced by the writer in the midvale steel works in and is still in full use there, having survived the test of over twenty years' trial with a change of management. in another establishment a differential rate was applied to tire turning, with operations subdivided in this way, by adding fifteen per cent to the pay of each tire turner whenever his daily or weekly piece work earnings passed a given figure. another illustration of the application of this principle of measuring a man's performance against a given task at frequent intervals to an entirely different line of work may be of interest. for this purpose the writer chooses the manufacture of bicycle balls in the works of the symonds rolling machine company, in fitchburg, mass. all of the work done in this factory was subjected to an accurate time study, and then was changed from day to piece work, through the assistance of functional foreman ship, etc. the particular operation to be described however, is that of inspecting bicycle balls before they were finally boxed for shipment. many millions of these balls were inspected annually. when the writer undertook to systematize this work, the factory had been running for eight or ten years on ordinary day work, so that the various employees were "old hands," and skilled at their jobs. the work of inspection was done entirely by girls--about one hundred and twenty being employed at it--all on day work. this work consisted briefly in placing a row of small polished steel balls on the back of the left hand, in the crease between two of the fingers pressed together, and while they were rolled over and over, with the aid of a magnet held in the right hand, they were minutely examined in a strong light, and the defective balls picked out and thrown into especial boxes. four kinds of defects were looked for--dented, soft, scratched, and fire cracked--and they were mostly minute as to be invisible to an eye not especially trained to this work. it required the closest attention and concentration. the girls had worked on day work for years, ten and one-half hours per day, with a saturday half-holiday. the first move before in any way stimulating them toward a larger output was to insure against a falling off in quality. this was accomplished through over-inspection. four of the most trustworthy girls were given each a lot of balls which had been examined the day before by one of the regular inspectors. the number identifying the lot having been changed by the foreman so that none of the over-inspectors knew whose work they were examining. in addition, one of the lots inspected by the four over-inspectors was examined on the following day by the chief inspector, selected on account of her accuracy and integrity. an effective expedient was adopted for checking the honesty and accuracy of the over-inspection. every two or three days a lot of balls was especially prepared by the foreman, who counted out a definite number of perfect balls, and added a recorded number of defective balls of each kind. the inspectors had no means of distinguishing this lot from the regular commercial lots. and in this way all temptation to slight their work or make false returns was removed. after insuring in this way against deterioration in quality, effective means were at once adopted to increase the output. improved day work was substituted for the old slipshod method. an accurate daily record, both as to quantity and quality, was kept for each inspector. in a comparatively short time this enabled the foreman to stir the ambition of all the inspectors by increasing the wages of those who turned out a large quantity and good quality, at the same time lowering the pay of those who fell short, and discharging others who proved to be incorrigibly slow or careless. an accurate time study was made through the use of a stop watch and record blanks, to determine how fast each kind of inspection should be done. this showed that the girls spent a considerable part of their time in partial idleness, talking and half working, or in actually doing nothing. talking while at work was stopped by seating them far apart. the hours of work were shortened from / per day, first to / , and later to / ; a saturday half holiday being given them even with the shorter hours. two recesses of ten minutes each were given them, in the middle of the morning and afternoon, during which they were expected to leave their seats, and were allowed to talk. the shorter hours and improved conditions made it possible for the girls to really work steadily, instead of pretending to do so. piece work was then introduced, a differential rate being paid, not for an increase in output, but for greater accuracy in the inspection; the lots inspected by the over-inspectors forming the basis for the payment of the differential. the work of each girl was measured every hour, and they were all informed whether they were keeping up with their tasks, or how far they had fallen short and an assistant was sent by the foreman to encourage those who were falling behind, and help them to catch up. the principle of measuring the performance of each workman against a standard at frequent intervals, of keeping them informed as to their progress, and of sending an assistant to help those who were falling down, was carried out throughout the works, and proved to be most useful. the final results of the improved system in the inspecting department were as follows: (a) thirty-five girls did the work formerly done by one hundred and twenty. (b) the girls averaged from $ . to $ . per week instead of $ . to $ . , as formerly. (c) they worked only / hours per day, with saturday a half-holiday, while they had formerly worked / hours per day. (d) an accurate comparison of the balls which were inspected under the old system of day work with those done under piece work, with over-inspection, showed that, in spite of the large increase in output per girl, there were per cent more defective balls left in the product as sold under day work than under piece work. in other words, the accuracy of inspection under piece work was one-third greater than that under day work. that thirty-five girls were able to do the work which formerly required about one hundred and twenty is due, not only to the improvement in the work of each girl, owing to better methods, but to the weeding out of the lazy and unpromising candidates, and the substitution of more ambitious individuals. a more interesting illustration of the effect of the improved conditions and treatment is shown in the following comparison. records were kept of the work of ten girls, all "old hands," and good inspectors, and the improvement made by these skilled hands is undoubtedly entirely due to better management. all of these girls throughout the period of comparison were engaged on the same kind of work, viz.: inspecting bicycle balls, three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. the work of organization began in march, and although the records for the first three months were not entirely clear, the increased output due to better day work amounted undoubtedly to about per cent. the increase per day from june on day work, to july on piece work, the hours each month being / per day, was per cent. this increase was due to the introduction of piece work. the increase per day from july to august (the length of working days in july being / hours, and in august / hours, both months piece work) was per cent. the increase from august to september (the length of working day in august being / hours, and in september / hours) was . per cent this means that the girls did practically the same amount of work per day in september, in / hours, that they did in august in / hours. to summarize: the same ten girls did on an average each day in september, on piece work, when only working / hours per day, . times as much, or nearly two and one-half times as much, in a day (not per hour, the increase per hour was of course much greater) as they had done when working on day work in march with a working day of / hours. they earned $ . to $ . per week on piece work, while they had only earned $ . to $ . on day work. the accuracy of inspection under piece work was one-third greater than under day work. the time study for this work was done by my friend, sanford e. thompson, c. e. who also had the actual management of the girls throughout the period of transition. at this time mr. h. l. gantt was general superintendent of the company, and the work of systematizing was under the general direction of the writer. it is, of course, evident that the nature of the organizations required to manage different types of business must vary to an enormous extent, from the simple tonnage works (with its uniform product, which is best managed by a single strong man who carries all of the details in his head and who, with a few comparatively cheap assistants, pushes the enterprise through to success) to the large machine works, doing a miscellaneous business, with its intricate organization, in which the work of any one man necessarily counts for but little. it is this great difference in the type of the organization required that so frequently renders managers who have been eminently successful in one line utter failures when they undertake the direction of works of a different kind. this is particularly true of men successful in tonnage work who are placed in charge of shops involving much greater detail. in selecting an organization for illustration, it would seem best to choose one of the most elaborate. the manner in which this can be simplified to suit a less intricate case will readily suggest itself to any one interested in the subject. one of the most difficult works to organize is that of a large engineering establishment building miscellaneous machinery, and the writer has therefore chosen this for description. practically all of the shops of this class are organized upon what may be called the military plan. the orders from the general are transmitted through the colonels, majors, captains, lieutenants and noncommissioned officers to the men. in the same way the orders in industrial establishments go from the manager through superintendents, foremen of shops, assistant foremen and gang bosses to the men. in an establishment of this kind the duties of the foremen, gang bosses, etc., are so varied, and call for an amount of special information coupled with such a variety of natural ability, that only men of unusual qualities to start with, and who have had years of special training, can perform them in a satisfactory manner. it is because of the difficulty--almost the impossibility of getting suitable foremen and gang bosses, more than for any other reason, that we so seldom hear of a miscellaneous machine works starting in on a large scale and meeting with much, if any, success for the first few years. this difficulty is not fully realized by the managers of the old well established companies, since their superintendents and assistants have grown up with the business, and have been gradually worked into and fitted for their especial duties through years of training and the process of natural selection. even in these establishments, however, this difficulty has impressed itself upon the managers so forcibly that most of them have of late years spent thousands of dollars in re-grouping their machine tools for the purpose of making their foremanship more effective. the planers have been placed in one group, slotters in another, lathes in another, etc., so as to demand a smaller range of experience and less diversity of knowledge from their respective foremen. for an establishment, then, of this kind, starting up on a large scale, it may be said to be an impossibility to get suitable superintendents and foremen. the writer found this difficulty at first to be an almost insurmountable obstacle to his work in organizing manufacturing establishments; and after years of experience, overcoming the opposition of the heads of departments and the foremen and gang bosses, and training them to their new duties, still remains the greatest problem in organization. the writer has had comparatively little trouble in inducing workmen to change their ways and to increase their speed, providing the proper object lessons are presented to them, and time enough is allowed for these to produce their effect. it is rarely the case, however, that superintendents and foremen can find any reasons for changing their methods, which, as far as they can see, have been successful. and having, as a rule, obtained their positions owing to their unusual force of character, and being accustomed daily to rule other men, their opposition is generally effective. in the writer's experience, almost all shops are under-officered. invariably the number of leading men employed is not sufficient to do the work economically. under the military type of organization, the foreman is held responsible for the successful running of the entire shop, and when we measure his duties by the standard of the four leading principles of management above referred to, it becomes apparent that in his case these conditions are as far as possible from being fulfilled. his duties may be briefly enumerated in the following way. he must lay out the work for the whole shop, see that each piece of work goes in the proper order to the right machine, and that the man at the machine knows just what is to be done and how he is to do it. he must see that the work is not slighted, and that it is done fast, and all the while he must look ahead a month or so, either to provide more men to do the work or more work for the men to do. he must constantly discipline the men and readjust their wages, and in addition to this must fix piece work prices and supervise the timekeeping. the first of the four leading principles in management calls for a clearly defined and circumscribed task. evidently the foreman's duties are in no way clearly circumscribed. it is left each day entirely to his judgment what small part of the mass of duties before him it is most important for him to attend to, and he staggers along under this fraction of the work for which he is responsible, leaving the balance to be done in many cases as the gang bosses and workmen see fit. the second principle calls for such conditions that the daily task can always be accomplished. the conditions in his case are always such that it is impossible for him to do it all, and he never even makes pretence of fulfilling his entire task. the third and fourth principles call for high pay in case the task is successfully done, and low pay in case of failure. the failure to realize the first two conditions, however, renders the application of the last two out of the question. the foreman usually endeavors to lighten his burdens by delegating his duties to the various assistant foremen or gang bosses in charge of lathes, planers, milling machines, vise work, etc. each of these men is then called upon to perform duties of almost as great variety as those of the foreman himself. the difficulty in obtaining in one man the variety of special information and the different mental and moral qualities necessary to perform all of the duties demanded of those men has been clearly summarized in the following list of the nine qualities which go to make up a well rounded man: brains. education. special or technical knowledge; manual dexterity or strength. tact. energy. grit. honesty. judgment or common sense and good health. plenty of men who possess only three of the above qualities can be hired at any time for laborers' wages. add four of these qualities together and you get a higher priced man. the man combining five of these qualities begins to be hard to find, and those with six, seven, and eight are almost impossible to get. having this fact in mind, let us go over the duties which a gang boss in charge, say, of lathes or planers, is called upon to perform, and note the knowledge and qualities which they call for. first. he must be a good machinist--and this alone calls for years of special training, and limits the choice to a comparatively small class of men. second. he must be able to read drawings readily, and have sufficient imagination to see the work in its finished state clearly before him. this calls for at least a certain amount of brains and education. third. he must plan ahead and see that the right jigs, clamps, and appliances, as well as proper cutting tools, are on hand, and are used to set the work correctly in the machine and cut the metal at the right speed and feed. this calls for the ability to concentrate the mind upon a multitude of small details, and take pains with little, uninteresting things. fourth. he must see that each man keeps his machine clean and in good order. this calls for the example of a man who is naturally neat and orderly himself. fifth. he must see that each man turns out work of the proper quality. this calls for the conservative judgment and the honesty which are the qualities of a good inspector. sixth. he must see that the men under him work steadily and fast. to accomplish this he should himself be a hustler, a man of energy, ready to pitch in and infuse life into his men by working faster than they do, and this quality is rarely combined with the painstaking care, the neatness and the conservative judgment demanded as the third, fourth, and fifth requirements of a gang boss. seventh. he must constantly look ahead over the whole field of work and see that the parts go to the machines in their proper sequence, and that the right job gets to each machine. eighth. he must, at least in a general way, supervise the timekeeping and fix piece work rates. both the seventh and eighth duties call for a certain amount of clerical work and ability, and this class of work is almost always repugnant to the man suited to active executive work, and difficult for him to do; and the rate-fixing alone requires the whole time and careful study of a man especially suited to its minute detail. ninth. he must discipline the men under him, and readjust their wages; and these duties call for judgment, tact, and judicial fairness. it is evident, then, that the duties which the ordinary gang boss is called upon to perform would demand of him a large proportion of the nine attributes mentioned above; and if such a man could be found he should be made manager or superintendent of a works instead of gang boss. however, bearing in mind the fact that plenty of men can be had who combine four or five of these attributes, it becomes evident that the work of management should be so subdivided that the various positions can be filled by men of this caliber, and a great part of the art of management undoubtedly lies in planning the work in this way. this can, in the judgment of the writer, be best accomplished by abandoning the military type of organization and introducing two broad and sweeping changes in the art of management: (a) as far as possible the workmen, as well as the gang bosses and foremen, should be entirely relieved of the work of planning, and of all work which is more or less clerical in its nature. all possible brain work should be removed from the shop and centered in the planning or laying-out department, leaving for the foremen and gang bosses work strictly executive in its nature. their duties should be to see that the operations planned and directed from the planning room are promptly carried out in the shop. their time should be spent with the men, teaching them to think ahead, and leading and instructing them in their work. (b) throughout the whole field of management the military type of organization should be abandoned, and what may be called the' "functional type" substituted in its place. "functional management" consists in so dividing the work of management that each man from the assistant superintendent down shall have as few functions as possible to perform. if practicable the work of each man in the management should be confined to the performance of a single leading function. under the ordinary or military type, the workmen are divided into groups. the men in each group receive their orders from one man only, the foreman or gang boss of that group. this man is the single agent through which the various functions of the management are brought into contact with the men. certainly the most marked outward characteristic of functional management lies in the fact that each workman, instead of coming in direct contact with the management at one point only, namely, through his gang boss, receives his daily orders and help directly from eight different bosses, each of whom performs his own particular function. four of these bosses are in the planning room and of these three send their orders to and receive their returns from the men, usually in writing. four others are in the shop and personally help the men in their work, each boss helping in his own particular `line or function only. some of these bosses come in contact with each man only once or twice a day and then for a few minutes perhaps, while others are with the men all the time, and help each man frequently. the functions of one or two of these bosses require them to come in contact with each workman for so short a time each day that they can perform their particular duties perhaps for all of the men in the shop, and in their line they manage the entire shop. other bosses are called upon to help their men so much and so often that each boss can perform his function for but a few men, and in this particular line a number of bosses are required, all performing the same function but each having his particular group of men to help. thus the grouping of the men in the shop is entirely changed, each workman belonging to eight different groups according to the particular functional boss whom he happens to be working under at the moment. the following is a brief description of the duties of the four types of executive functional bosses which the writer has found it profitable to use in the active work of the shop: ( ) gang bosses, ( ) speed bosses, ( ) inspectors, and ( ) repair bosses. the gang boss has charge of the preparation of all work up to the time that the piece is set in the machine. it is his duty to see that every man under him has at all times at least one piece of work ahead at his machine, with all the jigs, templates, drawings, driving mechanism, sling chains, etc., ready to go into his machine as soon as the piece he is actually working on is done. the gang boss must show his men how to set their work in their machines in the quickest time, and see that they do it. he is responsible for the work being accurately and quickly set, and should be not only able but willing to pitch in himself and show the men how to set the work in record time. the speed boss must see that the proper cutting tools are used for each piece of work, that the work is properly driven, that the cuts are started in the right part of the piece, and that the best speeds and feeds and depth of cut are used. his work begins only after the piece is in the lathe or planer, and ends when the actual machining ends. the speed boss must not only advise his men how best to do this work, but he must see that they do it in the quickest time, and that they use the speeds and feeds and depth of cut as directed on the instruction card in many cases he is called upon to demonstrate that the work can be done in the specified time by doing it himself in the presence of his men. the inspector is responsible for the quality of the work, and both the workmen and speed bosses must see that the work is all finished to suit him. this man can, of course, do his work best if he is a master of the art of finishing work both well and quickly. the repair boss sees that each workman keeps his machine clean, free from rust and scratches, and that he oils and treats it properly, and that all of the standards established for the care and maintenance of the machines and their accessories are rigidly maintained, such as care of belts and shifters, cleanliness of floor around machines, and orderly piling and disposition of work. the following is an outline of the duties of the four functional bosses who are located in the planning room, and who in their various functions represent the department in its connection with the men. the first three of these send their directions to and receive their returns from the men, mainly in writing. these four representatives of the planning department are, the ( ) order of work and route clerk, ( ) instruction card clerk, ( ) time and cost clerk, and ( ) shop disciplinarian. order of work and route clerk. after the route clerk in the planning department has laid out the exact route which each piece of work is to travel through the shop from machine to machine in order that it may be finished at the time it is needed for assembling, and the work done in the most economical way, the order of work clerk daily writes lists instructing the workmen and also all of the executive shop bosses as to the exact order in which the work is to be done by each class of machines or men, and these lists constitute the chief means for directing the workmen in this particular function. instruction card clerks. the "instruction card," as its name indicates, is the chief means employed by the planning department for instructing both the executive bosses and the men in all of the details of their work. it tells them briefly the general and detail drawing to refer to, the piece number and the cost order number to charge the work to, the special jigs, fixtures, or tools to use, where to start each cut, the exact depth of each cut, and how many cuts to take, the speed and feed to be used for each cut, and the time within which each operation must be finished. it also informs them as to the piece rate, the differential rate, or the premium to be paid for completing the task within the specified time (according to the system employed); and further, when necessary, refers them by name to the man who will give them especial directions. this instruction card is filled in by one or more members of the planning department, according to the nature and complication of the instructions, and bears the same relation to the planning room that the drawing does to the drafting room. the man who sends it into the shop and who, in case difficulties are met with in carrying out the instructions, sees that the proper man sweeps these difficulties away, is called the instruction card foreman. time and cost clerk. this man sends to the men through the "time ticket" all the information they need for recording their time and the cost of the work, and secures proper returns from them. he refers these for entry to the cost and time record clerks in the planning room. shop disciplinarian. in case of insubordination or impudence, repeated failure to do their duty, lateness or unexcused absence, the shop disciplinarian takes the workman or bosses in hand and applies the proper remedy. he sees that a complete record of each man's virtues and defects is kept. this man should also have much to do with readjusting the wages of the workmen. at the very least, he should invariably be consulted before any change is made. one of his important functions should be that of peace-maker. thus, under functional foremanship, we see that the work which, under the military type of organization, was done by the single gang boss, is subdivided among eight men: ( ) route clerks, ( ) instruction card clerks, ( ) cost and time clerks, who plan and give directions from the planning room; ( ) gang bosses, ( ) speed bosses, ( ) inspectors, ( ) repair bosses, who show the men how to carry out their instructions, and see that the work is done at the proper speed; and ( ) the shop disciplinarian, who performs this function for the entire establishment. the greatest good resulting from this change is that it becomes possible in a comparatively short time to train bosses who can really and fully perform the functions demanded of them, while under the old system it took years to train men who were after all able to thoroughly perform only a portion of their duties. a glance at the nine qualities needed for a well rounded man and then at the duties of these functional foremen will show that each of these men requires but a limited number of the nine qualities in order to successfully fill his position; and that the special knowledge which he must acquire forms only a small part of that needed by the old style gang boss. the writer has seen men taken (some of them from the ranks of the workmen, others from the old style bosses and others from among the graduates of industrial schools, technical schools and colleges) and trained to become efficient functional foremen in from six to eighteen months. thus it becomes possible with functional foremanship to thoroughly and completely equip even a new company starting on a large scale with competent officers in a reasonable time, which is entirely out of the question under the old system. another great advantage resulting from functional or divided foremanship is that it becomes entirely practicable to apply the four leading principles of management to the bosses as well as to the workmen. each foreman can have a task assigned him which is so accurately measured that he will be kept fully occupied and still will daily be able to perform his entire function. this renders it possible to pay him high wages when he is successful by giving him a premium similar to that offered the men and leave him with low pay when he fails. the full possibilities of functional foremanship, however, will not have been realized until almost all of the machines in the shop are run by men who are of smaller calibre and attainments, and who are therefore cheaper than those required under the old system. the adoption of standard tools, appliances, and methods throughout the shop, the planning done in the planning room and the detailed instructions sent them from this department, added to the direct help received from the four executive bosses, permit the use of comparatively cheap men even on complicated work. of the men in the machine shop of the bethlehem steel company engaged in running the roughing machines, and who were working under the bonus system when the writer left them, about per cent were handy men trained up from laborers. and on the finishing machines, working on bonus, about per cent were handy men. to fully understand the importance of the work which was being done by these former laborers, it must be borne in mind that a considerable part of their work was very large and expensive. the forgings which they were engaged in roughing and finishing weighed frequently many tons. of course they were paid more than laborer's wages, though not as much as skilled machinists. the work in this shop was most miscellaneous in its nature. functional foremanship is already in limited use in many of the best managed shops. a number of managers have seen the practical good that arises from allowing two or three men especially trained in their particular lines to deal directly with the men instead of at second hand through the old style gang boss as a mouthpiece. so deep rooted, however, is the conviction that the very foundation of management rests in the military type as represented by the principle that no workman can work under two bosses at the same time, that all of the managers who are making limited use of the functional plan seem to feel it necessary to apologize for or explain away their use of it; as not really in this particular case being a violation of that principle. the writer has never yet found one, except among the works which he had assisted in organizing, who came out squarely and acknowledged that he was using functional foremanship because it was the right principle. the writer introduced five of the elements of functional foremanship into the management of the small machine shop of the midvale steel company of philadelphia while he was foreman of that shop in - : ( ) the instruction card clerk, ( ) the time clerk, ( ) the inspector, ( ) the gang boss, and ( ) the shop disciplinarian. each of these functional foremen dealt directly with the workmen instead of giving their orders through the gang boss. the dealings of the instruction card clerk and time clerk with the workmen were mostly in writing, and the writer himself performed the functions of shop disciplinarian, so that it was not until he introduced the inspector, with orders to go straight to the men instead of to the gang boss, that he appreciated the desirability of functional foremanship as a distinct principle in management. the prepossession in favor of the military type was so strong with the managers and owners of midvale that it was not until years after functional foremanship was in continual use in this shop that he dared to advocate it to his superior officers as the correct principle. until very recently in his organization of works he has found it best to first introduce five or six of the elements of functional foremanship quietly, and get them running smoothly in a shop before calling attention to the principle involved. when the time for this announcement comes, it invariably acts as the proverbial red rag on the bull. it was some years later that the writer subdivided the duties of the "old gang boss" who spent his whole time with the men into the four functions of ( ) speed boss, ( ) repair boss, ( ) inspector, and ( ) gang boss, and it is the introduction of these four shop bosses directly helping the men (particularly that of the speed boss) in place of the single old boss, that has produced the greatest improvement in the shop. when functional foremanship is introduced in a large shop, it is desirable that all of the bosses who are performing the same function should have their own foreman over them; for instance, the speed bosses should have a speed foreman over them, the gang bosses, a head gang boss; the inspectors, a chief inspector, etc., etc. the functions of these over-foremen are twofold. the first part of their work is to teach each of the bosses under them the exact nature of his duties, and at the start, also to nerve and brace them up to the point of insisting that the workmen shall carry out the orders exactly as specified on the instruction cards. this is a difficult task at first, as the workmen have been accustomed for years to do the details of the work to suit themselves, and many of them are intimate friends of the bosses and believe they know quite as much about their business as the latter. the second function of the over-foreman is to smooth out the difficulties which arise between the different types of bosses who in turn directly help the men. the speed boss, for instance, always follows after the gang boss on any particular job in taking charge of the workmen. in this way their respective duties come in contact edgeways, as it were, for a short time, and at the start there is sure to be more or less friction between the two. if two of these bosses meet with a difficulty which they cannot settle, they send for their respective over-foremen, who are usually able to straighten it out. in case the latter are unable to agree on the remedy, the case is referred by them to the assistant superintendent, whose duties, for a certain time at least, may consist largely in arbitrating such difficulties and thus establishing the unwritten code of laws by which the shop is governed. this serves as one example of what is called the "exception principle" in management, which is referred to later. before leaving this portion of the subject the writer wishes to call attention to the analogy which functional foremanship bears to the management of a large, up-to-date school. in such a school the children are each day successively taken in hand by one teacher after another who is trained in his particular specialty, and they are in many cases disciplined by a man particularly trained in this function. the old style, one teacher to a class plan is entirely out of date. the writer has found that better results are attained by placing the planning department in one office, situated, of course, as close to the center of the shop or shops as practicable, rather than by locating its members in different places according to their duties. this department performs more or less the functions of a clearing house. in doing their various duties, its members must exchange information frequently, and since they send their orders to and receive their returns from the men in the shop, principally in writing, simplicity calls for the use, when possible, of a single piece of paper for each job for conveying the instructions of the different members of the planning room to the men and another similar paper for receiving the returns from the men to the department. writing out these orders and acting promptly on receipt of the returns and recording same requires the members of the department to be close together. the large machine shop of the bethlehem steel company was more than a quarter of a mile long, and this was successfully run from a single planning room situated close to it. the manager, superintendent, and their assistants should, of course, have their offices adjacent to the planning room and, if practicable, the drafting room should be near at hand, thus bringing all of the planning and purely brain work of the establishment close together. the advantages of this concentration were found to be so great at bethlehem that the general offices of the company, which were formerly located in the business part of the town, about a mile and a half away, were moved into the middle of the works adjacent to the planning room. the shop, and indeed the whole works, should be managed, not by the manager, superintendent, or foreman, but by the planning department. the daily routine of running the entire works should be carried on by the various functional elements of this department, so that, in theory at least, the works could run smoothly even if the manager, superintendent and their assistants outside the planning room were all to be away for a month at a time. the following are the leading functions of the planning department: (a) the complete analysis of all orders for machines or work taken by the company. (b) time study for all work done by hand throughout the works, including that done in setting the work in machines, and all bench, vise work and transportation, etc. (c) time study for all operations done by the various machines. (d) the balance of all materials, raw materials, stores and finished parts, and the balance of the work ahead for each class of machines and workmen. (e) the analysis of all inquiries for new work received in the sales department and promises for time of delivery. (f) the cost of all items manufactured with complete expense analysis and complete monthly comparative cost and expense exhibits. (g) the pay department. (h) the mnemonic symbol system for identification of parts and for charges. (i) information bureau. (j) standards. (k) maintenance of system and plant, and use of the tickler. (l) messenger system and post office delivery. (m) employment bureau. (n) shop disciplinarian. (o) a mutual accident insurance association. (p) rush order department. (q) improvement of system or plant. these several functions may be described more in detail as follows: (a) the complete analysis of all orders for machines or work taken by the company. this analysis should indicate the designing and drafting required, the machines or parts to be purchased and all data needed by the purchasing agent, and as soon as the necessary drawings and information come from the drafting room the lists of patterns, castings and forgings to be made, together with all instructions for making them, including general and detail drawing, piece number, the mnemonic symbol belonging to each piece (as referred to under (h) below) a complete analysis of the successive operations to be done on each piece, and the exact route which each piece is to travel from place to place in the works. (b) time study for all work done by hand throughout the works, including that done in setting the work in machines, and all bench and vise work, and transportation, etc. this information for each particular operation should be obtained by summing up the various unit times of which it consists. to do this, of course, requires the men performing this function to keep continually posted as to the best methods and appliances to use, and also to frequently consult with and receive advice from the executive gang bosses who carry out this work in the shop, and from the man in the department of standards and maintenance of plant (j) beneath. the actual study of unit times, of course, forms the greater part of the work of this section of the planning room. (c) time study for all operations done by the various machines. this information is best obtained from slide rules, one of which is made for each machine tool or class of machine tools throughout the works; one, for instance, for small lathes of the same type, one for planers of same type, etc. these slide rules show the best way to machine each piece and enable detailed directions to be given the workman as to how many cuts to take, where to start each cut, both for roughing out work and finishing it, the depth of the cut, the best feed and speed, and the exact time required to do each operation. the information obtained through function (b), together with that obtained through (c) afford the basis for fixing the proper piece rate, differential rate or the bonus to be paid, according to the system employed. (d) the balance of all materials, raw materials, stores and finished parts, and the number of days' work ahead for each class of machines and workmen. returns showing all receipts, as well as the issue of all raw materials, stores, partly finished work, and completed parts and machines, repair parts, etc., daily pass through the balance clerk, and each item of which there have been issues or receipts, or which has been appropriated to the use of a machine about to be manufactured, is daily balanced. thus the balance clerk can see that the required stocks of materials are kept on hand by notifying at once the purchasing agent or other proper party when the amount on hand falls below the prescribed figure. the balance clerk should also keep a complete running balance of the hours of work ahead for each class of machines and workmen, receiving for this purpose daily from (a), (b), and (c) above statements of the hours of new work entered, and from the inspectors and daily time cards a statement of the work as it is finished. he should keep the manager and sales department posted through daily or weekly condensed reports as to the number of days of work ahead for each department, and thus enable them to obviate either a congestion or scarcity of work. (e) the analysis of all inquiries for new work received in the sales department and promises as to time of delivery. the man or men in the planning room who perform the duties indicated at (a) above should consult with (b) and (c) and obtain from them approximately the time required to do the work inquired for, and from (d) the days of work ahead for the various machines and departments, and inform the sales department as to the probable time required to do the work and the earliest date of delivery. (f) the cost of all items manufactured, with complete expense analysis and complete monthly comparative cost and expense exhibits. the books of the company should be closed once a month and balanced as completely as they usually are at the end of the year, and the exact cost of each article of merchandise finished during the previous month should be entered on a comparative cost sheet. the expense exhibit should also be a comparative sheet. the cost account should be a completely balanced account, and not a memorandum account as it generally is. all the expenses of the establishment, direct and indirect, including the administration and sales expense, should be charged to the cost of the product which is to be sold. (g) the pay department. the pay department should include not only a record of the time and wages and piece work earnings of each man, and his weekly or monthly payment, but the entire supervision of the arrival and departure of the men from the works and the various checks needed to insure against error or cheating. it is desirable that some one of the "exception systems" of time keeping should be used. (h) the mnemonic symbol system for identification of parts and for charges. some one of the mnemonic symbol systems should be used instead of numbering the parts or orders for identifying the various articles of manufacture, as well as the operations to be performed on each piece and the various expense charges of the establishment. this becomes a matter of great importance when written directions are sent from the planning room to the men, and the men make their returns in writing. the clerical work and chances for error are thereby greatly diminished. (i) information bureau. the information bureau should include catalogues of drawings (providing the drafting room is close enough to the planning room) as well as all records and reports for the whole establishment. the art of properly indexing information is by no means a simple one, and as far as possible it should be centered in one man. (j) standards. the adoption and maintenance of standard tools, fixtures, and appliances down to the smallest item throughout the works and office, as well as the adoption of standard methods of doing all operations which are repeated, is a matter of importance, so that under similar conditions the same appliances and methods shall be used throughout the plant. this is an absolutely necessary preliminary to success in assigning daily tasks which are fair and which can be carried out with certainty. (k) maintenance of system and plant, and use of the tickler. one of the most important functions of the planning room is that of the maintenance of the entire system, and of standard methods and appliances throughout the establishment, including the planning room itself. an elaborate time table should be made out showing daily the time when and place where each report is due, which is necessary to carry on the work and to maintain the system. it should be the duty of the member of the planning room in charge of this function to find out at each time through the day when reports are due, whether they have been received, and if not, to keep bothering the man who is behind hand until he has done his duty. almost all of the reports, etc., going in and out of the planning room can be made to pass through this man. as a mechanical aid to him in performing his function the tickler is invaluable. the best type of tickler is one which has a portfolio for each day in the year, large enough to insert all reminders and even quite large instruction cards and reports without folding. in maintaining methods and appliances, notices should be placed in the tickler in advance, to come out at proper intervals throughout the year for the inspection of each element of the system and the inspection and overhauling of all standards as well as the examination and repairs at stated intervals of parts of machines, boilers, engines, belts, etc., likely to wear out or give trouble, thus preventing breakdowns and delays. one tickler can be used for the entire works and is preferable to a number of individual ticklers. each man can remind himself of his various small routine duties to be performed either daily or weekly, etc., and which might be otherwise overlooked, by sending small reminders, written on slips of paper, to be placed in the tickler and returned to him at the proper time. both the tickler and a thoroughly systematized messenger service should be immediately adjacent to this man in the planning room, if not directly under his management. the proper execution of this function of the planning room will relieve the superintendent of some of the most vexatious and time-consuming of his duties, and at the same time the work will be done more thoroughly and cheaper than if he does it himself. by the adoption of standards and the use of instruction cards for overhauling machinery, etc., and the use of a tickler as above described, the writer reduced the repair force of the midvale steel works to one-third its size while he was in the position of master mechanic. there was no planning department, however, in the works at that time. (l) messenger system and post office delivery. the messenger system should be thoroughly organized and records kept showing which of the boys are the most efficient. this should afford one of the best opportunities for selecting boys fit to be taught trades, as apprentices or otherwise. there should be a regular half hourly post office delivery system for collecting and distributing routine reports and records and messages in no especial hurry throughout the works. (m) employment bureau. the selection of the men who are employed to fill vacancies or new positions should receive the most careful thought and attention and should be under the supervision of a competent man who will inquire into the experience and especial fitness and character of applicants and keep constantly revised lists of men suitable for the various positions in the shop. in this section of the planning room. an individual record of each of the men in the works can well be kept showing his punctuality, absence without excuse, violation of shop rules, spoiled work or damage to machines or tools, as well as his skill at various kinds of work; average earnings, and other good qualities for the use of this department as well as the shop disciplinarian. (n) the shop disciplinarian. this man may well be closely associated with the employment bureau and, if the works is not too large, the two functions can be performed by the same man. the knowledge of character and of the qualities needed for various positions acquired in disciplining the men should be useful in selecting them for employment. this man should, of course, consult constantly with the various foremen and bosses, both in his function as disciplinarian arid in the employment of men. (o) a mutual accident insurance association. a mutual accident insurance association should be established, to which the company contributes as well as the men. the object of this association is twofold: first the relief of men who are injured, and second, an opportunity of returning to the workmen all fines which are imposed upon them in disciplining them, and for damage to company's property or work spoiled. (p) rush order department. hurrying through parts which have been spoiled or have developed defects, and also special repair orders for customers, should receive the attention of one man. (q) improvement of system or plant. one man should be especially charged with the work of improvement in the system and in the running of the plant. the type of organization described in the foregoing paragraphs has such an appearance of complication and there are so many new positions outlined in the planning room which do not exist even in a well managed establishment of the old school, that it seems desirable to again call attention to the fact that, with the exception of the study of unit times and one or two minor functions, each item of work which is performed in the planning room with the superficial appearance of great complication must also be performed by the workmen in the shop under the old type of management, with its single cheap foreman and the appearance of great simplicity. in the first case, however, the work is done by an especially trained body of men who work together like a smoothly running machine, and in the second by a much larger number of men very poorly trained and ill-fitted for this work, and each of whom while doing it is taken away from some other job for which he is well trained. the work which is now done by one sewing machine, intricate in its appearance, was formerly done by a number of women with no apparatus beyond a simple needle and thread. there is no question that the cost of production is lowered by separating the work of planning and the brain work as much as possible from the manual labor. when this is done, however, it is evident that the brain workers must be given sufficient work to keep them fully busy all the time. they must not be allowed to stand around for a considerable part of their time waiting for their particular kind of work to come along, as is so frequently the case. the belief is almost universal among manufacturers that for economy the number of brain workers, or non-producers, as they are called, should be as small as possible in proportion to the number of producers, i.e., those who actually work with their hands. an examination of the most successful establishments will, however, show that the reverse is true. a number of years ago the writer made a careful study of the proportion of producers to non-producers in three of the largest and most successful companies in the world, who were engaged in doing the same work in a general way. one of these companies was in france, one in germany, and one in the united states. being to a certain extent rivals in business and situated in different countries, naturally neither one had anything to do with the management of the other. in the course of his investigation, the writer found that the managers had never even taken the trouble to ascertain the exact proportion of non-producers to producers in their respective works; so that the organization of each company was an entirely independent evolution. by non-producers the writer means such employees as all of the general officers, the clerks, foremen, gang bosses, watchmen, messenger boys, draftsmen, salesmen, etc.; and by "producers," only those who actually work with their hands. in the french and german works there was found to be in each case one non-producer to between six and seven producers, and in the american works one non-producer to about seven producers. the writer found that in the case of another works, doing the same kind of business and whose management was notoriously bad, the proportion of non-producers to producers was one non-producer to about eleven producers. these companies all had large forges, foundries, rolling mills and machine shops turning out a miscellaneous product, much of which was machined. they turned out a highly wrought, elaborate and exact finished product, and did an extensive engineering and miscellaneous machine construction business. in the case of a company doing a manufacturing business with a uniform and simple product for the maximum economy, the number of producers to each non-producer would of course be larger. no manager need feel alarmed then when he sees the number of non-producers increasing in proportion to producers, providing the non-producers are busy all of their time, and providing, of course, that in each case they are doing efficient work. it would seem almost unnecessary to dwell upon the desirability of standardizing, not only all of the tools, appliances and implements throughout the works and office, but also the methods to be used in the multitude of small operations which are repeated day after day. there are many good managers of the old school, however, who feel that this standardization is not only unnecessary but that it is undesirable, their principal reason being that it is better to allow each workman to develop his individuality by choosing the particular implements and methods which suit him best. and there is considerable weight in this contention when the scheme of management is to allow each workman to do the work as he pleases and hold him responsible for results. unfortunately, in ninety-nine out of a hundred such cases only the first part of this plan is carried out. the workman chooses his own methods and implements, but is not held in any strict sense accountable unless the quality of the work is so poor or the quantity turned out is so small as to almost amount to a scandal. in the type of management advocated by the writer, this complete standardization of all details and methods is not only desirable but absolutely indispensable as a preliminary to specifying the time in which each operation shall be done, and then insisting that it shall be done within the time allowed. neglecting to take the time and trouble to thoroughly standardize all of such methods and details is one of the chief causes for setbacks and failure in introducing this system. much better results can be attained, even if poor standards be adopted, than can be reached if some of a given class of implements are the best of their kind while others are poor. it is uniformity that is required. better have them uniformly second class than mainly first with some second and some third class thrown in at random. in the latter case the workmen will almost always adopt the pace which conforms to the third class instead of the first or second. in fact, however, it is not a matter involving any great expense or time to select in each case standard implements which shall be nearly the best or the best of their kinds. the writer has never failed to make enormous gains in the economy of running by the adoption of standards. it was in the course of making a series of experiments with various air hardening tool steels with a view to adopting a standard for the bethlehem works that mr. j. maunsel white, together with the writer, discovered the taylor-white process of treating tool steel, which marks a distinct improvement in the art. the fact that this improvement was made not by manufacturers of tool steel, but in the course of the adoption of standards, shows both the necessity and fruitfulness of methodical and careful investigation in the choice of much neglected details. the economy to be gained through the adoption of uniform standards is hardly realized at all by the managers of this country. no better illustration of this fact is needed than that of the present condition of the cutting tools used throughout the machine shops of the united states. hardly a shop can be found in which tools made from a dozen different qualities of steel are not used side by side, in many cases with little or no means of telling one make from another; and in addition, the shape of the cutting edge of the tool is in most cases left to the fancy of each individual workman. when one realizes that the cutting speed of the best treated air hardening steel is for a given depth of cut, feed and quality of metal being cut, say sixty feet per minute, while with the same shaped tool made from the best carbon tool steel and with the same conditions, the cutting speed will be only twelve feet per minute, it becomes apparent how little the necessity for rigid standards is appreciated. let us take another illustration. the machines of the country are still driven by belting. the motor drive, while it is coming, is still in the future. there is not one establishment in one hundred that does not leave the care and tightening of the belts to the judgment of the individual who runs the machine, although it is well known to all who have given any study to the subject that the most skilled machinist cannot properly tighten a belt without the use of belt clamps fitted with spring balances to properly register the tension. and the writer showed in a paper entitled "notes on belting" presented to the american society of mechanical engineers in , giving the results of an experiment tried on all of the belts in a machine shop and extending through nine years, in which every detail of the care and tightening and tension of each belt was recorded, that belts properly cared for according to a standard method by a trained laborer would average twice the pulling power and only a fraction of the interruptions to manufacture of those tightened according to the usual methods. the loss now going on throughout the country from failure to adopt and maintain standards for all small details is simply enormous. it is, however, a good sign for the future that a firm such as messrs. dodge & day of philadelphia, who are making a specialty of standardizing machine shop details, find their time fully occupied. what may be called the "exception principle" in management is coming more and more into use, although, like many of the other elements of this art, it is used in isolated cases, and in most instances without recognizing it as a principle which should extend throughout the entire field. it is not an uncommon sight, though a sad one, to see the manager of a large business fairly swamped at his desk with an ocean of letters and reports, on each of which he thinks that he should put his initial or stamp. he feels that by having this mass of detail pass over his desk he is keeping in close touch with the entire business. the exception principle is directly the reverse of this. under it the manager should receive only condensed, summarized, and invariably comparative reports, covering, however, all of the elements entering into the management, and even these summaries should all be carefully gone over by an assistant before they reach the manager, and have all of the exceptions to the past averages or to the standards pointed out, both the especially good and especially bad exceptions, thus giving him in a few minutes a full view of progress which is being made, or the reverse, and leaving him free to consider the broader lines of policy and to study the character and fitness of the important men under him. the exception principle can be applied in many ways, and the writer will endeavor to give some further illustrations of it later. the writer has dwelt at length upon the desirability of concentrating as much as possible clerical and brain work in the planning department. there is, however, one such important exception to this rule that it would seem desirable to call attention to it. as already stated, the planning room gives its orders and instructions to the men mainly in writing and of necessity must also receive prompt and reliable written returns and reports which shall enable its members to issue orders for the next movement of each piece, lay out the work for each man for the following day, properly post the balance of work and materials accounts, enter the records on cost accounts and also enter the time and pay of each man on the pay sheet. there is no question that all of this information can be given both better and cheaper by the workman direct than through the intermediary of a walking time keeper, providing the proper instruction and report system has been introduced in the works with carefully ruled and printed instruction and return cards, and particularly providing a complete mnemonic system of symbols has been adopted so as to save the workmen the necessity of doing much writing. the principle to which the writer wishes to call particular attention is that the only way in which workmen can be induced to write out all of this information accurately and promptly is by having each man write his own time while on day work and pay when on piece work on the same card on which he is to enter the other desired information, and then refusing to enter his pay on the pay sheet until after all of the required information has been correctly given by him. under this system as soon as a workman completes a job and at quitting time, whether the job is completed or not, he writes on a printed time card all of the information needed by the planning room in connection with that job, signs it and forwards it at once to the planning room. on arriving in the planning room each time card passes through the order of work or route clerk, the balance clerk, the cost clerk, etc., on its way to the pay sheet, and unless the workman has written the desired information the card is sent back to him, and he is apt to correct and return it promptly so as to have his pay entered up. the principle is clear that if one wishes to have routine clerical work done promptly and correctly it should somehow be attached to the pay card of the man who is to give it. this principle, of course, applies to the information desired from inspectors, gang bosses and others as well as workmen, and to reports required from various clerks. in the case of reports, a pay coupon can be attached to the report which will be detached and sent to the pay sheet as soon as the report has been found correct. before starting to make any radical changes leading toward an improvement in the system of management, it is desirable, and for ultimate success in most cases necessary, that the directors and the important owners of an enterprise shall be made to understand, at least in a general way, what is involved in the change. they should be informed of the leading objects which the new system aims at, such, for instance, as rendering mutual the interests of employer and employee through "high wages and low labor cost," the gradual selection and development of a body of first class picked workmen who will work extra hard and receive extra high wages and be dealt with individually instead of in masses. they should thoroughly understand that this can only be accomplished through the adoption of precise and exact methods, and having each smallest detail, both as to methods and appliances, carefully selected so as to be the best of its kind. they should understand the general philosophy of the system and should see that, as a whole, it must be in harmony with its few leading ideas, and that principles and details which are admirable in one type of management have no place whatever in another. they should be shown that it pays to employ an especial corps to introduce a new system just as it pays to employ especial designers and workmen to build a new plant; that, while a new system is being introduced, almost twice the number of foremen are required as are needed to run it after it is in; that all of this costs money, but that, unlike a new plant, returns begin to come in almost from the start from improved methods and appliances as they are introduced, and that in most cases the new system more than pays for itself as it goes along; that time, and a great deal of time, is involved in a radical change in management, and that in the case of a large works if they are incapable of looking ahead and patiently waiting for from two to four years, they had better leave things just as they are, since a change of system involves a change in the ideas, point of view and habits of many men with strong convictions and prejudices, and that this can only be brought about slowly and chiefly through a series of object lessons, each of which takes time, and through continued reasoning; and that for this reason, after deciding to adopt a given type, the necessary steps should be taken as fast as possible, one after another, for its introduction. the directors should be convinced that an increase m the proportion of non-producers to producers means increased economy and not red tape, providing the non-producers are kept busy at their respective functions. they should be prepared to lose some of their valuable men who cannot stand the change and also for the continued indignant protest of many of their old and trusted employees who can see nothing but extravagance in the new ways and ruin ahead. it is a matter of the first importance that, in addition to the directors of the company, all of those connected with the management should be given a broad and comprehensive view of the general objects to be attained and the means which will be employed. they should fully realize before starting on their work and should never lose sight of the fact that the great object of the new organization is to bring about two momentous changes in the men: first. a complete revolution in their mental attitude toward their employers and their work. second. as a result of this change of feeling such an increase in their determination and physical activity, and such an improvement in the conditions under which the work is done as will result in many cases in their turning out from two to three times as much work as they have done in the past. first, then, the men must be brought to see that the new system changes their employers from antagonists to friends who are working as hard as possible side by side with them, all pushing in the same direction and all helping to bring about such an increase in the output and to so cheapen the cost of production that the men will be paid permanently from thirty to one hundred per cent more than they have earned in the past, and that there will still be a good profit left over for the company. at first workmen cannot see why, if they do twice as much work as they have done, they should not receive twice the wages. when the matter is properly explained to them and they have time to think it over, they will see that in most cases the increase in output is quite as much due to the improved appliances and methods, to the maintenance of standards and to the great help which they receive from the men over them as to their own harder work. they will realize that the company must pay for the introduction of the improved system, which costs thousands of dollars, and also the salaries of the additional foremen and of the clerks, etc., in the planning room as well as tool room and other expenses and that, in addition, the company is entitled to an increased profit quite as much as the men are. all but a few of them will come to understand in a general way that under the new order of things they are cooperating with their employers to make as great a saving as possible and that they will receive permanently their fair share of this gain. then after the men acquiesce in the new order of things and are willing to do their part toward cheapening production, it will take time for them to change from their old easy-going ways to a higher rate of speed, and to learn to stay steadily at their work, think ahead and make every minute count. a certain percentage of them, with the best of intentions, will fail in this and find that they have no place in the new organization, while still others, and among them some of the best workers who are, however, either stupid or stubborn, can never be made to see that the new system is as good as the old; and these, too, must drop out. let no one imagine, however, that this great change in the mental attitude of the men and the increase in their activity can be brought about by merely talking to them. talking will be most useful--in fact indispensable--and no opportunity should be lost of explaining matters to them patiently, one man at a time, and giving them every chance to express their views. their real instruction, however, must come through a series of object lessons. they must be convinced that a great increase in speed is possible by seeing here and there a man among them increase his pace and double or treble his output. they must see this pace maintained until they are convinced that it is not a mere spurt; and, most important of all, they must see the men who "get there" in this way receive a proper increase in wages and become satisfied. it is only with these object lessons in plain sight that the new theories can be made to stick. it will be in presenting these object lessons and in smoothing away the difficulties so that tile high speed can be maintained, and in assisting to form public opinion in the shop, that the great efficiency of functional foremanship under the direction of the planning room will first become apparent. in reaching the final high rate of speed which shall be steadily maintained, the broad fact should be realized that the men must pass through several distinct phases, rising from one plane of efficiency to another until the final level is reached. first they must be taught to work under an improved system of day work. each man must learn how to give up his own particular way of doing things, adapt his methods to the many new standards, and grow accustomed to receiving and obeying directions covering details, large and small, which in the past have been left to his individual judgment. at first the workmen can see nothing in all of this but red tape and impertinent interference, and time must be allowed them to recover from their irritation, not only at this, but at every stage in their upward march. if they have been classed together and paid uniform wages for each class, the better men should be singled out and given higher wages so that they shall distinctly recognize the fact that each man is to be paid according to his individual worth. after becoming accustomed to direction in minor matters, they must gradually learn to obey instructions as to the pace at which they are to work, and grasp the idea, first, that the planning department knows accurately how long each operation should take; and second, that sooner or later they will have to work at the required speed if they expect to prosper. after they are used to following the speed instructions given them, then one at a time they can be raised to the level of maintaining a rapid pace throughout the day. and it is not until this final step has been taken that the full measure of the value of the new system will be felt by the men through daily receiving larger wages, and by the company through a materially larger output and lower cost of production. it is evident, of course, that all of the workmen in the shop will not rise together from one level to another. those engaged in certain lines of work will have reached their final high speed while others have barely taken the first step. the efforts of the new management should not be spread out thin over the whole shop. they should rather be focused upon a few points, leaving the ninety and nine under the care of their former shepherds. after the efficiency of the men who are receiving special assistance and training has been raised to the desired level, the means for holding them there should be perfected, and they should never be allowed to lapse into their old ways. this will, of course, be accomplished in the most permanent way and rendered almost automatic, either through introducing task work with a bonus or the differential rate. before taking any steps toward changing methods the manager should realize that at no time during the introduction of the system should any broad, sweeping changes be made which seriously affect a large number of the workmen. it would be preposterous, for instance, in going from day to piece work to start a large number of men on piece work at the same time. throughout the early stages of organization each change made should affect one workman only, and after the single man affected has become used to the new order of things, then change one man after another from the old system to the new, slowly at first, and rapidly as public opinion in the shop swings around under the influence of proper object lessons. throughout a considerable part of the time, then, there will be two distinct systems of management in operation in the same shop; and in many cases it is desirable to have the men working under the new system managed by an entirely different set of foremen, etc., from those under the old. the first step, after deciding upon the type of organization, should be the selection of a competent man to take charge of the introduction of the new system. the manager should think himself fortunate if he can get such a man at almost any price, since the task is a difficult and thankless one and but few men can be found who possess the necessary information coupled with the knowledge of men, the nerve, and the tact required for success in this work. the manager should keep himself free as far as possible from all active part in the introduction of the new system. while changes are going on it will require his entire energies to see that there is no falling off in the efficiency of the old system and that the quality and quantity of the output is kept up. the mistake which is usually made when a change in system is decided upon is that the manager and his principal assistants undertake to make all of the improvements themselves during their spare time, with the common result that weeks, months, and years go by without anything great being accomplished. the respective duties of the manager and the man in charge of improvement, and the limits of the authority of the latter should be clearly defined and agreed upon, always bearing in mind that responsibility should invariably be accompanied by its corresponding measure of authority. the worst mistake that can be made is to refer to any part of the system as being "on trial." once a given step is decided upon, all parties must be made to understand that it will go whether any one around the place likes it or not. in making changes in system the things that are given a "fair trial" fail, while the things that "must go," go all right. to decide where to begin is a perplexing and bewildering problem which faces the reorganizer in management when he arrives in a large establishment. in making this decision, as in taking each subsequent step, the most important consideration, which should always be first in the mind of the reformer, is "what effect will this step have upon the workmen?" through some means (it would almost appear some especial sense) the workman seems to scent the approach of a reformer even before his arrival in town. their suspicions are thoroughly aroused, and they are on the alert for sweeping changes which are to be against their interests and which they are prepared to oppose from the start. through generations of bitter experiences working men as a class have teamed to look upon all change as antagonistic to their best interests. they do not ask the object of the change, but oppose it simply as change. the first changes, therefore, should be such as to allay the suspicions of the men and convince them by actual contact that the reforms are after all rather harmless and are only such as will ultimately be of benefit to all concerned. such improvements then as directly affect the workmen least should be started first. at the same time it must be remembered that the whole operation is of necessity so slow that the new system should be started at as many points as possible, and constantly pushed as hard as possible. in the metal working plant which we are using for purposes of illustration a start can be made at once along all of the following lines: first. the introduction of standards throughout the works and office. second. the scientific study of unit times on several different kinds of work. third. a complete analysis of the pulling, feeding power and the proper speeding of the various machine tools throughout the place with a view of making a slide rule for properly running each machine. fourth. the work of establishing the system of time cards by means of which ultimately all of the desired information will be conveyed from the men to the planning room. fifth. overhauling the stores issuing and receiving system so as to establish a complete running balance of materials. sixth. ruling and printing the various blanks that will be required for shop returns and reports, time cards, instruction cards, expense sheets, cost sheets, pay sheet, and balance records; storeroom; tickler; and maintenance of standards, system, and plant, etc.; and starting such functions of the planning room as do not directly affect the men. if the works is a large one, the man in charge of introducing the system should appoint a special assistant in charge of each of the above functions just as an engineer designing a new plant would start a number of draftsmen to work upon the various elements of construction. several of these assistants will be brought into close contact with the men, who will in this way gradually get used to seeing changes going on and their suspicion, both of the new men and the methods, will have been allayed to such an extent before any changes which seriously affect them are made, that little or no determined opposition on their part need be anticipated. the most important and difficult task of the organizer will be that of selecting and training the various functional foremen who are to lead and instruct the workmen, and his success will be measured principally by his ability to mold and reach these men. they cannot be found, they must be made. they must be instructed in their new functions largely, in the beginning at least, by the organizer himself; and this instruction, to be effective, should be mainly in actually doing the work. explanation and theory will go a little way, but actual doing is needed to carry conviction. to illustrate: for nearly two and one-half years in the large shop of the bethlehem steel company, one speed boss after another was instructed in the art of cutting metals fast on a large motor-driven lathe which was especially fitted to run at any desired speed within a very wide range. the work done in this machine was entirely connected, either with the study of cutting tools or the instruction of speed bosses. it was most interesting to see these men, principally either former gang bosses or the best workmen, gradually change from their attitude of determined and positive opposition to that in most cases of enthusiasm for, and earnest support of, the new methods. it was actually running the lathe themselves according to the new method and under the most positive and definite orders that produced the effect. the writer himself ran the lathe and instructed the first few bosses. it required from three weeks to two months for each man. perhaps the most important part of the gang boss's and foreman's education lies ill teaching them to promptly obey orders and instructions received not only from the superintendent or some official high in the company, but from any member of the planning room whose especial function it is to direct the rest of the works in his particular line; and it may be accepted as an unquestioned fact that no gang boss is fit to direct his men until after he has learned to promptly obey instructions received from any proper source, whether he likes his instructions and the instructor or not, and even although he may be convinced that he knows a much better way of doing the work. the first step is for each man to learn to obey the laws as they exist, and next, if the laws are wrong, to have them reformed in the proper way. in starting to organize even a comparatively small shop, containing say from to men, it is best to begin by training in the full number of functional foremen, one for each function, since it must be remembered that about two out of three of those who are taught this work either leave of their own accord or prove unsatisfactory; and in addition, while both the workmen and bosses are adjusting themselves to their new duties, there are needed fully twice the number of bosses as are required to carry on the work after it is fully systematized. unfortunately, there is no means of selecting in advance those out of a number of candidates for a given work who are likely to prove successful. many of those who appear to have all of the desired qualities, and who talk and appear the best, will turn out utter failures, while on the other hand, some of the most unlikely men rise to the top. the fact is that the more attractive qualities of good manners, education, and even special training and skill, which are more apparent on the surface, count for less in an executive position than the grit, determination and bulldog endurance and tenacity that knows no defeat and comes up smiling to be knocked down over and over again. the two qualities which count most for success in this kind of executive work are grit and what may be called "constructive imagination"--the faculty which enables a man to use the few facts that are stored in his mind in getting around the obstacles that oppose him, and in building up something useful in spite of them; and unfortunately, the presence of these qualities, together with honesty and common sense, can only be proved through an actual trial at executive work. as we all know, success at college or in the technical school does not indicate the presence of these qualities, even though the man may have worked hard. mainly, it would seem, because the work of obtaining an education is principally that of absorption and assimilation; while that of active practical life is principally the direct reverse, namely, that of giving out. in selecting men to be tried as foremen, or in fact for any position throughout the place, from the day laborer up, one of two different types of men should be chosen, according to the nature of the work to be done. for one class of work, men should be selected who are too good for the job; and for the other class of work, men who are barely good enough. if the work is of a routine nature, in which the same operations are likely to be done over and over again, with no great variety, and in which there is no apparent prospect of a radical change being made, perhaps through a term of years, even though the work itself may be complicated in its nature, a man should be selected whose abilities are barely equal to the task. time and training will fit him for his work, and since he will be better paid than in the past, and will realize that he has been given the chance to make his abilities yield him the largest return--all of the elements for promoting contentment will be present; and those men who are blessed with cheerful dispositions will become satisfied and remain so. of course, a considerable part of mankind is so born or educated that permanent contentment is out of the question. no one, however, should be influenced by the discontent of this class. on the other hand, if the work to be done is of great variety--particularly if improvements in methods are to be anticipated--throughout the period of active organization the men engaged in systematizing should be too good for their jobs. for such work, men should be selected whose mental caliber and attainments will fit them, ultimately at least, to command higher wages than can be afforded on the work which they are at. it will prove a wise policy to promote such men both to better positions and pay, when they have shown themselves capable of accomplishing results and the opportunity offers. the results which these high-class men will accomplish, and the comparatively short time which they will take in organizing, will much more than pay for the expense and trouble, later on, of training other men, cheaper and of less capacity, to take their places. in many cases, however, gang bosses and men will develop faster than new positions open for them. when this occurs, it will pay employers well to find them positions in other works, either with better pay, or larger opportunities; not only as a matter of kindly feeling and generosity toward their men, but even more with the object of promoting the best interests of their own establishments. for one man lost in this way, five will be stimulated to work to the very limit of their abilities, and will rise ultimately to take the place of the man who has gone, and the best class of men will apply for work where these methods prevail. but few employers, however, are sufficiently broad-minded to adopt this policy. they dread the trouble and temporary inconvenience incident to training in new men. mr. james m. dodge, chairman of the board of the link-belt company, is one of the few men with whom the writer is acquainted who has been led by his kindly instincts, as well as by a far-sighted policy, to treat his employees in this way; and this, together with the personal magnetism and influence which belong to men of his type, has done much to render his shop one of the model establishments of the country, certainly as far as the relations of employer and men are concerned. on the other hand, this policy of promoting men and finding them new positions has its limits. no worse mistake can be made than that of allowing an establishment to be looked upon as a training school, to be used mainly for the education of many of its employees. all employees should bear in mind that each shop exists, first, last, and all the time, for the purpose of paying dividends to its owners. they should have patience, and never lose sight of this fact. and no man should expect promotion until after he has trained his successor to take his place. the writer is quite sure that in his own case, as a young man, no one element was of such assistance to him in obtaining new opportunities as the practice of invariably training another man to fill his position before asking for advancement. the first of the functional foremen to be brought into actual contact with the men should be the inspector; and the whole system of inspection, with its proper safeguards, should be in smooth and successful operation before any steps are taken toward stimulating the men to a larger output; otherwise an increase in quantity will probably be accompanied by a falling off in quality. next choose for the application of the two principal functional foremen, viz., the speed boss and the gang boss, that portion of the work in which there is the largest need of, and opportunity for, making a gain. it is of the utmost importance that the first combined application of time study, slide rules, instruction cards, functional foremanship, and a premium for a large daily task should prove a success both for the workmen and for the company, and for this reason a simple class of work should be chosen for a start. the entire efforts of the new management should be centered on one point, and continue there until unqualified success has been attained. when once this gain has been made, a peg should be put in which shall keep it from sliding back in the least; and it is here that the task idea with a time limit for each job will be found most useful. under ordinary piece work, or the towne-halsey plan, the men are likely at any time to slide back a considerable distance without having it particularly noticed either by them or the management. with the task idea, the first falling off is instantly felt by the workman through the loss of his day's bonus, or his differential rate, and is thereby also forcibly brought to the attention of the management. there is one rather natural difficulty which arises when the functional foremanship is first introduced. men who were formerly either gang bosses, or foremen, are usually chosen as functional foremen, and these men, when they find their duties restricted to their particular functions, while they formerly were called upon to do everything, at first feel dissatisfied. they think that their field of usefulness is being greatly contracted. this is, however, a theoretical difficulty, which disappears when they really get into the full swing of their new positions. in fact the new position demands an amount of special information, forethought, and a clear-cut, definite responsibility that they have never even approximated in the past, and which is amply sufficient to keep all of their best faculties and energies alive and fully occupied. it is the experience of the writer that there is a great commercial demand for men with this sort of definite knowledge, who are used to accepting real responsibility and getting results; so that the training in their new duties renders them more instead of less valuable. as a rule, the writer has found that those who were growling the most, and were loudest in asserting that they ought to be doing the whole thing, were only one-half or one-quarter performing their own particular functions. this desire to do every one's else work in addition to their own generally disappears when they are held to strict account in their particular line, and are given enough work to keep them hustling. there are many people who will disapprove of the whole scheme of a planning department to do the thinking for the men, as well as a number of foremen to assist and lead each man in his work, on the ground that this does not tend to promote independence, self-reliance, and originality in the individual. those holding this view, however, must take exception to the whole trend of modern industrial development; and it appears to the writer that they overlook the real facts in the case. it is true, for instance, that the planning room, and functional foremanship, render it possible for an intelligent laborer or helper in time to do much of the work now done by a machinist. is not this a good thing for the laborer and helper? he is given a higher class of work, which tends to develop him and gives him better wages. in the sympathy for the machinist the case of the laborer is overlooked. this sympathy for the machinist is, however, wasted, since the machinist, with the aid of the new system, will rise to a higher class of work which he was unable to do in the past, and in addition, divided or functional foremanship will call for a larger number of men in this class, so that men, who must otherwise have remained machinists all their lives, will have the opportunity of rising to a foremanship. the demand for men of originality and brains was never so great as it is now, and the modern subdivision of labor, instead of dwarfing men, enables them all along the line to rise to a higher plane of efficiency, involving at the same time more brain work and less monotony. the type of man who was formerly a day laborer and digging dirt is now for instance making shoes in a shoe factory. the dirt handling is done by italians or hungarians. after the planning room with functional foremanship has accomplished its most difficult task, of teaching the men how to do a full day's work themselves, and also how to get it out of their machines steadily, then, if desired, the number of non-producers can be diminished, preferably, by giving each type of functional foreman more to do in his specialty; or in the case of a very small shop, by combining two different functions in the same man. the former expedient is, however, much to be preferred to the latter. there need never be any worry about what is to become of those engaged in systematizing after the period of active organization is over. the difficulty will still remain even with functional foremanship, that of getting enough good men to fill the positions, and the demand for competent gang bosses will always be so great that no good boss need look for a job. of all the farces in management the greatest is that of an establishment organized along well planned lines, with all of the elements needed for success, and yet which fails to get either output or economy. there must be some man or men present in the organization who will not mistake the form for the essence, and who will have brains enough to find out those of their employees who "get there," and nerve enough to make it unpleasant for those who fail, as well as to reward those who succeed. no system can do away with the need of real men. both system and good men are needed, and after introducing the best system, success will be in proportion to the ability, consistency, and respected authority of the management. in a book of this sort, it would be manifestly impossible to discuss at any length all of the details which go toward making the system a success. some of them are of such importance as to render at least a brief reference to them necessary. and first among these comes the study of unit times. this, as already explained, is the most important element of the system advocated by the writer. without it, the definite, clear-cut directions given to the workman, and the assigning of a full, yet just, daily task, with its premium for success, would be impossible; and the arch without the keystone would fall to the ground. in , while foreman of the machine shop of the midvale steel company of philadelphia, it occurred to the writer that it was simpler to time with a stop watch each of the elements of the various kinds of work done in the place, and then find the quickest time in which each job could be done by summing up the total times of its component parts, than it was to search through the time records of former jobs and guess at the proper time and price. after practicing this method of time study himself for about a year, as well as circumstances would permit, it became evident that the system was a success. the writer then established the time-study and rate-fixing department, which has given out piece work prices in the place ever since. this department far more than paid for itself from the very start; but it was several years before the full benefits of the system were felt, owing to the fact that the best methods of making and recording time observations, as well as of determining the maximum capacity of each of the machines in the place, and of making working tables and time tables, were not at first adopted. it has been the writer's experience that the difficulties of scientific time study are underestimated at first, and greatly overestimated after actually trying the work for two or three months. the average manager who decides to undertake the study of unit times in his works fails at first to realize that he is starting a new art or trade. he understands, for instance, the difficulties which he would meet with in establishing a drafting room, and would look for but small results at first, if he were to give a bright man the task of making drawings, who had never worked in a drafting room, and who was not even familiar with drafting implements and methods, but he entirely underestimates the difficulties of this new trade. the art of studying unit times is quite as important and as difficult as that of the draftsman. it should be undertaken seriously, and looked upon as a profession. it has its own peculiar implements and methods, without the use and understanding of which progress will necessarily be slow, and in the absence of which there will be more failures than successes scored at first. when, on the other hand, an energetic, determined man goes at time study as if it were his life's work, with the determination to succeed, the results which he can secure are little short of astounding. the difficulties of the task will be felt at once and so strongly by any one who undertakes it, that it seems important to encourage the beginner by giving at least one illustration of what has been accomplished. mr. sanford e. thompson, c. e., started in with but small help from the writer, except as far as the implements and methods are concerned, to study the time required to do all kinds of work in the building trades. in six years he has made a complete study of eight of the most important trades--excavation, masonry (including sewer-work and paving), carpentry, concrete and cement work, lathing and plastering, slating and roofing and rock quarrying. he took every stop watch observation himself and then, with the aid of two comparatively cheap assistants, worked up and tabulated all of his data ready for the printer. the magnitude of this undertaking will be appreciated when it is understood that the tables and descriptive matter for one of these trades alone take up about pages. mr. thompson and the writer are both engineers, but neither of us was especially familiar with the above trades, and this work could not have been accomplished in a lifetime without the study of elementary units with a stop watch. in the course of this work, mr. thompson has developed what are in many respects the best implements in use, and with his permission some of them will be described. the blank form or note sheet used by mr. thompson, shown in fig. (see page ), contains essentially: [transcriber's note -- figure omitted] ( ) space for the description of the work and notes in regard to it. ( ) a place for recording the total time of complete operations--that is, the gross time including all necessary delays, for doing a whole job or large portions of it. ( ) lines for setting down the "detail operations, or units" into which any piece of work may be divided, followed by columns for entering the averages obtained from the observations. ( ) squares for recording the readings of the stop watch when observing the times of these elements. if these squares are filled, additional records can be entered on the back. the size of the sheets, which should be of best quality ledger paper, is / inches wide by inches long, and by folding in the center they can be conveniently carried in the pocket, or placed in a case (see fig. , page ) containing one or more stop watches. this case, or "watch book," is another device of mr. thompson's. it consists of a frame work, containing concealed in it one, two, or three watches, whose stop and start movements can be operated by pressing with the fingers of the left hand upon the proper portion of the cover of the note-book without the knowledge of the workman who is being observed. the frame is bound in a leather case resembling a pocket note-book, and has a place for the note sheets described. the writer does not believe at all in the policy of spying upon the workman when taking time observations for the purpose of time study. if the men observed are to be ultimately affected by the results of these observations, it is generally best to come out openly, and let them know that they are being timed, and what the object of the timing is. there are many cases, however, in which telling the workman that he was being timed in a minute way would only result in a row, and in defeating the whole object of the timing; particularly when only a few time units are to be studied on one man's work, and when this man will not be personally affected by the results of the observations. in these cases, the watch book of mr. thompson, holding the watches in the cover, is especially useful. a good deal of judgment is required to know when to time openly, or the reverse. figure . -watch book for time study [transcriber's note -- figure omitted] the operation selected for illustration on the note sheet shown in fig. , page , is the excavation of earth with wheelbarrows, and the values given are fair averages of actual contract work where the wheelbarrow man fills his own barrow. it is obvious that similar methods of analyzing and recording may be applied to work ranging from unloading coal to skilled labor on fine machine tools. the method of using the note sheets for timing a workman is as follows: after entering the necessary descriptive matter at the top of the sheet, divide the operation to be timed into its elementary units, and write these units one after another under the heading "detail operations." if the job is long and complicated, it may be analyzed while the timing is going on, and the elementary units entered then instead of beforehand. in wheelbarrow work as illustrated in the example shown on the note sheet, the elementary units consist of "filling barrow," "starting" (which includes throwing down shovel and lifting handles of barrow), "wheeling full," etc. these units might have been further subdivided--the first one into time for loading one shovelful, or still further into the time for filling and the time for emptying each shovelful. the letters a, b, c, etc., which are printed, are simply for convenience in designating the elements. we are now ready for the stop watch, which, to save clerical work, should be provided with a decimal dial similar to that shown in fig. . the method of using this and recording the times depends upon the character of the time observations. in all cases, however, the stop watch times are recorded in the columns headed "time" at the top of the right-hand half of the note sheet. these columns are the only place on the face of the sheet where stop watch readings are to be entered. if more space is required for these times, they should be entered on the back of the sheet. the rest of the figures (except those on the left-hand side of the note sheet, which may be taken from an ordinary timepiece) are the results of calculation, and may be made in the office by any clerk. figure . -stop watch with decimal face [transcriber's note -- omitted] as has been stated, the method of recording the stop watch observations depends upon the work which is being observed. if the operation consists of the same element repeated over and over, the time of each may be set down separately; or, if the element is very small, the total time of, say, ten may be entered as a fraction, with the time for all ten observations as the numerator, and the number of observations for the denominator. in the illustration given on the note sheet, fig. , the operation consists of a series of elements. in such a case, the letters designating each elementary unit are entered under the columns "op.," the stop watch is thrown to zero, and started as the man commences to work. as each new division of the operation (that is, as each elementary unit or unit time) is begun, the time is recorded. during any special delay the watch may be stopped, and started again from the same point, although, as a rule, mr. thompson advocates allowing the watch to run continuously, and enters the time of such a stop, designating it for convenience by the letter "y." in the case we are considering, two kinds of materials were handled sand and clay. the time of each of the unit times, except the "filling," is the same for both sand and clay; hence, if we have sufficient observations on either one of the materials, the only element of the other which requires to be timed is the loading. this illustrates one of the merits of the elementary system. the column "av." is filled from the preceding column. the figures thus found are the actual net times of the different unit times. these unit times are averaged and entered in the "time" column, on the lower half of the right-hand page, preceded, in the "no." column, by the number of observations which have been taken of each unit. these times, combined and compared with the gross times on the left-hand page, will determine the percentage lost in resting and other necessary delays. a convenient method for obtaining the time of an operation, like picking, in which the quantity is difficult to measure, is suggested by the records on the left-hand page. the percentage of the time taken in rest and other necessary delays, which is noted on the sheet as, in this case, about per cent, is obtained by a comparison of the average net "time per barrow" on the right with the "time per barrow" on the left. the latter is the quotient of the total time shoveling and wheeling divided by the number of loads wheeled. it must be remembered that the example given is simply for illustration. to obtain accurate average times, for any item of work under specified conditions, it is necessary to take observations upon a number of men, each of whom is at work under conditions which are comparable. the total number of observations which should be taken of any one elementary unit depends upon its variableness, and also upon its frequency of occurrence in a day's work. an expert observer can, on many kinds of work, time two or three men at the same time with the same watch, or he can operate two or three watches--one for each man. a note sheet can contain only a comparatively few observations. it is not convenient to make it of larger size than the dimensions given, when a watch-book is to be used, although it is perfectly feasible to make the horizontal rulings lines to the inch instead of lines to the inch as on the sample sheet. there will have to be, in almost all cases, a large number of note sheets on the same subject. some system must be arranged for collecting and tabulating these records. on tables a and b (pages and ) is shown the form used for tabulating. the length should be either or inches. the height of the form is inches. with these dimensions a form may be folded and filed with ordinary letter sheets ( / inches by inches). the ruling which has been found most convenient is for the vertical divisions columns to / inches, while the horizontal lines are ruled to the inch. the columns may, or may not, have printed headings. the data from the note sheet in fig. (page ) is copied on to the table for illustration. the first columns of the table are descriptive. the rest of them are arranged so as to include all of the unit times, with any other data which are to be averaged or used when studying the results. at the extreme right of the sheet the gross times, including rest and necessary delay, are recorded and the percentages of rest are calculated. formulae are convenient for combining the elements. for simplicity, in the example of barrow excavation, each of the unit times may be designated by the same letters used on the note sheet (fig. ) although in practice each element can best be designated .by the initial letters of the words describing it. let a = time filling a barrow with any material. b = time preparing to wheel. c = time wheeling full barrow feet. d = time dumping and turning. e = time returning feet with empty barrow. f = time dropping barrow and starting to shovel. p = time loosening one cubic yard with the pick. p = percentage of a day required to rest and necessary delays. l = load of a barrow in cubic feet. b = time per cubic yard picking, loading, and wheeling any given kind of earth to any given distance when the wheeler loads his own barrow. [transcriber's note -- formula and tables omitted] this general formula for barrow work can be simplified by choosing average values for the constants, and substituting numerals for the letters now representing them. substituting the average values from the note sheet on fig. (page ), our formula becomes: [transcriber's note -- formula omitted] in classes of work where the percentage of rest varies with the different elements of an operation it is most convenient to correct all of the elementary times by the proper percentages before combining them. sometimes after having constructed a general formula, it may be solved by setting down the substitute numerical values in a vertical column for direct addition. table (page ) gives the times for throwing earth to different distances and different heights. it will be seen that for each special material the time for filling shovel remains the same regardless of the distance to which it is thrown. each kind of material requires a different time for filling the shovel. the time throwing one shovelful, on the other hand, varies with the length of throw, but for any given distance it is the same for all of the earths. if the earth is of such a nature that it sticks to the shovel, this relation does not hold. for the elements of shoveling we have therefore: s = time filling shovel and straightening up ready to throw. t = time throwing one shovelful. w = time walking one foot with loaded shovel. w = time returning one foot with empty shovel. l = load of a shovel in cubic feet. p = percentage of a day required for rest and necessary delays. t = time for shoveling one cubic yard. our formula, then, for handling any earth after it is loosened, is: [transcriber's note -- omitted] where the material is simply thrown without walking, the formula becomes: if weights are used instead of volumes: [transcriber's note -- omitted] the writer has found the printed form shown on the insert, fig. (opposite page ), useful in studying unit times in a certain class of the hand work done in a machine shop. this blank is fastened to a thin board held in the left hand and resting on the left arm of the observer. a stop watch is inserted in a small compartment attached to the back of the board at a point a little above its center, the face of the watch being seen from the front of the board through a small flap cut partly loose from the observation blank. while the watch is operated by the fingers of the left hand, the right hand of the operator is at all times free to enter the time observations on the blank. a pencil sketch of the work to be observed is made in the blank space on the upper left-hand portion of the sheet. in using this blank, of course, all attempt at secrecy is abandoned. the mistake usually made by beginners is that of failing to note in sufficient detail the various conditions surrounding the job. it is not at first appreciated that the whole work of the time observer is useless if there is any doubt as to even one of these conditions. such items, for instance, as the name of the man or men on the work, the number of helpers, and exact description of all of the implements used, even those which seem unimportant, such, for instance, as the diameter and length of bolts and the style of clamps used, the weight of the piece upon which work is being done, etc. it is also desirable that, as soon as practicable after taking a few complete sets of time observations, the operator should be given the opportunity of working up one or two sets at least by summing up the unit times and allowing the proper per cent of rest, etc., and putting them into practical use, either by comparing his results with the actual time of a job which is known to be done in fast time, or by setting a time which a workman is to live up to. the actual practical trial of the time student's work is most useful, both in teaching him the necessity of carefully noting the minutest details, and on the other hand convincing him of the practicability of the whole method, and in encouraging him in future work. in making time observations, absolutely nothing should be left to the memory of the student. every item, even those which appear self-evident, should be accurately recorded. the writer, and the assistant who immediately followed him, both made the mistake of not putting the results of much of their time study into use soon enough, so that many times observations which extended over a period of months were thrown away, in most instances because of failure to note some apparently unimportant detail. it may be needless to state that when the results of time observations are first worked up, it will take far more time to pick out and add up the proper unit times, and allow the proper percentages of rest, etc., than it originally did for the workman to do the job. this fact need not disturb the operator, however. it will be evident that the slow time made at the start is due to his lack of experience, and he must take it for granted that later many short-cuts can be found, and that a man with an average memory will be able with practice to carry all of the important time units in his head. no system of time study can be looked upon as a success unless it enables the time observer, after a reasonable amount of study, to predict with accuracy how long it should take a good man to do almost any job in the particular trade, or branch of a trade, to which the time student has been devoting himself. it is true that hardly any two jobs in a given trade are exactly the same and that if a time student were to follow the old method of studying and recording the whole time required to do the various jobs which came under his observation, without dividing them into their elements, he would make comparatively small progress in a lifetime, and at best would become a skilful guesser. it is, however, equally true that all of the work done in a given trade can be divided into a comparatively small number of elements or units, and that with proper implements arid methods it is comparatively easy for a skilled observer to determine the time required by a good man to do any one of these elementary units. having carefully recorded the time for each of these elements, it is a simple matter to divide each job into its elementary units, and by adding their times together, to arrive accurately at the total time for the job. the elements of the art which at first appear most difficult to investigate are the percentages which should be allowed, under different conditions, for rest and for accidental or unavoidable delays. these elements can, however, be studied with about the same accuracy as the others. perhaps the greatest difficulty rests upon the fact that no two men work at exactly the same speed. the writer has found it best to take his time observations on first-class men only, when they can be found; and these men should be timed when working at their best. having obtained the best time of a first-class man, it is a simple matter to determine the percentage which an average man will fall short of this maximum. it is a good plan to pay a first-class man an extra price while his work is being timed. when work men once understand that the time study is being made to enable them to earn higher wages, the writer has found them quite ready to help instead of hindering him in his work. the division of a given job into its proper elementary units, before beginning the time study, calls for considerable skill and good judgment. if the job to be observed is one which will be repeated over and over again, or if it is one of a series of similar jobs which form an important part of the standard work of an establishment, or of the trade which is being studied, then it is best to divide the job into elements which are rudimentary. in some cases this subdivision should be carried to a point which seems at first glance almost absurd. for example, in the case of the study of the art of shoveling earths, referred to in table , page , it will be seen that handling a shovelful of dirt is subdivided into, s = "time filling shovel and straightening up ready to throw," and t = "time throwing one shovelful." the first impression is that this minute subdivision of the work into elements, neither of which takes more than five or six seconds to perform, is little short of preposterous; yet if a rapid and thorough time study of the art of shoveling is to be made, this subdivision simplifies the work, and makes time study quicker and more thorough. the reasons for this are twofold: first. in the art of shoveling dirt, for instance, the study of fifty or sixty small elements, like those referred to above, will enable one to fix the exact time for many thousands of complete jobs of shoveling, constituting a very considerable proportion of the entire art. second. the study of single small elements is simpler, quicker, and more certain to be successful than that of a large number of elements combined. the greater the length of time involved in a single item of time study, the greater will be the likelihood of interruptions or accidents, which will render the results obtained by the observer questionable or even useless. there is a considerable part of the work of most establishments that is not what may be called standard work, namely, that which is repeated many times. such jobs as this can be divided for time study into groups, each of which contains several rudimentary elements. a division of this sort will be seen by referring to the data entered on face of note sheet, fig. (page ). in this case, instead of observing, first, the "time to fill a shovel," and then the time to "throw it into a wheelbarrow," etc., a number of these more rudimentary operations are grouped into the single operation of a = "time filling a wheelbarrow with any material." this group of operations is thus studied as a whole. another illustration of the degree of subdivision which is desirable will be found by referring to the inserts, fig. (opposite page ). where a general study is being made of the time required to do all kinds of hand work connected with and using machine tools, the items printed in detail should be timed singly. when some special job, not to be repeated many times, is to be studied, then several elementary items can be grouped together and studied as a whole, in such groups for example as: (a) getting job ready to set. (b) setting work. (c) setting tool. (d) extra hand work. (e) removing work. and in some cases even these groups can be further condensed. an illustration of the time units which it is desirable to sum up and properly record and index for a certain kind of lathe work is given in fig. . signed total figure . -instruction card for lathe work (not shown) the writer has found that when some jobs are divided into their proper elements, certain of these elementary operations are so very small in time that it is difficult, if not impossible, to obtain accurate readings on the watch. in such cases, where the work consists of recurring cycles of elementary operations, that is, where a series of elementary operations is repeated over and over again, it is possible to take sets of observations on two or more of the successive elementary operations which occur in regular order, and from the times thus obtained to calculate the time of each element. an example of this is the work of loading pig iron on to bogies. the elementary operations or elements consist of: (a) picking up a pig. (b) walking with it to the bogie. (c) throwing or placing it on the bogie. (d) returning to the pile of pigs. here the length of time occupied in picking up the pig and throwing or placing it on the bogie is so small as to be difficult to time, but observations may be taken successively on the elements in sets of three. we may, in other words, take one set of observations upon the combined time of the three elements numbered , , ; another set upon elements , , ; another set upon elements, , , , and still another upon the set , , . by algebraic equations we may solve the values of each of the separate elements. if we take a cycle consisting of five ( ) elementary operations, a, b, c, d, e, and let observations be taken on three of them at a time, we have the equations: [transcriber's note: omitted] the writer was surprised to find, however, that while in some cases these equations were readily solved, in others they were impossible of solution. my friend, mr. carl g. barth, when the matter was referred to him, soon developed the fact that the number of elements of a cycle which may be observed together is subject to a mathematical law, which is expressed by him as follows: the number of successive elements observed together must be prime to the total number of elements in the cycle. namely, the number of elements in any set must contain no factors; that is, must be divisible by no numbers which are contained in the total number of elements. the following table is, therefore, calculated by mr. barth showing how many operations may be observed together in various cases. the last column gives the number of observations in a set which will lead to the determination of the results with the minimum of labor. [transcriber's note -- table omitted] when time study is undertaken in a systematic way, it becomes possible to do greater justice in many ways both to employers and workmen than has been done in the past. for example, we all know that the first time that even a skilled workman does a job it takes him a longer time than is required after he is familiar with his work, and used to a particular sequence of operations. the practiced time student can not only figure out the time in which a piece of work should be done by a good man, after he has become familiar with this particular job through practice, but he should also be able to state how much more time would be required to do the same job when a good man goes at it for the first time; and this knowledge would make it possible to assign one time limit and price for new work, and a smaller time and price for the same job after being repeated, which is much more fair and just to both parties than the usual fixed price. as the writer has said several times, the difference between the best speed of a first-class man and the actual speed of the average man is very great. one of the most difficult pieces of work which must be faced by the man who is to set the daily tasks is to decide just how hard it is wise for him to make the task. shall it be fixed for a first-class man, and if not, then at what point between the first-class and the average? one fact is clear, it should always be well above the performance of the average man, since men will invariably do better if a bonus is offered them than they have done without this incentive. the writer has, in almost all cases, solved this part of the problem by fixing a task which required a first-class man to do his best, and then offering a good round premium. when this high standard is set it takes longer to raise the men up to it. but it is surprising after all how rapidly they develop. the precise point between the average and the first-class, which is selected for the task, should depend largely upon the labor market in which the works is situated. if the works were in a fine labor market, such, for instance, as that of philadelphia, there is no question that the highest standard should be aimed at. if, on the other hand, the shop required a good deal of skilled labor, and was situated in a small country town, it might be wise to aim rather lower. there is a great difference in the labor markets of even some of the adjoining states in this country, and in one instance, in which the writer was aiming at a high standard in organizing a works, he found it necessary to import almost all of his men from a neighboring state before meeting with success. whether the bonus is given only when the work is done in the quickest time or at some point between this and the average time, in all cases the instruction card should state the best time in which the work can be done by a first-class man. there will then be no suspicion on the part of the men when a longer "bonus time" is allowed that the time student does not really know the possibilities of the case. for example, the instruction card might read: proper time . . . . . minutes bonus given first time job is done. minutes it is of the greatest importance that the man who has charge of assigning tasks should be perfectly straightforward in all of his dealings with the men. neither in this nor in any other branch of the management should a man make any pretense of having more knowledge than he really possesses. he should impress the workmen with the fact that he is dead in earnest, and that he fully intends to know all about it some day; but he should make no claim to omniscience, and should always be ready to acknowledge and correct an error if he makes one. this combination of determination and frankness establishes a sound and healthy relation between the management and men. there is no class of work which cannot be profitably submitted to time study, by dividing it into its time elements, except such operations as take place in the head of the worker; and the writer has even seen a time study made of the speed of an average and first-class boy in solving problems in mathematics. clerk work can well be submitted to time study, and a daily task assigned in work of this class which at first appears to be very miscellaneous in its character. one of the needs of modern management is that of literature on the subject of time study. the writer quotes as follows from his paper on "a piece rate system," written in : "practically the greatest need felt in an establishment wishing to start a rate-fixing department is the lack of data as to the proper rate of speed at which work should be done. there are hundreds of operations which are common to most large establishments, yet each concern studies the speed problem for itself, and days of labor are wasted in what should be settled once for all, and recorded in a form which is available to all manufacturers. "what is needed is a hand-book on the speed with which work can be done, similar to the elementary engineering handbooks. and the writer ventures to predict that such a book will before long be forthcoming. such a book should describe the best method of making, recording, tabulating, and indexing time observations, since much time and effort are wasted by the adoption of inferior methods." unfortunately this prediction has not yet been realized. the writer's chief object in inducing mr. thompson to undertake a scientific time study of the various building trades and to join him in a publication of this work was to demonstrate on a large scale not only the desirability of accurate time study, but the efficiency and superiority of the method of studying elementary units as outlined above. he trusts that his object may be realized and that the publication of this book may be followed by similar works on other trades and more particularly on the details of machine shop practice, in which he is especially interested. as a machine shop has been chosen to illustrate the application of such details of scientific management as time study, the planning department, functional foremanship, instruction cards, etc., the description would be far from complete without at least a brief reference to the methods employed in solving the time problem for machine tools. the study of this subject involved the solution of four important problems: first. the power required to cut different kinds of metals with tools of various shapes when using different depths of cut and coarseness of feed, and also the power required to feed the tool under varying conditions. second. an investigation of the laws governing the cutting of metals with tools, chiefly with the object of determining the effect upon the best cutting speed of each of the following variables: (a) the quality of tool steel and treatment of tools (i.e., in heating, forging, and tempering them). (b) the shape of tool (i.e., the curve or line of the cutting edge, the lip angle, and clearance angle) (c) the duration of cut or the length of time the tool is required to last before being re-ground. (d) the quality or hardness of the metal being cut (as to its effect on cutting speed). (e) the depth of the cut. (f) the thickness of the feed or shaving (g) the effect on cutting speed of using water or other cooling medium on the tool. third. the best methods of analyzing the driving and feeding power of machine tools and, after considering their limitations as to speeds and feeds, of deciding upon the proper counter-shaft or other general driving speeds. fourth. after the study of the first, second, and third problems had resulted in the discovery of certain clearly defined laws, which were expressed by mathematical formulae, the last and most difficult task of all lay in finding a means for solving the entire problem which should be so practical and simple as to enable an ordinary mechanic to answer quickly and accurately for each machine in the shop the question, "what driving speed, feed, and depth of cut will in each particular case do the work in the quickest time?" in , in the machine shop of the midvale steel company, the writer began a systematic study of the laws involved in the first and second problems above referred to by devoting the entire time of a large vertical boring mill to this work, with special arrangements for varying the drive so as to obtain any desired speed. the needed uniformity of the metal was obtained by using large locomotive tires of known chemical composition, physical properties and hardness, weighing from , to , pounds. for the greater part of the succeeding years these experiments were carried on, first at midvale and later in several other shops, under the general direction of the writer, by his friends and assistants, six machines having been at various times especially fitted up for this purpose. the exact determination of these laws and their reduction to formulae have proved a slow but most interesting problem; but by far the most difficult undertaking has been the development of the methods and finally the appliances (i.e., slide rules) for making practical use of these laws after they were discovered. in the writer succeeded in making a slow solution of this problem with the help of his friend, mr. geo. m. sinclair, by indicating the values of these variables through curves and laying down one set of curves over another. later my friend, mr. h. l. gantt, after devoting about / years exclusively to this work, obtained a much more rapid and simple solution. it was not, however, until , in the works of the bethlehem steel company, that mr. carl g. barth, with the assistance of mr. gantt and a small amount of help from the writer, succeeded in developing a slide rule by means of which the entire problem can be accurately and quickly solved by any mechanic. the difficulty from a mathematical standpoint of obtaining a rapid and accurate solution of this problem will be appreciated when it is remembered that twelve independent variables enter into each problem, and that a change in any of these will affect the answer. the instruction card can be put to wide and varied use. it is to the art of management what the drawing is to engineering, and, like the latter, should vary in size and form according to the amount and variety of the information which it is to convey. in some cases it should consist of a pencil memorandum on a small piece of paper which will be sent directly to the man requiring the instructions, while in others it will be in the form of several pages of typewritten matter, properly varnished and mounted, and issued under the check or other record system, so that it can be used time after time. a description of an instruction card of this kind may be useful. after the writer had become convinced of the economy of standard methods and appliances, and the desirability of relieving the men as far as possible from the necessity of doing the planning, while master mechanic at midvale, he tried to get his assistant to write a complete instruction card for overhauling and cleaning the boilers at regular periods, to be sure that the inspection was complete, and that while the work was thoroughly done, the boilers should be out of use as short a time as possible, and also to have the various elements of this work done on piece work instead of by the day. his assistant, not having undertaken work of this kind before, failed at it, and the writer was forced to do it himself. he did all of the work of chipping, cleaning, and overhauling a set of boilers and at the same time made a careful time study of each of the elements of the work. this time study showed that a great part of the time was lost owing to the constrained position of the workman. thick pads were made to fasten to the elbows, knees, and hips; special tools and appliances were made for the various details of the work; a complete list of the tools and implements was entered on the instruction card, each tool being stamped with its own number for identification, and all were issued from the tool room in a tool box so as to keep them together and save time. a separate piece work price was fixed for each of the elements of the job and a thorough inspection of each part of the work secured as it was completed. the instruction card for this work filled several typewritten pages, and described in detail the order in which the operations should be done and the exact details of each man's work, with the number of each tool required, piece work prices, etc. the whole scheme was much laughed at when it first went into use, but the trouble taken was fully justified, for the work was better done than ever before, and it cost only eleven dollars to completely overhaul a set of h.p. boilers by this method, while the average cost of doing the same work on day work without an instruction card was sixty-two dollars. regarding the personal relations which should be maintained between employers and their men, the writer quotes the following paragraphs from a paper written in . additional experience has only served to confirm and strengthen these views; and although the greater part of this time, in his work of shop organization, has been devoted to the difficult and delicate task of inducing workmen to change their ways of doing things he has never been opposed by a strike. "there has never been a strike by men working under this system, although it has been applied at the midvale steel works for the past ten years; and the steel business has proved during this period the most fruitful field for labor organizations and strikes. and this notwithstanding the fact that the midvale company has never prevented its men from joining any labor organization. all of the best men in the company saw clearly that the success of a labor organization meant the lowering of their wages in order that the inferior men might earn more, and, of course, could not be persuaded to join. "i attribute a great part of this success in avoiding strikes to the high wages which the best men were able to earn with the differential rates, and to the pleasant feeling fostered by this system; but this is by no means the whole cause. it has for years been the policy of that company to stimulate the personal ambition of every man in their employ by promoting them either in wages or position whenever they deserved it and the opportunity came. "a careful record has been kept of each man's good points as well as his shortcomings, and one of the principal duties of each foreman was to make this careful study of his men so that substantial justice could be done to each. when men throughout an establishment are paid varying rates of day-work wages according to their individual worth, some being above and some below the average, it cannot be for the interest of those receiving high pay to join a union with the cheap men. "no system of management, however good, should be applied in a wooden way. the proper personal relations should always be maintained between the employers and men; and even the prejudices of the workmen should be considered in dealing with them. "the employer who goes through his works with kid gloves on, and is never known to dirty his hands or clothes, and who either talks to his men in a condescending or patronizing way, or else not at all, has no chance whatever of ascertaining their real thoughts or feelings. "above all is it desirable that men should be talked to on their own level by those who are over them. each man should be encouraged to discuss any trouble which he may have, either in the works or outside, with those over him. men would far rather even be blamed by their bosses, especially if the 'tearing out' has a touch of human nature and feeling in it, than to be passed by day after day without a word, and with no more notice than if they were part of the machinery. "the opportunity which each man should have of airing his mind freely, and having it out with his employers, is a safety-valve; and if the superintendents are reasonable men, and listen to and treat with respect what their men have to say, there is absolutely no reason for labor unions and strikes. "it is not the large charities (however generous they may be) that are needed or appreciated by workmen so much as small acts of personal kindness and sympathy, which establish a bond of friendly feeling between them and their employers. "the moral effect of this system on the men is marked. the feeling that substantial justice is being done them renders them on the whole much more manly, straightforward, and truthful. they work more cheerfully, and are more obliging to one another and their employers. they are not soured, as under the old system, by brooding over the injustice done them; and their spare minutes are not spent to the same extent in criticizing their employers." the writer has a profound respect for the working men of this country. he is proud to say that he has as many firm friends among them as among his other friends who were born in a different class, and he believes that quite as many men of fine character and ability are to be found among the former as in the latter. being himself a college educated man, and having filled the various positions of foreman, master mechanic, chief draftsman, chief engineer, general superintendent, general manager, auditor, and head of the sales department, on the one hand, and on the other hand having been for several years a workman, as apprentice, laborer, machinist, and gang boss, his sympathies are equally divided between the two classes. he is firmly convinced that the best interests of workmen and their employers are the same; so that in his criticism of labor unions he feels that he is advocating the interests of both sides. the following paragraphs on this subject are quoted from the paper written in and above referred to: "the author is far from taking the view held by many manufacturers that labor unions are an almost unmitigated detriment to those who join them, as well as to employers and the general public. "the labor unions--particularly the trades unions of england--have rendered a great service, not only to their members, but to the world, in shortening the hours of labor and in modifying the hardships and improving the conditions of wage workers. "in the writer's judgment the system of treating with labor unions would seem to occupy a middle position among the various methods of adjusting the relations between employers and men. "when employers herd their men together in classes, pay all of each class the same wages, and offer none of them any inducements to work harder or do better than the average, the only remedy for the men lies in combination; and frequently the only possible answer to encroachments on the part of their employers is a strike. "this state of affairs is far from satisfactory to either employers or men, and the writer believes the system of regulating the wages and conditions of employment of whole classes of men by conference and agreement between the leaders of unions and manufacturers to be vastly inferior, both in its moral effect on the men and on the material interests of both parties, to the plan of stimulating each workman's ambition by paying him according to his individual worth, and without limiting him to the rate of work or pay of the average of his class." the amount of work which a man should do in a day, what constitutes proper pay for this work, and the maximum number of hours per day which a man should work, together form the most important elements which are discussed between workmen and their employers. the writer has attempted to show that these matters can be much better determined by the expert time student than by either the union or a board of directors, and he firmly believes that in the future scientific time study will establish standards which will be accepted as fair by both sides. there is no reason why labor unions should not be so constituted as to be a great help both to employers and men. unfortunately, as they now exist they are in many, if not most, cases a hindrance to the prosperity of both. the chief reasons for this would seem to be a failure on the part of the workmen to understand the broad principles which affect their best interests as well as those of their employers. it is undoubtedly true, however, that employers as a whole are not much better informed nor more interested in this matter than their workmen. one of the unfortunate features of labor unions as they now exist is that the members look upon the dues which they pay to the union, and the time that they devote to it, as an investment which should bring them an annual return, and they feel that unless they succeed in getting either an increase in wages or shorter hours every year or so, the money which they pay into the union is wasted. the leaders of the unions realize this and, particularly if they are paid for their services, are apt to spend considerable of their time scaring up grievances whether they exist or not this naturally fosters antagonism instead of friendship between the two sides. there are, of course, marked exceptions to this rule; that of the brotherhood of locomotive engineers being perhaps the most prominent. the most serious of the delusions and fallacies under which workmen, and particularly those in many of the unions, are suffering is that it is for their interest to limit the amount of work which a man should do in a day. there is no question that the greater the daily output of the average individual in a trade the greater will be the average wages earned in the trade, and that in the long run turning out a large amount of work each day will give them higher wages, steadier and more work, instead of throwing them out of work. the worst thing that a labor union can do for its members in the long run is to limit the amount of work which they allow each workman to do in a day. if their employers are in a competitive business, sooner or later those competitors whose workmen do not limit the output will take the trade away from them, and they will be thrown out of work. and in the meantime the small day's work which they have accustomed themselves to do demoralizes them, and instead of developing as men do when they use their strength and faculties to the utmost, and as men should do from year to year, they grow lazy, spend much of their time pitying themselves, and are less able to compete with other men. forbidding their members to do more than a given amount of work in a day has been the greatest mistake made by the english trades unions. the whole of that country is suffering more or less from this error now. their workmen are for this reason receiving lower wages than they might get, and in many cases the men, under the influence of this idea, have grown so slow that they would find it difficult to do a good day's work even if public opinion encouraged them in it. in forcing their members to work slowly they use certain cant phrases which sound most plausible until their real meaning is analyzed. they continually use the expression, "workmen should not be asked to do more than a fair day's work," which sounds right and just until we come to see how it is applied. the absurdity of its usual application would be apparent if we were to apply it to animals. suppose a contractor had in his stable a miscellaneous collection of draft animals, including small donkeys, ponies, light horses, carriage horses and fine dray horses, and a law were to be made that no animal in the stable should be allowed to do more than "a fair day's work" for a donkey. the injustice of such a law would be apparent to every one. the trades unions, almost without an exception, admit all of those in the trade to membership--providing they pay their dues. and the difference between the first-class men and the poor ones is quite as great as that between fine dray horses and donkeys. in the case of horses this difference is well known to every one; with men, however, it is not at all generally recognized. when a labor union, under the cloak of the expression "a fair day's work," refuses to allow a first-class man to do any more work than a slow or inferior workman can do, its action is quite as absurd as limiting the work of a fine dray horse to that of a donkey would be. promotion, high wages, and, in some cases, shorter hours of work are the legitimate ambitions of a workman, but any scheme which curtails the output should be recognized as a device for lowering wages in the long run. any limit to the maximum wages which men are allowed to earn in a trade is equally injurious to their best interests. the "minimum wage" is the least harmful of the rules which are generally adopted by trades unions, though it frequently works an injustice to the better workmen. for example, the writer has been used to having his machinists earn all the way from $ . to seven and eight dollars per day, according to the individual worth of the men. supposing a rule were made that no machinist should be paid less than $ . per day. it is evident that if an employer were forced to pay $ . per day to men who were only worth $ . or $ . , in order to compete he would be obliged to lower the wages of those who in the past were getting more than $ . , thus pulling down the better workers in order to raise up the poorer men. men are not born equal, and any attempt to make them so is contrary to nature's laws and will fail. some of the labor unions have succeeded in persuading the people in parts of this country that there is something sacred in the cause of union labor and that, in the interest of this cause, the union should receive moral support whether it is right in any particular case or not. union labor is sacred just so long as its acts are fair and good, and it is damnable just as soon as its acts are bad. its rights are precisely those of nonunion labor, neither greater nor less. the boycott, the use of force or intimidation, and the oppression of non-union workmen by labor unions are damnable; these acts of tyranny are thoroughly un-american and will not be tolerated by the american people. one of the most interesting and difficult problems connected with the art of management is how to persuade union men to do a full day's work if the union does not wish them to do it. i am glad of the opportunity of saying what i think on the matter, and of explaining somewhat in detail just how i should expect, in fact, how i have time after time induced union men to do a large day's work, quite as large as other men do. in dealing with union men certain general principles should never be lost sight of. these principles are the proper ones to apply to all men, but in dealing with union men their application becomes all the more imperative. first. one should be sure, beyond the smallest doubt, that what is demanded of the men is entirely just and can surely be accomplished. this certainty can only be reached by a minute and thorough time study. second. exact and detailed directions should be given to the workman telling him, not in a general way but specifying in every small particular, just what he is to do and how he is to do it. third. it is of the utmost importance in starting to make a change that the energies of the management should be centered upon one single workman, and that no further attempt at improvement should be made until entire success has been secured in this case. judgment should be used in selecting for a start work of such a character that the most clear cut and definite directions can be given regarding it, so that failure to carry out these directions will constitute direct disobedience of a single, straightforward order. fourth. in case the workman fails to carry out the order the management should be prepared to demonstrate that the work called for can be done by having some one connected with the management actually do it in the time called for. the mistake which is usually made in dealing with union men, lies in giving an order which affects a number of workmen at the same time and in laying stress upon the increase in the output which is demanded instead of emphasizing one by one the details which the workman is to carry out in order to attain the desired result. in the first case a clear issue is raised: say that the man must turn out fifty per cent more pieces than he has in the past, and therefore it will be assumed by most people that he must work fifty per cent harder. in this issue the union is more than likely to have the sympathy of the general public, and they can logically take it up and fight upon it. if, however, the workman is given a series of plain, simple, and reasonable orders, and is offered a premium for carrying them out, the union will have a much more difficult task in defending the man who disobeys them. to illustrate: if we take the case of a complicated piece of machine work which is being done on a lathe or other machine tool, and the workman is called upon (under the old type of management) to increase his output by twenty-five or fifty per cent there is opened a field of argument in which the assertion of the man, backed by the union, that the task is impossible or too hard, will have quite as much weight as that of the management. if, however, the management begins by analyzing in detail just how each section of the work should be done and then writes out complete instructions specifying the tools to be used in succession, the cone step on which the driving belt is to run, the depth of cut and the feed to be used, the exact manner in which the work is to be set in the machine, etc., and if before starting to make any change they have trained in as functional foremen several men who are particularly expert and well informed in their specialties, as, for instance, a speed boss, gang boss, and inspector; if you then place for example a speed boss alongside of that workman, with an instruction card clearly written out, stating what both the speed boss and the man whom he is instructing are to do, and that card says you are to use such and such a tool, put your driving belt on this cone, and use this feed on your machine, and if you do so you will get out the work in such and such a time, i can hardly conceive of a case in which a union could prevent the boss from ordering the man to put his driving belt just where he said and using just the feed that he said, and in doing that the workman can hardly fail to get the work out on time. no union would dare to say to the management of a works, you shall not run the machine with the belt on this or that cone step. they do not come down specifically in that way; they say, "you shall not work so fast," but they do not say, "you shall not use such and such a tool, or run with such a feed or at such a speed." however much they might like to do it, they do not dare to interfere specifically in this way. now, when your single man under the supervision of a speed boss, gang boss, etc., runs day after day at the given speed and feed, and gets work out in the time that the instruction card calls for, and when a premium is kept for him in the office for having done the work in the required time, you begin to have a moral suasion on that workman which is very powerful. at first he won't take the premium if it is contrary to the laws of his union, but as time goes on and it piles up and amounts to a big item, he will be apt to step into the office and ask for his premium, and before long your man will be a thorough convert to the new system. now, after one man has been persuaded, by means of the four functional foremen, etc., that he will earn more money under the new system than under the laws of the union, you can then take the next man, and so convert one after another right through your shop, and as time goes on public opinion will swing around more and more rapidly your way. i have a profound respect for the workmen of the united states; they are in the main sensible men--not all of them, of course, but they are just as sensible as are those on the side of the management there are some fools among them; so there are among the men who manage industrial plants. they are in many respects misguided men, and they require a great deal of information that they have not got. so do most managers. all that most workmen need to make them do what is right is a series of proper object lessons. when they are convinced that a system is offered them which will yield them larger returns than the union provides for, they will promptly acquiesce. the necessary object lessons can best be given by centering the efforts of the management upon one spot. the mistake that ninety-nine men out of a hundred make is that they have attempted to influence a large body of men at once instead of taking one man at a time. another important factor is the question of time. if any one expects large results in six months or a year in a very large works he is looking for the impossible. if any one expects to convert union men to a higher rate of production, coupled with high wages, in six months or a year, he is expecting next to an impossibility. but if he is patient enough to wait for two or three years, he can go among almost any set of workmen in the country and get results. some method of disciplining the men is unfortunately a necessary element of all systems of management. it is important that a consistent, carefully considered plan should be adopted for this as for all other details of the art. no system of discipline is at all complete which is not sufficiently broad to cover the great variety in the character and disposition of the various men to be found in a shop. there is a large class of men who require really no discipline in the ordinary acceptance of the term; men who are so sensitive, conscientious and desirous of doing just what is right that a suggestion, a few words of explanation, or at most a brotherly admonition is all that they require. in all cases, therefore, one should begin with every new man by talking to him in the most friendly way, and this should be repeated several times over until it is evident that mild treatment does not produce the desired effect. certain men are both thick-skinned and coarse-grained, and these individuals are apt to mistake a mild manner and a kindly way of saying things for timidity or weakness. with such men the severity both of words and manner should be gradually increased until either the desired result has been attained or the possibilities of the english language have been exhausted. up to this point all systems of discipline should be alike. there will be found in all shops, however, a certain number of men with whom talk, either mild or severe, will have little or no effect, unless it produces the conviction that something more tangible and disagreeable will come next. the question is what this something shall be. discharging the men is, of course, effective as far as that individual is concerned, and this is in all cases the last step; but it is desirable to have several remedies between talking and discharging more severe than the one and less drastic than the other. usually one or more of the following expedients are adopted for this purpose: first. lowering the man's wages. second. laying him off for a longer or shorter period of time. third. fining him. fourth. giving him a series of "bad marks," and when these sum up to more than a given number per week or month, applying one or the other of the first three remedies. the general objections to the first and second expedients is that for a large number of offenses they are too severe, so that the disciplinarian hesitates to apply them. the men find this out, and some of them will take advantage of this and keep much of the time close to the limit. in laying a man off, also, the employer is apt to suffer as much in many cases as the man, through having machinery lying idle or work delayed. the fourth remedy is also objectionable because some men will deliberately take close to their maximum of "bad marks." in the writer's experience, the fining system, if justly and properly applied, is more effective and much to be preferred to either of the others. he has applied this system of discipline in various works with uniform success over a long period of years, and so far as he knows, none of those who have tried it under his directions have abandoned it. the success of the fining system depends upon two elements: first. the impartiality, good judgment and justice with which it is applied. second. every cent of the fines imposed should in some form be returned to the workmen. if any part of the fines is retained by the company, it is next to impossible to keep the workmen from believing that at least a part of the motive in fining them is to make money out of them; and this thought works so much harm as to more than overbalance the good effects of the system. if, however, all of the fines are in some way promptly returned to the men, they recognize it as purely a system of discipline, and it is so direct, effective and uniformly just that the best men soon appreciate its value and approve of it quite as much as the company. in many cases the writer has first formed a mutual beneficial association among the employees, to which all of the men as well as the company contribute. an accident insurance association is much safer and less liable to be abused than a general sickness or life insurance association; so that, when practicable, an association of this sort should be formed and managed by the men. all of the fines can then be turned over each week to this association and so find their way directly back to the men. like all other elements, the fining system should not be plunged into head first. it should be worked up to gradually and with judgment, choosing at first only the most flagrant cases for fining and those offenses which affect the welfare of some of the other workmen. it will not be properly and most effectively applied until small offenses as well as great receive their appropriate fine. the writer has fined men from one cent to as high as sixty dollars per fine. it is most important that the fines should be applied absolutely impartially to all employees, high and low. the writer has invariably fined himself just as he would the men under him for all offenses committed. the fine is best applied in the form of a request to contribute a certain amount to the mutual beneficial association, with the understanding that unless this request is complied with the man will be discharged. in certain cases the fining system may not produce the desired result, so that coupled with it as an additional means of disciplining the men should be the first and second expedients of "lowering wages" and "laying the men off for a longer or shorter time" the writer does not at all depreciate the value of the many semi-philanthropic and paternal aids and improvements, such as comfortable lavatories, eating rooms, lecture halls, and free lectures, night schools, kindergartens, baseball and athletic grounds, village improvement societies, and mutual beneficial associations, unless done for advertising purposes. this kind of so-called welfare work all tends to improve and elevate the workmen and make life better worth living. viewed from the managers' standpoint they are valuable aids in making more intelligent and better workmen, and in promoting a kindly feeling among the men for their employers. they are, however, of distinctly secondary importance, and should never be allowed to engross the attention of the superintendent to the detriment of the more important and fundamental elements of management. they should come in all establishments, but they should come only after the great problem of work and wages has been permanently settled to the satisfaction of both parties. the solution of this problem will take more than the entire time of the management in the average case for several years. mr. patterson, of the national cash register company, of dayton, ohio, has presented to the world a grand object lesson of the combination of many philanthropic schemes with, in many respects, a practical and efficient management. he stands out a pioneer in this work and an example of a kindhearted and truly successful man. yet i feel that the recent strike in his works demonstrates all the more forcibly my contention that the establishment of the semi-philanthropic schemes should follow instead of preceding the solution of the wages question; unless, as is very rarely the case, there are brains, energy and money enough available in a company to establish both elements at the same time. unfortunately there is no school of management. there is no single establishment where a relatively large part of the details of management can be seen, which represent the best of their kinds. the finest developments are for the most part isolated, and in many cases almost buried with the mass of rubbish which surrounds them. among the many improvements for which the originators will probably never receive the credit which they deserve the following may be mentioned. the remarkable system for analyzing all of the work upon new machines as the drawings arrived from the drafting-room and of directing the movement and grouping of the various parts as they progressed through the shop, which was developed and used for several years by mr. wm. ii. thorne, of wm. sellers & co., of philadelphia, while the company was under the general management of mr. j. sellers bancroft. unfortunately the full benefit of this method was never realized owing to the lack of the other functional elements which should have accompanied it. and then the employment bureau which forms such an important element of the western electric company in chicago; the complete and effective system for managing the messenger boys introduced by mr. almon emrie while superintendent of the ingersoll sargent drill company, of easton, pa.; the mnemonic system of order numbers invented by mr. oberlin smith and amplified by mr. henry r. towne, of the yale & towne company, of stamford, conn.; and the system of inspection introduced by mr. chas. d. rogers in the works of the american screw company, at providence, r. i. and the many good points in the apprentice system developed by mr. vauclain, of the baldwin locomotive works, of philadelphia. the card system of shop returns invented and introduced as a complete system by captain henry metcalfe, u. s. a., in the government shops of the frankford arsenal represents another such distinct advance in the art of management. the writer appreciates the difficulty of this undertaking as he was at the same time engaged in the slow evolution of a similar system in the midvale steel works, which, however, was the result of a gradual development instead of a complete, well thought out invention as was that of captain metcalfe. the writer is indebted to most of these gentlemen and to many others, but most of all to the midvale steel company, for elements of the system which he has described. the rapid and successful application of the general principles involved in any system will depend largely upon the adoption of those details which have been found in actual service to be most useful. there are many such elements which the writer feels should be described in minute detail. it would, however, be improper to burden this record with matters of such comparatively small importance. [advertisement : david bridge & co., ltd.] [advertisement : chas. parker, sons & co.] [advertisement : fairbairn, lawson combe barbour, ltd.] [advertisement : robert hall & sons] [advertisement : a. f. craig & co., ltd.] [advertisement : urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd.] [advertisement : h. smethurst & sons, ltd.] [advertisement : white, milne & co.] [advertisement : thomas c. keay, ltd.] [advertisement : robert stiven & co.] the jute industry [advertisement : pitman's commodities and industries series (book list)] pitman's common commodities and industries series the jute industry from seed to finished cloth by t. woodhouse head of the weaving and designing department, dundee technical college and school of art formerly manager messrs. walton & co., linen manufacturers, bleachers and finishers, knaresborough. author of "the finishing of jute and linen fabrics," "healds and reeds for weaving: setts and porters," joint author of "jute and linen weaving mechanism," "textile design: pure and applied," "jute and jute spinning," "cordage and cordage hemp and fibres," "textile mathematics," "textile drawing," etc., and p. kilgour head of the spinning department, dundee technical college and school of art formerly manager belfast rope works. joint author of "jute and jute spinning," "cordage and cordage hemp and fibres," etc. [advertisement : george hattersley & sons, ltd.,] preface the sub-title of this little volume indicates that practically all the processes involved in the cultivation of jute plants, the extraction of the fibre, and the transformation of the fibre into useful commodities, have been considered. in addition, every important branch of this wide industry is liberally illustrated, and the description, although not severely technical, is sufficiently so to enable students, or those with no previous knowledge of the subject, to follow the operations intelligently, and to become more or less acquainted with the general routine of jute manufacture. as a matter of fact, the work forms a medium of study for textile students, and a suitable introduction to the more detailed literature by the authors on these textile subjects. t. woodhouse. p. kilgour. march, . [advertisement : j. m. adam & co.] contents chap. preface i. introductory ii. cultivation iii. retting iv. assorting and baling jute fibre. v. mill operations vi. batching vii. carding viii. drawing and drawing frames ix. the roving frame x. spinning xi. twisting and reeling. xii. winding: rolls and cops xiii. warping, beaming and dressing. xiv. tying-on, drawing-in and weaving xv. finishing index [advertisement : james f. low & co., ltd.] illustrations fig. . natives ploughing the ground . breaking up the soil or "laddering" . photomicrographs of cross-sections of a jute plant . natives carrying small bales of jute fibre from boat to press-house . natives bailing jute fibre in a watson-fawcett cyclone press . vessel laden with jute at quay-side adjoining jute seeds in dundee harbour . harbour porters removing bales of jute from vessel shown in fig. . bale opener (messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd.) . bale opener (messrs. charles parker, sons & co., ltd) . hand-batching department with unprepared and prepared fibre . softening machine without batching apparatus . batching apparatus . softening machine with batching apparatus . modern breaker card . finisher card with drawing head . waste teazer . push-bar drawing frame . roving frame . fairbairn's roving frame in work . an indian spinning flat . a line of spinning frames . bobbin winding machine (from hanks) . roll winder for large rolls . roll winding machine (from hanks) . cop winding machine (messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd.) . cop winding machine (messrs urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd.) . a row of modern warping mills. . power chain or warp linking machine . winding-on or dry beaming machine . a modern yarn--dressing machine with six steam-heated cylinders . dressing machine for preparing two warps simultaneously , six distinct kinds of typical jute fabrics . point-paper designs showing weaves for various cloths. . diagrammatic views of the structure of plain cloth . weaving shed with belt-driven looms. . looms driven with individual motors . bobby loom . brussels and wilton carpet loom . the old way . the new way . cropping machine at work . double cropping machine . damping machine . calender . hydraulic mangle . folding, lapping or pleating machine . crisping, creasing or rigging machine , semi-mechanical bag or sack cutting machine . overhead (laing) sack sewing machine. . sack printing machine. the jute industry from seed to finished cloth chapter i. introductory the five main fibres used for ordinary textile purposes are cotton, flax, jute, silk and wool; in this group jute has been considered in general as being of the least value, not only in regard to price, but also in regard to utility. it is only under phenomenal conditions which arise from a great upheaval such as that which took place during the world's great war from onwards that, from a commercial point of view, the extreme importance of the jute fibre and its products are fully realized. millions of sand bags were made from the year to the year solely for military purposes, while huge quantities of jute cloth were utilized as the covering material for food stuffs of various kinds, thus liberating the other textile fibres and cloth for equally important purposes. it is on record that in one short period of fourteen days, , , sand-bags were collected, packed and despatched from dundee to be used as protective elements in various ways and seats of conflict. a glance into the records of the textile industries will reveal the fact that the jute fibre was practically unknown in these islands a hundred years ago. unsuccessful attempts were certainly made to import the fibre into great britain in the latter part of the th century, and it has been used in india for centuries in the making of cord, twine and coarse fabrics, because the fibre is indigenous to that country. and since all the manufacturing methods there, for a considerable time were manual ones, the industry--if such it could be called--moved along slowly, providing employment only for the needs of a small section of the community on the eastern shores. the first small imports of jute fibre were due to the instigation of dr. roxburgh and the east india company, but it was only after repeated requests that any attempt was made to utilize the samples of jute for practical experiments the fibre was so unlike any of the existing staples that those interested in textiles were not anxious to experiment with it, but ultimately they were persuaded to do so; these persistent requests for trials, and the interest which was finally aroused, formed the nucleus of the existing important jute industry. apart from the above-mentioned efforts, the introduction of the jute fibre into great britain was delayed until , when the first small consignment reached dundee--now the western home of the jute industry. this quantity was imported into this country with the special object of having it treated by mechanical means, much in the same way as flax fibre was being treated. at this period dundee was a comparatively important textile centre in regard to the spinning and weaving of flax and hemp; it was, in consequence, only natural that the longer, but otherwise apparently similar and coarser, jute fibre should be submitted to the machinery in vogue for the preparation and spinning of flax and hemp. when we say similar, we mean in general appearance; it is now well-known that there is a considerable difference between jute fibre and those of hemp and flax, and hence the modifications in preparation which had ultimately to be introduced to enable the jute fibre to be successfully treated. these modifications shall be discussed at a later stage. it might be stated that while only cwt. of jute fibre was reported as being shipped from calcutta to this country in , the imports gradually increased as time passed on. the yarns which were made from the fibre were heavier or thicker than those in demand for the usual types of cloth, and it was desirable that other types of cloth should be introduced so that these yarns could be utilized. about the year , representatives of the dutch government placed comparatively large orders with the manufacturers for jute bags to be used for carrying the crop of coffee beans from their west indian possessions. the subsequent rapid growth of the industry, and the demand for newer types of cloth, are perhaps due more to the above fortunate experiment than to any other circumstance. by the year or season - , the british imports of jute fibre had increased to over , tons, and they reached , tons in the season - . attention meanwhile had been directed to the possibility of manufacturing jute goods by machinery in india--the seat of the cultivation and growth of the fibre. at least such a probability was anticipated, for in the year a small consignment of machinery was despatched to calcutta, and an attempt made to produce the gunny bags which were typical of the indian native industry. the great difference between the more or less unorganized hand labour and the essential organization of modern mills and factories soon became apparent, for in the first place it was difficult to induce the natives to remain inside the works during the period of training, and equally difficult to keep the trained operatives constantly employed. monetary affairs induced them to leave the mills and factories for their more usual mode of living in the country. in the face of these difficulties, however, the industry grew in india as well as in dundee. for several years before the war, the quantity of raw jute fibre brought to dundee and other british ports amounted to , tons. during the same period preceding the war, nearly , , tons were exported to various countries, while the indian annual consumption--due jointly to the home industry and the mills in the vicinity of calcutta--reached the same huge total of one million tons. the growth of the jute industry in several parts of the world, and consequently its gradually increasing importance in regard to the production of yarns and cloth for various purposes, enables it to be ranked as one of the important industries in the textile group, and one which may perhaps attain a much more important position in the near future amongst our national manufacturing processes. as a matter of fact, at the present time, huge extensions are contemplated and actually taking place in india. chapter ii. cultivation _botanical and physical features of the plant_. jute fibre is obtained from two varieties of plants which appear to differ only in the shape of the fruit or seed vessel. thus, the fruit of the variety _corchorus capsularis_ is enclosed in a capsule of approximately circular section, whereas the fruit of the variety _corchorus olitorius_ is contained in a pod. both belong to the order _tiliacea_, and are annuals cultivated mostly in bengal and assam. other varieties are recorded, e.g. the _corchorus japonicus_ of japan, and the _corchorus mompoxensis_ used in panama for making a kind of tea, while one variety of jute plant is referred to in the book of job as the jew's mallow; this variety _c. olitorius_, has been used in the east from time immemorial as a pot herb. the two main varieties _c. capsularis_ and _c. olilorius_ are cultivated in bengal for the production of fibre, while for seed purposes, large tracts of land are cultivated in assam, and the seeds exported for use principally in mymensingh and dacca. the above two varieties of the jute plant vary in height from to feet, and, in a normal season, reach maturity in about four months from the time of sowing. in some districts the stems of jute plants are sometimes rather dark in colour, but, in general, they are green or pink, and straight with a tendency to branch. the leaves are alternate on the stems, to inches in length, and about - / inches in breadth with serrated edges. pale yellow flowers spring from the axil (axilla) of the leaves, and there is an abundance of small seeds in the fruit which, as mentioned, is characteristic of the variety. while many attempts have been made to cultivate jute plants in various parts of the world, the results seem to indicate that the necessary conditions for the successful cultivation of them are completely fulfilled only in the bengal area, and the geographical position of this province is mainly responsible for these conditions. on referring to a map of india, it will be seen that bengal is directly north of the bay of that name, and is bounded on the north by the great himalayan mountains. during the winter period when the prevailing winds are from the north, large areas of the mountainous regions are covered with snow, but when the winds change and come from the south, and particularly during the warmer weather, the moist warm air raises the general temperature and also melts much of the snow on the mountain tracts. the rain and melted snow swell the two great rivers on the east and west of bengal--the patna and the brahmaputra--and the tremendous volume of water carries down decayed vegetable and animal matter which is ultimately spread on the flat areas of bengal as alluvial deposits, and thus provides an ideal layer of soil for the propagation of the jute plants. the cultivation of land for the growing of jute plants is most extensively conducted in the centres bordering on the courses of the rivers, and particularly in mymensingh, dacca, hooghly and pabna, and while per cent. of the fibre is produced in bengal, orissa and bihar, there is per cent. produced outside these areas. the _corchorus capsularis_ variety is usually cultivated in the higher and richer soils, while the _corchorus olitorius_ variety is most suited for the lower-lying alluvial soils, and to the districts where the rainfall is irregular; indeed, the _c. olitorius_ may be grown in certain other districts of india which appear quite unsuitable for the _c. capsularis_. the farming operations in india are rather simple when compared with the corresponding operations in this country; there is evidently not the same necessity for extensive working of the indian soil as there is for the heavier lands; another reason for the primitive eastern methods may be the absence of horses. the ploughs are made of wood and faced with iron. bullocks, in teams of two or more, are harnessed to the plough as shown in fig. where a field is being ploughed as a preliminary process in jute cultivation. the bullocks draw the plough in much the same way as horses do in this country. the operation of ploughing breaks up the soil, while the rough clods may be broken by hand mallets or by the use of the "hengha"--a piece of tree boll harnessed at the ends to a pair of bullocks. the breaking up of the land prepares it for the cleaning process which is performed by what are termed "ladders"; these ladders are made of a few bamboos fixed cross-wise and provided with projecting pins to scratch or open the soil, and to collect the roots of the previous crop; they are the equivalent of our harrows, and may be used repeatedly during the winter and spring seasons so that a fine tilth may be produced. when manure is essential, it is applied in the later ploughings, but other large areas have artificial or chemical manures added at similar stages in the process. farm-yard manure is preferred, but castor-cake and the water hyacinth--a weed--constitute good substitutes. after the soil has been satisfactorily prepared, the seed is sown by hand at the period which appears most suitable for the particular district. the usual sowing time is from february to the end of may, and even in june in some districts where late crops can be obtained. [illustration: fig. natives ploughing the ground] there are early and late varieties of the plants, and a carefully judged distribution of the varieties of seed over the districts for the growing period will not only yield a succession of crops for easy harvesting, but will also help the farmer in the selection of seeds for other areas where atmospheric conditions differ. it is a good practice, where possible, to sow the seed in two directions at right angles to each other, and thus secure as uniform a distribution as possible. the amount of seed used depends partly upon the district, and in general from lbs. to lbs. per acre are sown. the seed may cost about annas or more per ser (about lbs.). [illustration: fig. breaking up the soil, or "laddering"] plants should be specially cultivated for the production of seed in order to obtain the best results from these seeds for fibre plants. many of the ryots (farmers) use seed which has been collected from plants grown from inferior seed, or from odd and often poor plants; they also grow plants year after year on the same soil. the fibres obtained, as a rule, and as a result of this method of obtaining seeds, gradually deteriorate; much better results accrue when succession of crops and change of seed are carefully attended to. if the weather conditions are favourable, the seeds will germinate in to days, after which the plants grow rapidly. the heat and showers of rain combined soon form a crust on the soil which should be broken; this is done by means of another ladder provided with long pins, and fig. illustrates the operation in process. this second laddering process opens up the soil and allows the moisture and heat to enter. the young plants are now thinned, and the ground weeded periodically, until the plants reach a sufficient height or strength to prevent the words from spreading. the space between the growing plants will vary according to the region; if there is a tendency to slow growth, there is an abundance of plants; whereas, the thinning is most severe where the plants show prospects of growing thick and tall. in a normal season the plants will reach maturity in about / to months from the time of sowing. although different opinions are held as to the best time for harvesting, that when the fruits are setting appears to be most in favour; plants harvested at this stage usually yield a large quantity of good fibre which can be perfectly cleaned, and which is of good spinning quality. the plants are cut down by hand and with home-made knives; in general, these knives are of crude manufacture, but they appear to be quite suitable for the purpose. a field of jute plants ready for cutting will certainly form a delightful picture, but the prospect of the operation of cutting indicates a formidable piece of work since it requires about to tons of the green crop to produce about to cwt. of clean dry fibre. chapter iii. retting the method of separating the bast layer (in which the fibres are embedded) from the stem of the plant requires a large supply of water, since the plants must be completely submerged in the water for a period varying from to days; such time is dependent upon the period of the year and upon the district in which the operation is performed. the above operation of detaching the bast layer from the stem is technically known as "retting," and a good type of retting or steeping place is an off-set of a run, branch, or stream where the water moves slowly, or even remains at rest, during the time the plants are under treatment. the disintegration of the structural part of the plant is due to a bacterial action, and gas is given off during the operation. the farmer, or ryot, and his men know what progress the action is making by the presence of the air bells which rise to the surface; when the formation of air bells ceases, the men examine the plants daily to see that the operation does not go too far, otherwise the fibrous layer would be injured, and the resulting fibre weak. the stems are tested in these examinations to see if the fibrous layer, or bast layer, will strip off clean from the wood or stem. when the ryot considers that the layers are separated from the core sufficiently easy, the work of steeping ceases, and the process of stripping is commenced immediately. this latter process is conducted in various ways depending upon the practice in vogue in the district. in one area the men work amongst the water breaking up the woody structure of the retted plants by means of mallets and cross rails fixed to uprights in the water; others break the stems by hand; while in other cases the stems are handed out of the water to women who strip off the fibrous layer and preserve intact the central core or straw to be used ultimately for thatching. the strips of fibre are all cleaned and rubbed in the water to remove all the vegetable impurities, and finally the fibre is dried, usually by hanging it over poles and protecting it from the direct rays of the sun. if the water supply is deficient in the vicinity where the plants are grown, it may be advantageous to convey the fibrous layers to some other place provided with a better supply of water for the final washing and drying; imperfect retting and cleaning are apt to create defects in the fibre, and to cause considerable trouble or difficulties in subsequent branches of the industry. fig. illustrates photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant. the lower illustration represents approximately one quarter of a complete cross section. the central part of the stem or pith is lettered a; the next wide ring b is the woody matter; the outer covering or cuticle is marked c; while the actual fibrous layer appears between the parts b and c, and some of the fibres are indicated by d. the arrows show the corresponding parts in the three distinct views. the middle illustration shows an enlarged view of a small part of the lowest view, while the upper illustration is a further enlarged view of a small section of the middle view. it will be seen that each group of fibres is surrounded by vegetable matter. [illustration: fig. photomicrographs of cross sections of a jute plant] another method of stripping the fibrous layer off the stems or stalks, and one which is practised in certain districts with the object of preserving the straws, consists in breaking off a small portion, say one foot, at the top end of the stem; the operative then grasps the tops by the hand and shakes the plants to and fro in the water, thus loosening the parts, after which the straws float out, leaving the fibrous layer free. the straws are collected for future use, while the fibre is cleaned and washed in the usual way. chapter iv. assorting and baling jute fibre the indian raw jute trade is conducted under various conditions. the method of marketing may be of such a nature that the farmers in some districts may have to make a rough assortment of the fibre into a number of qualities or grades, and these grades are well known in the particular areas; on the other hand, the farmers may prefer to sell the total yield of fibre at an overhead price per maund. a maund is approximately equal to lbs., and this quantity forms a comparatively small bundle. in other cases, the fibre is made up into what is known as a "drum"; this is a hand-packed bale of from / to or / maunds; it is a very convenient size for transit in india. practically one half of the total jute crop, of to million bales of lbs. each, is used in india, and the remaining half is baled for export to the various parts of the world; a little over one million bales are exported annually to great britain, the bulk of this fibre comes to dundee. it is practically impossible for foreign purchasers to see the material at the assorting stations, but the standardized method of assorting and grading enables a purchaser to form a very good idea of the quality of the fibre, and its suitability or otherwise for special types of yarn and cloth. thus, a form of selecting and grading has been established on a basis that provides a very large amount of jute each year of a quality which is known as "a first mark." a mark, in general, in reference to fibre, is simply some symbol, name, letter, monogram or the like, or a combination of two or more, oft-times with reference to some colour, to distinguish the origin of the fibre, the baler, or the merchant. in normal years there is also a large quantity of fibre of a better quality than what is known as "first mark," and this better quality is termed "fine jute"; while there is yet a further lot, the quality of which is below these good ones. since there are hundreds of different marks which are of value only to those connected directly with the trade, it is unnecessary to dwell on the subject. the following list, however, shows quotations of various kinds, and is taken from the market report of the dundee advertiser of march, . the price of jute, like almost everything else, was at this date very high, so in order to make comparisons with the and normal prices, we introduce the prices for the corresponding grade, first marks, for the same month in the years onwards. jute prices, in march first marks year. price per ton. £. s. d. £. s. d. to (spot) it is necessary to state that the assorting and balings are generally so uniform that the trade can be conducted quite satisfactorily with the aid of the usual safeguards under contract, and guarantees regarding the properties of the fibre. after these assorting operations are completed, the jute fibre is made up into bundles or "bojahs" of lbs. each, and two of these lb. bundles are subsequently made up into a standard bale, the weight of which is lbs. this weight includes a permitted quantity of binding rope, up to lbs. in weight, while the dimensions in the baling press of the lb. bale are ' " x ' " x ' ". [illustration: fig. natives carrying small bales of jute fibre from boat to press house] large quantities of the smaller and loosely-packed bales are conveyed from the various places by boats to the baling houses or press houses as they are termed. these are very large establishments, and huge staffs of operatives are necessary to deal rapidly and efficiently with the large number of bales. in fig. scores of natives, superintended by a european, are seen carrying the smaller bales on their heads from the river boat to the press house. it is, of course, unnecessary to make the solid lb. bales for indian consumption; this practice is usually observed only for jute which is to be exported, and all such bales are weighed and measured at the baling station by a chamber of commerce expert. most of the baling presses used in the press houses in the calcutta district are made in liverpool, and are provided with the most efficient type of pumps and mechanical parts. fig. illustrates one of these huge presses with a number of natives in close proximity. two or three distinct operations are conducted simultaneously by different groups of operatives, and ingenious mechanism is essential for the successful prosecution of the work. two such presses as that illustrated in fig. are capable, under efficient administration, of turning out bales of lbs. each in one hour. the fibre is compressed into comparatively small bulk by hydraulic pressure equal to , lbs. per square inch, and no packed bale must exceed in cubical capacity cubic feet after it leaves the press; it is usual for freight purposes to reckon bales or cubic feet per ton. (now changed to cubic feet.) the jute bales are loaded either at the wharf or in the river from barges into large steamers, many of which carry from , to , bales in one cargo to the european ports. one vessel brought , bales. as already mentioned, jute is sold under guarantees as to quality, and all disputes must be settled by arbitration. although this is the usual method of sale, it is not uncommon for quantities of jute to be shipped unsold, and such quantities may be disposed of on the "spot." it is a common practice to sell a number of bales to sample, such number depending generally upon the extent of the quantity, or "parcel," as it is often called. the contract forms are very complete, and enable the business to be conducted to the satisfaction of all concerned in the trade. [illustration: fig. natives bailing jute fibre in a watson-fawcett cyclone press] it will be understood that, in the yearly production of such a large quantity of jute fibre from various districts, and obtained from plants which have been grown under variable climatic and agricultural conditions, in some cases the fibre will be of the finest type procurable, while in other cases it will be of a very indifferent type and unsuitable for use in the production of the ordinary classes of yarns and fabrics. on the other hand, it should be stated that there is such a wide range of goods manufactured, and additional varieties occasionally introduced, that it appears possible to utilize all the kinds of fibre in any year; indeed, it seems as if the available types of fibre each season create demands for a corresponding type of manufactured product. the crops produced will, obviously, vary in amount and value annually, but a few figures will help the reader to estimate in some degree the extent of the industry and its development in various parts of the world. exports of jute from india year. tons. bales. lbs/bale lbs/bale lbs/bale lbs/bale , lbs/bale lbs/bale lbs/bale [illustration: fig. vessel laden with jute at quay-side adjoining jute sheds in dundee harbour] jute production in india season. tons. bales ( lbs.). - . , , - . , , - . , , - . , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , - . , , , , a large vessel containing bales of jute is berthed on the quay-side adjoining the jute sheds in fig. . the bales are raised quickly from the hold by means of a hydraulic-engine, scarcely visible in fig. since it is at the far end of the vessel, but seen clearly in fig. . when the bales are raised sufficiently high, they are guided to the comparatively steep part of a chute from which they descend to the more horizontal part as exemplified in fig. . they are then removed by means of hand-carts as shown, taken into the shed, and piled or stored in some suitable arrangement with or without the aid of a crane. motor and other lorries are then used to convey the bales to the various mills where the first actual process in what is termed spinning takes place. it will be understood that the bales are stored in the spinner's own stores after having been delivered as stated. [illustration: fig. . harbour porters removing bales of jute from the vessel shown in fig. ] chapter v. mill operations _bale opening_. each spinner, as already indicated, stores his bales of jute of various "marks," i.e. qualities, in a convenient manner, and in a store or warehouse from which any required number of bales of each mark can be quickly removed to the preparing department of the mill. in the woollen industry, the term "blending" is used to indicate the mixing of different varieties of material (as well as different kinds of fibres) for the purpose of obtaining a mixture suitable for the preparing and spinning of a definite quality and colour of material. in much the same way, the term "batching" is used in the jute industry, although it will be seen shortly that a more extensive use is made of the word. a "batch," in its simplest definition, therefore indicates a number of bales which is suitable for subsequent handling in the batching department. this number may include , , or more bales of jute according to the amount of accommodation in the preparing department. all the above bales of a batch may be composed of the same standard quality of jute, although the marks may be different. it must be remembered that although the marks have a distinct reference to quality and colour, they actually represent some particular firm or firms of balers or merchants. at other times, the batch of to bales may be composed of different qualities of jute, the number of each kind depending partly upon the finished price of the yarn, partly upon the colour, and partly upon the spinning properties of the combination. it will be understood that the purpose for which the finished yarn is to be used will determine largely the choice of the bales for any particular batch. for example, to refer to a simple differentiation, the yarn which is to be used for the warp threads in the weaving of cloth must, in nearly every case, have properties which differ in some respects from the yarn which is to be used as weft for the same cloth. on the whole, it will be found advantageous, when the same grade of jute is required, to select a batch from different balers' marks so that throughout the various seasons an average quality may be produced. the same class of yarn is expected at all times of the year, but it is well known that the properties of any one mark may vary from time to time owing to the slight variations in the manipulation of the fibre at the farms, and to the variations of the weather during the time of growth, and during the season generally. a list of the bales for the batch is sent to the batching department, this list being known as a "batch-ticket." the bales are, of course, defined by their marks, and those mentioned on the batch-ticket must be rigidly adhered to for one particular class of yarn; if there is any chance of one kind running short, the condition should be notified in time so that a suitable mark may be selected to take its place without effecting any great change in the character or quality of the yarn. when the number and kind of bales have been selected and removed from the groups or parcels in the store or warehouse, they are conveyed to the batching department, and placed in a suitable position near the first machine in the series. it need hardly be mentioned that since the fibre, during the operation of baling, is subjected to such a high hydraulic pressure, the bale presents a very solid and hard appearance, see fig. , for the various so-called "heads" of fibre have been squeezed together and forced into a very small bulk. in such a state, the heads are quite unfitted for the actual batching operation; they require to be opened out somewhat so that the fibres will be more or less separated from each other. this operation is termed "opening" and the process is conducted in what is known as a "bale opener," one type of which is illustrated in fig. , and made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee. the various bales of the batch are arranged in a suitable manner near the feed side of the machine, on the left in the view, so that they can be handled to the best advantage. the bands or ropes, see fig. , are removed from the bale in order that the heads or large pieces of jute can be separated. if any irregularity in the selection of the heads from the different bales of the batch takes place in this first selection of the heads of jute, the faulty handling may affect subsequent operations in such a way that no chance of correcting the defect can occur; it should be noted at this stage that if there are slight variations of any kind in the fibres, it is advisable to make special efforts to obtain a good average mixture; as a matter of fact, it is wise to insist upon a judicious selection in every case. the usual variations are--the colour of the fibre, its strength, and the presence of certain impurities such as stick, root, bark or specks; if the pieces of jute, which are affected adversely by any of the above, are carefully mixed with the otherwise perfect fibre, most of the faults may disappear as the fibre proceeds on its way through the different machines. [illustration: fig. bale opener _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd_.] the layers of heads are often beaten with a heavy sledge hammer in hand batching, but for machine batching a bale opener is used, and this operation constitutes the preliminary opening. as already indicated, the heads of jute are fed into the machine from the left in fig. , each head being laid on a travelling feed cloth which carries the heads of jute successively between a pair of feed rollers from which they are delivered to two pairs of very deeply-fluted crushing rollers or breakers. the last pair of deep-fluted rollers is seen clearly on the right in the figure. these two pairs of heavy rollers crush and bend the compressed heads of jute and deliver them in a much softer condition to the delivery sheet on the right. the delivery sheet is an endless cloth which has a continuous motion, and thus the softened heads are carried to the extreme right, at which position they are taken from the sheet by the operatives. the upper rollers in the machine may rise in their bearings against the downward pressure of the volute springs on the bearings; this provision is essential because of the thick and thin places of the heads. a different type of bale opener, made by messrs. charles parker, sons, & co., dundee, and designed from the butchart patent is illustrated in fig. . it differs mainly from the machine illustrated in fig. in the shape of the crushing or opening rollers. it will be seen on referring to the illustration that there are three crushing rollers, one large central roller on the top and situated between two lower but smaller rollers. each roller has a series of knobs projecting from a number of parallel rings. the knobs are so arranged that they force themselves into the hard layers of jute, and, in addition to this action, the heads of jute have to bend partially round the larger roller as they are passing between the rollers. this double action naturally aids in opening up the material, and the machine, which is both novel and effective, gives excellent results in practice. the degree of pressure provided for the top roller may be varied to suit different conditions of heads of jute by the number of weights which are shown clearly in the highest part of the machine in the form of two sets of heavy discs. [illustration: fig. bale opener _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons, & co_.] the driving side, the feed cloth, and the delivery cloth in this machine are placed similarly to the corresponding parts of the machine illustrated in fig. , a machine which also gives good results in practice. in both cases the large heads are delivered in such a condition that the operatives can split them up into pieces of a suitable size quite freely. the men who bring in the bales from the store take up a position near the end of the delivery cloth; they remove the heads of jute as the latter approach the end of the table, and then pass them to the batchers, who split them. the most suitable size of pieces are - / to lbs. for a piece of feet to feet in length, but the size of the pieces is regulated somewhat by the system of feeding which is to be adopted at the breaker-card, as well as by the manager's opinion of what will give the best overall result. after the heads of jute have been split up into suitable smaller pieces, they are placed in any convenient position for the batcher or "striker-up" to deal with. if the reader could watch the above operation of separating the heads of jute into suitable sizes, it would perhaps be much easier to understand the process of unravelling an apparently matted and crossed mass of fibre. as the loosened head emerges from the bale-opener, figs. or , it is placed over the operative's arm with the ends of the head hanging, and by a sort of intuition acquired by great experience, she or he grips the correct amount of fibre between the fingers, and by a dexterous movement, and a simultaneous shake of the whole piece, the handful just comes clear of the bulk and in much less time than it takes to describe the operation. as the pieces are thus detached from the bulk, they are laid on stools or tables, or in stalls or carts, according to the method by means of which the necessary amount of oil and water is to be added for the essential process of lubrication; this lubrication enables the fibre to work freely in the various machines. chapter vi. batching _softening and softening machines_. two distinct courses are followed in the preparation of the jute fibre after it leaves the bale opener, and before it is carded by the breaker card. these courses are designated as-- . hand batching. . machine batching. in the former process, which is not largely practised, the pieces of jute are neatly doubled, while imparting a slight twist, to facilitate subsequent handling, and laid in layers in large carts which can be wheeled from place to place; if this method is not convenient, the pieces are doubled similarly and deposited in large stalls such as those illustrated in fig. . on the completion of each layer, or sometimes two layers, the necessary measured amount of oil is evenly sprayed by hand over the pieces from cans provided with suitable perforated outlets--usually long tubes. after the oil has been added, water, from a similar sprayer attached by tubing to a water tap, is added until the attendant has applied what he or she considers is the proper quantity. the ratio between a measured amount of oil and an unmeasured amount of water is thus somewhat varied, and for this reason the above method is not to be commended. a conscientious worker can, however, with judgment, introduce satisfactory proportions which are, of course, supplied by the person in charge. in fig. , the tank on the right is where the oil is stored, while the oil can, and the spray-pipe and tube for water, are shown near the second post or partition on the right. [illustration: fig. hand-batching department with unprepared and prepared fibre] the first stall--that next to the oil tank--in fig. is filled with the prepared pieces, and the contents are allowed to remain there for some time, say hours, in order that the material may be more or less uniformly lubricated or conditioned. at the end of this time, the pieces are ready to be conveyed to and fed into the softening machines where the fibres undergo a further process of bending and crushing. all softening machines for jute, or softeners as they are often called, are similar in construction, but the number of pairs of rollers varies according to circumstances and to the opinions of managers. thus, the softener illustrated in fig. , which, in the form shown, is intended to treat jute from the above-mentioned stalls, is made with , , or pairs of rollers or any other number which, minus , is a measure of . the sections are made in 's. the illustration shows only pairs. the first pair of rollers--that next to the feed sheet in the foreground of fig. --is provided with straight flutes as clearly shown. all the other rollers, however, are provided with oblique flutes, such flutes making a small angle with the horizontal. what is often considered as a standard softening machine contains pairs of fluted rollers besides the usual feed and delivery rollers. as mentioned above, this number is varied according to circumstances. the lubricated pieces of jute are fed on to the feed roller sheet, and hence undergo a considerable amount of bending in different ways before they emerge from the delivery rollers at the other end of the machine. [illustration: fig. softening machine without batching apparatus] machine batching is preferred by many firms because the application of oil and water, and the proportion of each, are much more uniform than they are by the above mentioned process of hand batching. on the other hand, there is no time for conditioning the fibre because the lubrication and the softening are proceeding simultaneously, although conditioning may proceed while the fibre remains in the cart after it has left the softener. the mechanical apparatus as made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee, for depositing the oil and water on the pieces or "stricks" of jute is illustrated in fig. . the actual lubricating equipment is situated on the top of the rectangular frame in the centre of the illustration. this frame is bolted to the side frames of the softening machine proper, say that shown in fig. . its exact position, with respect to its distance from the feed, is a matter of choice, but the liquid is often arranged to fall on to the material at any point between the second and twelfth rollers. in fig. the ends of rollers of the upper set are seen clearly, and these upper rollers are kept hard in contact with the stricks or pieces of jute by means of the powerful springs shown immediately above the roller bearings and partially enclosed in bell-jars. outside the rectangular frame in fig. are two rods, one vertical and the other inclined. the straight or vertical rod is attached by suitable levers and rods to the set-on handles at each end of the machine and to the valve of the water pipe near the top of the frame, while the upper end of the inclined or oblique rod is fulcrumed on a rod projecting from the frame. the lower or curved end of the oblique rod rests against the boss of one of the upper rollers. [illustration: fig. ] the water valve is opened and closed with the starting and stopping of the machine, but the oblique rod is moved only when irregular feeding takes place. thus, the upper rollers rise slightly against the pressure of the springs when thick stricks appear; hence, when a thick place passes under the roller which is in contact with the curved end of the oblique rod, the end moves slightly clockwise, and thus rotates the fulcrum rod; this results in an increased quantity of oil being liberated from the source of supply, and the mechanism is so arranged that the oil reaches the thick part of the strick. when the above-mentioned upper roller descends, due to a decrease in the thickness of the strick, the oblique rod and its fulcrum is moved slightly counter-clockwise, and less oil is liberated for the thin part of the strick. it will be understood that all makers of softening machines supply the automatic lubricating or batching apparatus when desired. a view of a softener at work appears in fig. . the bevel wheels at the end of the rollers are naturally covered as a protection against accidents. in many machines safety appliances are fitted at the feed end so that the machine may be automatically stopped if the operative is in danger. the batching apparatus for this machine is of a different kind from that illustrated in fig. ; moreover, it is placed nearer the feed rollers than the twelfth pair. the feed pipes for the oil and the water are shown coming from a high plane, and the supply is under the influence of chain gearing as shown on the right near the large driving belt from the drum on the shafting. the feed roller in this machine is a spirally fluted one, and the nature of the flutes is clearly emphasized in the view. the barrow of jute at the far end of the machine is built up from stricks which have passed through the machine, and these stricks are now ready for conditioning, and will be stored in a convenient position for future treatment. [illustration: fig. softening machine with batching apparatus] while the jute as assorted and baled for export from india is graded in such a way that it may be used for certain classes of yarn without any further selection or treatment, it may be possible to utilize the material to better advantage by a judicious selection and treatment after it has undergone the operation of batching. what are known as cuttings are often treated by a special machine known as a "root-opener." the jute cuttings are fed into the machines and the fibre rubbed between fixed and rotating pins in order to loosen the matted ends of stricks. foreign matter drops through the openings of a grid to the floor, and the fibre is delivered on to a table, or, if desired, on to the feed sheet of the softener. the root ends of stricks are sometimes treated by a special machine termed a root-comber with the object of loosening the comparatively hard end of the strick. a snipping machine or a teazer may also be used for somewhat similar purposes, and for opening out ropes and similar close textures. the cuttings may be partially loosened by means of blows from a heavy iron bar; boiling water is then poured on the fibre, and then the material is built up with room left for expansion, and allowed to remain in this condition for a few days. a certain quantity of this material may then be used along with other marks of jute to form a batch suitable for the intended yarn. a very common practice is to cut the hard root ends off by means of a large stationary knife. at other times, the thin ends of the stricks are also cut off by the same instrument. these two parts are severed when it is desired to utilize only the best part of the strick. the root ends are usually darker in colour than the remainder, and hence the above process is one of selection with the object of securing a yarn which will be uniform in colour and in strength. chapter vii. carding _breaker and finisher cards_. after the fibre from the softening machine has been conditioned for the desired time, it is ready for one of the most important processes in the cycle of jute manufacture; this process is termed carding, and is conducted in two distinct types of machines-- . the breaker card. . the finisher card. the functions of the two machines are almost identical; indeed, one might say that the work of carding should be looked upon as one continuous operation. the main difference between the two types of machines is in the method of feeding, and the degree of fineness or setting of the small tools or pins which perform the work. in both cases the action on the stricks of jute is equivalent to a combined combing and splitting movement, and the pins in the various rollers move relatively to each other so that while the pins of a slowly-moving roller allow the strick or stricks (because there are several side by side) to pass slowly and gradually from end to end, the pins of another but quickly-moving roller perform the splitting and the combing of the fibre. the pins of the slowly-moving roller hold, so to speak, the strick, while the pins of the quickly-moving roller comb out the fibres and split adhering parts asunder so as to make a comparatively fine division. the conditioned stricks from the softening machine are first arranged in some suitable receptacle and within easy reach of the operative at the back or feed side of the breaker card. a receptacle, very similar to that used at the breaker card, appears near the far end of the softening machine in fig. . a modern breaker card is illustrated in fig. . the feed or back of the card is on the extreme right, the delivery or front of the card on the extreme left, while the gear side of the card is facing the observer. the protecting cages were removed so that the wheels would be seen as clearly as possible. some of the stricks of fibre are seen distinctly on the feed side of the figure; they are accommodated, as mentioned, in a channel-shaped stand on the far side of the inclined feed sheet, or feed cloth, which leads up to and conveys the stricks into the grip of the feeding apparatus. this particular type is termed a "shell" feed because the upper contour of the guiding feed bracket is shaped somewhat like a shell. there is a gradually decreasing and suitably-sized gap between the upper part of the shell and the pins of the feed roller. the root ends of the pins in this roller lead, and the stricks of fibre are gripped between the pins and the shell, and simultaneously carried into the machine where they come into contact with the points of the pins in the rapidly-revolving large roller, termed a cylinder. the above-mentioned combing and splitting action takes place at this point as well as for a distance of, say, inches to inches below. the fibres which are separated at this stage are carried a little further round until they come into contact with the points of the pins in the above-mentioned slowly-moving roller, termed a "worker," and while the fibres are moving slowly forward under the restraining influence of the worker, they are further combed and split. a portion of the fibres is carried round by the pins of the worker from which such fibres are removed by the quicker moving pins of the second roller of the pair, termed a "stripper," and in turn these fibres are removed from the pins of the stripper by the much quicker moving pins of the cylinder. [illustration: fig. modern breaker card] the above operations conducted by the first pair of rollers (worker and stripper) in conjunction with the cylinder, are repeated by a second and similar pair of rollers (worker and stripper), and ultimately the thin sheet of combed and split fibres comes into contact with the pins of the doffer from which it is removed by the drawing and pressing rollers. the sheet of fibres finally emerges from these rollers into the broad and upper part of the conductor. this conductor, made mostly of tin and v-shaped, is shown clearly on the left of the machine in fig. . immediately the thin film or sheet of fibres enters the conductor, it is caused as a body gradually to contract in width and, of course, to increase in thickness, and is simultaneously guided and delivered to the delivery rollers, and from these to the sliver can, distinctly seen immediately below the delivery rollers. the sliver is seen emerging from the above rollers and entering the sliver can. the fibres in this machine are thus combed, split and drawn forward relatively to each other, in addition to being arranged more or less parallel to each other. the technical term "draft" is used to indicate the operation of causing the fibres to slip on each other, and in future we shall speak about this attenuation or drawing out of the fibres by this special term "draft." it will be evident that, since the sliver is delivered into the can at the rate of about yards per minute, this constant flow will soon provide a sufficient length of sliver to fill a sliver can, although the latter may hold approximately lbs. the machine must, of course, deliver its quota to enable succeeding machines to be kept in practically constant work. as a matter of fact, the machines are arranged in what are termed "systems," so that this desirable condition of a constant and sufficient feed to all may be satisfactorily fulfilled. the driving or pulley side of the breaker card is very similar to that shown in fig. which, however, actually represents the pulley side of one type of finisher card as made by messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd., arbroath. all finisher cards are fed by slivers which have been made as explained in connection with the breaker card, but there are two distinct methods of feeding the slivers, or rather of arranging the slivers at the feed side. in both cases, however, the full width of the card is fed by slivers laid side by side, with, however, a thin guide plate between each pair, and one at each extreme end. one very common method of feeding is to place or full sliver cans--which have been prepared at the breaker card--on the floor and to the right of the machine illustrated in fig. . the sliver from each can is then placed into the corresponding sliver guide, and thus the full width of the machine is occupied. the slivers are guided by the sliver guides on to an endless cloth or "feed sheet" which, in turn, conveys them continuously between the feed rollers. the feed apparatus in such machines is invariably of the roller type, and sometimes it involves what is known as a "porcupine" roller. it will be understood that the feeding of level slivers is a different problem from that which necessitates the feeding of comparatively uneven stricks. [illustration: by permission of messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd. fig. finisher card with drawing-head] the slivers travel horizontally with the feed-sheet and enter the machine at a height of about feet from the floor. they thus form, as it were, a sheet of fibrous material at the entrance, and this sheet of fibres comes in contact with the pins of the various pairs of rollers, the cylinder, and the doffer, in much the same way as already described in connection with the breaker card. there are, however, more pairs of rollers in the finisher card than there are in the breaker card, for while the latter is provided with two pairs of rollers, the former may be arranged with , , or even pairs of rollers ( workers and strippers). the number of pairs of rollers depends upon the degree of work required, and upon the opinions of the various managers. there are two distinct types of finisher cards, viz-- . half-circular finisher cards. . full-circular finisher cards. the machine illustrated in fig. is of the latter type, and such machines are so-called because the various pairs of rollers are so disposed around the cylinder that they occupy almost a complete circle, and the fibre under treatment must move from pair to pair to undergo the combing and splitting action before coming into contact with the doffer. there are five pairs of rollers in the machine in fig. , and all the rollers are securely boxed in, and the wheels fenced. the arrangement of the wheels on the gear side is very similar to that shown in connection with the breaker card in fig. , and therefore requires no further mention. outside the boxing comes the covers, shown clearly at the back of the machine in fig. , and adapted to be easily and quickly opened when it is desired to examine the rollers and other parts. the slivers, after having passed amongst the pins of the various rollers, and been subjected to the required degree of draft, are ultimately doffed as a thin film of fibres from the pins of the cylinder and pass between the drawing rollers to the conductor. the conductor of a finisher card is made in two widths, so that half the width of the film enters one section and the other half enters the other section. these two parallel sheets, split from one common sheet, traverse the two conductors and are ultimately delivered as two slivers about inches above the point or plane in which the or slivers entered, and on to what is termed a "sliver plate." the two slivers are then guided by horns projecting from the upper surface of the sliver plate, made to travel at right angles to the direction of delivery from the mouths of the conductors, and then united to pass as a single sliver between a pair of delivery rollers on the left of the feed and delivery side and finally into a sliver can. in special types of finishing cards, an extra piece of mechanism--termed a draw-head--is employed. the machine illustrated in fig. is provided with this extra mechanism which is supported by the small supplementary frame on the extreme right. this special mechanism is termed a "patent push bar drawing head," and the function which it performs will be described shortly; in the meantime it is sufficient to say that it is used only when the slivers from the finisher card require extra or special treatment. a very desirable condition in connection with the combination of a finisher card and a draw-head is that the two distinct parts should work in unison. in the machine under consideration, the feed and delivery rollers of the card stop simultaneously with the stoppage of the draw-head mechanism. one of the chief aims in spinning is that of producing a uniform thread; uniform not only in section, but in all other respects. a so-called level thread refers, in general, to a uniform diameter, but there are other equally, if not more, important phases connected with the full sense of the word uniform. it has already been stated that in the batching department various qualities of jute are mixed as judiciously as possible in order to obtain a satisfactory mixture. fibres of different grades and marks vary in strength, colour, cleanness, diameter, length and suppleness; it is of the utmost importance that these fibres of diverse qualities should be distributed as early as possible in the process so as to facilitate the subsequent operations. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. james f. low & co., ltd. _ fig. waste teazer] however skilfully the work of mixing the stricks is performed in the batching department, the degree of uniformity leaves something to be desired; further improvement is still desirable and indeed necessary. it need hardly be said, however, that the extent of the improvement, and the general final result, are influenced greatly by the care which is exercised in the preliminary processes. the very fact of uniting or slivers at the feed of the finisher card mixes or distinct lengths into another new length, and, in addition, separates in some measure the fibres of each individual sliver. it must not be taken for granted that the new length of sliver is identical with each of the individual lengths and ten or twelve times as bulky. a process of drafting takes place in the finisher card, so that the fibres which compose the combined or slivers shall be drawn out to a draft of to or even more; this means that for every yard of the group of slivers which passes into the machine there is drawn out a length of to yards or whatever the draft happens to be. the resulting sliver will therefore be approximately two-thirds the bulk of each of the original individual slivers. the actual ratio between them will obviously depend upon the actual draft which is imparted to the material by the relative velocities of the feed and delivery rollers. it is only natural to expect that a certain amount of the fibrous material will escape from the rollers; this forms what is known as card waste. and in all subsequent machines there is produced, in spite of all care, a percentage of the amount fed into the machine which is not delivered as perfect material. all this waste from various sources, e.g. thread waste, rove waste, card waste, ropes, dust-shaker waste, etc., is ultimately utilized to produce sliver for heavy sacking weft. the dust-shaker, as its name implies, separates the dust from the valuable fibrous material, and finally all the waste products are passed through a waste teazer such as that made by messrs. j. f. low & co., ltd., monifieth, and illustrated in fig. . the resulting mass is then re-carded, perhaps along with other more valuable material, and made into a sliver which is used, as stated above, in the production of a cheap and comparatively thick weft such as that used for sacking. chapter viii. drawing and drawing frames the operations of combing and splitting as performed in both the breaker and finisher card are obviously due to the circular movement of the pins since all these (with the single exception of those in the draw-head mechanism of certain finisher cards) are carried on the peripheries of rotating rollers. in the draw-head mechanism, the pins move, while in contact with the fibres, in a rectilinear or straight path. in the machines which fall to be discussed in this chapter, viz., the "drawing frames," the action of the pins on the slivers from the finisher card is also in a straight path; as a matter of fact, the draw-head of a finisher card is really a small drawing frame, as its name implies. moreover, each row or rather double row, of pins is carried separately by what is termed a "faller." the faller as a whole consists of three parts: . a long iron or steel rod with provision for being moved in a closed circuit. . pour or six brass plates, termed "gills" or "stocks," fixed to the rod. . a series of short pins (one row sometimes about / in. shorter than the second row), termed gill or hackle pins, and set perpendicularly in the above gills. the numbers of fallers used is determined partly by the particular method of operating the fallers, but mostly by the length of the fibre. the gill pins in the fallers are used to restrain the movements of the fibres between two important pairs of rollers. there are actually about four sets of rollers from front to back of a drawing frame; one set of three rollers constitute the "retaining" rollers; then comes the drawing roller and its large pressing roller; immediately after this pair is the "slicking" rollers, and the last pair is the delivery rollers. the delivery rollers of one type of drawing frame, called the "push-bar" drawing frame, and made by messsrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd., arbroath, are seen distinctly in fig. , and the can or cans into which the slivers are ultimately delivered are placed immediately below one or more sections of these rollers and in the foreground of the illustration. the large pressing rollers, which are in contact with the drawing roller, occupy the highest position in the machine and near the centre of same. between these rollers and the retaining rollers are situated the above-mentioned fallers with their complements of gill pins, forming, so to speak, a field of pins. each sliver, and there maybe from four to eight or more in a set, is led from its sliver can at the far side of the machine to the sliver guide and between the retaining rollers. immediately the slivers leave the retaining rollers they are penetrated by the gill pins of a faller which is rising from the lower part of its circuit to the upper and active position. each short length of slivers is penetrated by the pins of a rising faller, these coming up successively as the preceding one moves along at approximately the same surface speed as that of the retaining rollers. the sheet of pins and their fallers are thus continuously moving towards the drawing rollers and supporting the slivers at the same time. as each faller in succession approaches close to the drawing rollers, it is made to descend so that the pins may leave the fibres, and from this point the faller moves backwards towards the retaining roller until it reaches the other end ready to rise again in contact with the fibres and to repeat the cycle as just described. it will thus be seen that the upper set of fallers occupy the full stretch between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers, but there is always one faller leaving the upper set at the front and another joining the set at the back. [illustration: fig. push-bar drawing frame] the actual distance between the retaining rollers and the drawing rollers is determined by the length of the fibre, and must in all cases be a little greater than the longest fibre. this condition is necessary because the surface speed of the drawing roller is much greater than that of the retaining rollers; indeed, the difference between the surface speeds of the two pairs of rollers is the actual draft. between the retaining and drawing rollers the slivers are embedded in the gill pins of the fallers, and these move forward, as mentioned, to support the stretch of slivers and to carry the latter to the nip of the drawing rollers. immediately the forward ends of the fibres are nipped between the quickly-moving drawing rollers, the fibres affected slide on those which have not yet reached the drawing rollers, and, incidentally, help to parallelize the fibres. it will be clear that if any fibre happened to be in the grip of the two pairs of rollers having different surface speeds, such fibre would be snapped. it is to avoid this rupture of fibres that the distance between the two sets of rollers is greater than the longest fibres under treatment. the technical word for this distance is "reach." on emerging from the drawing rollers, the combed slivers pass between slicking rollers, and then approach the sliver plate which bridges the gap between the slicking rollers and the delivery rollers, and by means of which plate two or more individual slivers are diverted at right angles, first to join each other, and then again diverted at right angles to join another sliver which passes straight from the drawing rollers and over the sliver plate to the guide of the delivery rollers. it will thus be seen that a number of slivers, each having been drawn out according to the degree of draft, are ultimately joined to pass through a common sliver guide or conductor to the nip of the delivery rollers, and thence into a sliver can. the push-bar drawing illustrated in fig. , or some other of the same type, is often used as the first drawing frame in a set. with the exception of the driving pulleys, all the gear wheels are at the far end of the frame, and totally enclosed in dust-proof casing. the set-on handles, for moving the belt from the loose pulley to the fast pulley, or _vice versa_, are conveniently situated, as shown, and in a place which is calculated to offer the least obstruction to the operative. the machines are made with what are known as "two heads" or "three heads." it will be seen from the large pressing rollers that there are two pairs; hence the machine is a "two-head" drawing frame. the slivers from the first drawing frame are now subjected to a further process of doubling and drafting in a very similar machine termed the second drawing frame. the pins in the gills for this frame are rather finer and more closely set than those in the first drawing frame, but otherwise the active parts of the machines, and the operations conducted therein, are practically identical, and therefore need no further description. it should be mentioned, however, that there are different types of drawing frames, and their designation is invariably due to the particular manner in which the fallers are operated while traversing the closed circuit. the names of other drawing frames appear below. spiral or screw gill; open link chain; rotary; ring carrier circular. for the preparation of slivers for some classes of yarn it is considered desirable to extend the drawing and doubling operation in a third drawing frame; as a rule, however, two frames are considered sufficient for most classes of ordinary yarn. chapter ix. the roving frame the process of doubling ends with the last drawing frame, but there still remains a process by means of which the drafting of the slivers and the parallelization of the fibres are continued. and, in addition to these important functions, two other equally important operations are conducted simultaneously, viz., that of imparting to the drawn out sliver a slight twist to form what is known as a "rove" or roving, and that of winding the rove on to a large rove bobbin ready for the actual spinning frame. the machine in which this multiple process is performed is termed a "roving frame." such machines are made in various sizes, and with different types of faller mechanism, but each machine is provided for the manipulation of two rows of bobbins, and, of course, with two rows of spindles and flyers. these two rows of spindles, flyers, and rove bobbin supports are shown clearly in fig. , which represents a spiral roving frame made by messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd., arbroath. each circular bobbin support is provided with pins rising from the upper face of the disc, and these pins serve to enter holes in the flange of the bobbin and thus to drive the bobbin. the discs or bobbin supports are situated in holes in the "lifter rail" or "builder rail" or simply the "builder"; the vertical spindles pass through the centre of the discs, each spindle being provided with a "flyer," and finally a number of plates rest upon the tops of the spindles. [illustration: fig. roving frame _by permission of messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd_.] a roving machine at work is shown in fig. , and it will be seen that the twisted sliver or rove on emerging from the drawing rollers passes obliquely to the top of the spindle, through a guide eye, then between the channel-shaped bend at the upper part of the flyer, round the flyer arm, through an eye at the extreme end of either of the flyer arms, and finally on to the bobbin. each bobbin has its own sliver can (occasionally two), and the sliver passes from this can between the sides of the sliver guide, between the retaining rollers, then amongst the gill pins of the fallers and between the drawing (also the delivery) rollers. here the sliver terminates because the rotary action of the flyer imparts a little twist and causes the material to assume a somewhat circular sectional form. from this point, the path followed to the bobbin is that described above. as in all the preceding machines, the delivery speed of the sliver is constant and is represented by the surface speed of the periphery of the delivery rollers, this speed approximates to about yards per minute. the spindles and their flyers are also driven at a constant speed, because in all cases we have-- spindle speed = delivery x twist. there is thus a constant length of yarn to be wound on the rove bobbin per minute, and the speed of the bobbin, which is driven independently of the spindle and flyer, is constant for any one series of rove coils on the bobbin. the speed of the bobbin differs, however, for each complete layer of rove, simply because the effective diameter of the material on the bobbin changes with the beginning of each new layer. the eyes of the flyers always rotate in the same horizontal plane, and hence the rove always passes to the bobbins at the same height from any fixed point. the bobbins, however, are raised gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from the top of the bobbin to the bottom, and lowered gradually by the builder during the formation of each layer from bottom to top. in other words, the travel of the builder is represented by the distance between the inner faces of the flanges of the rove bobbin. [illustration: fig. roving frame fairbairn's roving frame in work] since every complete layer of rove is wound on the bobbin in virtue of the joint action of the spindle and flyer, the rotating bobbin, and the builder, each complete traverse of the latter increases the combined diameter of the rove and bobbin shaft by two diameters of the rove. it is therefore necessary to impart an intermittent and variable speed to the bobbin. the mechanism by means of which this desirable and necessary speed is given to the bobbin constitutes one of the most elegant groups of mechanical parts which obtains in textile machinery. some idea of the intricacy of the mechanism, as well as its value and importance to the industry, may be gathered from the fact that a considerable number of textile and mechanical experts struggled with the problem for years; indeed years elapsed before an efficient and suitable group of mechanical parts was evolved for performing the function. the above group of mechanical parts is known as "the differential motion," and the difficulties in constructing its suitable gearing arose from the fact that the speed of the rove passing on to the various diameters must be maintained throughout, and must coincide with the delivery of yarn from the rollers, so that the attenuated but slightly twisted sliver can be wound on to the bobbin without strain or stretch. the varying motion is regulated and obtained by a drive, either from friction plates or from cones, and the whole gear is interesting, instructive--and sometimes bewildering--two distinct motions, a constant one and a variable one, are conveyed to the bobbins from the driving shaft of the machine. the machine illustrated in fig. is of special design, and the whole train of gear, with the exception of a small train of wheels to the retaining roller, is placed at the pulley end--that nearest the observer. the gear wheels are, as shown, efficiently guarded, and provision is made to start or stop the machine from any position on both sides. the machine is adapted for building in. x in. bobbins, i.e. in. between the flanges and in. outside diameter, and provided with either or spindles, the illustration showing part of a machine and approximately spindles. the machines for rove (roving frames) are designated by the size of the bobbin upon which the rove is wound, e.g. in. x in. frame, and so on; this means that the flanges of the bobbin are in. apart and in. in diameter, and hence the traverse of the builder would be in. the in. x in. bobbin is the standard size for the ordinary run of yarns, but in. x - / in. bobbins are used for the roves from which finer yarns are spun. when the finished yarn appears in the form of rove (often termed spinning direct), as is the case for heavier sizes or thick yarns, in. x in. bobbins are largely used. provision is made on each roving frame for changing the size of rove so as to accommodate it for the subsequent process of spinning and according to the count of the required yarn; the parts involved in these changes are those which affect the draft gearing, the twist gearing, and the builder gearing in conjunction with the automatic index wheel which acts on the whole of the regulating motion. chapter x. spinning the final machine used in the conversion of rove to the size of yarn required is termed the spinning frame. the actual process of spinning is performed in this machine, and, although the whole routine of the conversion of fibre into yarn often goes under the name of spinning, it is obvious that a considerable number of processes are involved, and an immense amount of work has to be done before the actual process of spinning is attempted. the nomenclature is due to custom dating back to prehistoric times when the conversion of fibre to yarn was conducted by much simpler apparatus than it is at present; the established name to denote this conversion of fibre to yarn now refers only to one of a large number of important processes, each one of which is as important and necessary as the actual operation of spinning. a photographical reproduction of a large spinning flat in one of the indian jute mills appears in fig. , showing particularly the wide "pass" between two long rows of spinning frames, and the method adopted of driving all the frames from a long line shaft. spinning frames are usually double-sided, and each side may contain any practicable number of spindles; to spindles per side are common numbers. [illustration: fig . an indian spinning flat] the rove bobbins, several of which are clearly seen in fig. , are brought from the roving frame and placed on the iron pegs of a creel (often called a hake) near the top of the spinning frame-actually above all moving parts of the machine. each rove bobbin is free to rotate on its own peg as the rove from it is drawn downwards by the retaining rollers. the final drafting of the material takes place in this frame, and a considerable amount of twist is imparted to the drawn out material; the latter, now in the desired form and size of yarn, is wound simultaneously on to a suitable size and form of spinning bobbin. when the rove emerges from the retaining rollers it is passed over a "breast-plate," and then is entered into the wide part of the conductor; it then leaves by the narrow part of the conductor by means of which part the rove is guided to the nip of the drawing rollers, the rove is, of course, drafted or drawn out between the retaining and drawing rollers according to the draft required, and the fibrous material, now in thread size is placed in a slot of the "thread-plate," then round the top of the flyer, round one of the arms of the flyer, through the eye or palm at the end of the flyer arm and on to the spinning bobbin. the latter is raised and lowered as in the roving frame by a builder motion, so that the yarn may be distributed over the full range between the ends or flanges. each spindle is driven separately by means of a tape or band which passes partially round the driving cylinder and the driven whorl of the spindle, and a constant relation obtains between the delivery of the yarn and the speed of the spindle during the operation of spinning any fixed count or type of yarn. in this connection, the parts resemble those in the roving frame, but from this point the functions of the two frames differ. the yarn has certainly to be wound upon the bobbin and at the same rate as it is delivered from the drawing or delivery rollers, but in the spinning frame the bobbin, which rotates on the spindle, is not driven positively, as in the roving frame, by wheel gearing; each spinning bobbin is actually driven by the yarn being pulled round by the arm of the flyer and just sufficient resistance is offered by the pressure or tension of the "temper band" and weight. the temper band is simply a piece of leather or hemp twine to which is attached a weight, and the other end of the leather or twine is attached to the builder rail. [illustration: fig. a line of spinning frames] the front part of the builder rail is provided with grooves into one of which the temper-band is placed so that the band itself is in contact with a groove near the base of the bobbin flange. a varying amount of resistance or tension on the bobbin is required in virtue of the varying size of the partially-filled bobbin, and this is obtained by placing the temper-band successively in different groves in the builder so that it will embrace a gradually increasing arc of the spinning bobbin, and thus impart a heavier drag or tension. the spinning frames in fig. are arranged with the ends of the frame parallel to the pass, whereas the end frames in fig. are at right angles to the pass, and hence an excellent view of the chief parts is presented. the full rove bobbins are seen distinctly on the pegs of the creel in the upper part of the figure, and the rove yarns from these bobbins pass downwards, as already described, until they ultimately enter the eyes of the flyer arms to be directed to and wound upon the spinning bobbins. the flyers--at one time termed throstles--are clearly visible a little above the row of temper weights. the chief parts for raising the builder--cam lever, adjustable rod, chain and wheel--are illustrated at the end of the frame nearest the observer. chapter xi. twisting and reeling in regard to cloth manufacture, most yarns are utilized in the form they leave the spinning frame, that is, as single yarns. on the other hand, for certain branches of the trade, weaving included, it is necessary to take two, three, or more of these single yarns and to combine them by a process technically termed twisting, and sometimes "doubling" when two single yarns only are combined. although the commonest method, so far as weaving requirements go, is to twist two single yarns together to make a compound yarn, it is not uncommon to combine a much higher number, indeed, sixteen or more single yarns are often united for special purposes, but, when this number is exceeded, the operation comes under the heading of twines, ropes and the like. the twist or twine thus formed will have the number of yarns regulated by the levelness and strength required for the finished product. the same operation is conducted in the making of strands for cordage, but when a number of these twines are laid-up or twisted together, the name cord or rope is used to distinguish them.[ ] [footnote : see _cordage and cordage hemp and fibres_, by t. woodhouse and p. kilgour.] when two or three threads are united by twisting, the operation can be conducted in a twisting frame which differs little from a ordinary spinning frame, and hence need not be described. there may be, however, appliances embodying some system of automatic stop motion to bring the individual spindles to rest if one thread out of any group which are being combined happens to break. when several threads have to be twisted together, special types of twisting frames are employed; these special machines are termed "tube twisters," and the individual threads pass through holes suitably placed in a plate or disc before they reach the tube. more or less elaborate methods of combining yarns are occasionally adopted, but the reader is advised to consult the above-mentioned work on cordage and similar literature for detailed information. when the yarn leaves the spinning frame, or the twisting frame, it is made up according to requirements, and the general operations which follow spinning and twisting are,--reeling, cop-winding, roll or spool winding, mill warping or link warping. the type or class of yarn, the purpose for which the yarn is to be used, or the equipment of the manufacturer, determines which of these methods should be used previous to despatching the yarn. _reeling_. reeling is a comparatively simple operation, consisting solely of winding the yarns from the spinning or twisting bobbins on to a wide swift or reel of a suitable width and of a fixed diameter, or rather circumference. indeed, the circumference of the reel was fixed by an act of convention of estates, dating as far back as and as under: "that no linen yarn be exported under the pain of confiscation, half to the king and half to the attacher." "that linen yarn be sold by weight and that no reel be shorter than _ten quarters_." the same size of reel has been adopted for all jute yarns. all such yarns which are to be dyed, bleached, or otherwise treated must be reeled in order that the liquor may easily penetrate the threads which are obviously in a loose state. there are systems of dyeing and bleaching yarns in cop, roll or beam form, but these are not employed much in the jute industry. large quantities of jute yarns intended for export are reeled, partly because bundles form suitable bales for transport, and partly because of the varied operations and sizes of apparatus which obtain in foreign countries. yarn table for jute yarns inches, or - / yards = thread, or the circumference of the reel threads or yards = cut (or lea) cuts or yards = heer cuts or , yards = standard hank cuts or , yards = spyndle since jute yarns are comparatively thick, it is only the very finest yarns which contain cuts per hank. the bulk of the yarn is made up into -cut hanks. if the yarn should be extra thick, even cuts are too many to be combined, and one finds groups of cuts, cuts, cuts, and even cut. a convenient name for any group less than cuts is a "mill-hank," because the number used is simply one of convenience to enable the mill-hank to be satisfactorily placed on the swift in the winding frame. the reeling operation is useful in that it enables one to measure the length of the yarn; indeed, the operation of reeling, or forming the yarn into cuts and hanks, has always been used as the method of designating the count, grist or number of the yarn. we have already seen that the count of jute yarn is determined by the weight in lbs. of one spyndle ( , yds.). for lb. per spyndle yarn, and for other yarns of about the same count, it is usual to have provision for spinning bobbins on the reel. as the reel rotates, the yarn from these bobbins is wound round, say, in. apart, and when the reel has made revolutions, or threads at each place from each bobbin, there will be separate cuts of yarn on the reel. when threads have been reeled as mentioned, a bell rings to warn the attendant that the cuts are complete; the reel is then stopped, and a "lease-band" is tied round each group of threads. a guide rod moves the thread guide laterally and slowly as the reeling operation is proceeding so that each thread or round may be in close proximity to its neighbour without riding on it, and this movement of the thread extends to approximately in., to accommodate the cuts which are to form the mill-hank. each time the reel has made revolutions and the bell rings, the reeler ties up the several cuts in the width, so that when the mill-hank is complete, each individual cut will be distinct. in some case, the two threads of the lease-band instead of being tied, are simply crossed and recrossed at each cut, without of course breaking the yarn which is being reeled, although effectively separating the cuts. at the end of the operation (when the quantity of cuts for the mill-hank has been reeled) the ends of the lease-band are tied. the object of the lease-band is for facilitating the operation of winding, and for enabling the length to be checked with approximate correctness. when the reel has been filled with, say, twenty-four -cut hanks, there will evidently be spyndles of yarn on the reel. the mill-hanks are then slipped off the end of the reel, and the hanks taken to the bundling stool or frame. here they, along with others of the same count, are made up into bundles which weigh from lb. to lb. according to the count of the yarn. each bundle contains a number of complete hanks, and it is unusual to split a hank for the purpose of maintaining an absolutely standard weight bundle. indeed, the bundles contain an even number of hanks, so that while there would be exactly lb. per bundle of lb. yarn, or lb. yarn, there would be lb in a bundle of - / lb. yarn, and lb. in a bundle of lb. yarn. the chief point in reeling is to ensure that the correct number of threads is in each cut, i.e. to obtain a "correct tell"; this ideal condition may be impracticable in actual work, but it is wise to approach it as closely as possible. careless workers allow the reel to run on after one or more spinning bobbins are empty, and this yields what is known as "short tell." it is not uncommon to introduce a bell wheel with, say, or teeth, instead of the nominal teeth, to compensate for this defect in reeling. chapter xii. winding: rolls and cops the actual spinning and twisting operations being thus completed, the yarns are ready to be combined either for more elaborate types of twist, or for the processes of cloth manufacture. in its simplest definition, a fabric consists of two series of threads interlaced in such way as to form a more or less solid and compact structure. the two series of threads which are interlaced receive the technical terms of warp and weft--in poetical language, warp and woof. the threads which form the length of the cloth constitute the warp, while the transverse threads are the weft. the warp threads have ultimately to be wound or "beamed" on to a large roller, termed a weaver's beam, while the weft yarn has to be prepared in suitable shape for the shuttle. these two distinct conditions necessitate two general types of winding: (_a_) spool winding or bobbin winding for the warp yarns. (_b_) cop winding or pirn winding for the weft yarns. for the jute trade, the bulk of the warp yarn is wound from the spinning bobbin on to large rolls or spools which contain from to lb. of yarn; the weft is wound from the spinning bobbin into cops which weigh approximately to ounces. originally all jute yarns for warp were wound on to flanged bobbins very similar to, but larger than, those which are at present used for the linen trade. the advent of the roll-winding machine marked a great advance in the method of winding warp yarns as compared with the bobbin winding method; indeed, in the jute trade, the latter are used only for winding from hank those yarns which have been bleached, dyed or similarly treated. fig. illustrates one of the modern bobbin winding machines for jute made by messrs. charles parker, sons & co., dundee. the finished product is illustrated by two full bobbins on the stand and close to a single empty bobbin. there are also two full bobbins in the winding position, and several hanks of yarn on the swifts. each bobbin is driven by means of two discs, and since the drive is by surface contact between the discs and the bobbin, an almost constant speed is imparted to the yarn throughout the process. an automatic stop motion is provided for each bobbin; this apparatus lifts the bobbin clear of the discs when the bobbin is filled as exemplified in the illustration. the distance between the flanges of the bobbin is, obviously, a fixed one in any one machine, and the diameter over the yarn is limited. on the other hand, rolls may be made of varying widths and any suitable diameter. and while a bobbin holds about lb. of yarn, a common size of roll weighs, as already stated, from to lb. such a roll measures, about in. long and in. diameter; hence for lb. yarn, the roll capacity is , yards. rolls very much larger than the above are made on special machines adopted to wind about six rolls as shown in fig. . it is built specially for winding heavy or thick yarns into rolls of in. diameter and in. length, and this particular machine is used mostly by rope makers and carpet manufacturers. one roll only is shown in the illustration, and it is winding the material from a in. x in. rove bobbin. the rove is drawn forward by surface or frictional contact between the roll itself and a rapidly rotating drum. the yarn guide is moved rapidly from side to side by means of the grooved cam on the left, the upright lever fulcrumed near the floor, and the horizontal rod which passes in front of the rolls and upon which are fixed the actual yarn guides. this rapid traverse, combined with the rotation of the rolls, enables the yarn to be securely built upon a paper or wooden tube; no flanges are required, and hence the initial cost as well as the upkeep of the foundations for rolls is much below that for bobbins. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co_. fig. bobbin winding machine with hanks] precisely the same principles are adopted for winding the ordinary in. x in. or in. x in. rolls for the warping and dressing departments. these rolls are made direct from the yarn on spinning bobbins, but the machines are usually double-sided, each side having two tiers; a common number of spools for one machine is . the double tier on each side is practicable because of the small space required for the spinning bobbins. when, however, rolls are wound from hank, as is illustrated in fig. , and as practised in several foreign countries even for grey yarn, one row only at each side is possible. both types are made by each machine maker, the one illustrated in fig. being the product of messrs. charles parker, sons & co., dundee. in all cases, the yarns are built upon tubes as mentioned, the wooden ones weighing only a few ounces and being practically indestructible, besides being very convenient for transit; indeed it looks highly probable that the use of these articles will still further reduce the amount of yarn exported in bundle form. [illustration: fig. roll winder for large rolls _by permission of messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd_.] the machine illustrated in fig. , as well as those by other makers, is very compact, easily adjustable to wind different sizes of rolls, can be run at a high speed, and possesses automatic stop motions, one for each roll. a full roll and a partially-filled roll are clearly seen. a recent improvement in the shape of a new yarn drag device, and an automatic stop when the yarn breaks or the yarn on the bobbin is exhausted, has just been introduced on to the combe-barbour frame. [illustration: fig. roll winding machine (from hanks) _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co_.] weft winding. a few firms wind jute weft yarn from the spinning bobbins on to pirns (wooden centres). the great majority of manufacturers, however, use cops for the loom shuttles. the cops are almost invariably wound direct from the spinning bobbins, the exception being coloured yarn which is wound from hank. there are different types of machines used for cop winding, but in every case the yarn is wound upon a bare spindle, and the yarn guide has a rapid traverse in order to obtain the well-known cross-wind so necessary for making a stable cop. the disposition of the cops in the winding operation is vertical, but while in some machines the tapered nose of the cop is in the high position and the spinning bobbin from which the yarn is being drawn is in the low position, in other machines these conditions are opposite. thus, in the cop winding frame made by messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd., arbroath, and illustrated in fig. , the spinning bobbins are below the cops, the tapered noses of the latter are upwards in their cones or shapers, and the yarn guides are near the top of the machine. this view shows about three-fourths of the full width of a -spindle machine, spindles on each side, two practically full-length cops and one partially built. the illustration in fig. is the above-mentioned opposite type, and the one most generally adopted, with the spinning bobbins as shown near the top of the frame, the yarn guides in the low position, and the point or tapered nose of the cop pointing downwards. six spindles only appear in this view, which represents the machine made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee, but it will be understood that all machines are made as long as desired within practicable and economic limits. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. douglas fraser & sons, ltd_. fig. cop winding machine] the spindles of cop machines are gear driven as shown clearly in fig. ; the large skew bevel wheels are keyed to the main shaft, while the small skew bevel wheels are loose on their respective spindles. the upper face of each small skew bevel wheel forms one part of a clutch; the other part of the clutch is slidably mounted on the spindle. when the two parts of the clutch are separated, as they are when the yarn breaks or runs slack, when it is exhausted, or when the cop reaches a predetermined length, the spindle stops; but when the two parts of the clutch are in contact, the small skew bevel wheel drives the clutch, the latter rotates the spindle, and the spindle in turn draws forward the yarn from the bobbin, and in conjunction with the rapidly moving yarn guide and the inner surface of the cone imparts in rapid succession new layers on the nose of the cop, and thus the formed layers of the latter increase the length proportionately to the amount of yarn drawn on, and the partially completed cop moves slowly away from its cup or cone until the desired length is obtained when the spindle is automatically stopped and the winding for that particular spindle ceases. cops may be made of any length and any suitable diameter; a common size for jute shuttle is in. long, and - / in. diameter, and the angle formed by the two sides of the cone is approximately degrees. [illustration: fig cop winding machine _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd_.] chapter xiii. warping, beaming and dressing there are a few distinct methods of preparing warp threads on the weaver's beam. stated briefly, the chief methods are-- . the warp is made in the form of a chain on a warping mill, and when the completed chain is removed from the mill it is transferred on to the weaver's beam. . the warp is made in the form of a chain on a linking machine, and then beamed on to a weaver's beam. . the warp yarns are wound or beamed direct from the large cylindrical "rolls" or "spools" on to a weaver's beam. . the warp yarns are starched, dried and beamed simultaneously on to a weaver's beam. the last method is the most extensively adapted; but we shall describe the four processes briefly, and in the order mentioned. for mill warping, as in no. method, from to full spinning bobbins are placed in the bank or creel as illustrated to the right of each large circular warping mill in fig. . the ends of the threads from these bobbins are drawn through the eyes of two leaves of the "heck," and all the ends tied together. the heck, or apparatus for forming what is known as the weaver's lease, drawer's lease, or thread-by-thread lease, is shown clearly between the bobbin bank and the female warper in the foreground of the illustration. the heck is suspended by means of cords, or chains, and so ranged that when the warping mill is rotated in one direction the heck is lowered gradually between suitable slides, while when the mill is rotated in the opposite direction the heck is raised gradually between the same slides. these movements are necessary in order that the threads from the bobbins may be arranged spirally round the mill and as illustrated clearly on all the mills in the figure. the particular method of arranging the ropes, or the gearing if chains are used, determines the distance between each pair of spirals; a common distance is about - / in. there are about spirals or rounds on the nearest mill in fig. , and this number multiplied by the circumference of the mill represents the length of the warp. [illustration: fig. a row of modern warping mills] at the commencement, the heck is at the top, and when the weaver's lease has been formed on the three pins near the top of the mill with the to threads (often ), the mill is rotated by means of the handle and its connections shown near the bottom of the mill. as the mill rotates, the heck with the threads descends gradually and thus the group of threads is disposed spirally on the vertical spokes of the mill until the desired length of the warp is reached. a beamer's lease or "pin lease" is now made on the two lower pegs; there may be two, three, four or more threads in each group of the pin lease; a common number is to . when this pin lease has been formed, one section of the warp has been made, the proportion finished being ( to )/x where x is the total number of threads required for the cloth. the same kind of lease must again be made on the same two pins at the bottom for the beginning of the next section of to threads, and the mill rotated in the opposite direction in order to draw up the heck, and to cause the second group of to threads to be arranged spirally and in close touch with the threads of the first group. when the heck reaches the top of the mill, the single-thread lease is again made, all the threads passed round the end pin, and then all is ready for repeating the same two operations until the requisite number of threads has been introduced on to the mill. if it is impossible to accommodate all the threads for the cloth on the mill, the warp is made in two or more parts or chains. it will be noticed that the heck for the nearest mill is opposite about the th round of threads from the bobbin, whereas the heck for the second mill is about the same distance from the top. a completed warp or chain is being bundled up opposite the third mill. when the warp is completed it is pulled off the mill and simultaneously linked into a chain. a very similar kind of warp can be made more quickly, and often better, on what is termed the linking machine mentioned in no. method. such a machine is illustrated in fig. , and the full equipment demands the following four distinct kinds of apparatus--a bank capable of holding approximately spools, a frame for forming the weaver's lease and the beamer's lease, machine for drawing the threads from the spools in the bank and for measuring the length and marking the warp at predetermined intervals, and finally the actual machine which links the group of threads in the form of a chain. in fig. part of the large bank, with a few rows of spools, is shown in the extreme background. the two sets of threads, from the two wings of the bank, are seen distinctly, and the machine or frame immediately in front of the bank is where the two kinds of lease are made when desired, i.e. at the beginning and at the end of the warp. between this leasing frame and the linking machine proper, shown in the foreground, is the drawing, measuring and marking machine. only part of this machine is seen--the driving pulleys and part of the frame adjoining them. all these frames and machines are necessary, but the movements embodied in them, or the functions which they perform, are really subsidiary to those of the linker shown in the foreground of fig. . [illustration: fig. power chain of warp linking machine] although the linking machine is composed of only a few parts, it is a highly-ingenious combination of mechanical parts; these parts convert the straight running group of threads into a linked chain, and the latter is shown distinctly descending from the chute on to the floor in the figure. precisely the same kind of link is made by the hand wrappers when the warps indicated in fig. are being withdrawn from the mills. two completed chains are shown tied up in fig. , and a stock of rolls or spools appear against the wall near the bank. the completed chain from the warping mill or the linking machine is now taken to the beaming frame, and after the threads, or rather the small groups of threads, in the pin lease have been disposed in a kind of coarse comb or reed, termed an veneer or radial, and arranged to occupy the desired width in the veneer, they are attached in some suitable way to the weaver's beam. the chain is held taut, and weights applied to the presser on the beam while the latter is rotated. in this way a solid compact beam of yarn is obtained. the end of the warp--that one that goes on to the beam last--contains the weaver's lease, and when the completed beam is removed from the beaming or winding-on frame, this single-thread lease enables the next operative to select the threads individually and to draw the threads, usually single, but sometimes in pairs, in which case the lease would be in pairs, through the eyes of the camas or healds, or to select them for the purpose of tying them to the ends of the warp in the loom, that is to the "thrum" of a cloth which has been completed. instead of first making a warp or chain on the warping mill, or on the linking machine, and then beaming such warp on to the weaver's beam or loom beam as already described, two otherwise distinct processes of warping and beaming may be conducted simultaneously. thus, the total number of threads required for the manufacture of any particular kind of cloth--unless the number of threads happens to be very high--may be wound on to the loom beam direct from the spools. say, for example, a warp was required to be yards long, and that there should be threads in all. five hundred spools of warp yarn would be placed in the two wings of a v-shaped bank, and the threads from these spools taken in regular order, and threaded through the splits or openings of a reed which is placed in a suitable position in regard to the winding-on mechanism. some of the machines which perform the winding-on of the yarn are comparatively simple, while others are more or less complicated. in some the loom beam rotates at a fixed number of revolutions per minute, while in others the beam rotates at a gradually decreasing number of revolutions per minute. one of the latter types made by messrs urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee, is illustrated in fig. , and the mechanism displayed is identical with that employed for no. method of preparing warps. the v-shaped bank with its complement of spools ( in our example) would occupy a position immediately to the left of fig. . the threads would pass through a reed and then in a straight wide sheet between the pair of rollers, these parts being contained in the supplementary frame on the left. a similar frame appears on the extreme right of the figure, and this would be used in conjunction with another v-shaped bank, not shown, but which would occupy a position further to the right, i.e. if one bank was not large enough to hold the required number of spools. the part on the extreme right can be ignored at present. the threads are arranged in exactly the same way as indicated in fig. from the bank to the reed in front of the rollers in fig. , and on emerging from the pair of rollers are taken across the stretch between the supplementary frame and the main central frame, and attached to the weavers beam just below the pressing rollers. it may be advisable to have another reed just before the beam, so that the width occupied by the threads in the beam may be exactly the same as the width between the two flanges of the loom beam. [illustration: fig. winding-on or dry beaming machine _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co. ltd_.] the speed of the threads is determined by the surface speed of the two rollers in the supplementary frame, the bottom roller being positively driven from the central part through the long horizontal shaft and a train of wheels caged in as shown. the loom beam, which is seen clearly immediately below the pressing rollers, is driven by friction because the surface speed of the yarn must be constant; hence, as the diameter over the yarn on the beam increases, the revolutions per minute of the beam must decrease, and a varying amount of slip takes place between the friction-discs and their flannels. as the loom beam rotates, the threads are arranged in layers between the flanges of the loom beam. thus, the threads would be arranged side by side, perhaps for a width of to in., and bridging the gap between the flanges of the beam; the latter is thus, to all intents and purposes, a very large bobbin upon which threads are wound at the same time, instead of one thread as in the ordinary but smaller bobbin or reel. it will be understood that in the latter case the same thread moves from side to side in order to bridge the gap, whereas in the former case each thread maintains a fixed position in the width. the last and most important method of making a warp, no. method, for the weaver is that where, in addition to the simultaneous processes of warping and beaming as exemplified in the last example, all the threads are coated with some suitable kind of starch or size immediately they reach the two rollers shown in the supplementary frame in fig. . the moistened threads must, however, be dried before they reach the loom beam. when a warp is starched, dried and beamed simultaneously, it is said to be "dressed." in the modern dressing machine, such as that illustrated in fig. , there are six steam-heated cylinders to dry the starched yarns before the latter reach the loom beams. both banks, or rather part of both, can be seen in this view, from which some idea will be formed of the great length occupied. several of the threads from the spools in the left bank are seen converging towards the back reed, then they pass between the two rollers--the bottom one of which is partially immersed in the starch trough--and forward to the second reed. after the sheet of threads leaves the second reed, it passes partially round a small guide roller, then almost wholly round each of three cylinders arranged °o°, and finally on to the loom beam. each cylinder is feet diameter, and three of them occupy a position between the left supplementary frame, and the central frame in fig. , while the remaining three cylinders are similarly disposed between the central frame and the supplementary frame of the right in the same illustration. the number of steam-heated cylinders, and their diameter, depend somewhat upon the type of yarn to be dressed, and upon the speed which it is desired to run the yarn. a common speed for ordinary-sized jute is from to yards per minute. [illustration: fig. a modern yarn dressing machine with six steam-heated cylinders] a different way of arranging the cylinders is exemplified in fig. . this view, which illustrates a machine made by messrs. charles parker, sons & co., dundee, has been introduced to show that if the warps under preparation contain a comparatively few threads, or if the banks are made larger than usual, two warps may be dressed at the same time. in such a case, three cylinders only would be used for each warp, and the arrangement would be equivalent to two single dressing machines. the two weaver's beams, with their pressing rollers, are shown plainly in the centre of the illustration. some machines have four cylinders, others have six, while a few have eight. a very similar machine to that illustrated in fig. is made so that all the six cylinders may be used to dry yarns from two banks, and all the yarns wound on to one weaver's beam, or all the yarns may be wound on to one of the beams in the machine in fig. if the number of threads is too many for one bank. [illustration: fig. dressing machine for preparing two warps simultaneously _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co_.] suppose it is desired to make a warp of threads instead of , as in the above example; then spools would be placed in each of the two banks, the threads disposed as already described to use as much of the heating surface of the cylinder as possible, and one sheet of threads passed partially round what is known as a measuring roller. both sheets of threads unite into one sheet at the centre of the machine in fig. , and pass in this form on to one of the loom beams. it has already been stated that the lower roller in the starch box is positively driven by suitable mechanism from the central part of the machine, fig. , while the upper roller, see fig. , is a pressing roller and is covered with cloth, usually of a flannel type. between the two rollers the sheet of threads passes, becomes impregnated with the starch which is drawn up by the surface of the lower roller, and the superfluous quantity is squeezed out and returns to the trough, or joins that which is already moving upwards towards the nip of the rollers. the yarn emerges from the rollers and over the cylinders at a constant speed, which may be chosen to suit existing conditions, and it must also be wound on to the loom beam at the same rate. but since the diameter of the beam increases each revolution by approximately twice the diameter of the thread, it is necessary to drive the beam by some kind of differential motion. the usual way in machines for dressing jute yarns is to drive the beam support and the beam by means of friction plates. a certain amount of slip is always taking place--the drive is designed for this purpose--and the friction plates are adjusted by the yarn dresser during the operation of dressing to enable them to draw forward the beam, and to slip in infinitesimal sections, so that the yarn is drawn forward continuously and at uniform speed. during the operation, the measuring roller and its subsequent train of wheels and shafts indicates the length of yarn which has passed over, also the number of "cuts" or "pieces" of any desired length; in addition, part of the measuring and marking mechanism uses an ink-pad to mark the yarn at the end of each cut, such mark to act as a guide for the weaver, and to indicate the length of warp which has been woven. thus if the above warp were intended to be five cuts, each yards, or yards in all, the above apparatus would measure and indicate the yards and cuts, and would introduce a mark at intervals of yards on some of the threads. and all this is done without stopping the machine. at the time of marking, or immediately before or after, just as desired, a bell is made to ring automatically so that the attendant is warned when the mark on the warp is about to approach the loom beam. this bell is shown in fig. , near the right-hand curved outer surface of the central frame. as in hand warping or in linking, a single-thread lease is made at the end of the desired length of warp, or else what is known as a pair of "clasp-rods" is arranged to grip the sheet of warp threads. after the loom beam, with its length of warp, has been removed from the machine, the threads are either drawn through the eyes or mails of the cambs (termed gears, healds or heddles in other districts) and through the weaving reed, or else they are tied to the ends of the threads of the previous warp which, with the weft, has been woven into cloth. these latter threads are still intact in the cambs and reed in the loom. chapter xiv. tying-on, drawing-in, and weaving if all the threads of the newly-dressed warp can be tied on to the ends of the warp which has been woven, it is only necessary, when the tying-on process is completed, to rotate the loom beam slowly, and simultaneously to draw forward the threads until all the knots have passed through the cambs and the reed, and sufficiently far forward to be clear of the latter when it approaches its full forward, or beating up, position during the operation of weaving. if, on the other hand, the threads of the newly-dressed, or newly-beamed, warp had to be drawn-in and reeded, these operations would be performed in the drawing-in and reeding department, and, when completed, the loom beam with its attached warp threads, cambs and reed, would be taken bodily to the loom where the "tenter," "tackler" or "tuner" adjusts all the parts preparatory to the actual operation of weaving. the latter work is often termed "gaiting a web." there is a great similarity in many of the operations of weaving the simpler types of cloth, although there may be a considerable difference in the appearance of the cloths themselves. in nearly all the various branches of the textile industry the bulk of the work in the weaving departments of such branches consists of the manufacture of comparatively simple fabrics. thus, in the jute industry, there are four distinct types of cloth which predominate over all others; these types are known respectively as hessian, bagging, tarpauling and sacking. in addition to these main types, there are several other simple types the structure of which is identical with one or other of the above four; while finally there are the more elaborate types of cloth which are embodied in the various structures of carpets and the like. it is obviously impossible to discuss the various makes in a work of this kind; the commoner types are described in _jute and linen weaving calculations and structure of fabrics_; and the more elaborate ones, as well as several types of simple ones, appear in _textile design: pure and applied_, both by t. woodhouse and t. milne. six distinct types of jute fabrics are illustrated in fig. . the technical characteristics of each are as follows-- [illustration: fig. six distinct kinds of typical jute fabrics] h.--an ordinary "hessian" cloth made from comparatively fine single warp and single weft, and the threads interlaced in the simplest order, termed "plain weave." a wide range of cloths is made from the scrims or net-like fabrics to others more closely woven than that illustrated. b.--a "bagging" made from comparatively fine single warp arranged in pairs and then termed "double warp." the weft is thick, and the weave is also plain. t.--a "tarpauling" made from yarns similar to those in bagging, although there is a much wider range in the thickness of the weft. it is a much finer cloth than the typical bagging, but otherwise the structures are identical. s.--a striped "sacking" made from comparatively fine warp yarns, usually double as in bagging, but occasionally single, with medium or thick weft interwoven in -leaf or -leaf twill order. the weaves are shown in fig. . c.--one type of "carpet" cloth made exclusively from two-ply or two-fold coloured warp yarns, and thick black single weft yarns. the threads and picks are interwoven in two up, two down twill, directed to right and then to left, and thus forming a herring-bone pattern, or arrow-head pattern. p.-an uncut pile fabric known as "brussellette." the figuring warp is composed of dyed and printed yarns mixed to form an indefinite pattern, and works in conjunction with a ground warp and weft. the weave is again plain, although the structure of the fabric is quite different from the other plain cloths illustrated. the cloth is reversible, the two sides being similar structure but differing slightly in colour ornamentation. as already indicated, there are several degrees of fineness or coarseness in all the groups, particularly in the types marked h, b, t and s. the structure or weave in all varieties of any one group is constant and as stated. all the weaves are illustrated in the usual technical manner in fig. , and the relation between the simplest of these weaves and the yarns of the cloth is illustrated in fig. . in fig. , the unit weaves in a, b, c, d, e and f are shown in solid squares, while the repetitions of the units in each case are represented by the dots. [illustration: fig. point-paper designs showing weavers for various cloths] [illustration: fig. diagrammatic views of the structure of plain cloth] a is the plain weave, units shown, and used for fabrics h and p, fig. . b is the double warp plain wave, units shown, and shows the method of interlacing the yarns h patterns b and t, fig. . when the warp is made double as indicated in weave _b_, the effect in the cloth can be produced by using the mechanical arrangements employed for weave _a_. hence, the cloths _h_, _b_ and _t_ can be woven without any mechanical alteration in the loom. _c_ is the -leaf double warp sacking weave and shows units; since each pair of vertical rows of small squares consists of two identical single rows, they may be represented as at _d_. the actual structure of the cloth _s_ in fig. is represented on design paper at _c_, fig. . _d_ is the single warp -leaf sacking weave, units shown, but the mechanical parts for weaving both _c_ and _d_ remain constant. _e_ is the double warp -leaf sacking, units shown, while _f_ is the single warp -leaf sacking, units shown. the patterns or cloths for _e_ and _f_ are not illustrated. _g_ is a "herring-bone" design on threads and picks, two units shown. it is typical of the pattern represented at _c_, fig. , and involves the use of leaves in the loom. the solid squares in weave _a_, fig. , are reproduced in the left-hand bottom corner of fig. . a diagrammatic plan of a plain cloth produced by this simple order of interlacing is exhibited in the upper part by four shaded threads of warp and four black picks of weft (the difference is for distinction only). the left-hand intersection shows one thread interweaving with all the four picks, while the bottom intersection shows all the four threads interweaving with one pick. the two arrows from the weave or design to the thread and pick respectively show the connection, and it will be seen that a mark (solid) on the design represents a warp thread on the surface of the cloth, while a blank square represents a weft shot on the surface, and _vice versa_. a weaving shed full of various types of looms, and all driven by belts from an overhead shaft, is illustrated in fig. . the loom in the foreground is weaving a -leaf sacking similar to that illustrated at _s_, fig. . while the appearance of a full weaver's warp beam is shown distinctly in the second loom in fig. . there are hundreds of looms in this modern weaving shed. [illustration: fig. weaving shed with belt-driven looms] during the operation of weaving, the shuttle, in which is placed a cop of weft, similar to that on the cop winding machine in fig. , and with the end of the weft threaded through the eye of the shuttle, is driven alternately from side to side of the cloth through the opening or "shed" formed by two layers of the warp. the positions of the threads in these two layers are represented by the designs, see fig. , and while one layer occupies a high position in the loom the other layer occupies a low position. the threads of the warp are placed in these two positions by the leaves of the camb (termed healds and also gears in other districts) and it is between these two layers that the shuttle passes, forms a selvage at the edge each time it makes a journey across, and leaves a trail or length of weft each journey. the support or lay upon which the shuttle travels moves back to provide room for the shuttle to pass between the two layers of threads, and after the shuttle reaches the end of each journey, the lay with the reed comes forward again, and thus pushes successively the shots of weft into close proximity with the ones which preceded. [illustration: fig. looms driven with individual motors _by permission of the english electric co., ltd._] the order of lifting and depressing the threads of the warp is, as already stated, demonstrated on the design paper in fig. , and the selected order determines, in the simplest cases, the pattern on the surface of the cloth when the warp and weft yarns are of the same colour. a great diversity of pattern can be obtained by the method of interlacing the two sets of yarn, and a still greater variety of pattern is possible when differently-coloured threads are added to the mode of interlacing. to illustrate the contrast in the general appearance of a weaving shed in which all the looms are driven by belts from overhead shafting as in fig. , and in a similar shed in which all the looms are individually driven by small motors made by the english electric co., ltd. we introduce fig. . this particular illustration shows cotton weaving shed, but precisely the same principle of driving is being adopted in many jute factories. a great variety of carpet patterns of a similar nature to that illustrated at c, fig. , can be woven in looms such as those illustrated in fig. ; indeed, far more elaborate patterns than that mentioned and illustrated are capable of being produced in these comparatively simple looms. when, however, more than leaves are required for the weaving of a pattern, a dobby loom, of the nature of that shown in fig. , is employed; this machine is made by messrs. charles parker, sons & co., ltd., dundee. the dobby itself, or the apparatus which lifts the leaves according to the requirements of the design, is fixed on the upper part of the frame-work, and is designed to control leaves, that is, it operates leaves, each of which lifts differently from the others. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co_. fig. dobby loom] a considerable quantity of wilton and brussels carpets is made from jute yarns, and fig. illustrates a loom at work on this particular branch of the trade. the different colours of warp for forming the pattern me from small bobbins in the five frames at the back of the loom (hence the term -frame brussels or wilton carpet) and the ends passed through "mail eyes" and then through the reed. the design is cut on the three sets of cards suspended in the cradles in the front of the loom, and these cards operate on the needles of the jacquard machine to raise those colours of yarn which e necessary to produce the colour effect in the cloth t correspond with the colour effect on the design paper made by the designer. this machine weaves the actual brussels and wilton fabrics, and these cloths are quite different from that illustrated at _p_, fig. . in both fabrics, however, ground or foundation warps are required. it need hardly be said that there is a considerable difference between the two types of cloth, as well as between the designs and the looms in which they are woven.[ ] [footnote : for structure of carpets, _see_ pp. - , _textile design: pure and applied_, by t. woodhouse and t. milne.] [illustration: fig. brussels carpet jacquard loom] in the weaving department there are heavy warp beams to be placed in the looms, and in the finishing department there are often heavy rolls of cloth to be conveyed from the machines to the despatch room. accidents often happen when these heavy packages, especially the warp beams, are being placed in position. in order to minimize the danger to workpeople and to execute the work more quickly and with fewer hands, some firms have installed overhead runway systems, with suitable lifting gear, by means of which the warp beams are run from the dressing and drawing-in departments direct to the looms, and then lowered quickly and safely into the bearings. such means of transport are exceedingly valuable where the looms are set close to each other and where wide beams are employed; indeed, they are valuable for all conditions, and are used for conveying cloth direct from the looms as well as warp beams to the looms. fig. shows the old wasteful and slow method of transferring warp beams from place to place, while fig. illustrates the modern and efficient method. the latter figure illustrates one kind of apparatus, supplied by messrs. herbert morris, ltd., loughborough, for this important branch of the industry. [illustration: fig. . the old way] [illustration: fig. . the new way _by permission of messrs. herbert morris, ltd_.] chapter xv. finishing the finishing touches are added to the cloth after the latter leaves the loom. the first operation is that of inspecting the cloth, removing the lumps and other undesirables, as well as repairing any damaged or imperfect parts. after this, the cloth is passed through a cropping machine the function of which is to remove all projecting fibres from the surface of the cloth, and so impart a clean, smart appearance. it is usual to crop both sides of the cloth, although there are some cloths which require only one side to be treated, while others again miss this operation entirely. a cropping machine is shown in the foreground of fig. , and in this particular case there are two fabrics being cropped or cut at the same time; these happen to be figured fabrics which have been woven in a jacquard loom similar to that illustrated in fig. . the fabrics are, indeed, typical examples of jute wilton carpets. the illustration shows one of the spiral croppers in the upper part of the machine in fig. . machines are made usually with either two or four of such spirals with their corresponding fixed blades. [illustration: fig. cropping machine at work] the cloth is tensioned either by threading it over and under a series of stout rails, or else between two in a specially adjustable arrangement by means of which the tension may be varied by rotating slightly the two rails so as to alter the angle formed by the cloth in contact with them. this is, of course, at the feed side; the cloth is pulled through the machine by three rollers shown distinctly on the right in fig. . this view illustrates a double cropper in which both the spirals are controlled by one belt. as the cloth is pulled through, both sides of it are cropped by the two spirals.[ ] when four spirals are required, the frame is much wider, and the second set of spirals is identical with those in the machines illustrated. [illustration: fig double cropping machine _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co., ltd_.] [footnote : for a full description of all finishing processes, see _the finishing of jute and linen fabrics_, by t. woodhouse. (published by messrs. emmott & co., ltd., manchester.)] the cropped cloth is now taken to the clamping machine, and placed on the floor on the left of the machine illustrated in fig. , which represents the type made by messrs. charles parker, sons &, co., dundee. the cloth is passed below a roller near to the floor, then upwards and over the middle roller, backwards to be passed under and over the roller on the left, and then forwards to the nip of the pulling rollers, the bottom one of which is driven positively by means of a belt on the pulleys shown. while the cloth is pulled rapidly through this machine, two lines of fine jets spray water on to the two sides of the fabric to prepare it for subsequent processes in which heat is generated by the nature of the finishing process. at other times, or rather in other machines, the water is distributed on the two sides of the cloth by means of two rapidly rotating brushes which flick the water from two rollers rotating in a tank of water at a fixed level. in both cases, both sides of the fabric are "damped," as it is termed, simultaneously. the damped fabric is then allowed to lie for several hours to condition, that is, to enable the moisture to spread, and then it is taken to the calender. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co., ltd_. fig. damping machine] the calenders for jute almost invariably contain five different rollers, or "bowls," as they are usually termed; one of these bowls, the smallest diameter one, is often heated with steam. a five-bowl calender is shown on the extreme right in fig. , and in the background, while a complete illustration of a modern -bowl calender, with full equipment, and made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee, appears in fig. . [illustration: _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd_. fig. calendar] the cloth is placed on the floor between the two distinct parts of the calender, threaded amongst the tension rails near the bottom roller or bowl, and then passed over two or more of the bowls according to the type of finish desired. for calender finish, the bowls flatten the cloth by pressing out the threads and picks, so that all the interstices which appear in most cloths as they leave the loom, and which are exaggerated in the plan view in fig. , are eliminated by this calendering action. the cloth is then delivered at the far side of the machine in fig. . if necessary, the surface speed of the middle or steam-heated roller may differ from the others so that a glazed effect--somewhat resembling that obtained by ordinary ironing--is imparted to the surface of the fabric. the faster moving roller is the steam-heated one. for ordinary calender finish, the surface speed of all the rollers is the same. another "finish" obtained on the calender is known as "chest finish" or "round-thread finish." in this case, the whole length of cloth is wound either on to the top roller, or the second top one, fig. , and while there is subjected to the degree of pressure required; the amount of pressure can be regulated by the number of weights and the way in which the tension belt is attached to its pulley. the two sets of weights are seen clearly on the left in fig. , and these act on the long horizontal levers, usually to add pressure to the dead weight of the top roller, but occasionally, for very light finishes, to decrease the effective weight of the top bowl. after the cloth has been chested on one or other of the two top bowls, it is stripped from the bowl on to a light roller shown clearly with its belt pulley in fig. . there are two belt pulleys shown on the machine in fig. ; one is driven by an open belt, and the other by a crossed belt. provision is thus made for driving the calender in both directions. the pulleys are driven by two friction clutches, both of which are inoperative when the set-on handle is vertical as in the figure. either pulley may be rotated, however, by moving the handle to a oblique position. the compound leverage imparted to the bearings of the top bowl, and the weights of the bowls themselves, result in the necessary pressure, and this pressure may be varied according to the number of small weights used. the heaviest finish on the calender, i.e. the chest-finish on the second top roller, imitates more or less the "mangle finish." [illustration: _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd_. fig. hydraulic mangle] a heavy hydraulic mangle with its accumulator and made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee, is illustrated in fig. . the cloth is wound or beamed by the mechanism in the front on to what is termed a "mangle pin"; it is reality a thick iron bowl; when the piece is beamed, it is automatically moved between two huge rollers, and hydraulic pressure applied. four narrow pieces are shown in fig. on the pin, and between the two rollers. there are other four narrow pieces, already beamed on another pin, in the beaming position, and there is still another pin at the delivery side with a similar number of cloths ready for being stripped. the three pins are arranged thus o°o, and since all three are moved simultaneously, when the mangling operation is finished, each roller or pin is moved through °. thus, the stripped pin will be placed in the beaming position, the beamed pin carried into the mangling position, and the pin with the mangled cloth taken to the stripping position. while the operation of mangling is proceeding, the rollers move first in one direction and then in the other direction, and this change of direction is accomplished automatically by mechanism situated between the accumulator and the helical-toothed gearing seen at the far end of the mangle. and while this mangling is taking place, the operatives are beaming a fresh set, while the previously mangles pieces are being stripped by the plaiting-down apparatus which deposits the cloth in folds. this operation is also known as "cuttling" or "faking." it will be, understood that a wide mangle, such as that illustrated in fig. . is constructed specially for treating wide fabrics, and narrow fabrics are mangled on it simply because circumstances and change of trade from time to time demand it. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. charles parker, sons & co. ltd_. fig folding, lapping or pleating machine] the high structure on the left is the accumulator, the manipulation of this and the number of wide weights which are ingeniously brought into action to act on the plunger determine the pressure which is applied to the fabrics between the bowls or rollers. cloths both from the calender and the mangle now pass through a measuring machine, the clock of which records the length passed through. there are usually two hands and two circles of numbers on the clock face; one hand registers the units up to on one circle of numbers, while the slower-moving hand registers , , , up to . the measuring roller in these machines is usually one yard in circumference. if the cloth in process of being finished is for use as the backing or foundation of linoleum, it is invariably wound on to a wooden centre as it emerges from the bowls of the calender, measured as well, and the winding-on mechanism is of a friction drive somewhat similar to that mentioned in connection with the dressing machine. cloths for this purpose are often made up to yards in length; indeed, special looms, with winding appliances, have been constructed to weave cloths up to , yards in length. special dressing machines and loom beams have to be made for the latter kind. when the linoleum backing is finished at the calender, both cloth and centre are forwarded direct to the linoleum works. the empty centres are returned periodically. narrow-width cloths are often made up into a roll by means of a simple machine termed a calenderoy, while somewhat similar cloth, and several types of cloths of much wider width, are lapped or folded by special machines such as that illustrated in fig. . the cloth passes over the oblique board, being guided by the discs shown, to the upper part of the carrier where it passes between the two bars. as the carrier is oscillated from side to side (it is the right hand side in the illustration) the cloth is piled neatly in folds on the convex table. the carriers may be adjusted to move through different distances, so that any width or length of fold, between limits, may be made. comparatively wide pieces can be folded on the above machine, but some merchants prefer to have wide pieces doubled lengthwise, and this is done by machines of different kinds. in all cases, however, the operation is termed "crisping" in regard to jute fabrics. thus, fig. , illustrates one type of machine used for this purpose, and made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & ca., ltd., dundee. the full-width cloth on the right has obviously two prominent stripes--one near each side. the full width cloth passes upwards obliquely a triangular board, and when the cloth reaches the apex it is doubled and passed between two bars also set obliquely on the left. the doubled piece now passes between a pair of positively driven drawing rollers, and is then "faked," "cuttled," or pleated as indicated. the machine thus automatically, doubles the piece, and delivers it as exemplified in folds of half width. in other industries, this operation is termed creasing and, rigging. some of the later types of crisping or creasing machines double the cloth lengthwise as illustrated in fig. , and, in addition, roll it at the same time instead of delivering it in loose folds. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. urquhart lindsay & co. ltd_. fig. crisping, creasing or rigging machine] if the cloth is intended to be cut up into lengths, say for the making of bags of various kinds, and millions of such bags are made annually, it is cut up into the desired lengths, either by hand, semi-mechanically, or wholly mechanically, and then the lengths are sewn at desired places by sewing machines, and in various ways according to requirements. [illustration: _by permission of messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co. ltd_ fig semi-mechanical bag or sack cutting machine] fig. illustrates one of the semi-mechanical machines for this purpose; this particular type being made by messrs. urquhart, lindsay & co., ltd., dundee. about eight or nine different cloths are arranged in frames behind the cutting machine, and the ends of these cloths passed between the horizontal bars at the back of the machine. they are then led between the rollers, under the cutting knife, and on to the table. the length of cloth is measured as it passes between the rollers, and different change pinions are supplied so that practically any length may be cut. eight or nine lengths are thus passed under the knife frame simultaneously, and when the required length has been delivered, the operative inserts the knife in the slot of the knife frame, and pushes it forward by means of the long handle shown distinctly above the frame and table. he thus cuts eight or nine at a time, after which a further length is drawn forward, and the cycle repeated. means are provided for registering the number passed through; from , yards to , yards can be treated per day. the bags may be made of different materials, e.g. the first four in fig. . when hessian cloth, ii, fig. , is used, the sewing is usually done by quick-running small machines, such as the yankee or union; each of these machines is capable of sewing more than , bags per day. for the heavier types of cloth, such as sacking, _s_, fig. , the sewing is almost invariably done by the laing or overhead sewing machine, the general type of which is illustrated in fig. , and made by mr. d. j. macdonald, south st. roque's works, dundee. this is an absolutely fast stitch, and approximately , bags can be sewn in one day. [illustration: fig. overhead (laing) sack sewing machine _by permission of mr. d. j. macdonald_] the distinctive marks in bags for identification often take the form of coloured stripes woven in the cloth, and as illustrated at _s_, fig. . it is obvious that a considerable variety can be made by altering the number of the stripes, their position, and their width, while if different coloured threads appear in the same cloth, the variety is still further increased. many firms, however, prefer to have their names, trade marks, and other distinctive features printed on the bags; in these cases, the necessary particulars are printed on the otherwise completed bag by a sack-printing machine of the flat-bed or circular roller type. the latter type, which is most largely used, is illustrated in fig. . it is termed a two-colour machine, and is made by mr. d. j. macdonald, dundee; it will be observed that there are two rollers for the two distinct colours, say red and black. occasionally three and four-colour machines are used, but the one-colour type is probably the most common. [illustration: _by permission of mr. d. j. macdonald_. fig sack printing machine] the ownership of the bags can thus be shown distinctly by one of the many methods of colour printing, and if any firm desires to number their bags consecutively in order to provide a record of their stock, or for any other purpose, the bags may be so numbered by means of a special numbering machine, also made by mr. d. j. macdonald. the last operation, excluding the actual delivery of the goods, is that of packing the pieces or bags in small compass by means of a hydraulic press. the goods are placed on the lower moving table upon a suitable wrapping of some kind of jute cloth; when the requisite quantity has been placed thereon, the top and side wrappers are placed in position, and the pumps started in order to raise the bottom table and to squeeze the content between it and the top fixed table. from / ton to tons per square inch is applied according to the nature of the goods and their destination. while the goods are thus held securely in position between the two plates, the wrappers a sewn together. then specially prepared hoops or metal bands are placed round the bale, and an ingenious and simple system, involving a buckle and two pins, adopted for fastening the bale. the ends of the hoop or band are bent in a small press, and these bent ends are passed through a rectangular hole in the buckle and the pins inserted in the loops. as soon as the hydraulic pressure is removed, the bale expands slightly, and the buckled hoop grips the bale securely. such is in brief the routine followed in the production of the fibre, the transformation of this fibre, first into yarn, and then into cloth, and the use of the latter in performing the function of the world's common carrier. index accumulator assorting jute fibre. bag-making bale opener opening baling cloth house press station bast layer (see also fibrous layer) batch batchers batching apparatus carts or stalls batch-ticket beamer's lease beaming (dry) direct from bank, blending bobbin winding bojah botanical features of jute plants breaker card brussels carpet bundle of jute. calcutta, jute machinery introduced into calender finish calenderoy carding card waste cargoes of jute chest finish clasp-rods conditioning fibre cops cop winding corchorus capsularis clitorius crisping and crisping machines cropping machine cultivation of jute cutting knife for jute fibre cuttings. damping machine defects in fibre and in handling designs or weaves differential motion dobby loom draft drafting drawing frames different kinds of drawing-in dressing and dressing machine drum drying jute fibre dust shaker. east india co. exports of jute from india. fabrics faller farming operations fibres, the five main imports of jute. fibrous layer finisher card finishing folding machine. gaiting glazed finish grading jute fibre gunny bags. hand batching harvesting the plants height of jute plants hydraulic mangle press. identification marks on bags imports of jute. jacquard loom jute crop exports from india fabrics fibre, imports of industry knife plants, botanical and physical features of cultivation of height of marks. laddering ladders lapping machine linking machine linoleum looms lubrication of fibre. machine batching machinery for jute manufacture introduced into calcutta mangle finish (hydraulic) marks of jute (_see_ jute marks) maund measuring and marking machine machine for cloth the warp methods of preparing warps multiple-colour printing machines. numbering machine for bags. opening jute heads overhead runway systems sewing machine (laing's). packing goods physical features of jute plants pin-lease plaiting machine plants, thinning of weeding of ploughs for jute cultivation point-paper designs porcupine feed printing machine. reach reeling retting roller-feed rolls root-comber opener round-thread finish rove roving frame roxburgh, dr. sack-cutting frame, semi-mechanical sack making printing machine sand bags seed per acre, amount of sowing of sewing machines shell-feed short-tell snipping machine softening machines spinning spool or roll winding spools (_see_ rolls) standard bale starching (_see_ dressing) steeping (_see_ retting) striker-up (_see_ batcher) stripping systems. teazer tell (of yarn) thinning of plants thrum time for harvesting the plants tube-twisters twist twisting two-colour printing machine tying-on typical jute fabrics. union or yankee sewing machine unloading bales of jute from ship. variations in jute varieties of jute fibre plants. warp warp dressing (_see_ dressing) warping, beaming and dressing mill washing waste teazer weaves or designs weaving weaver's lease weeding of plants weft winding wilton carpet winding (bobbin) machine from hank (large roll) machine (ordinary size from hanks) machine rolls and cops world's great war. yankee or union sewing machine yarn table yield of fibre. _printed by sir isaac pitman & sons, ltd., bath, england_ [advertisement : thomas hart, ltd.; david keay & leslie] [advertisement : royles limited.] [advertisement : d. j. macdonald c.e., m. i.m. ech.e.] [advertisement : robertson & orchar, ltd.] [advertisement : white, child & beney, limited] [advertisement : the british northrop loom co., ltd.] [advertisement : frederick smith & co.] [advertisement : the skefko ball bearing co., ltd.] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: arithmetic] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: book-keeping & accountancy] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: business training] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: civil service] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: english, history] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: economics, banking] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: insurance, shipping, income tax] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: administration, advertising] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: handbooks, reference] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: commodities, law] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: french] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: german, spanish] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: italian, shorthand] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: shorthand dictionaries, phrases] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: shorthand speed practice, reading] [advertisement : pitman handbooks: teaching, typewriting, periodicals] [advertisement : henry taylor & sons, ltd., pitman's books] [advertisement : thos. broadbent & sons, ltd.] rules and practice for adjusting watches by walter j. kleinlein author of "the watch adjuster and his work" copyright, , by walter j. kleinlein _all rights reserved_ preface in the early days of horology the apprentice was taught the art of making a complete watch. production was slow, very few duplicate watches were constructed, and it was necessary that extra material be made individually by hand in the same way that the original part was produced. as time passed the value of the repairer was indicated by his ability to make new parts and to replace them so that the watch would again be in running condition. this was the prevailing situation for many years and the repairer was judged according to his skill in making and finishing the various parts. a similar method of judging ability is still in force among some employers, although the development of the industry into machine and specialized work has made many changes in regard to the most important duties of the repairer. it is no longer necessary for him to know how to make a complete watch and only on occasional instances is it necessary for him to make a part. genuine material for modern watches is supplied by the manufacturer at less expense than it can be produced by the individual and in this particular branch of the work the repairer's requirements have been very considerably curtailed. a more exacting and a higher standard of timekeeping has developed, however, and in this field the requirements of the watchmaker have increased to the extent that it is no longer sufficient to merely restore a good watch to running condition. it must keep time. this development has grown gradually and surely and the past twenty-five years may be assumed as the period of greatest advance. it has been made possible by scientific and practical refinements which permit the adjustment of watches so that they will keep time within closely defined allowances under varying conditions. the larger problem of the successful repairer of today, therefore, is that of understanding the principles governing close time and of knowing how and where to look for the causes of variation, so that the higher standard of timekeeping may be restored in case of damage since the original adjustment. it is naturally essential to know when material is correct, how to make it fit in its proper place, and how to make and finish some of the individual parts. it is also commendable to be skilful in all classes of lathe work, as this at times gains prestige for the workman through restoring old model watches to running condition. it is, however, a disadvantage to develop one's ability in making parts for watches of a bygone age and neglecting the training that happens to be most essential and of daily advantage in repairing modern watches so that they will keep time as consistently after repairs have been made as they did when new. the object of this book is to present the essential points of watch adjusting in an elementary and non-technical way that will interest the average watchmaker and to enable him to have a convenient source of information, covering the necessary refinements that are fundamental in repairing, regulating and adjusting the better class of watches. the author trusts that the experienced successful watchmaker will read the book with interest and also with profit and that the novice will be enabled to foresee that there is something more to the art of watchmaking and repairing than that of merely assembling a watch and making it "tick." it so happens that the author has had many years of experience in both factories and repair shops and that a considerable part of his duties have been devoted to instruction. he has for a long time felt the need of a book that would, above all else, be practical in its description of the rules that an adjuster follows and which would prove its value in actual experience by being personal as far as permissible in the same sense that detailed shop instruction would be. since writing the article entitled "the watch adjuster and his work" several years ago numerous inquiries have been received, for this class of information and the present book is an effort to meet this demand in a manner that can be followed without highly technical or theoretical education. to promote advancement and interest in everyday practical results is the foremost consideration, and to this end definite means are presented for personal development and for obtaining better results from high grade watches than can possibly be obtained without a fair knowledge of the final details which go so far toward assuring close time. walter j. kleinlein, july , waltham, mass. contents part i.--the adjustment to temperature chapter i page the compensation balance, controlling factor . general method of obtaining results . how to place screws when the rate is either slow or fast in heat compared to cold. . composition of and distortions of compensation balances. . tests and experiments. . effect of shifting screws to different locations. . permanency of the temperature adjustment. chapter ii equipment for temperature adjusting . various methods available. . electrically equipped oven, description and dimensions. . the lower temperature box. chapter iii difference in observatory and commercial systems . observatory system. . commercial system. . rating card and method of calculating variation . value of the normal period rate. . definition of the characters used on rate cards for gain or loss in time. . increasing or decreasing the extremes of temperature. chapter iv some practical methods of correction . example of maintaining a pleasing appearance of the balance. . correction varies when screws are above or below normal size and weight . over or under compensation. . special corrections for over or under compensation. . example illustrating that temperature variation is not always due to the balance and spring. chapter v the middle temperature error . why this error exists and what it consists of. . how nickel steel balances overcome this error. part ii.--the adjustments to isochronism and positions chapter vi general consideration . optional allowances for variation. . some necessary requirements for learning adjusting. . train and escapement freedom. chapter vii theory and practice . theory of frictional errors and the isochronal hairspring. . how theory works out in practice and what isochronism consists of. . common causes of extreme isochronal variation. chapter viii relative pinning points of the hairspring . original springing of watches. . how pinning point alterations are made. . even coil hairsprings very incorrect for some watches. . how to find the correct collet pinning point for any watch. . results in vertical position rates due to changing the pinning point. . the natural position error and why it cannot be eliminated. . principle of pinning point alterations. . same principles apply in case of american hunting models. chapter ix manipulation of the regulator pins . altering the length of spring by regulator pins . method of examining vibration of over coil between the pins. . position corrections obtained by spreading or closing the regulator pins. chapter x factory and repair shop adjusting . routine varies according to circumstances. . considering the watchmaker in the small shop of one or two workmen. . advantages of understanding adjusting even though watches are not tested in positions or isochronism. . concerning watchmakers of limited experience. chapter xi preliminary notes and practice for beginners . practical suggestions. . the first point of consideration in learning to adjust. . causes of variation between dial up and dial down. . short motion generally indicates where to find trouble. . short motion sometimes caused by burr on opposite pivot. . examining the hairspring. . exceptions in regard to gaining rate and short motion. . detailed practice. . which rate to use as the unit for comparison. . damaged pivots, pitted end stones and methods of correction. chapter xii preliminary notes and practice on vertical corrections . five principal causes and corrections for pendant up variation. . poor motion, cause and effect. . regulator pin practice for pendant up variation. . pendant up corrections through poise of balance . concentricity of the hairspring. . correcting pendant up variation through pinning point alterations. . percentage of watches requiring correction of position rates chapter xiii concrete examples showing definite three position alterations and labor utilized . order of position timing and method of calculating the variation. . example no. , three positions, columbus. . example no. , three positions, ball. . example no. , three positions, elgin. . example no. , three positions, hampden. chapter xiv concrete examples showing definite five position alterations and labor utilized . what five position adjusting consists of--detailed allowances. . example no. , five positions, hamilton. . example no. , five positions, elgin, b. w. r. . example no. , five positions, waltham, vang. . example no. , five positions, vacheron and constantin. . example no. , five positions, e. howard . example no. , five positions, illinois, b. s. . causes of extremely fast vertical rates. . how to locate defective gearings. chapter xv timing and final regulation . mean time screws and timing washers. . importance of properly fitted regulator. . effect of the middle temperature error. . some practical reasons for slow rates. part iii.--special notes chapter xvi special notes . efficiency of execution analyzed (two examples) . truing the balance. . poising the balance. . truing hairsprings. . treating a rusty hairspring. . stopping by escapement locking when hands are set backward or when watch receives a jar. . essentials and non-essentials in cleaning watches. rules and practice for adjusting watches part i the adjustment to temperature chapter i the compensation balance controlling factor . _general method of obtaining results._ only since the introduction of the compensation balance which received its most substantial early experiments as recently as the year , has it been possible to control the variation in pocket timepieces which is caused by changes in temperature. previous to this introduction it was not uncommon for the best watches to vary as much as two or three minutes with changes of forty or fifty degrees fahr. through experiment and improvement in the quality and application of balance materials, such advancement has been made, that this variation has been reduced to seconds and temperature adjusting is now quite universal in the production of medium and high grade watches. in the large factories, girls and young men of very little previous experience are frequently taught to make the alterations and to do the testing, while men of experience in watchmaking handle only the more intricate cases such as "stoppers" and radical rates that may require investigation of the inner workings of the movement. the simplicity of the adjustment naturally becomes more apparent with experience and the general alterations consist merely of transferring the balance screws in opposite pairs, either forward or backward one or more holes, according to the extent of the correction desired. as these alterations are quite positive the adjustment can be undertaken with considerable certainty of obtaining results in every instance. the repairer will not find as much daily necessity for understanding temperature adjusting as he will for being thorough in position adjusting. the subject is covered, however, for the benefit of those who may desire practical experience in this branch of adjusting and also for those who desire a general knowledge of the details. . _how to place screws when the rate is either slow or fast in heat compared to cold._ if a watch rates slow in heat compared to cold it is necessary to shift screws in opposite pairs out toward the cut or free end of the rims; because when the metals expand the hairspring becomes weaker and produces a loss in time. during this period the free ends of the balance rims, carrying the transferred weight are forced toward the center and produce a gaining rate which compensates for the loss caused by the weakened spring. as the metals contract in cold the free ends of the balance are drawn outward from their true form and the concentrated weight of these screws near the ends reduces the fast rate in cold and in principle works both ways in its action on the rate. should the circumstances be just opposite, or the rate be fast in heat compared to the rate in cold, it will be necessary to move the screws away from the free end of the rims. in doing this, less weight will be carried toward the center as the free ends curl inward and as a result, the rate in heat will become slower and the slow rate in cold will be reduced. . _composition of and distortions of compensation balances._ compensation balances are generally made of one layer of brass and one of steel, with the brass on the outside consisting of about three-fifths of the total thickness and the steel on the inside consisting of about two-fifths. these metals are firmly soldered together and the distortions in changes of temperature are as follows. in heat both metals expand, which infers that the rims become longer as well as wider and thicker. brass expands more than steel and because of its attachment to the steel it cannot continue to lengthen in its true circular form, due to the fact that the steel does not become enough longer to maintain the true curve, and the result is that the free ends of the rims are forced inward. in cold the brass, contracting more than the steel, pulls the rim outward at the free end which is just in reverse of the operations in heat. the end of the rim which is attached to the balance arm always moves in the opposite direction from the free end, or outward from the center of balance, when the free end moves in, and inward when the free end moves out. in comparison, however, this movement is negligible as will be noted later in the results obtained in moving screws in that direction. . _tests and experiments._ it is generally understood that the purpose of the compensation balance is to act in opposition to the error caused principally by the hairspring. the steel hairspring having no compensating qualities, either grows stronger or weaker with changes in temperature. when it becomes longer, wider and thicker in heat, experiments seem to prove that the increased width and thickness are not in proportion to the increased length, for if they were, the spring would actually be stronger; while timing proves that it is weaker because of the loss in time. in cold the shortening factor seems to dominate because of a gain in time. in a series of tests with steel springs on uncut steel brass balances, the temperature error in the extremes of degrees and degrees fahrenheit was found to be from eighty to one hundred and sixty seconds. with the same balances cut the error was reduced from seventy to one hundred and thirty seconds in each instance, without any correction of the balance screws. a former test with palladium springs on the same balances, previous to having been cut, showed a considerably reduced error, indicating that the steel springs were mainly responsible for the temperature variations. the above tests were in actual practice and results are given as noted, regardless of scientific or established formula relating to the cubic measurement of metals in changes of temperature. . _effect of shifting screws to different locations._ as a rule compensation balances generally have five or six pairs of balance screws in addition to two pairs of mean time screws. high grade swiss and some american models do not have mean time screws and are therefore generally supplied with seven or eight pairs of balance screws. the mean time screws are never disturbed in making alterations for temperature, such alterations being confined to the balance screws only and the mean time screws are reserved for timing. for appearance sake the balance screws should be evenly distributed, although it is necessary at times to closely assemble them to obtain temperature results and they should not be disturbed in making ordinary repairs, as the adjustment may be destroyed in so doing. with the larger balances the moving of one pair of screws for a distance of one hole, generally makes a difference of four or five seconds in the temperature rate. in the case of smaller balances this alteration does not make as much difference, although the weight and location of the screws has considerable influence on the result. a pair of screws shifted from the second holes from the cuts, to the holes adjoining the cuts, will generally make a correction four or five times as great as would be obtained by shifting a pair of screws from the third to the fourth holes from the arms. the same proportional difference is obtained in moving a pair of screws from the center of the rims out to the cut, compared to moving a pair of screws from the holes nearest the arms out to the center of the rims. this principle also obtains in moving the screws in the opposite direction and is due to the fact that while the metals composing the balance follow the common laws of expansion and contraction, the balance actually becomes smaller in area during expansion and larger during contraction. this condition is made possible entirely through joining the metals in proper proportion and then cutting the rims. in the factories where large quantities of a particular model having a standard style balance are handled, tests are usually made to determine as to just what degree of correction will be obtained by shifting various pairs of screws certain distances. this information is then used in making alterations with considerable certainty. the expert temperature adjuster becomes fully informed as to the peculiarities of various models and is capable of getting larger percentages of watches within the limits of allowance, after making alterations, than he could obtain otherwise. through understanding the various models individually, he is also enabled to furnish information that will cause intelligent arrangement of the balance screws, for each model, when they are originally fitted. the production thereby showing a greater yield of good watches that do not require alterations after the first test. . _permanency of the temperature adjustment._ when the original temperature adjustment has been carefully executed it is quite permanent and unless the screws have been mutilated or changed in location there will seldom be an occasion for readjusting. the balance may be retrued and repoised many times and the spring may be retrued, altered, or even changed, without seriously interfering with the temperature rating, as long as the screws are not shifted. in changing the spring, however, it is necessary that the same number of coils and the same size of spring be used, as otherwise readjusting would be required. chapter ii equipment for temperature adjusting . _various methods available._ two boxes are necessary for temperature testing. one fitted up to maintain a temperature of about ° fahr. and the other maintaining a temperature of about ° fahr. the method employed in obtaining the high temperature varies in different styles of boxes, while the low temperature is always obtained through the use of ice. when only an occasional test is made, any simple method whereby approximately close results in the two extremes can be obtained, may be used. for instance, the watch may be enclosed in a tin box and placed in sand that is kept at a temperature of or degrees f. a thermometer placed in the sand indicates when the temperature rises too high or falls too low. the ordinary household refrigerator may be used for testing the cold. tests by this method are advisable only for short periods and for an approximate idea as to the extent of error. if frequent tests are made and accurate results are expected, it is quite important that the special boxes be used. such boxes are often constructed with a capacity of four or five hundred watches, or they may be constructed to receive only half a dozen watches. some are made with a zinc or copper tank in which warm water is placed and which surrounds the chamber in which the watches are deposited. the water is kept at the desired temperature by means of a small adjustable flame. in other instances electrical arrangements are used, in which case no water is required. in either instance a thermostat controls the source of heat. . _electrically equipped oven, description and dimensions._ a very practical arrangement for testing a few watches at a time in the higher temperature is shown in fig. . this is electrically equipped and will maintain an even temperature at all times. the outside of the box is constructed of about one-half inch lumber and the inside is lined with asbestos. it is about fourteen inches high by ten inches wide and eight inches deep. "a". is an incandescent lamp set in a porcelain base. "b". is a porcelain plug through which the wires "c" enter the box. "d" and "e". are metal uprights with a thumbscrew on the top, under each of which a wire terminates. "f". is the compensating bar, one end of which is fastened solidly to "d" with rivets. the opposite end is free and rests against the end of a thumbscrew which passes through "e." the thumbscrew is to be adjusted so that the free end of "f" will rest against it in a temperature of ° fahr. or any lower temperature. as the temperature rises the free end of the bar moves away from the end of thumbscrew, breaking the circuit and extinguishing the light, which cuts off the source of heat. as the temperature decreases the bar again comes into contact and creates the circuit. this bar can be made of various compensating metals, one combination of which is a strip of zinc about six inches long by three eighths of an inch wide and one thirty-second of an inch thick. on the outside of this soft solder a strip of tin six inches or a trifle less in length, by one fourth inch wide and one thirty-second of an inch thick. both metals should be bent to a curved form before they are soldered together as shown in the cut. [illustration: fig. ] it is generally preferable to have the bar taper to a slightly narrower width at its free end, and near this free end it is necessary to solder a small strip of platinum at the point where the end of thumbscrew comes in contact. "g", "h", "i" and "j" are ventilating holes one inch in diameter and covered by a swinging slide so that the holes can be opened or closed as desired for regulating the ventilation. "k". is a shelf of brass screen located about five inches from the top and on which the watches and a thermometer are placed in testing. "l". is a handle for the purpose of convenience in carrying the box. the front is to be enclosed by a door made in two parts, the upper section of which is glass which will admit of observing the thermometer. proper adjustment of the thumbscrew and bar makes the box ready for use. . _the lower temperature box._ fig. shows a box specially made for testing watches in cold. it is constructed of wood and stands about twenty-four inches high without the legs and about eighteen inches square. a double partition packed with about one inch of sawdust will be most reliable. the upper half of the box should contain a watertight zinc tank for holding cracked ice and about an inch of space should be left above for circulation of the air. the chamber for receiving the watches may be about six inches square and supported by a crosspiece and attachment to the front. it should be covered above to prevent particles of ice from falling on the watches which are to be placed on the floor or on a shelf of the chamber, but the sides may be left partly open to improve the circulation of cold air. the door may also be filled with sawdust but does not require glass as the moisture would prevent observation of the thermometer which should be inside for checking up the temperature when the door is opened. [illustration: fig. ] the bottom of the tank should be slightly higher on one side than on the other, with a one-half inch drain pipe fitted to the low side. the inlet end of the pipe should be covered with a fine screen to prevent dirt from accumulating in the pipe and the outlet may be either at the extreme bottom or on one of the sides as shown in the cut. the upper part or cover of box should be made so that it can be easily removed for filling and cleaning the tank. chapter iii difference in observatory and commercial systems . _observatory system._ in the foreign observatories where watches are generally tested for competition prize, or certificate purposes, they are subjected to either three or five day tests in each temperature, preceded by one intermediate day at normal temperature which is not considered in making the deductions. the purpose of this is to allow the metals to assume the natural condition before being placed in, or changed from, one degree of temperature to another. after the three or five day test, according to the grade of the watch, the average of the daily rates in each temperature is considered in making the comparison and arriving at the total variation. the total error is then considered in the summary, as a fraction of a second variation per each degree of temperature. as an example we will consider that the total error between the two averages is five seconds and that the difference in the two extremes of temperature was fifty degrees f. the variation would be given as one-tenth of a second per each degree of temperature. . _commercial system._ in manufacturing watches for commercial purposes, both foreign and domestic, the tests are generally made for twenty-four hours in each temperature and the difference in the rates is considered as the total error. sometimes preliminary tests of four or six hours in each temperature are made to obtain an estimate as to the extent of error, then alterations are made, after which the watch is subjected to the regular twenty-four hour test. there is nothing to be gained by this in regular work, although for a special rush job a day's time may be saved. watches are always expected to be in first-class condition and such features as close fitting pivots or dirty oil will prevent any dependable timing. it is also advisable to time them closely before the test is made, as too great mean time variation may confuse in estimating the error, especially if the time is not taken in each temperature exactly at the end of twenty-four hours. the testing should preferably be done in the dial up position to eliminate poise errors as much as possible. the first test is made in heat at ° fahr., then in normal temperature of sixty-five or seventy degrees and finally in the lower extreme of ° fahr. when the watch is removed from the cold box it will be covered with moisture which will immediately begin to condense. the time should therefore be quickly noted and the watch replaced in the higher temperature box for four or five hours to become thoroughly dry and prevent against rusting of the steel parts. . _rating card and method of calculating variation._ a card ruled similar to the cut shown in fig. , may be used for entering the rates and the watch need only be set at the beginning of each test, as deductions can be made from the entries on the card and the variation accurately ascertained without resetting or disturbing the time. details as to the methods to be followed would be about as follows: wind and set the watch to correct time, place it in the heat box and at the end of twenty-four hours enter the variation from correct time in the upper left hand square of the card. assuming that the time is four seconds fast, enter this as shown in the first column fig. , then wind but do not set the watch and place it in normal temperature and at the end of twenty-four hours enter the total variation noted in the second square of first column. assuming the time to be just correct, place a zero as shown. next wind the watch and place it in the cold box, and assuming that the variation is sixteen seconds fast at the end of twenty-four hours, enter this in the lower square of the first column as shown in fig. . the watch is next placed in the heat box to dry and the variation shown in the three sets of figures in first column are carried out as follows. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. .................... make................... | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | heat | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | normal | | - | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | cold | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ in the upper square we find + , enter this in upper square of second column at its full value as shown. next we find a " " in the second square of first column, and as this is a loss of four seconds from the entry shown in the square above we carry it out in second column as - . in the lower square of first column we find + and as this is a gain of sixteen seconds over the square above, it is necessary to carry this to second column at its full value as per illustration. to determine the extent of variation between heat and cold, simply ignore the normal rate of - in the second column and subtract + , from + , which indicates an error of twelve seconds slow in heat compared to cold. or it may be determined as twelve seconds fast in cold compared to heat. for convenience sake it is advisable to form the habit of using one of the temperatures as a unit for comparison and wherever large quantities of watches are adjusted, it is generally the custom to use the higher temperature for this purpose and the rate is stated as either slow or fast in heat. in this instance the rate is slow in heat and it will be necessary to shift one or more pairs of screws toward the cut as explained in chapter , no. . . _value of the normal period rate._ the rate in the normal period cannot be considered as of any value, its importance consisting only of allowing the metals to return to the natural form and tension before being placed in the cold box. this is quite important in obtaining a true estimate of the error, because of the fact that in transferring the watch immediately from the extreme of heat to the extreme of cold, there will be a period of time during which the metals are readjusting themselves to the natural form, and the variation in time during this period will not be accounted for, as the real comparative rate will not begin to develop until after the natural form and tension is reached. if the limit of time devoted to testing is no object and if a very fine rate is desired the observatory method is of course to be preferred. however, by allowing an intermediate day at normal temperature we have the assurance that the hairspring is at the same tension and that the balance has the same form concentrically when the test begins in cold that it had when the test began in heat. as the object is to find the variation between the two temperature extremes the estimate will be quite close enough and allows the saving of many days' time. some authorities advocate in addition to the five days required for observatory testing in each temperature that the watch be subjected to an intermediate day in each, instead of in normal, before considering the daily rate. this seems very logical, as the time noted each day would be taken at the actual extremes in both instances and any outside factor in the timing would be eliminated. . _definition of the characters used on rate cards for gain or loss in time._ in making entries on the rate cards and in figuring the variations the sign + is used as denoting that the watch is running faster than the standard time and the sign - is used as denoting that it is running slower than standard time. this is stated for the reason that in some instances, generally foreign, the signs are used in reverse, or as indicating that the watch requires a correction of + or - the number of seconds indicated, to attain the correct standard of time. when the signs are identical in a column it is necessary to subtract the lesser from the greater and the result is the variation. there are often instances however, when one rate will be + and the other - as shown in second column of fig. , and in these instances it is necessary to add the figures to obtain the variation. the first column is always the progressive rate and the second column shows the variation carried out. this example shows + in heat, the normal rate in the second square is not considered, for the reason previously explained and the rate in cold is shown as - . the total variation between the extremes is therefore arrived at by adding + and - , which in this instance gives us a total of nine seconds fast in heat. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. .................... make................... | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | heat | + | + | | | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | normal | + | + | | | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | cold | + | - | | | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ . _increasing or decreasing the extremes of temperature._ the extremes of ° and ° fahr. have been used for the reason that they are best suited for general purposes. when it is known, however, that a watch is to be used in a warm climate the extremes may be raised five or ten degrees to advantage. if the watch is to be used in a cold climate, the extremes may be lowered this amount. the metals, however, can only stand the strain of expansion and contraction to a certain degree, and still maintain the positive qualities. therefore it is quite important that the extremes be not raised or lowered very much beyond these figures. chapter iv some practical methods of correction . _example of maintaining a pleasing appearance of the balance._ in altering the location of screws during the temperature adjustment it is often possible to either mar or improve the appearance of the balance. as a demonstration of this point the correction made in regard to fig. is analyzed. the balance had twelve screw holes in each rim, with the space between the first and second holes from the arms equal to double the space between any other two holes. there were seven screws in each rim, equally divided as per cut fig. , which indicates screws in the first, second, fourth, sixth, eighth, tenth and twelfth holes. [illustration: fig. ] a correction of the rate could have been obtained by shifting the screws in either the sixth or eighth holes forward three holes. or those in either the first or second holes could have been shifted to the ninth holes and those in the fourth holes might have been shifted to the ninth holes with good results possible in either instance. moving one pair of screws under any circumstances however would have caused a massing of three pairs of screws at some point and a vacant space of three holes at another point which would not present a very good appearance for high grade work. therefore the alteration made was to move the screws from the second to the third holes, fourth to seventh, and from the eighth to the ninth holes as indicated by the positions shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] examination of the fourth column fig. , which gives the result of the second test will show that the desired correction was obtained with a better appearance of the balance than would have been possible if only one pair of screws had been shifted. in following the logic of the alterations made we must consider that the screws moved from the second to third holes made no correction, due to the fact that the balance rims remain almost stationary at this point, the alteration being for appearance only, those moved from the fourth to the seventh holes were estimated for a correction of seven or eight seconds only, for the reason that the alteration did not carry them beyond the center of the rims where the greatest curvature takes place. the screws moved from the eighth to the ninth holes however were estimated for the full correction of four or five seconds which is to be expected through shifting a normal pair of screws from one hole to another beyond the center of the rim on sixteen or eighteen size balances. in moving a pair of screws one hole between the first quarter and the center of the rims, a correction of from two to three seconds can be expected and from the center to the cut the difference for one hole is generally four or five seconds, while an alteration between the arm and the first quarter seldom yields any correction. the matter of appearance should at all times be respected, for it is just as easy to obtain results in most instances and also have a well-appearing balance. there is also less disturbance of the poise usually in moving several pairs of screws a short distance than there is in moving one pair a longer distance. . _correction varies when screws are above or below normal size and weight._ normal corrections can only be realized when normal screws are shifted. some balances have one half, or quarter head screws which of course will not produce a correction as great as will be obtained by shifting regular screws. sometimes platinum, or other extra heavy screws will be found in balances and these will produce a correction almost double that of ordinary screws of the same size. . _over or under compensation._ on some occasions it will be found impossible to maintain a pleasing arrangement of the screws because the temperature variation will make it necessary to mass all of the screws either in the holes nearest the cuts or in those nearest the arms. this is due to either over or under compensation of the balance. over compensation is caused by too large a proportion of brass in the rims, which causes them to curve inward too far at the free ends in heat and outward too far in cold. when the extent of this error is so great that the rate is still fast in heat, with the screws massed in the holes nearest the arm, a correction can be obtained by fitting heavier screws in the holes adjacent to the arms and lighter screws in the holes nearer the free ends. when the rate in heat is slow with the screws massed at the free ends of rims the balance is under compensated, which is caused by too large a proportion of steel compared to the proportion of brass in the rims. this prevents the free ends of rims from curving inward far enough to carry the weight the proper distance toward the center of balance. a correction for this can be obtained by fitting heavier screws in the holes adjacent to the cuts and lighter screws in the holes toward the center of rims. in changing the weight of screws as stated above it should be remembered that the gross weight of all screws must remain the same or the timing will be seriously affected. it is also important that the poise be tested whenever a considerable degree of alteration is made, as this will assist in obtaining an accurate rate. . _special corrections for over or under compensation._ balances having the extreme degree of over or under compensation will seldom be found in high grade watches. in any instance, however, it is possible to obtain a better distribution of the screws by fitting either a larger or a smaller hairspring. for instance, we will assume a case of under compensation in which the screws have all been massed at the holes nearest the cuts. if the spring has seventeen coils, a correction of from five to ten seconds can be obtained by selecting and fitting a spring of the same make that will have eighteen coils, and the correction obtained will permit of shifting one or two pairs of screws back toward the arms. in case of over compensation a spring of the same make, one coil smaller, will permit of shifting one or two pairs of screws toward the free ends of rims. in a series of tests it was demonstrated that by duplicating or changing springs of the same make and size, on balances that had previously been compensated, there was very slight difference in the temperature variation of the watch. also by changing pinning points or breaking out one-fourth to one-half of the coil around collet and adding weight to the balances to correct the mean time the difference in the variation was almost negligible. on the other hand it was found that by replacing the springs with others of larger or smaller size, variations of from three to ten seconds were noted in all instances. in selecting and fitting a spring that will be one coil larger or smaller, it should be noted that the inner coil of the original spring and that of the new spring are approximately the same distance from the collet. for if there was considerable space between the collet and inner coil of the original spring, and the new spring was colleted quite close, there might be the addition of an extra coil in the inside only. this was found to produce only a very slight correction, compared to that obtained by the addition of a complete outer coil. these tests indicate that the proportion of strength of the spring in the temperatures varies with any appreciable change in length while slight changes make practically no difference. . _example demonstrating that temperature variation is not always due to the balance and spring._ fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. .................... make................... | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | heat | - | - | + | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | normal | - | + | + | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | cold | + | + | + | - | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ the following example is submitted to show that temperature variation is not always due to the balance and spring, and that the general condition of the watch may be responsible. the second column of fig. , indicates an error of twenty-eight seconds slow in heat with all screws assembled in the holes nearest the free ends of the rims. examination proved that the motion of the balance in cold was reduced to about one-fourth of a turn. in heat the arc of motion was at least one full turn. this difference in motion was sufficient to prove that there was some binding in the train. a very close fitting of the escape pivots was found and this undoubtedly caused binding of the pivots in heat due to slight expansion. expansion of the stone would also tend to close the hole, and while the degree of temperature would hardly have any bearing on this point it is sufficient to show in what direction the tendency would be. the fourth wheel end shake was very close and probably caused binding of the wheel in cold, due to greater contraction of the bridge than of the fourth pinion. furthermore the mainspring was only . of a millimeter narrower than the space in the barrel box. this no doubt also caused binding through greater contraction of the barrel than occurred in the mainspring. the above defects were remedied and the rate was found to be eight seconds plus in heat as per third and fourth columns fig. . this made it necessary to shift several of the screws away from the cut, in almost the same position in which they were before the alteration which caused the close assembling of the screws was made. the final rate was two seconds slow in heat as shown in fifth and sixth columns. the variation of thirty-six seconds between the second and fourth columns was entirely erroneous, and was due to condition of the watch irrespective of the balance and hairspring. should the variation with the screws assembled have been by chance within the limits of allowance the watch would undoubtedly have been a very unreliable timepiece. the errors in the watch would no doubt have been corrected during the position adjustment later, but the large error in temperature which would have been introduced by wrongly moving the screws, would have prevented reliable timing until possibly at some future period a test in temperature would have been made and the screws replaced in the proper positions. chapter v the middle temperature error . _why this error exists and what it consists of._ in adjusting watches to temperature it is not always possible nor expected to obtain a perfect rate between the two extremes, manufacturers generally allowing from two to ten seconds variation according to the grade. even when the rate obtained is perfect it will only be so at the two extremes and there will always be a few seconds variation in the middle or normal temperature. this variation will always be a gain of from two to four seconds in the higher grades of steel brass balances and usually more in cheaper balances. as there is no possible correction for this irregularity in ordinary balances it has long been known as the middle temperature error and for many years was one of the most perplexing problems that the manufacturer of specially fine timepieces had to deal with. various devices were originated from time to time for the purpose of counteracting the error but they were always too infinitely complicated to be of commercial or scientific value, and none of them were ever adopted as a solution of the problem. in chapter i, no. , will be found a description of the distortions of compensation balances in the extremes of temperature and the cause of the middle error is due entirely to the fact that these distortions are not exactly equal in both directions. the free ends of the rims are drawn outward from the concentric form to a slightly greater proportional degree as the temperature decreases from normal and they are not forced inward at an even proportional degree with increase of temperature. . _how nickel steel balances overcome the middle temperature error._ through extensive experiment in the foreign laboratories balances containing nickel steel have been found to almost eliminate the middle error, which is reduced to one second or less, making it possible to obtain perfect adjustment in various temperatures. all highest prize watches passing through the geneva observatory are equipped with these balances and they have been adopted for commercial use to a large extent by the manufacturers of the finer grades of watches. from the same source success has recently been attained in applying this metal to hairsprings and using them in connection with uncut balances, but owing to the necessary high cost of production, their general use may be delayed for some years to come. their general use however would revolutionize the present-day methods of adjusting to temperature as there would be practically no expansion or contraction to deal with. nickel steel balances will always be found to have the cuts about one eighth of the circle distant from the arms instead of close to the arms. this is made necessary by the fact that the coefficient of nickel steel is about ten times less than that of ordinary steel, and if the cuts were made close to the arms the brass in expansion would force the free end of the rims to curve inward to such an extent that it would cause an abnormally fast rate in heat. by making the cuts more central the length of the segments are reduced, thereby causing less curvature of the extreme ends and more nearly equalizing the extent of curvature both ways from the concentric form. this equalization is what causes the reduction in the middle error and its absence in ordinary balances is what causes the larger error. non-magnetic or palladium balances are also credited with a smaller middle temperature error than the ordinary steel brass balance, but owing to the unstable nature of the metal they have not proved to be as reliable in other respects and are not used to any large extent. the middle temperature error is of course a small factor in the larger sense of obtaining time from commercial watches but its influence is apparent in timing and it will therefore be considered further in the section devoted to final regulation, chapter xv, no. . part ii the adjustment to isochronism and positions chapter vi general consideration . _optional allowances for variation._ the phrase "adjusted to isochronism and positions" does not always indicate the same high quality or the expense assumed in obtaining close rating in different kinds of watches. one particular model may be stamped "adjusted to five positions" and this may indicate that the manufacturer of this model has tested all watches of this grade for twenty-four hours in each of five positions and that the extreme extent of variation from one position to any other, among any of these watches, did not exceed six seconds. another model may be stamped in exactly the same way and it may indicate that all watches of that particular grade have been tested in exactly the same way and that the extreme extent of variation from one position to any other, did not exceed twenty-five seconds. the statement regarding the number of positions to which the watch has been adjusted is just as legitimate in the latter instance as it is in the former, for the watches are really tested in five positions and required to perform within specified allowances. the important difference is in the established limits of requirement, one demanding an extreme of only six seconds variation and the other allowing twenty-five seconds. both watches may have the same number of jewels and there is no way to discern the actual variation except through a test in positions. technically it would be just as legitimate to stamp and advertise watches as above and have an allowance of fifty or more seconds, providing that they were actually tested and not allowed to pass with a variation greater than this limit. close limits of allowance require adjusters of greater skill and material of a finer degree of accuracy, however, than do greater allowances, but the dealer and consumer are generally not informed in regard to this particular point. some watchmakers also do not understand this feature clearly and the limits of variation to which watches have been adjusted are seldom considered. should the difference in allowances and identical advertising be interpreted as an injustice to the manufacturer who maintains close limits for his various grades of watches, it must be remembered that they speak for themselves after passing over the counter and into the hands of satisfied customers. his reputation after a period of years will be more firmly established than will that of his less particular competitor in the high grade field. a similar situation prevails in the repair shop, and the fact that many of the leading dealers and railroad watch inspectors require at least a three position adjustment in the repairing of high grade watches, is convincing evidence that position rating demonstrates its importance in actual service when applied to repair work, as surely as it does when applied to new watches. in placing limits of allowance for variation in various grades it is not intended that all watches of a particular grade will have the extreme variation. it is possible that an individual watch in the twenty-five seconds allowance class may have an even better rate than another watch that is in the six seconds class. it is also possible for a watch in either class to have a perfect rate, although these would be rather exceptional instances. . _some necessary requirements for learning adjusting._ the adjustments to isochronism and positions are not permanent to the same extent that the temperature adjustment is, and they can be damaged or destroyed entirely by the average workman in making ordinary repairs unless he is familiar with the common principles governing their production and maintenance. experienced workmen who are familiar with these principles avoid unconsciously doing any damage and make practical repairs in a manner that will maintain or improve the original adjustment and time-keeping qualities of the watch. to know and to make use of these principles does not make a "putterer" of the workman, in fact the consequence is just the reverse, because the training acquired tends to eliminate guess work and enables him to determine more readily as to just what the trouble may be, how to correct it, and as to just what degree of perfection is required in a particular instance. certain practical requirements are necessary in reaching this standard of workmanship and it would not be profitable to attempt to do adjusting unless one has first had a reasonable degree of training as a watchmaker or repairer, especially in such branches of the work as truing and poising balances; truing, leveling and centering hairsprings; matching the escapement; finishing pivots, and properly cleaning and assembling watches. these mechanical requirements and experiences alone are not sufficient, however, and a certain amount of study must be consolidated with them in order to become proficient. this study should not deal so much with the problems of manufacture of the watch, or its various parts, as it does with the problems pertaining to the finished results that are to be obtained through refinement and intelligent assembly of these parts. the workman's willingness to indulge in such study is a very large asset among the requirements, and it only remains for him to obtain the proper class of instruction and then to conscientiously follow correct methods in his practice and to make personal experiments, conforming to the instruction, so that his confidence will become more enduring. it is further required that he be capable of realizing the difference between genuine and imitation materials, especially such essentials as balance staffs, hole jewels, mainsprings and roller jewels, which are the most frequently changed and most frequently substituted parts of watches. imitation materials may be less expensive as a matter of first cost but staffs may have pivots and shoulders out of line, or out of true; hole jewels may be rough, out of round or extremely thick; mainsprings soft, or of improper proportion, and roller jewels may have sharp edges which cause rubbing in the fork and "hanging up" when the second hand is reversed. it is most satisfactory to depend upon the materials supplied by the manufacturer of the watch, as imitation goods are seldom any better. . _train and escapement freedom._ beyond a general insight of high class watch-work this book is not intended to meet the requirements of beginners. it is designed principally for watchmakers of some experience, and cannot presume to cover details that would be essential for those in early apprenticeship. it is thought essential, however, to consider some matters in a general way and among these are the subjects of side shakes and end shakes, and the escapement, as far as they pertain to general inspection of the watch without consideration of details that refer to correction of irregularities which are presumed to have been acquired in earlier training. thoroughness of mechanical ability always demands a system of inspection and of making corrections and it is quite necessary to follow some method that will reveal any point or points that may not be up to standard. as a rule it is best to begin at either end of the watch, and if it is to be taken down the best place to begin is usually with the balance and examine each part as it is removed until the barrel has been reached. if it is not to be taken down, just as good results will be obtained by beginning the examination at the barrel and finishing with the balance. sometimes watchmakers of considerable ability will demand as a basic consideration that pivots be fitted with very little side shake and that end shakes also be quite close if close time is to be expected. these presumed to be, wide side shakes and long end shakes, very often have nothing whatever to do with the absence of a close position rate and frequently are absolutely necessary for good performance of the watch and proper space for oil. the importance of reasonable limits is of course granted, but it is very detrimental to have pivots too close fitting and more stoppage and irregular time keeping can be traced to lack of freedom than can be traced to excessive shakes. if the repairer is not familiar with accepted standards of side and end shakes, he can improve his judgment by examining watches of the higher grades and comparing the results with those found in cheaper makes of watches. such examination will invariably disclose the fact that fine watches receive very careful consideration in this respect. the center, third and fourth wheels generally having from . mm. to . mm. freedom for end shake and . mm. to . mm. for side shake. the escape wheel, pallet and balance will be found to run quite uniform at from . mm. to . mm. freedom for end shake and from . mm. to . mm. for side shake. the smaller and thinner watches generally favoring the lesser figures and the larger and thicker watches favoring the higher. this uniformity of freedom will be found absent in cheaper watches; for instance, a center wheel may have . mm. end shake and . mm. side shake which would be very close fitting for large pivots. the fourth wheel may have as much as . mm. end shake and . mm. side shake which would be too great. the pallet may have . mm. end shake and the balance . mm. and in this instance the short end shake of the balance would be more detrimental in most instances than would the longer end shake of the pallet. the variation will even be found to exceed these figures and when they are found in connection with thick, straight hole jewels they often interfere with a close position rate and with regularity of time in service. the interference in timekeeping is considerably aggravated in cases where one pivot has excessive side shake and the opposite pivot is close fitting, as this tends to cause almost certain binding of the close fitting pivot as soon as the power of the mainspring is applied. the end shake and side shake allowance for the barrel depends considerably upon its style of construction. safety barrels constructed so that the arbor revolves with the main wheel, when the watch is running, may have about the same end shake and side shake as applied to the center, third and fourth wheels, and if the pivots of the arbor are quite large they may have a trifle more side shake. as a rule larger pivots will stand more side shake than smaller pivots; this, however, does not apply in the case of large bearings, such as safety main wheels that revolve around a stationary arbor, or going barrels where the entire barrel revolves around the stationary arbor when the watch is running. in such instances the main wheel or barrel should have from . mm. to . mm. end shake on the arbor and should be just free for side shake. the arbor which turns only when the watch is wound requires merely freedom for end shake between the plates, as well as for side shake where the pivots pass through the plates. with reference to the escapement, good watchmakers often have different methods of examining the various points and of making corrections and it is not of so much importance as to just how correct conditions are obtained, as it is that they actually be obtained. whatever the method may be it is certain that each escape wheel tooth must have positive locking on each pallet stone and that there must be positive space for drop between the back of each stone and the pointed end of each escape wheel tooth. there must also be sufficient draw when each tooth and stone are locked to hold the fork against the bankings. when the lock, drop and draw are correct it is next necessary to see that the fork length and guard pin freedom are correct. there is only one positive method of determining as to when the fork length is correct, and this is through closing the bankings to drop. this can be done either before or after placing the balance in the watch and merely requires turning the banking screws so that the excentric pins will close in on the fork until the fork arrives at the pins, at the same instant that the tooth drops on the pallet stone. this eliminates any slide of the stone on the tooth beyond the actual locking and in this condition it is required that the roller jewel pass through the fork slot and out of the fork horn entirely on both sides with perfect freedom. should it touch on both sides of the fork, then the fork is either too long or the roller jewel is too far forward, and if it touches on one side only it may require simply equalization of the freedom. the guard pin length also must be obtained with the bankings closed to drop and should be just free from the safety roller on both sides. when the inspection proves that these conditions have been properly provided for, it is necessary to slightly open the bankings so that there will be just a trifle of slide of each stone, on each tooth, after the locking takes place. extremely wide side shakes of the escape, pallet or balance pivots will sometimes cause striking of the roller jewel when conditions are otherwise correct, and these side shakes should not be very much beyond the extreme limits mentioned in this number. the fact of this feature, however, should not be construed as a recommendation that these pivots be closely fitted, for reasonable freedom is to be desired because it is positively necessary. chapter vii theory and practice . _theory of frictional errors and the isochronal hairspring._ theory teaches us in brief, that the position adjustment is made necessary principally because of frictional errors. it would therefore seem that if the watch was mechanically correct there would be little or no requirement for position alterations. we are also advised that an isochronal hairspring is one which will cause the long and short arcs of the balance to be made in equal time and that to attain this, the center of gravity of the spring must coincide with the center of gravity of the balance and that a certain pinning point is necessary in producing this result. now if we have a watch of correct mechanical construction and fitted with an isochronal spring it would seem that a close rating timepiece would be assured. . _how theory works out in practice and what isochronism consists of._ practical adjusting, however, proves that such is not the case, for even when the construction and alterations produce watches as nearly correct as scientific methods can determine, there is often considerable variation in the position rates. a twenty-four hour test in any position may prove that the long and short arcs are made in equal time showing the spring to be isochronous and yet the position variations have not been accounted for. in this connection experience proves that a spring showing a perfect isochronal rate may have its collet pinning point changed, in relation to the pinning point at the stud and that through such an alteration, a correction in positions can be obtained, without in the least disturbing the perfect isochronal rate. this indicates that the separation of the two adjustments which is possible in theory, does not hold good in practice, because a spring showing a perfect isochronal rate has been altered for the purpose of counteracting some position error and thereby producing a practical center of gravity of the balance and spring combined, instead of separately. this may be further explained as creating an error in a spring which is supposed to be theoretically isochronous, with the idea of making it act in opposition to the position error and the combination thus obtained produces practical isochronism as well as a corrected position rate. it is not suggested that these relative pinning points be altered for the purpose of overcoming position variation such as may be caused by dirt and gummy oil, damaged pivots, or balances that are out of poise. the watch should be in first-class condition and have a good motion in every position and then the alterations may be safely undertaken in accordance with the principles. adjusted to isochronism indicates that the watch functions uniformly during the entire twenty-four hours running. it is immaterial as to whether the rate be perfect or whether it be a gain or a loss, so long as it is uniform. the watch is not isochronous if there is both a gain and a loss in the rate, even though the time be perfect at the expiration of twenty-four hours. experiment will demonstrate that watches carefully adjusted to positions will also have a very close isochronal rate. these isochronal experiments can be made by timing watches for twenty-four hours in any one of the vertical positions and noting the variation in periods of from four to twelve hours and by comparing the variation in the first period, during which time the arc of motion is long, with the variation in the latter period when the mainspring power is weaker and the arc of motion is short. . _common causes of extreme isochronal variation._ the most common causes of isochronal variation with which the repairer has to deal and which are often very destructive to position rates, as well as to general time keeping, may be found in the factor of, out of poise and uneven motive force, which is one of the elementary principles of adjusting. this feature should be thoroughly understood by all watchmakers, so that as good results as possible may be obtained from all watches above low grade, even though no test for adjustment is to be made. when the balance is slightly out of poise and the motion is exactly one and one-fourth turn during the twenty-four hours, this out of poise will not affect the isochronism. when the motion varies and reaches approximately one and one-half turn during the first few hours after winding and then drops to one and one-quarter turn and finally to one turn or less during the latter part of the twenty-four hours, the poise error will have considerable effect. this factor is not perceptible in the flat positions, but shows up to the full extent in the vertical positions and the variation differs according to the location of the point that is heavy. for example, if the balance is heavy on the lower side when at rest, the watch will lose during the hours that the arc of motion is over one and one-fourth turn and will gain when the motion drops to one turn or less. should the heavy point be on the top side of balance the result will be reversed and the watch will gain when the motion is over one and one-fourth turn and will lose when it drops to one turn or less. the total variation may be either seconds or minutes, depending upon the extent of the poise error and experiments will prove that serious isochronal variations can be traced to the simple cause of lack of poise and irregular motion in more instances than to any other cause. the arc of one and one-fourth turn is the ideal motion, as slight poise errors are neutralized at this point, but very few watches will maintain this motion for twenty-four hours, therefore the poise must be as nearly perfect as possible. the nearest approach to even motion of modern watches is found in the fine swiss grades equipped with stop work, which causes only the best part of the mainspring to be utilized. such watches also receive the most expert attention as to gearings of wheels and pinions and the train wheels are specially rounded up on their respective staffs. this latter feature has been adopted by at least two of the american manufacturers of fine watches during the past few years with considerable benefit in producing even motion and the use of lighter mainsprings. it should be definitely understood that these tests refer to the vertical positions of the watch only and that the horizontal positions are not affected in the same way by lack of poise. chapter viii relative pinning points of the hairspring . _original springing of watches._ theory and practice agree that different models of watches have important relative points of attachment of the spring to collet and stud. in the original springing and adjusting of high grade watches, these points receive careful consideration, and only a very small percentage ever require future alterations. there are instances, however, where the original allowance of position variation has been considerable, also medium grades where no attention has been directed to pinning points and in which an occasional alteration may be required before a close position rate can be obtained. . _how pinning point alterations are made._ these alterations are generally made by breaking off or letting out a small section of the inner coil at the collet. in making such alterations a quarter of a coil broken away at the collet will have the same effect as will a quarter of a coil broken off at the outer end and will require less weighting of the balance to correct the mean time. it will also avoid breaking and remaking the over coil and the possible necessity of readjustment to temperature. letting out the spring can be accomplished by unpinning and repinning the spring at collet with less of the coil entered in the pinhole. this is not a positive alteration, however, because very often the segment in the pinhole is as short as it can be with safety. a more substantial correction is that of reforming the over coil in a manner that will cause the end holding the stud to be shifted further forward. the method of obtaining this correction is illustrated in fig. . the broken line shows the original formation of the over coil with the stud on the line "b". the solid lines show the corrections with the stud shifted to the line a. [illustration: fig. ] when the collet is turned to replace the spring in beat, the stud will be in its original location on the line "b." this will cause the pinning point at collet to be shifted from "a" to "b" and bring it that much nearer to the horizontal line "c." this alteration has the same effect as that of letting out the spring at the collet or of moving the stud forward on the over coil, with the advantage of eliminating any change in the mean time. it should be definitely understood that the objective in making the above alterations and as illustrated with the aid of the following cuts, is the relation of the pinning point at collet to the pinning point at stud, and that the change in length of the spring has no bearing on the matter whatever as far as the position rate is concerned. . _even coil hairsprings very incorrect for some models._ it is often supposed that hairsprings having exactly even coils are correct for close position and isochronal rating. such springs do approximate the nearest correct relation in more instances than any other relation. they are precisely correct for very few models, however, and are very incorrect for many models, as will be seen through study of the following cuts showing the various points of attachment and the different results obtainable in each. . _how to find the correct collet pinning point for any watch._ a very simple method of locating the proper point of attachment of the spring to collet is to face the train side of the movement and hold the balance stationary with a small twig, and with the pallet fork just midway between the two bankings. [illustration: fig. ] presume the existence of a vertical line through the center of hairspring and collet as shown at "a b" fig. . then presume a horizontal line as shown at "c d" on the same cut. [illustration: fig. ] the proper pinning point is at the intersection of the collet and horizontal line; the spring may be either over or under even coils, depending entirely upon the location of the stud hole in the balance bridge as demonstrated by figures , , , . when the spring develops to the right from collet as shown in fig. , for example, the proper point of attachment is on the right side of collet as shown at "e" fig. , and also at "j" fig. . if it develops to the left as the springs of all fine swiss watches do, the proper point of attachment is on the left side of collet as shown at "f" fig. . . _results in vertical position rates due to changing the pinning point._ in either of the above instances the spring will develop upward as it leaves the collet. these points of attachment always produce a fast pendant up rate when compared to the opposite, or pendant down rate, and all high grade watches are originally fitted with springs conforming to this principle. if these points of attachment were changed to the opposite side of collet so that the spring would develop downward as shown at "g" fig. , and "h" fig. , the results would be reversed and the pendant up rate would be slow in comparison to the pendant down rate. [illustration: fig. ] this point of attachment in which the spring develops downward from the collet is generally known as the slow point among adjusters, and when a spring is pinned at either the slow or fast point the pendant right and left positions generally compare quite closely to each other in timing, provided that the poise and other conditions of the watch are correct. if the pinning point was changed to the intersection of the collet and vertical line as shown in "i" fig. , the pendant up and down rates would compare nearly equal to each other and the pendant right position would be slow compared to the pendant left position. [illustration: fig. ] if it were pinned at the intersection of the collet and vertical line just opposite to that shown in fig. , the pendant left position would be slow compared to the pendant right position. [illustration: fig. ] the vertical points of attachment are seldom used, for the reason that the variation between the pendant right and left positions would be very difficult to control within close limits, due to the existence of the natural error. as these positions, together with the pendant up position are the most important of the four vertical positions, they are given preference, and the natural error is placed in the pendant down position where it will be the least detrimental to the performance of the watch. . _the natural position error and why it cannot be eliminated._ [illustration: fig. ] the natural error generally consists of from twelve to fifteen seconds in finely constructed watches, and exists because of the fact that it is impossible to perfectly poise a spiral spring. the location of the heavy point, however, may be shifted by changing the point of attachment at collet as described in no. , this chapter. the nearest approximation of a poised spiral spring is probably attained through l. lossier's inner terminal curve. results are not positive, however, and any deviation from the required precision makes the curve valueless. it is possible to obtain perfect adjustment between three vertical quarter positions and the two horizontal positions, but all four quarter positions cannot be perfectly adjusted because the natural error will show up in one of them. manufacturers of fine watches do not of course presume to supply perfect adjustment in the five positions. some however, have considerably closer limits of allowance for variation than do others and it is logical to presume that a line of high grade watches having a five position allowance of six seconds from one position to any other would show better results than another line which had even a six position adjustment and an allowance of fifteen seconds from one position to any other. . _principle of pinning point alterations._ [illustration: fig. ] when an alteration of any pinning point is necessary, the extent and direction of the alteration are determined by the rate of the watch. for instance, if a spring is pinned at the fast point and if a slightly slower pendant up rate is desired, the spring can be broken off at the collet and pinned one-eighth above the horizontal line. if the rate is to be made slightly faster, the spring can be let out a trifle at the collet, the over coil reformed or the stud moved forward on the over coil so that the collet point of attachment will come slightly below the horizontal line when the spring is placed in beat. the former alteration causes an approach toward the slow point and in making the latter alteration we assume that the fast point is a trifle below the horizontal line on that particular watch. when altering springs from the extreme fast point to the extreme slow point, it is advisable to remove a trifle less of the inner coil than the extreme calculation. this will cause the point of attachment to be slightly above the horizontal line on the slow side and will most always produce the result desired and if it does not, there is still a possibility of further alteration. the same principle applies in making an alteration from the extreme slow to the extreme fast point and in this case the point of attachment to collet may be just a trifle below the horizontal line. the theory of this is that all shortening of the coil from the fast to the slow point produces a slower rate pendant up, until the extreme slow point is reached. after passing this extreme slow point the pendant up rate begins to grow faster until the extreme fast point is reached. [a]the designations "right" and "left" in regard to pinning points are used with the explicit understanding that the individual is facing the train side of the movement. the same designations used as referring to position rates, or results to be expected in positions should be interpreted to mean with the individual facing the dial side of the watch. . _same principles apply in case of american hunting models._ the points shown in figures and refer generally to american hunting models. in all other high grade watches the location of the balance and spring will be found either to the right or left of the center of the watch. in american hunting models the balance and spring are located in the lower center of the watch. this is due to the fact that american manufacturers do not construct separate models for hunting watches as is done by foreign manufacturers. instead of producing an entirely separate model, the method simply calls for a change in the construction of the barrel bridge by reversing the position of the barrel and winding wheels. this places the winding sleeve at figure three on the dial, which is customary on hunting watches and causes the entire movement to be shifted by ninety degrees with the balance just about opposite the pendant. footnotes: [footnote a: important note.] chapter ix manipulation of the regulator pins . _altering the length of spring by regulator pins._ on some occasions when the pinning points seem to be comparatively close and the watch is in good condition with the balance in poise, it is possible to obtain corrections by closing or opening the regulator pins. this, however, can only be resorted to, to a limited extent, as otherwise the value of the regulator may be impaired. the pins should not be closed tight enough to cause "kinking" of the over coil and they should not be spread apart any more than enough to make the mean rate about seconds per hour slower. some models of watches consistently require that the pins be closed, while other models require that they be slightly spread, and it is therefore advisable not to disturb the pins when cleaning watches unless they have been bent by incompetent hands. it is better to reserve the majority of pin alterations for such time as the position rate determines the necessity of an alteration. when the pins are open, however, it is necessary to adjust the coil so that its vibration will be equal. correct execution in spreading or closing the pins will very often make it possible to obtain a correction of six or eight seconds between the vertical and horizontal positions. . _method of examining vibration of over coil between the pins._ the proper method of examining this vibration is to stop the balance and observe the movement of the coil between the pins. the vibration should be equal at the slightest oscillation of the balance as well as during the longer arcs. the coil should not rest against one or the other of the pins at any time unless they are both closed. emphasis is placed upon equal vibration of the coil when the pins are open because of its importance, and if results are not obtained (as expected) the examination should be repeated to see if correct conditions have been attained. examination of this vibration should be made from both sides of the pins and usually the best estimate can be obtained by looking between the pins from the stud side. . _position corrections obtained by spreading or closing the regulator pins._ when the regulator pins are tightly closed and the watch has a fast pendant up position rate, it will be possible to obtain a slower rate by slightly spreading the pins. when the pins are spread and vibration of the coil between them can be discerned, and the pendant up rate is slow, a faster rate can be obtained by closing them. in spreading the pins they should be drawn away from the coil equally, as otherwise the coil will strike one pin with more force than the other, which will not produce results as expected and will cause uncertain regulation. in closing the pins they should be drawn together one at a time until both are in equal contact. they should not be merely squeezed together, as this causes distortion of the coil at the point of contact. chapter x factory and repair shop adjusting . _routine varies according to circumstances._ the principles covering the adjustment of watches are the same in the repair shop as they are in the factory and they are equally the same in the various lines of high grade watches regardless as to whether they are of american or foreign extraction. the routine covering the work to be done, however, may vary, depending upon the quantity of watches that are turned out. in the factories where large numbers of watches are adjusted the adjuster is trained in the various branches of watch work and eventually devotes his entire time to adjusting. the watches are generally turned over to him after they are all assembled and ready for the final balance and spring work, or after they have been finished and rated, in which instance he receives only those that are not within the requirements and he then makes the necessary alterations, after which they are again tested for results. in some repair shops where large numbers of fine watches are handled, a similar system is used and one competent adjuster devotes his time principally to the work of timing and adjusting. . _considering the watchmaker in the small shop of one or two workmen._ by far the greater number of watchmakers are employed in stores having only one or two workmen who are required to do the cleaning and to make all repairs. for this reason an adjuster of equal skill could not do as much actual adjusting as could be done in either of the two previous instances, but for the same reason he would not be expected to do as much. he can, however, adjust the high grade watches that he repairs just as closely, and he should not permit himself to feel that time and the nature of his position prohibits him from doing so. whether it does, or does not prevent him from obtaining close rates depends entirely upon his training and understanding of the necessary details. if he is skilful and accurate, his output of work in the long run will not be reduced, his work will give better satisfaction and he will have less "comebacks" to take up his valuable time. . _advantage of understanding adjusting even though watches are not tested in positions or isochronism._ to understand position adjusting thoroughly is of the greatest advantage in obtaining satisfactory time from any medium or high grade watches even though they are not to be tested in positions because vital points will receive intelligent observation where they would otherwise be overlooked. . _concerning watchmakers of limited experience._ the previous notes and rules covering pinning points of the hairspring as detailed by the cuts and descriptions, together with the concrete adjusting examples to follow would no doubt be of sufficient note for watchmakers of considerable experience. there are, however, many ambitious workmen who have not devoted any time whatever to the study or practice of adjusting and to whom some elementary study and practice may be quite indispensable. to be of service to this class of workmen chapters xi and xii are devoted to preliminary notes and practice lessons. the contents of these chapters can be worked out in practice by almost any workman who is capable of holding a position as watchmaker and it is substantially necessary that they be mastered before finished results are to be expected. chapter xi preliminary notes and practice for beginners . _practical suggestions._ experience will eventually prove that most of the variations in positions are caused by apparently insignificant details. the mistake made by the average repairer is generally that of failing to detect these details and to make slight corrections where necessary, as he proceeds with the ordinary cleaning and repairing of the watch. this oversight often prevents what would otherwise be excellent results in timekeeping and makes it necessary to utilize extra time and labor in the effort to obtain more consistent timekeeping. . _the first point of consideration in learning to adjust._ the first consideration in position adjusting should be directed toward equalizing the time in the two horizontal positions. this equalization should be accomplished entirely by attention to details that can be plainly seen before arriving at the point of actual timing of the watch. the principal requirement for equal time between dial up and dial down is equal arc of motion of the balance in each of the two positions, and the adjuster should become capable of obtaining this equal arc of motion before attempting to obtain close rating in the other positions. . _causes of variation between dial up and dial down._ variations between dial up and dial down may be due to one or more of the following causes which have been arranged in two groups, the first group consisting of the most frequent and common causes, while the second group consists of causes equally detrimental but less common. group no. . dirt or thick oil in one or both balance jewels. . burred or marred balance pivots. . end of one balance pivot flat or rough and opposite pivot polished. . ends of both balance pivots polished but not same form. . balance pivot bent. . hairspring rubbing balance arm or stud. . hairspring concave or convex in form instead of perfectly level. . over coil rubbing under balance cock. . over coil rubbing center wheel. (some watches). group no. . balance pivots fitted too close in jewels. . one pivot having excessive side shake and the opposite close fitting. . escape or pallet pivots bent or damaged. . balance end stone pitted or badly out of flat. . over coil rubbing outside coil, at point where it curves over spring. . balance arm or screw touching pallet bridge. . balance screw out too far, touching bridge or train wheel. . safety roller rubbing dial plate or jewel setting. . fork rubbing impulse roller. . guard pin rubbing edge of safety roller. . roller jewel long and rubs guard pin. . _short motion generally indicates where to find trouble._ any of the above irregularities will cause a variation in motion between dial up and dial down and invariably the trouble will be found on the side which has the shorter motion. for instance, a pivot that is flat or rough on the end will cause a shorter motion, when it is down, than will the opposite pivot when it is down, provided that its end is slightly rounded and highly polished. the same is true when the oil is gummy or dirty in one jewel and the opposite jewel is clean and freshly oiled. capped escape or pallet pivots when flat or rough on one end have the same effect to a lesser degree. it is never proper to make the end of a pivot flat or rough and thereby shorten and equalize the motion. neither should the ends of both balance pivots be flattened at any time. on the contrary, the ends of pivots should always be slightly rounded and highly polished: there is no logical reason for having them otherwise. . _short motion sometimes caused by burr on opposite pivot._ there are occasionally instances where a poor motion on one pivot is caused by a slight burr on the opposite pivot. this is usually due to the fact that while the burred pivot is running on its own end stone, there is space enough between the end stone and jewel to give the burr clearance, but when the position of the watch is reversed, the balance end shake allowance causes the burr to rub on the top of jewel hole and prevents perfect freedom of motion when the good pivot is downward. . _examining the hairspring._ the hairspring may be true and level but it should be carefully examined to see that there is no possibility of touching at any point. the observation should take place during the full arc of motion of the balance, for there are some instances in which no rubbing takes place until the motion accelerates. the watch should be held at different angles and the space between the balance arm and spring, and the stud and spring, closely scrutinized for possible contact. the space between the spring and over coil at the point where the over coil rises and curves over the spring should be at least equal to the width of the coils and care should be taken to see that the over coil just before the point of rising has the usual space between it and the next coil. either position in which the hairspring may rub will have a shorter motion and a gain in time compared to the opposite position in which there is no interference. . _exceptions in regard to gaining rate and short motion._ invariably the arc of motion which is the shortest will gain time compared to the opposite position which has a longer motion. there are, however, some few instances in which there are exceptions to this rule, and knowledge of these exceptions is quite valuable in preventing confusion and doubtfulness in the certainty of making specific alterations. as an example in the horizontal positions; if both end stones are perfect and the freedom of one pivot in the jewel is correct while the opposite pivot has entirely too much freedom, the motion may be somewhat shorter with the proper fitting pivot downward while the rate may be slower compared to the opposite position. this is caused by the balance describing a larger circle when the large hole jewel is upward, as the pivot is allowed to travel a greater distance from the center of the hole as it wavers from side to side during the oscillations. when the watch is reversed the weight of the balance prevents the pivot from wobbling in the large hole and eliminates the possibility of compensating for the larger circle described by the balance in the opposite position. the same results are possible when the freedom of both pivots is correct and when one end stone is pitted, as the pit in the stone causes a short motion when downward and prevents the pivot from having any side play whatever, while the opposite pivot enjoys full play to whatever freedom there may be and through this causing a somewhat larger circle to be described by the balance and a slower rate in time. it should be understood that this does not refer to instances where the end stone surface is merely slightly worn, but to pittings in which the surface of the stone has been actually pierced. in most instances of slight wear the motion will be shorter and the rate fast which conforms to the general rule covering rate and motion. . _detailed practice._ for preliminary practice in position adjusting, select a watch of about jewels which has just been cleaned and put in order to the best of one's ability. regulate it so that it will time within ten seconds in twenty-four hours. then run it dial up for twenty-four hours and make a notation as to the number of seconds either fast or slow. next run it dial down for twenty-four hours and make note of the number of seconds fast or slow in this position. if there is a variation in time between the two positions it will be found that the position having the faster rate of the two will also have a shorter arc of motion.[b] the exact arc of motion in each position can be known by observing the arms of the balance and comparing the extent of the arc with some point on the pallet bridge. a variation of one-eighth of an inch in motion will generally make a difference of four or five seconds in the rate and greater variations will make corresponding increases in the difference. when a watch is in good order a correct motion for the horizontal positions is generally considered to be that of one and one-half turn, which consists of three-quarters of a revolution of the balance in each direction. should the motion be very much below this, in both positions, there may be something wrong with the general condition of the watch or possibly there may be a weak mainspring at fault, or an imitation spring that is too long and thick may take up too much room in the barrel and cause poor motion as surely as will one that is two weak. assuming, however, that the motion is good in one position and drops off in the other, it is quite probable that only an ordinary position correction will be required and the immediate problem to be considered is that of causing the short arc of motion to accelerate enough to equal the longer arc. the precise correction required will most probably be found among the causes listed in no. , this chapter. . _which rate to use as the unit for comparison._ the horizontal position which has the slower rate of the two should be considered as the unit which is correct and it will always have the longer motion of the two, barring the occasional exception as described in no. . this longer arc of motion is universally due to a better condition, while the shorter motion indicates that something is wrong, and it should always be the aim of the adjuster to improve some condition that is below standard, rather than to make some good condition a little worse in order to equalize the rates. it may be possible to equalize horizontal rates by flattening the ends of pivots, but it does not require much more time to improve the motion in one position than it does to make it a little worse in another. the advantage is all one way and results either good or bad depend entirely upon the viewpoint of the worker and how he applies himself to the situation. . _damaged pivots, pitted end stones and methods of correction._ in the examination of pivots, end stones and jewels, it is necessary to use a stronger glass than the one used for ordinary work. damaged pivots can often be detected by looking through the end stone with a strong glass while the balance is moving. if imperfect they will appear dark or display a slight waver or flash and if they are in good condition they will appear bright and seem to stand still. they can also be examined in the lathe and a good true enclosed balance chuck is of immense value in detecting burrs, chipped edges, rings on the sides, slight bends and poorly shaped ends. the complete balance and spring can be inserted and the pivots can be refinished without disturbing the roller or hairspring. the chuck should be revolving very slowly when making the examination and moving the belt with the hand will enable one to see more than can be seen when the lathe is running at regular speed. some watchmakers use small bow lathes for examining and finishing pivots, or the jacot lathe, which is excellent for this kind of work. an end stone that has been deeply pitted should always be discarded and a new one supplied. if the hole is very slight, however, it can be removed entirely and the surface of the stone re-polished on a lap charged with no. diamond powder, but the stone and setting should be thoroughly cleansed by brushing and pithing before replacement. should a slight particle of diamond or any other hard stone powder possibly remain on the stone or in the bezel it might eventually enter the end of pivot and again cause pitting. in case that the end stone is of the type that is flat and highly polished on both sides, such as is usually found on detachable dome foreign watches, it can be punched out with a piece of brass wire or peg wood and replaced in reverse position, after which the bezel can be closed and the stone will be just as serviceable as a new one. pivots that have been running on pitted end stones are generally rough on the end which is charged with some hard substance. they require special treatment to remove the cause of the pitting and the following method of refinishing is very good. place the balance in the lathe and draw a soft arkansas oil stone over the end of pivot with pressure enough to remove a bit of the metal. this will drag out any hard particles that may be lodged in the end and after this has been done the pivot should be pithed clean and polished with a smooth hard steel burnisher covered with oil. a hard stone such as sapphire or jasper, or a steel burnisher should not be used on the pivot until the arkansas stone has first done its work, because a hard instrument of this description will force the small particles that cause the pitting further into the end of the pivot instead of removing them entirely. a pivot that has been treated in this way will not pit the end stone a second time unless carelessness in the use of hard powder permits additional particles to come in contact with the pivot or end stone. there are some instances in which the steel is highly carbonized but manufacturers generally use the best steel obtainable for balance staffs and excessive carbon can generally be detected with a magnifying glass. free use of diamond powder and emery wheel dust are more often responsible. the holes of jewels should never be enlarged or polished with diamond powder after the jewels have once been placed in their permanent settings, as this allows the powder to lodge between the jewel and the setting where it cannot be removed by cleaning but where it will be drawn out by the oil and charge any pivot that may be run in the jewel. the grey powder in such instances may be seen through the top of jewel with a strong glass. footnotes: [footnote b: note exceptions in no. .] chapter xii preliminary notes and practice on vertical corrections . _five principal causes and corrections for pendant up variation._ the first of the vertical positions to be considered is that of pendant up and to understand the causes of and corrections for variations in this position completes what is known as three position adjusting. the usual causes of variation in the pendant up position as compared to the horizontal positions are as follows. poor motion pendant up. regulator pins not properly adjusted. balance not in poise. hairspring not in circle. hairspring not pinned at proper point. . _poor motion, cause and effect._ among these causes that of poor motion covers a number of troubles such as roller jewel rubbing in fork, guard pin rubbing roller, strong lock on the escapement, or no lock on some teeth. such causes may not prevent close rating between the horizontal positions because of non-interference until the position of the watch is changed. the pendant up motion should therefore be the first vertical point of investigation and if at fault the cause should be eliminated. in this connection it should not be expected that the arc of motion in the pendant up or any other vertical position will be as long as it will be in the horizontal positions, for when a watch is in excellent condition in every particular the vertical arcs are always approximately one-fourth of a turn shorter than the horizontal. this is due to frictions and is impossible of correction and therefore should not be confused with a poor motion of greater extent which has removable causes that are practical of execution. a good motion is to be considered as one of the results to be expected in overhauling and putting a watch in good order and it should not be understood that it is particularly to be associated with adjusting only, nor should any watch be slighted in cleaning and assembling with the idea that adjusting will correct it in a few minutes' time. on the other hand it should be understood as fundamental that no watch can be a close time keeper unless it has a good motion and no good adjuster will attempt to obtain close time in one position or a close rate in different positions until the motion is first what it should be. if it is what it should be, about ninety per cent of the necessary work required for obtaining close position rates will have been completed. . _regulator pin practice for pendant up variation._ when the watch is in reasonably satisfactory condition and a three position test proves that the pendant up position has a variation of from ten to twenty seconds either fast or slow compared to the horizontal positions, the regulator pins may be the first point of examination. if there is considerable vibration of the coil between them, and the pendant rate is slow, it will be necessary to close the pins and if the rate is fast and the pins are found to be closed so that there is no vibration of the coil, it will be necessary to spread them slightly. closing the pins will of course make the general timing of the watch faster and spreading them will make it slower and therefore it will be necessary to regulate the watch for one or two seconds per hour before again testing it in positions. the result of either operation, however, will be to cause the rate in the pendant up position to conform more closely to the horizontal rates. preliminary and profitable two position experiments can be made between dial up and pendant up, by having the pins closed on most any watch that is in good order and timing it within five or ten seconds in twenty-four hours, then rating it in these two positions. next spread the pins slightly, re-time the watch and rate it in the same two positions and compare the variations. a few experiments of this description will soon demonstrate as to the extent of correction that can be obtained in this way.[c] the rule of equal vibration of the coil between the pins after they have been spread must be rigidly enforced. . _pendant up corrections through poise of balance._ assuming that the motion and regulator pins seem to be satisfactory, the next point of investigation should be the poise of balance. the hairspring should be removed and the pivots known to be straight and polished before testing. the rollers are of course a part of the balance and are not to be removed. a perfectly poised balance can be stopped at any point on the tool and it should at least remain stationary at each of the four quarters of its circumference. no. , chapter vii, should be consulted for details on poise corrections. . _concentricity of the hairspring._ the next point of consideration may be the concentricity of the hairspring, and it is quite important that the spring be centered as nearly perfect as the trained eye can determine. any unusual pressure of the spring in one direction will cause undue friction and a fast rate compared to the opposite direction. there are several easy tests for determining as to how nearly the spring may be centered. one of these is to look straight down upon the spring and examine the space between the coils that extend beyond the circumference of the dome. this test may be made in three ways, one with the balance at rest, one with the coils of the spring wound up and the third with the coils unwound. with the balance at rest and the spring centered there will be the same space between the coils all around as though the spring were out of the watch entirely and laying on the bench. if it is not properly centered there will be more space between the coils on one side than there will be on the opposite. the same conditions will be apparent when the spring is wound up, although the coils will all be nearer to each other than they were with the balance at rest, and when they are unwound the coils will all be farther apart with the same apparent difference on opposite sides when the centering is not correct. the winding and unwinding of the spring is alternating and almost instantaneous, as the balance oscillates from one extreme to the other. for observation of the spring when it is wound or unwound it is necessary to stop the balance with the finger or camel's hair brush as it reaches its extreme arc of motion, then hold it stationary for a few seconds while the space between the coils is being examined. the balance should then be allowed to swing to the opposite extreme, when it should again be held for examination of the coils. in one of these extremes the coils will be wound and in the other they will be unwound and after a few experiments in stopping and starting the balance it will be found that the entire examination will not require over ten seconds' time. when the spring is not properly centered the reason is of course found in some curve of the over coil and the most usual point at fault is the section or curve on which the regulator pins act. if the coils open too wide on the side where the regulator pins are located this section of the coil will be too near the center and should be moved outward, possibly equal to one-half or one full space of the coils. if the coils are too close on the side where the pins are it will probably be found that the section requires shifting toward the center slightly. the balance should be removed from the watch in either instance and the coil circled with the over-coiling tweezer, although experienced workmen can frequently make excellent corrections with a fine pointed tweezer without removing the balance. finely adjusted watches will always be found to have springs as nearly perfectly centered as it is possible for expert workmen to get them and it is quite interesting and instructive to observe the vibration of a perfect spring by any one interested in the work. some watchmakers center the spring on the balance cock before it is staked on the balance and very good results can be obtained in this way. the balance cock is placed on the bench in the inverted position which makes it easy to locate the point or curve requiring alteration. . _correcting pendant up variation through pinning point alterations._ should most careful investigation of the condition of the watch indicate that the motion, regulator pins, poise of balance and centering of the hairspring as well as the general condition of the watch are satisfactory and the rating show that there is still considerable variation between the horizontal positions and the pendant up position there is still one source through which positive correction may be obtained. this refers to the relative positions of the collet and stud pinning points which is defined with explanatory cuts and formula in chapter viii. . _percentage of watches requiring correction of position rates._ in constructing this chapter and the preceding one it has been preferred to go into detail for the purpose of defining the possible corrections and alterations, together with the results to be expected. not every watch demanding position correction would require the extent of investigation and possible alteration that is pointed out and in most instances the direct cause will be disclosed with very little investigation. in fact, the experienced adjuster can tell almost immediately where to look for trouble by merely observing the position rate as entered on the card. it should also be clearly understood by the student that when the repairing and cleaning of high grade watches is done by one who understands the details of adjusting, there will be only a very small proportion of the watches requiring position corrections. as a rule among experienced adjusters there will be about seventy per cent of the watches that will have very close rates. if, therefore, one hundred watches are put in order and tested in positions there should be seventy that do not require any correction, while about thirty will require either minor or major alteration. the time required for making alterations on this thirty per cent of the watches will be offset by a smaller percentage of unsatisfactory returns and a better reputation for doing good work. footnotes: [footnote c: see chapter ix, on regulator pin alterations.] chapter xiii concrete examples showing definite three position alterations and labor utilized . _order of position timing and method of calculating the variation._ in submitting the previous chapters it is assumed that the average ambitious watchmaker will gain enough knowledge from the various details to enable him to understand the meaning of the adjustment of watches, the causes of variations and the principal alterations for obtaining corrections. there are many features covered that will enable him to develop in practice and to experiment in individual points of importance, without running up against mathematical deductions that halt and discourage further interest in the subject. to understand the principles constitutes a large percentage of the qualifications required and to be able to execute the practical alterations and corrections required in different kinds of variations completes the general qualifications. it would hardly be sufficient, however, to conclude the work at this point without giving more definite examples for comparison, together with some indication as to the approximate time that may ordinarily be utilized in doing the work and also showing some instances of a possible choice of several alterations and why a particular alteration is advisable. for this reason the following examples will be found to have an important part in fulfilling the mission of this book. in selecting these examples the fineness of results has not been the principal consideration. the deciding factor was the differences in variation and alterations, and the fact that they cover the widest field for general instruction that could be selected from hundreds of equally good rates among various models of watches which, with three exceptions, were put in order for railroad service. the method of computing the variation from one position to any other is similar to that used in temperature adjusting as described in chapter , no. . the watch should first be timed closely and then rated for twenty-four hours in each position. it should be wound before being started in each position but should be set only on the first day so that the time is never disturbed. the first position to be rated is universally dial up, then in succession dial down, pendant up, pendant right and pendant left. the daily total number of seconds fast or slow should be entered in the first column of the rate card after each twenty-four hours run. this column then constitutes the progressive rate from which the actual variation between the different positions is ascertained. the figure in the upper square is first carried out to the adjoining column at its full value and then the difference between this figure and that of the second square is entered in the second square of second column, and so on until the difference between each of the succeeding squares of first column is registered in the second column. if the figure in a square of first column is greater than that in the preceding square the carried out figure would be entered in second column as + if the figure is less than the preceding square it would be carried out as-. the total variation in positions is obtained from the figures entered in second column. if these figures are all entered as either plus or minus it is necessary to merely subtract the lesser figure from the greater. if, however, some figures are entered as plus and others as minus it will be necessary to add the greater figure of each of the two denominations. . _example no. , three positions._ columbus, no. , open face, jewels. repairs made. new balance staff, two balance screws changed, hairspring trued and cleaned. after timing the watch closely it was tested in three positions and found to have a variation of eleven seconds fast pendant up as per second column, fig. . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _columbus_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | + | + | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | | - | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ investigation showed the hairspring to be pinned nearly correct, true level and in circle; balance true; regulator pins closed and motion satisfactory. a correction could have been made in one of several ways; either by making a slight alteration of the pinning point at the collet; correcting a possible slight error in poise or by slightly spreading the regulator pins. as the extent of variation did not indicate any serious error at any particular point for a watch of this description the possible poise error and the slight variation in the pinning point were waived and the regulator pins were spread just enough so that slight equal vibration of the coil could be seen with a double eyeglass. after this alteration the mean time was found to be one second per hour slow which was corrected on the mean time screws and the next test showed that the variation had been reduced to four second as per fourth column, fig. . the time consumed in making the alteration aside from the repairing was less than ten minutes. . _example no. , three positions._ ball no. b , open face, jewels. repairs made. refinished balance pivots and cleaned. the first test in positions disclosed a variation of thirty-five seconds as per second column fig. . investigation found the balance true; hairspring true, level and circle; regulator pins very nearly closed and the motion one and one-eighth turn. this rate like example no. , was also fast in the pendant up position, but the greater extent of the error indicated that there must be some serious poise error, and upon investigation this was found to be the case. a screw on the roller jewel side or at the bottom when the balance was at rest was found to be heavy. this was corrected and the next test showed a much improved rate although there was still a variation of eight seconds fast pendant up as per fourth column fig. . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _b _ make _ball_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | + | + | + | + | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | + | | + | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | + | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ a better rate than this was desired and further examination proved that the locking of the pallet stones and escape teeth was quite strong and caused the pendant up motion to have a shorter arc than would have been entirely desirable. an alteration was made by pushing the receiving stone further back into the slot and rebanking the escapement. the third position test showed an improved motion and a variation of three seconds as per sixth column. the total time required for making the alterations was about three quarters of an hour. . _example no. , three positions._ elgin no. . open face, jewels. repairs made. cleaned; polished pivots and new mainspring fitted. the first position test showed a variation of nineteen seconds as per second column, fig. . it will be noted that this example differs from nos. and , in that the rate is slow in the pendant up position. examination showed all points satisfactory except that the regulator pins were spread considerably and allowed too much freedom of vibration for the coil. had this vibration been slight it would have been advisable to examine the poise. as it was considerable, however, the alteration made was to close the pins so that only slight vibration was visible with a strong glass. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _elgin_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | - | - | + | + | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | - | - | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | - | - | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ this watch was not equipped with mean time screws and it was therefore necessary to fit a pair of thin timing washers because closing the pins caused a gaining rate of two seconds per hour in the mean time. the next position test showed a variation of four seconds as per fourth column fig. . the time consumed in making the alteration and fitting the washers was about ten minutes. . _example no. , three positions._ hampden no. , open face, jewels. repairs made. new balance staff and hole jewel fitted and cleaned. the first position test showed a variation of twelve seconds slow pendant up as per second column fig. . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _hampden | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | + | + | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | - | - | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ investigation found all points such as balance true, hairspring true, level and circle and the regulator pins reasonably satisfactory. the motion, however, was not as good as it should have been when the spring was nearly wound up. it was let down to where it would ordinarily be after about twenty-hours run and found to have barely one turn pendant up and a trifle over one turn in the flat positions. this proved that the motion was not satisfactory for a watch that had just been put in order and all pivots were examined for close end or side shake; they were found to be satisfactory and the mainspring was removed for examination and found to be somewhat set and about . mm. thinner than those generally used for this grade watch. a new mainspring was fitted and the motion was improved by about one-fourth of a turn and the next position test showed a variation of two seconds as per fourth column fig. . the time consumed in examination and changing the mainspring was about twenty-five minutes. the three position limit of variation allowed by most manufacturers and railroad inspectors is seven seconds from one position to any other. records of thousands of watches on which the work has been carefully done in putting the watches in order, show that about seventy per cent of the watches will rate within five seconds in the three positions without making alterations and that only ten per cent will be close to the limit of seven seconds, while about twenty per cent will require alterations such as shown in the four examples above. (see chapter xii, no. .) one or two more examples might be introduced to show variations and corrections between dial up and dial down; this feature has been pretty well covered however in chapter xi, and five position example no. also shows a variation of the horizontal rates with correction. chapter xiv concrete examples showing definite five position alterations and labor utilized . _what five position adjusting consists of--detailed allowances._ five position adjusting consists of a further refinement of the condition of the watch. the fact that a very close rate is shown in the first three positions is not an indication that the watch will be an excellent timepiece under all conditions. in fact there are instances where there may be an excellent three position rate and a further test in the pendant right and left positions may disclose some error that would positively prevent close timing in service. even under the five position test the limit of allowance must be reasonably close or unfavorable conditions may exist and cause irregularity in timing. a popular allowance for very fine watches among swiss and some american manufacturers is six seconds variation for the five positions as an extreme limit, and for medium high grades ten seconds extreme variation is considered a fair allowance. these allowances are graduated, however, and a six seconds extreme allowance watch would have an allowance not exceeding three seconds in the horizontal positions, with two seconds additional in the pendant up position and one second additional in either the pendant right or pendant left positions. watches having an extreme allowance of ten seconds may be permitted to have not more than five seconds variation between the two horizontal positions, with two seconds additional for the pendant up position and still three seconds additional in either the pendant right or left positions. it will be noted that there is considerable difference between six or ten second allowances of this description and straight limits of six or ten seconds. some manufacturers have greater limits of allowance, sometimes as great as twenty-five seconds for the five positions, but as a rule the first three positions are required to rate within seven seconds and the difference of eighteen seconds is divided between the right and left positions. under limits of this description a watch that would not be tolerated under the six or ten seconds class would be considered as good. watches having such large allowances, however, and rating close to the limit are hardly justified in being considered as adjusted to five positions. the fact that they are so considered however, is the reason why watchmakers will sometimes fine wide variation in new watches before they have been damaged or mishandled. the following five position examples were selected with the same care as were the three position specimens and will be found to cover a wide field of variation for comparison with rates that the adjuster may desire to correct. . _example no. ._ hamilton, no. ; open face, jewels. repairs made. new balance staff and cleaned. the first test in five positions showed a variation of twenty seconds as per second column fig. . it will be noted that in four of the positions the rate was quite close and that the pendant right position had an extremely fast rate. a casual investigation indicated that all points relating to the spring, regulator pins and balance were reasonably satisfactory but that there was a slight falling off in motion in the pendant right position. further investigation of this feature disclosed a slight striking sound when the watch was held to the ear in this position. the dial was removed and the bankings were closed to drop whereupon it was discovered that the fork was long on the inside, or when the receiving stone was locked on the escape teeth. this prevented the roller jewel from passing through the fork freely as it did on the opposite side. the balance pivots had the limit of allowance for side shake which aided the cause of the roller jewel in striking. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _hamilton_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | + | + | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p r | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p l | + | - | + | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ after correcting the roller jewel shake and readjusting the slide and guard pin freedom the next test showed a variation of eight seconds in the five positions as per fourth column fig. . the side shake of the balance pivots was not detrimental after the real cause of the variation had been removed and therefore no correction was required in this respect. if the error in the escapement had not existed and if the watch had shown the same rate with all points appearing to be satisfactory, the trouble would most likely have been found in the poise of balance with the upper side heavy in the pendant right position. the time consumed in making the correction was about one half hour. . _example no. ._ elgin. b. w. raymond. no. , , , open face, jewels. repairs made. new fourth pinion; new end stone; mainspring; refinished balance pivots and cleaned. note that this was only a -jewel watch. it belonged to a railroad engineer, however, who wanted it placed in first class condition, as it had not been satisfactory. the first five position test showed an error of twenty-four seconds as per second column fig. . examination of the motion, pivots, regulator pins, escapement and poise proved them to be satisfactory. the hairspring however, was found to be pinned at the slow pendant up point as per illustration in fig. . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _elgin_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | + | + | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | + | + | + | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | | - | + | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | p r | + | + | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | p l | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ the alteration made was to break out one-half of the inner coil at collet so that it was pinned at the fast point as illustrated in fig. . a pair of balance screws were removed and a heavier pair fitted to correct the mean time, which would have been about ten minutes fast in twenty-four hours because of shortening the spring. the balance was repoised and the next test in positions showed a variation of seven seconds as per fourth column fig. . the time required for making the alteration was about one half hour. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this watch was a full plate model with the train developing to the left from the center and illustrations no. and are given to show that, while the train follows the swiss development, the spring follows the american method and develops to the right from the collet even though it is located to the left of the watch center. the principle remains the same as that illustrated by figs. and and explained in chapter viii. . _example no. ._ waltham. no. . open face, vanguard model, jewels. repairs made. cleaned and new hole jewel. first five position test showed a very erratic rate as per second column fig. . investigation proved that the motion dropped off considerably after a few hours run and that the mainspring was too weak for this grade of watch. a proper mainspring was fitted which in turn corrected the motion, but the next test in positions proved that there was still a variation of eighteen seconds as per fourth column fig. . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _waltham_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | | | - | - | - | - | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | | | - | - | - | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | - | - | - | - | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p r | + | - | - | + | - | - | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p l | + | + | - | - | - | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ the balance and spring were removed and considerable poise trouble was discovered. the trouble was at different points of the balance and no one location seemed to be heavy at all times. the balance pivots were carefully gauged with a metric micrometer and found to be out of round, or to be exact, more oval in form than cylindrical. a new staff with round pivots was fitted, after which the balance was easily poised and the next test showed a variation of five seconds as per sixth column fig. . the total time required for making the examination and alterations was about one hour. . _example no. ._ vacheron and constantin. no. , , open face, jewels. repairs made. new balance staff, hole jewel, cap jewel, glass, and cleaned. the first test after making the repairs showed a variation of twelve seconds as per second column fig. . it will be observed that the rates in the horizontal positions are on the fast side and those in the vertical positions are on the slow side. in this instance the hairspring developed to the left from the collet similar to the illustration shown in fig. , page . fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _v. & c._ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | - | - | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | + | + | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p r | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p l | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ investigation found the escapement, regulator pins and pinning point satisfactory; the motion was one and one-fourth turn in the vertical positions when fully wound and only a trifle less when partially let down. in the flat positions, however, the motion was very little better than in the vertical, which indicated either pivot or end stone trouble as under normal conditions the flat motion would be about one-fourth turn greater than that of the vertical. inspection of the end stones proved that they were satisfactory but the ends of the balance pivots were found to be somewhat flat and not perfectly polished. the ends of the pivots were slightly rounded and highly polished, the jewels and end stones cleaned and reoiled and the balance replaced, after which the motion in the flat positions was one and one-half turn with the mainspring fully wound and only slightly less when partially let down. the motion in the vertical positions was also slightly improved and the next test in position showed a variation of three seconds as per fourth column fig. . time required for making the above alteration was about one-half hour. in the study of this example it should be clearly understood that when the ends of balance pivots are flat, burred or not well polished, or when the end stones are dry or dirty the motion in the horizontal positions will be shorter than normal and this will always cause the rate to be faster than it should be. acceleration of the motion in such instances by means of refinishing the pivot ends or by cleaning and reoiling the jewels and end stones will always produce a slower rate through causing a longer arc of motion. this point is covered in chapter xi, no. . . _example no. ._ e. howard. no. , , . open face, jewels. repairs made. new balance staff; hole jewel; mainspring and cleaned. the first test in positions showed a variation of eleven seconds. the rate in all positions was fast with the exception of the dial down rate, which was slow. see fig. . at first glance it might appear that by causing a faster rate of six or seven seconds in the dial down position the watch would have a very good rate. this, however, would not be consistent unless the rate was due to the exception referred to in chapter xi, no. . examination of the motion in the horizontal positions proved that it was about one fourth turn better in the dial down position than it was in the dial up position which rate compared very closely with the vertical positions. it was therefore evident that the dial up rate was not true and investigation found the oil in the upper jewel had become thickened by the entrance of dirt which caused the short motion and fast rate when the balance was running on this end stone. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _e. howard_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | + | + | - | - | + | + | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | - | - | - | - | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | - | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p r | + | + | | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p l | + | + | + | + | + | + | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ after thoroughly cleaning the jewel, end stone and pivot, the motion in the dial up position was improved and equaled that of the dial down position. the next position test showed the horizontal rates to be equal but the variation of eleven seconds in the five positions still existed as per fourth column fig. . the vertical rates were all fast compared to the horizontal; the regulator pins were found to be slightly open which prevented a correction at this point. the locking of the escapement was examined and found to be satisfactory, so the balance was again removed and tested for poise which was also found satisfactory. the hairspring was pinned at the usual fast point as per illustration in fig. , chapter viii. the most positive alteration to be made under the circumstances was to break off the spring at the collet and repin it at about ° above the horizontal line. this would be slightly approaching the slow point as explained in detail in chapter viii, no. . the mean rate of the watch would necessarily be faster after shortening the spring; the mean time screws were found to be turned in close to the rim and were each turned out about one full turn to compensate for the gain. the poise was tested and found to remain correct and the next position test showed a variation of four seconds as per sixth column fig. . the total time required for the alterations was about one hour. . _example no. ._ illinois. no. , , , open face, jewels. repairs made. trued and poised balance, new balance jewel and cleaned. this example has been selected for the purpose of illustrating a test in the sixth or pendant down position and to give a practical demonstration showing that the rates in the pendant down and pendant up positions can be reversed, with positive results, through reversing the collet pinning point of the spring, as covered in "relative pinning points" chapter viii. this alteration can be undertaken with assurance of results even though there may be serious errors of construction in the watch. the first five position test proved that the rate pendant up was extremely fast compared to all other rates as per second column fig. . investigation proved that the hairspring was properly centered and pinned at the fast pendant point and that the regulator pins were slightly spread with equal vibration of the coil between them. the motion was about one and one-fourth turn pendant up and over one and one-half turn in the horizontal positions when the mainspring was nearly full wound. the ends of balance pivots were found to be perfectly flat, which was no doubt due to an effort to produce a faster rate in the flat positions to cause them to compare more favorably with the pendant up rate. this, however, was unsuccessful as indicated by the rate. it is quite possible that if the watch ever was closely rated it was due to counterpoise of the balance as with the present rate the poise, escapement and regulator pins were satisfactory and did not admit of further corrections that would be of advantage. by examining the p. u. rate in second column fig. , it will be found to be twelve seconds fast and then by referring to the separate p. d. (pendant down) rate at the bottom, it will be found to be four seconds slow. adding these figures gives a total variation of sixteen seconds between these two positions. fig. +--------------------------------------------------+ | no. _ _ make _illinois_ | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | d u | - | - | - | - | | | p | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | d d | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p u | + | + | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p r | | - | - | + | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | | p l | - | - | - | - | | | | +--------+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+-----+ | p.d. | - + | +--------+-----------------------+ now if these rates were reversed and the p. d. rate was in the place of the p. u. rate the watch would have shown a very good position rate in the first five positions and the greater part of the sixteen seconds variation would have been in the pendant down position where it would be of the least disadvantage. in order to obtain this condition the collet pinning point was changed from the fast to the slow point, or from "e", fig. , to "g", fig. , chapter viii. a pair of heavier screws were fitted to the balance to compensate for the difference in time caused by shortening the spring and the next five position test showed a variation of six seconds. a separate pendant down test proved that the pendant up and pendant down rates had been practically reversed as shown in the fourth column. . _causes of extremely fast vertical rates._ extremely fast pendant up rates are not particularly unusual, although the causes and corrections may be widely different. for instance, the poise and motion feature, no. , chapter vii, may be responsible, or the balance may be in poise and the collet having a wide slot may cause out of poise and be responsible if the slot is located at the proper point. a defective escapement or regulator pins tightly closed may also be responsible. should these points be found satisfactory, however, the rate is generally due to one of three causes. . excessive side friction of pivots because of being too large in diameter. . train wheels and pinions being of incorrect proportion and causing irregular motion and affecting the vertical positions mostly. . centrifugal force, which would cause the balance rims to spring outward in the longer arcs of vibration and thereby produce an abnormal slow rate in the horizontal positions where the arc of motion is always longest. this is due to the balance rims being too heavy in proportion to the arms or center bar. * * * * * when either of these three conditions are found there will be others among the same lot of watches, but as a rule they are only found on older watches made before correct proportions were firmly established. train depthings can often be improved if the workman is equipped with a rounding up machine and knows how to use it. otherwise the watch can be sent to the factory for correction and the only alternative of the repairer is to cut the spring to the slow point, or counterpoise, with the intention of eliminating expense and getting as good results as can be expected for the financial returns that are to be received. . _how to locate defective gearings._ defective gear or depthing of wheels can be detected in two ways, one by observing the engaging surfaces of the wheel teeth and another by testing the engagement of wheel and pinion. if the gearing is correct, observation will show that the engaging surfaces of the wheel teeth are smooth and either dark or possibly polished from wearing away of the plating. if the gearings are not correct the engaging surfaces will have cuts or ridges crosswise which have been produced by the pinion leaves. the cause of this cutting is due to either a faulty construction of the teeth or to the fact that the pitch circle of the wheel is too small while that of the pinion is too large. testing the gearing in the watch is accomplished by placing the engaging wheel and pinion in the watch so that they are free to turn without engaging with any other wheel. a piece of ivory or celluloid several inches long and about the diameter of a piece of peg wood should be pointed at one end and this end should be held between the upper pivot and oil cup of the jewel, with enough pressure of the left hand to cause friction in turning the pinion. the larger wheel should then be turned in the direction in which it revolves when running; this is accomplished with a piece of peg wood held in the right hand. if the gearing is perfect there will be smoothness as the wheel and pinion turn and if it is imperfect there will be a butting effect in the action. should there be a slight intermittent stepping action due to drop of the wheel teeth on the pinion leaves it should not be mistaken for butting as this is not detrimental and will not cause cutting of the teeth. watches that have below standard train gearings require considerably stronger mainsprings than do those which have correct gearing and they will seldom take a reasonably good motion without a strong spring. a safe way to judge gearings if in doubt is by the motion and the engaging surfaces of the wheel teeth. if the motion is steady and the teeth are not cut by the pinion leaves they may be considered as satisfactory. if the motion is steady for a time and then suddenly drops off there is generally something wrong in the gearing. the wheel and pinion in error can be determined by noting at what particular intervals the motion decreases. in nearly all instances this condition will cause a gaining rate in the vertical positions because of the fact that the vertical arcs are shorter and comparatively more easily affected than the horizontal arcs. chapter xv timing and final regulation . _mean time screws and timing washers._ in the general overhauling of watches, changing staffs, retruing and repoising of balances it is often necessary to make corrections of several minutes per day in the mean time. for this reason and for the convenience of the future some manufacturers have provided from two to four mean time screws in the balances. a complete revolution of these screws either in or out, generally corrects any variation that may be required and frequently considerably less is all that is required in bringing the watch to time. it is of course necessary that these screws be turned in opposite pairs as well as equal distances and that they be fitted with enough friction to prevent looseness and not too tight to cause bending of the pivots when they are turned. if properly used for the purpose for which they were intended they are of inestimable value to the repairing fraternity in producing results. the manufacturers of some watches do not supply mean time screws with the balances and the repairer is obliged to depend entirely upon timing washers for fast corrections, for it is, of course, not to be expected that repair shops will carry an assortment of all different kinds of screws such as the factories are able to maintain. occasionally a jeweler or watchmaker will be found who has strenuous objections to the use of timing washers in any sense, but unless they are supplied with a large assortment of the various makes and weights of screws and are willing to use the extra time required for properly changing the screws it is difficult to see just what legitimate alternative they can adopt. investigation of this point disclosed the fact that the method employed by some watchmakers was to spread the regulator pins, which would of course make the mean time slower but would certainly destroy the adjustment to positions and make it practically impossible to obtain results from the regulator. it is admittedly poor workmanship to use ill-fitting washers and poor taste to use brass washers on high grade gold screw balances, but the fact should not be overlooked that the manufacturers of many fine watches use washers to a limited extent, even when an abundance of balance screws are available and very fine swiss models are often supplied with a pair of thin platinum washers which are not easily detected. the regulator should not be moved from the center of the index in correcting the mean time but should be used for minor final regulation only. the length of the hairspring should also not be disturbed in correcting the mean time of an adjusted watch and while a slow rate can be corrected by reducing the weight of a pair of balance screws it is necessary to use either heavier screws or washers for correcting a fast rate. . _importance of properly fitted regulator._ final regulation of watches is necessary after making repairs regardless as to whether they have been adjusted to positions or not. position rating does not necessarily suggest that the timing has been completed as the object is only to limit the variations from one position to any other and a test of three or four days should always be made in one position after the position rating has been completed. this additional timing has for its purpose the close regulation of the watch either in the pendant up position or in the position it is carried. the last column on the rate card is reserved for this purpose. in this respect the repairer who comes in contact with the customer may gain considerable advantage by noting in which pocket the watch is usually carried and then being guided in the final regulation by this knowledge. the method of doing this regulating consists generally of moving the regulator which requires certain attention to be effective when it is moved. the regulator should be carefully fitted around the dome and all attachments in connection should be tightly fitted to the plate or bridge so that they will remain rigid when regulation takes place. the tension around the dome should be even and if a tension spring is used in connection it should be strong enough to keep the regulator against the screw constantly without sticking at any point as the screw is moved forward and backward. it should also be closely examined to see that there is no shake. this can be determined by lightly taking hold of the segment holding the regulator pins and moving it up and down and side ways before the tension spring is fitted. this should be examined with a glass and a correction made if any looseness is noted. . _effect of the middle temperature error._ in the final regulation of watches it is important that the middle temperature error receive due consideration. this error is always a few seconds fast as explained in temperature adjusting chapter v, no. , and is of some consequence in the larger number of complaints regarding losing rates in the pocket, compared to complaints of gaining rates. the position rating as well as the final regulation is generally done in normal temperature which produces a rate from two to four seconds faster than the heat extreme and it is to be expected that the pocket rate will be slower because the temperature will be higher than normal. this loss may not be the full amount of the middle error as it would depend upon the actual temperature encountered for the entire twenty-four hours and the watch may only be subjected to the pocket temperature for a part of this period. this works in exactly the same way in a lower temperature, as the variation is a loss in either direction from the middle or normal temperature and in case that the watch should be subjected to a freezing temperature at night the result will be a loss during that period. as an example we will assume the regulation of a watch in which the temperature rate at the extremes of ° and ° fahr. is perfect, while at the temperature of ° it will time four seconds fast. now if this watch is regulated to no variation in the normal temperature it will be plainly seen that there will be a loss of four seconds per day if the watch is placed in service at either of the temperature extremes. if it had been regulated to run four seconds fast in the middle or normal temperature it would time more nearly correct in the pocket. it is safe to assume that the watch will lose its proportional rate with a lesser change in temperature and for this reason it is of advantage to finally regulate all watches from two to four seconds fast in the rack rather than to time them just correct. . _some practical reasons for slow rates._ there are additional reasons for the suggestion of timing watches a few seconds fast rather than just correct. among them may be mentioned the fact that many watches are carried in the left vest pocket, and that in this instance they very often assume the pendant right position which is generally a trifle slow compared to pendant up in most watches of close adjustment. magnetism to any extent whatever always causes a slow rate and this will have its effect whenever the balance, hairspring, regulator, regulator spring or pallet are slightly effected or when the mainspring, large winding wheels or case springs are considerably charged and experiments have shown that in no instance has a fast rate been produced from this cause. the gradual weakening or loss of elastic force of the hairspring is also a factor to be considered. there are some influences which cause a gaining rate that to some extent may offset these losses, although in the absence of necessity for cleaning or other repairs these influences are slight in comparison to the natural and possible causes for a slow rate. part iii special notes chapter xvi special notes . _efficiency of execution analyzed (two examples)._ in performance of the various alterations and corrections that have been touched upon in the chapters devoted to position adjusting there are some points that deserve special note. this refers to positive execution of the correction which the watchmaker sets out to make. as an example we may analyze the simple feature of polishing a pivot and cleaning and reoiling a jewel to improve the motion in one of the horizontal positions. ordinarily this would seem to be a very simple proceeding requiring no additional remarks. it is, however, quite possible to go through all of the operations of removing, cleaning and reoiling the jewel and polishing the pivot and then find that no improvement has been made in the motion. invariably the workman of moderate experience will say that he has just cleaned and reoiled the jewel and polished the pivot and that it must be all right. investigation, however, will sometimes show that the pivot has again been marred or that a particle of dirt has found its way into the jewel hole during replacement either through dust in the oil or through clinging to the end of the pivot when the balance was laying on the bench. this experience is one that comes occasionally to the best and most careful adjusters and if it is found that results have not been obtained the first time it will be necessary to go over the operations a second time. it is possible to almost entirely eliminate this duplication of work if proper care is exercised in examining the pivot and jewel with a good glass before replacing and in using oil from a closed receptacle in which it has not been possible for dust to collect. the point raised in this instance is that the improvement desired is not assured because of merely going through the operations of doing the work. it is necessary to actually remove the cause and then keep it removed. the proof is found in the improved motion and it would hardly be worth while to retest in positions until this improvement was obtained. proper curvature of the over coil within the range of the regulator pins is another feature that may be corrected and the correction unconsciously destroyed in replacing the balance or in centering the spring. a slight kink in the coil close to the regulator pins may cause the spring to be forced out of center when the regulator is moved, or it may cause the coil to lay against one pin and cease vibrating between the pins. this would cause a gain of some seconds per day when the regulator had actually been moved to cause a slower rate. these two examples are introduced to convey the idea that it is necessary to actually produce the corrections or alterations in any instance and that close timing and close position rates depend more upon this practical execution and understanding as displayed by the watch repairer than they do upon a high degree of technical knowledge. personal instruction of watchmakers in adjusting has demonstrated in most instances that the refinements are not considered seriously enough at first, but that consistent practice and reference to the rules soon make the proper impression, after which results are attained in less time than was at first required for faulty execution. . _truing the balance._ the balance should invariably be true in the round and flat and always in poise before it is placed in the watch. it is at times pardonable to pass a balance that is not perfectly true in the round, especially when the watch has been repaired on several occasions and it is noted that the rims have a tendency to become set slightly inward or outward after having been perfectly trued. this shows a natural tendency of the metals to find a permanent position which may be slightly away from the true concentric form. a balance of this description may be poised as it is and often will produce better timing results than would be gained by perfect truing and subsequent regulation during readjustment of the metals. it is advisable to always have the flat true as by doing so any slightly bent pivots will be detected through wavering of the balance and the flat is not very frequently affected by setting of the metals. balances should generally be trued and poised in normal or slightly above normal temperature. if they are trued in a low temperature they will be out of true and possibly out of poise in the temperature to which they are mostly subjected. compensation balances are not presumed to be true in the round under variations of temperature and therefore inspection for true is necessary in somewhere near the same temperature in which they are trued. . _poising the balance._ in poising balances it is necessary to consider the mean rate of the watch and several details in connection therewith. if the rate is known to be fast, weight should be added to the light side, and if it is known to be slow weight may be removed from the heavy side. if the rims of the balance have been trued outward it is a safe rule to remove weight from the heavy side in poising and if they have been bent inward to get the balance true, weight should be added to the light side in poising. a balance that is in perfect poise can be brought to a perfect stop on a fine jeweled poising tool at any point of its circumference. for ordinary work it is generally considered as satisfactory if it can be brought to a perfect stop at each of the four quarters. when the heavy point seems to be first at one place and then just opposite it is proof that either a pivot is bent or oval in form instead of round. in some instances balances will be found to swing slightly and stop at several different places. this is usually an indication that there are several flat places on one or both pivots and if the watch is a fine one the staff will require changing or the pivots may be rounded up on a jacot lathe. a fine edge jeweled poising tool is best for fine work as defects in pivots and variations in poise can be more easily discovered than with calipers. . _truing hairsprings._ original truing of the hairspring is made necessary by the fact of attaching the collet to its center. when springs are turned out by the manufacturer they are perfectly true, that is, the coils are level and perfectly spiral in form and the deviation from this spiral form, made necessary in attaching the collet, is what demands certain forming of the inner terminal so that it will blend with the other coils of the spring which have not been disturbed. in attaching the collet it is first necessary to have the spring level before the pin is forced tightly in place. this can be fairly well determined by sighting across the flat of the spring and focusing upon the inner coil to see that it is level for at least one half of its length from the point of exit. after this operation has been completed and the pin has been set up tight, with the surplus ends cut off flush with the collet it will be necessary to slightly pull the coil up or down, providing it is not perfectly level. the next operation will be that of truing the round and all work and bending of the spring for this operation is concentrated within the first quarter of the coil from its point of attachment and it is seldom ever necessary to make any bends beyond the first eighth of the coil from the attached point. figure may be of some value in gaining an idea as to just how this inner coil should appear when it has been trued. the broken lines illustrate a condition after colleting and before truing. the heavy lines illustrate two positions into either of which the coil may be formed in getting the spring true. [illustration: fig. ] the outer black line shows the most adaptable form for most instances. the inner black line shows the most practical form for use in instances where there is unusual space between the collet and the inner coil. it will be noted that these two forms blend into the true spiral form of the spring at about one-eighth of the coil distant from the collet. these forms may be used as a basis for truing the spring in any instance in which it has been bent or mishandled around the collet after its original truing. experts always true springs after they have been staked to the balance and a light weight calipers tapered on one end to a smaller diameter than the collet is used for spinning the balance, making observations, and corrections. considerable progress can be made by some watchmakers in removing the spring from the balance and placing it on a colleting tool or tapered broach and then truing the flat and round as good as possible, after which it should be perfected in the calipers. when the balance is spinning in the calipers and the spring is true in the flat there will be no jumping or quivering of the coils as observation is made across the top of the inner four or five coils. when it is perfectly true in the round and the balance is spinning in one direction the coils will seem to be whirling into a hole of which the collet is the center. when spinning the balance in the opposite direction the effect of the coils will be similar to the waves produced by dropping a small stone in still water and they will appear to be whirling away from the center. this effect in both instances is caused by the eye following the spiral form of the coils as the spring revolves. . _treating a rusty hairspring._ when rust begins its attack upon any point of a hairspring there will be a constant loss in time until its advance is stopped. should considerable headway have been made by the rust before the watchmaker's attention is enlisted for an examination it may be necessary to change the spring entirely before good results can again be obtained. there are many instances, however, in which proper care at the right time will produce as good results as will a new spring. the first appearance of rust is generally indicated by one or more spots of a light brown shade and in such instances it has hardly attacked the metal to any serious extent, although usually enough to cause a slightly losing rate. at this stage the spots may be scraped with a piece of peg wood after which the spring can be placed in a small copper pan containing lard oil to a depth of about one-fourth inch. this pan should then be held over an alcohol lamp until the oil becomes hot enough to smoke, after which the spring should be removed, immersed in benzine for about thirty seconds and then dried in sawdust. this treatment will stop further rust and the only indication of previous rust may be a removal of the color from the spot which had been affected. in case that the rust has reached a stage far enough advanced to seriously pit the metal, good results cannot be expected from the spring even though further rusting may be prevented. . _stopping by escapement locking when hands are set backward, or when watch receives a jar._ this is sometimes a very annoying trouble and while it should not occur on high grade watches at all, it does show up just often enough to cause a certain degree of unpleasantness for the owner of the watch as well as for the watchmaker. there are two principal causes for the difficulty. one is due to the back of discharging pallet stone having a very sharp corner combined with a slightly rough edge on the back of the escape wheel teeth and when the two factors meet with some slight force, such as is caused by reversal of the train wheels the sharp corner of the stone wedges itself into the rough surface of the tooth and holds until pulled away by some small instrument. this can be remedied by removing the sharp edge of the stone on a diamond charged polishing lap and a very slight correction is sufficient. the second principal cause is due to sharp edges on the roller jewel. first quality roller jewels always have these edges rounded, as otherwise they may wedge into the horn of the fork and often will not release through ordinary shaking of the watch. a short guard pin can also cause the trouble by allowing the roller jewel to catch on the end of the fork horn before it enters, or the guard pin may catch on the edge of the crescent on the safety roller, but the two causes mentioned above will allow "hanging up" even when the guard pin, roller jewel and all other shakes are correct. when the above conditions are correct and all setting connections are properly fitted, the hands may be set either forward or backward without in any way disturbing the time. there are instances, however, where the watch will stop when the hands are reversed and at times the second hand will actually turn backward although the watch will immediately begin to run as soon as the backward pressure on the hands is discontinued. this is caused by the cannon pinion being so tightly fitted that turning it backward will require more force than that which is supplied by the mainspring. a condition of this description is more pronounced when the mainspring is nearly run down and sometimes it will happen at such times and will not occur when the spring is fully wound. . _essentials and non-essentials in cleaning watches._ it would be difficult to suggest a best method for general cleaning of watches. different watchmakers have different methods and good results are attained in more than one way. whatever the method, however, there are certain definite requirements that are fundamental. among these are the thorough cleansing of pivots, jewels, pinion leaves, wheel teeth, mainspring and winding parts. it is not sufficient to depend upon routine and simply dip the parts in various solutions, brush and reassemble the watch. there are many instances in which the oil becomes gummy and sticks to the jewels and pivots to such an extent that peg wood and pith must be applied with considerable energy to obtain perfectly clean surfaces and holes. the essential feature is that of actually removing every particle of dirt from the contact surface. it is not essential that the plate and bridges should have a high lustre, as this does not facilitate the running. if it is desired and if facilities are available, the plates and bridges may be dipped in benzine and dried in sawdust, then washed and brushed in a solution of hot water, borax and castile soap, then rinsed in fresh water, dipped in alcohol and dried in sawdust. this produces a lustre to the plate bridges and wheels. when it is not convenient to use hot water the parts may be dipped and brushed in benzine for at least one minute and dried in sawdust, then dipped in alcohol and again dried in sawdust. in either event thorough pegging and pithing of the jewels, pivot holes and pivots is necessary as well as brushing and examining all wheel teeth and pinion leaves. the steel parts should be examined and gummy oil eliminated. fresh oil should be applied in proper quantities in the proper places. this requires some study, as either too much or too little oil is detrimental. when a watch is cleaned annually by the same workman it is not necessary that the mainspring be removed and reoiled each time, for a mainspring properly oiled will last for two or three years before requiring cleaning and reoiling. it is well known that mainsprings frequently break shortly after being removed and cleaned and this annoyance may be avoided in many instances by intelligent use of this rule. balances should not be dipped in acid solutions, as the liquid gathers under the screws and will often cause them to discolor in a short time. it is better to polish them with fine rouge and cotton thread arranged on a wire bow as the lustre will be more lasting. generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) /$ instruction book on ring spinning by francis l. lincoln. warren, mass. herald printing company. . $/ /$ entered according to act of congress, in the year , by francis l. lincoln, in the office of the librarian of congress at washington. $/ preface. the object of this little book is to give help and instruction to those who are engaged in this department of mill work. it imparts that knowledge which only years of thorough study and observation can give. it has been carefully prepared by an experienced spinner, who has given years of study to it, in order to benefit and help those who are interested in the spinning department. /$ francis l. lincoln, author. $/ contents. /$ . the first thing to do when going into a strange room to take charge. . to see that your draughts, twists and travelers are right, etc. . how to pack yarn closely on the bobbin. . to see that your thread guides are . about spindles, rings, and steel rolls. . how top rolls should be kept in order to make good yarn weight on top rolls, etc. . bands; how they should be run, etc. . what to do when you have long staple cotton. . what twists should be in the hank roving, and why. . how roving should be when run double, and how to get it single. . how to run colored roving double on spinning frames. . how waste should be run through the lappers, etc. . how to prove that uneven work is not made on spinning frames. . how bunches can be made on spinning frames and spoolers. . how coarse threads are made. . caution to be observed in changing from one number of yarn to another. . what to do when cotton is poor. . why it is cheaper for the company to wind the yarn hard on the bobbins and spools. . if yarn is knitted, where the trouble is. . how snarled yarn is made, etc. . how to avoid making lap waste in spinning room. . how to avoid making roving waste in spinning room. . when wastes should be picked up. . what the draught change gear should be, when you run colored work. . system in doffing the frames and gauge to go by. . how to get speed of cylinder and spindles. . to know what pulley will drive your cylinder faster or slower. . how to take up a belt or let it out, when you change pulleys. . rule for finding what number of twists to the inch for any number of yarn. . square root of numbers, from to , with twist. . the rule for finding the draught for any number of yarn. . the gear required to run another number on the same hank roving. . the hank roving required to run another number of yarn with same draught. . rule to find the draught change gear required, when changing from one number to another on a frame or mule, when the draught and roving both have to be altered. . how to find the twist gear by square root of the number. . how to get twist pulley for another number of yarn. . how to get the exact twist in yarn. . how to get the weight on top rolls. . square root table for the twist of yarn. $/ instruction book. the first thing. . the first thing to do when going into a strange room to take charge, is to learn the names and dispositions of your help, and their ability. by doing this it will save you some trouble. do not turn off help the first day you go into a room to take charge. get the good will of your help and keep them; and when they learn your ways and know you mean just what you say, every thing will be pleasant for them and you also. draughts, twists and travelers. . to see that your draughts, twists and travelers are right for the numbers of yarns you are spinning. travelers govern the twist. when the bobbins are full there is more twist in than when it first starts. have them heavy enough to keep the ends straight. if travelers are poor the work will run bad. change them on fine work once in three or four months, clean them every doff, and touch the ring with a little oily waste. if draught gears bind, spinners cannot keep their ends up. packing yarn on bobbins. . to see that the yarn is packed closely on the bobbin. the way to tell is to put an empty bobbin on, and run one layer of yarn upon it; if the threads do not lay close together, run your motion slower. in this way you get more length of yarn to the bobbin. thread guides. . to see that your thread guides are central with the bobbin below. if a crease has been made by the thread running through it, take it out and put in a new one. spindles. . to see that the spindles are in the center of the rings, and that your rings are in good condition. a poor ring will make two-thirds more waste than a good one, and the frame requires three times the cleaning that it does with a good ring. slip your finger round inside of the ring; if it feels notchy the ring is poor. take it out. rings should be looked over every time you scour. that should be every six months. steel rolls should be rubbed with one-twenty emery cloth once a year, with a little oil. top rolls. . see that your top rolls are kept in good condition. look them all over once a month if that will do, if not look them over oftener. new rolls should always be put in the front, poorest ones in the back. new rolls should always be calipered at each end; if they do not caliper the same at each end of the roll, the roll should not be used, as it would spoil the yarn, and spinners could not keep up their ends. new rolls should be oiled when they are put in to run. neck of front rolls should be oiled morning and noon. all of the rolls should be oiled once a week. the weight should be the same on all top rolls. in order to do this your saddles must be all alike, and must not hug the neck of the roll. stirrups should be all of the same length and style. the levers should be all of the same length and style; and weights should be all of the same heft. stirrups must clear the rolls, and use double saddles. shell rolls should be cleaned and oiled once a month, with lard oil. use vinegar with one-third water to clean top rolls. roller hooks should not be used on steel rolls. carrying. . a small band carrying one spindle is better than a large band carrying a number of spindles. it makes better yarn, and not one-third the waste. bands should be put on tight; and the spinner should call the band boy soon as one comes off, to put on a new one. bands should all be looked over once a week, and all slack ones cut off and new ones put on. a slack band makes soft yarn. if your frame does not run up to speed, you will get soft yarn. a dry spindle will also make soft yarn. keep your spindles properly oiled. long staple cotton. . for long staple cotton you must spread the bottom and top rolls a little to avoid cockley yarn. long staple cotton does not require so much twist on spinning as short. roving. . too much twist in roving makes bad yarn, and spoils the top rolls on spinning frames. the square root of the number is about the twist for roving. it gives the carder a chance to keep up with the spinning, and gives the spinner a chance to make a better quality of yarn. if there is too much twist in the roving, you cannot draw it on spinning frames without spreading the rolls; but then it will spoil the top rolls. keep your numbers even if you can. size from every fine speeder and average it every day, and examine the yarn every time you size, to see if it is good. by doing so it may save you considerable trouble. two-roving. . in running two-roving together, always have them of the same hank, because if one is of one hank, and the other of another, there will be more twist in one than in the other, and will not make as good yarn, and will not draw as even as they would if they were of the same twist or hank. to know what the two hanks would be single; you must add the two hanks together, and divide that by four to get it single. double work. . the way to run double work on spinning frames. have the white put in the top, if you have double creels; and colored work in the bottom. piece the back roving in the top with the back roving in the bottom. front in with front makes the yarn more even. waste. . waste must be run through the lapper all by itself, not mix it with the good cotton; and if one section of cards will run one lap a day and keep the waste up, you may run one; if it makes two laps put on two sections, (one lap on each section,) and the work or yarn will be more even. uneven work. . how to prove that uneven work is not made on spinning frames. see that your draught gears do not bind; if they do, you will have uneven yarn. put in new rolls in front, middle and back. see that your frame runs up to right speed and roller belt is tight. see that the rings and travelers are good. see that stirrups and saddles are in place. then if your yarn is uneven the trouble is in the carding room. roving bobbins should be marked for each speeder; and the spinner run each separate on his frames. then if you had bad work you could tell very quick which speeder it belonged to. bunches. . how bunches can be made on spinning frames. by piecing on roving and leaving the end to run through double. by piecing up ends and not twisting on smoothly. by wiping out the roving rack and the waste catching on the roving and running through the rolls. by wiping off thread-boards, waste catching on to the ends and spinning. by rolls not being kept clean and oiled. by spinners not being careful enough when they clean their rolls. by spinners brushing and cleaning their frames. by brushing down over head. by spinners not keeping their clearers clean. the carder should be just as particular about making his roving as the spinner is about making his yarn; then there will be good work all through. a dry front roll will make bunches on spinning frames, and will do the same on speeders. sweepers should not blow their waste under the frames. bunches can be made on spoolers by thread guides not being wide enough for the threads to pass through. a bunch will collect and stop the spool. spooler tenders lift it over on to the spool. coarse threads. . how coarse threads are made. first, by coarse roving; second by spinners letting two roving run through the guide; third, by one end catching on to another and running on to the bobbin; fourth, sometimes where there is two ends on one boss, one end will break and catch onto the other and spin. if the trouble is in the spinning, you untwist the thread and you will find two threads instead of one. if not two threads, the trouble is in the carding room. changing numbers. . when you change from one number to another see that the motion runs right to pack the yarn closely on the bobbin; then have your travelers just heavy enough to keep the ends straight. by running a heavy traveler you pack the yarn harder on the bobbin. i do not believe in running a traveler heavy enough to pull down the ends, but heavy enough to keep the ends straight. poor cotton. . when cotton is poor you may need a little more twist in the yarn; sometimes when cotton is poor, the warp spinning will run bad. in this case you may run your warp one number heavier and mule filling one number lighter. waste work requires more twist than good cotton. economy of heavy travelers. . it is cheaper for the company to run heavy travelers, and wind the yarn hard on the bobbins and spools. you get more length of yarn and a better quality. will not cost so much for spooling. knitted yarn. . if the yarn is knitted the trouble is in the carding room, as you cannot make knitted yarn on spinning frames. snarled yarn. . how snarled yarn is made. by spinners not finding the end and breaking a thread on the bobbin to piece up by. by having the taper shorter on top of the bobbin than on the bottom, so when the doffers take the full bobbins off, the thread pulls over the top and snarls. to avoid the above, lower the arm where it is attached to the frame, (the arm that the heart rider is attached to). about one-quarter of an inch will be enough. you want the taper longer at the top than at the bottom. lap waste. . how to avoid making lap waste in spinning room. by keeping spinners where their work is, and by not giving spinners any more work than they can keep up. by having good doffers and good starters. if doffers and starters are not good they will make more waste than their wages will come to. doffers should wind the thread four times around the bobbin. starters should not wind on to bobbins when there is yarn on to piece up by. roving waste. . how to avoid making roving waste in spinning room. by letting it all run through the rolls into yarn. all bad roving should be sent back into the carding room, where it belongs, every day. picking up wastes. . all wastes should be picked up, looked over, weighed and carried off where it belongs, every day. you will find it much better than the old way. not so apt to accumulate. colored work. . colored work always runs heavy. you want one tooth less draught change gear than your hank roving figures for. but put in the same twist. doffing. . system in doffing the frames. to save making waste and trouble in the room, doff every other row right through, then go back and doff the remaining rows through. in doffing this way the spinners can tend more sides and not make so much waste, as any spinner knows, or ought to know. frames run better when half full than on an empty bobbin. one frame stopped at a time to doff, is all that ought to be permitted. from three to four minutes is long enough time to doff any frame with four doffers. the first frame should be filled to a gauge astride the bobbin. do not go by the clock, as the yarn is sometimes heavy. this gauge is the best guide i ever had in doffing. speed of cylinder. . how to get speed of cylinder. see what main line runs; then get diameter of counter pulley that carries the cylinder below. the pulley above is called a driver. then multiply the speed of main line by diameter of counter pulley that carries the cylinder, and divide that by the diameter of the pulley that is on the cylinder, which is called the driven. then to get speed of spindles, get diameter of cylinder, and multiply the speed of cylinder by diameter of cylinder, and divide that by the diameter of the whorl. speeding pulleys. . to know what pulley will drive your cylinder faster or slower. multiply the speed you would like to have it run, by diameter of pulley overhead, that carries the cylinder, and divide that by the speed you are now running. will give you pulley required. taking up belts. . to know how to take up a belt, when you change pulleys. if your belt is tight enough with the pulley you now have on, for every inch that your pulley is smaller than you now have on, take out one inch and three-quarters of belting. if larger, right the reverse. twists. . to know what number of twists to the inch, for any number of yarn. on warp, multiply the square root of the number by . frame filling by , and mule filling by -¼. for every ten numbers below thirty take away two twist to the inch. for every ten numbers above thirty, add two. square root. . square root of numbers from to .--these twists are within a fraction. /$ +---------+---------+---------------+----------------+ | numbers | sq root | warp twist | filling twist | +---------+---------+---------------+----------------+ | | . | per inch | -½ per inch. | | | . | -½ " " | " " | | | . | " " | " " | | | . | -½ " " | " " | | | . | -½ " " | -½ " " | | | . | " " | " " | | | . | -½ " " | -½ " " | | | . | " " | " " | | | . | -½ " " | | | | . | " " | " " | | | . | -½ " " | | | | . | " " | -¾ " " | | | . | -½ " " | " " | | | . | " " | | | | . | -½ " " | " " | +---------+---------+---------------+----------------+ $/ draught for yarn. . to know the draught for any number of yarn. write the number you are spinning or want to spin, add two ciphers to it; divide that by the hank roving that you are spinning from, to get draught. example; hank roving , no. yarn . add two ciphers, ( ); divided by gives draught. gear required. . this is the way i was taught to figure draughts of different numbers of yarn. if you want to run another number with the same hank roving, multiply the smallest draught change gear by the number you are spinning, and divide that by the number you want to spin, and that will give you the gear required. roving required. . if you want to spin another number with same draught, write your number that you want to spin (as above) and divide that by the draught. that will give you hank roving required. to find draught change gear. . rule to find the draught change gear required. when you change from one number to another on a frame or mule, when the draught and roving both have to be changed, multiply the number of the yarn being spun by the hank roving desired, and that product by the number of teeth in the draught change gear; using that for a dividend. then multiply the number of the yarn desired by the hank roving, using that for a divisor; that product divided will tell the draught change gear that is required. twist gear. . the way i was taught to find the twist gear by square root of the number of yarn. multiply the twist gear in use by the square root of the number being spun, and divide that product by the square root of the number you want to spin. that will give you the twist gear required. twist pulley. . to get the twist pulley for another number of yarn. see what twist the pulley gives that you have on, and multiply the twist that you have in, by the pulley that is on, and divide that product by the twist you would like to put in to get the pulley required. twist of yarn. . to know how to get the exact twist in yarn. have your roll belt tight, and band also. count the revolutions of the spindle to the rollers once. divide that by the circumference of the roll, which is - / inches. example. say turns to the rolls once. ( - / ) . turns, ( - / ) twists to the inch. weight on top rolls. . to know the weight on top rolls. you must measure the distance from where the stirrup is attached to the lever to where the wire is attached that holds the weight; then multiply the distance by whatever the weight weighs, and divide that product by the exact distance from where the lever is attached to the set screw, to where the stirrup is attached. square root table for the twist of yarns. /$ +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | no. of | square | no. of | square | no. of | square | | yarn | root | yarn | root | yarn | root | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | | | . | | . | | . | +--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+--------+ $/ ==> if any spinner purchasing this book has trouble with his work, he will receive aid from me (if in my power) by stating all particulars. all orders for this book should be addressed to francis l. lincoln, p.o. box , warren, mass. price one dollar. * * * * * synthetic tannins their synthesis, industrial production and application by georg crasser, dr. phil., ing. lecturer in tanning chemistry at the german technical college, brunn author's preface whilst the synthesis of the natural tannins has been successfully outlined by emil fischer, it has been left to the chemical industry, notably the badische anilin und soda-fabrik in ludwigshafen-on-the-rhine, to discover the means of making possible the production of the synthetic tannins. the scientific results of fischer's researches are to-day common knowledge, and these, together with questions arising therefrom, will only be lightly touched upon in the book herewith presented. even an attempt at enumerating the present synthetic tannins has so far not been published, and i have therefore availed myself of the opportunity of making a brief summary of them. my work at the b.a.s.f. deepened my insight in this new field; ample opportunity of applying these synthetic products in practice was given me when, as a result of the war, i was appointed technical consultant to the austrian hide and leather commission, and in this capacity was called upon to act as general adviser to the trade. the ultimate object of my scientific researches was then to investigate the chemistry of this particular field, and this has led me to present a picture, complete as far as it goes, of this branch of chemical technology. the intention of the present volume is to communicate to the reader what has so far been scientifically evolved and practically applied in this field. first of all, however, it may illustrate the extreme importance and the universal applicability of the synthetic tannins in the making of leather. the modern leather industry cannot, to-day, be without these important products, but also in those tanneries, where the synthetic tannins have not so far been regarded as indispensable, their use is strongly recommended. just as in the case of the coal-tar dyes, the synthetic tannins will make us independent of foreign supplies, and thus keep within our own borders the vast sum of money required in former days for the purchase of foreign tanning materials. may this book prove the means of providing an incentive for a still wider application of the synthetic tannins. grasser. graz, _august_ . translator's preface doctor grasser hardly needs an introduction to the leather trade of this country in its scientific aspect, but if one be sought for, none could serve the purpose better than a translation of the book herewith presented to the british-speaking public. viewed with curiosity from their start, the synthetic tannins needed--like many other important discoveries--an extreme emergency for the purpose of showing their value. the great war provided the opportunity of which chemical industry was to avail itself, and to-day we do not only see synthetic tannins placed upon the market as a veritable triumph of chemical technology and a creditable triumph of manufacturing chemistry; we also see their immensely practical qualities established as a fact, and, as the author aptly remarks, no modern tanner can to-day dissociate himself from the use of synthetic tannins for the production of leather in the true sense of this word. there is no branch of leather-making where synthetic tannins cannot help and improve processes already established. the immense number of substances patented by german manufacturing chemists for the purpose of producing synthetic tanning materials is almost staggering. in view of this fact it is doubly pleasing to see that british chemists have found new ways, and are able to produce equally good and more varied synthetic tannins than has hitherto been deemed possible. the originator of these products and his acolytes must at least share the credit with those who, in spite of the limitations necessarily set by the former, have been able to find new and better ways. in his book dr. grasser gives a short review of the necessary forerunner of any work upon synthetic tannins: the investigations and syntheses of the natural tannins. it is certainly to be hoped that we may soon see such works as those of fischer's and freudenberg's, recently published, translated into english. for the guidance of the reader it may be noted that a short account of the works of these authors may be found in the _journal of the society of leather trades' chemists_, vol. v. (may issue); in addition to this some of the matter contained in the chapter on synthesis of tanning matters appeared in the january issue of the _journal of the american leather chemists' association._ in addition to these two sections, the last part of this book deals with the practical applications of synthetic tannins, and it is hoped that the tanner will find much valuable information in these pages. the main outlines of the synthesis of tanning matters should prove of great value to the chemist engaged in this branch of chemical technology. the translator takes great pleasure in the acknowledging the valuable assistance rendered him by mr. robin bruce croad, a.r.t.c., f.i.c., and by mr. arthur harvey. f. g. a. enna contents introduction: classification of synthetic tannins part i section i the synthesis of vegetable tannins . tannin . digallic acid . ellagic acid . depsides carbomethoxylation of hydroxybenzoic acids chlorides of carbomethoxyhydroxybenzoic acids preparation of didepsides preparation of tridepsides preparation of tetradepsides tannoid substances of the tannin type chart showing the decomposition of products of tannin section ii synthesis of tanning matters . aromatic sulphonic acids . condensation of phenols condensation of hydroxybenzene condensation of dihydroxybenzene trihydroxy benzene polyhydroxybenzenes quinone phenolic ethers nitro bodies amino bodies aromatic alcohols aromatic acids . condensation of naphthalene derivatives . condensation of the anthracene group . di- and triphenylmethane groups . summary table section iii tanning effects of mixtures and natural products . mixture of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde . mixture of phenolsulphonic acid and natural tannins . tanning effects of different natural substances section iv methods of examining tanning matters part ii synthetic tannins: their industrial production and application a. condensation of free phenolsulphonic acid b. condensation of partly neutralised phenolsulphonic acid c. condensation of completely neutralised phenolsulphonic acid d. condensation of cresolsulphonic acid e. relative behaviour of an alkaline solution of bakelite and natural tannins f. dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid (neradol d) . neradol d reactions . electro-chemical behaviour of neradol d . the influence of salts and acid contents on the tanning effect of neradol d . phlobaphene solubilising action of neradols . effect of neradol d on pelt . reactions of neradol d with iron and alkalies . reagents suitable for demonstrating the various stages of neradol d tannage . combination tannages with neradol d ( ) chrome neradol d liquors ( ) aluminum salts and neradol ( ) fat neradol d tannage . analysis of leather containing neradol d . properties of leather tanned with neradol d . neradol d, free from sulphuric acid . neutral neradol g. different methods of condensation as applied to phenolsulphonic acid . condensation induced by heat . condensation with sulphur chloride . condensation with phosphorus compounds . condensation with aldehydes . condensation with glycerol register of authors index introduction classification of synthetic tannins in laying down a definition of "synthetic tannins," it is first of all necessary to clearly define the conception of "tannin." primarily, tannins may be considered those substances of vegetable origin which may be found, as water-soluble bodies, in many plants, exhibiting certain chemical behaviour, possessing astringent properties and being capable of converting animal hide into leather. this latter property of the tannins, that of converting the easily decomposable protein of animal hide into a permanently conserved substance and imparting to this well-defined and technically valuable properties, has become the criterion of the practical consideration of a tannin. it appears that different substances certainly show the chemical reactions peculiar to the tannins, and to a certain extent also exhibit astringent character without, however, possessing the important property peculiar to the tannins of converting hide into leather. such substances, in our present-day terminology, are termed pseudo-tannins (_e.g._, the "tannin" contained in coffee-beans). decomposition products of the natural tannins, to which belong, for instance, gallic acid and the dihydroxybenzenes, exhibit the well-known reactions of the tannins (coloration with iron salts), but they cannot be regarded as tannins from either a technical or a physiological standpoint. as regards their chemical constitution, the natural (true) tannins probably belong to different groups of organic compounds, and with our present-day scant knowledge of their chemistry, it is impossible to classify them. one is, however, justified in assuming that both the natural tannins and the related humic acids are ester-derivatives of hydroxybenzoic acids. [footnote: e. fischer, _ber._, , , .] the production of synthetic tannins employs two quite distinct methods; one is to synthesise the most simple tannin, viz., the tannic acid contained in galls (tannin), or to build up substances similar in character to the tannins, from hydroxybenzoic acids. the other, entirely new way, is to produce chemical substances, which certainly have nothing in common with the constitution of the natural tannins, but which behave like true tannins in contact with animal pelt, and in addition, since they can be manufactured on a commercial scale, are of practical value. owing to the fact that, until recently, the constitution of tannin has remained unknown, it is easy to comprehend that the efforts to synthesise the latter substance, or compounds similar to it, have been mainly attempted on similar lines. the oldest investigation in this direction dates from h. schiff,[footnote: liebig's _ann._, , , .] who prepared substances similar to tannin by dehydrating hydroxybenzoic acids. by allowing phosphorus oxychloride to interact with phenolsulphonic acid, he obtained a well-defined substance possessing tanning properties, which he considered an esterified phenolsulphonic acid anhydride, the composition of which he determined as ho.c_ h_ .so_ .o.c_ h_ hso_ . it is, however, probable that this substance is not homogeneous, but consists of a mixture of higher condensation products. klepl [footnote: _jour. pr. chem._, , , .] obtained--by simply heating _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid--a so-called di- and tridepside, but this simple method is not applicable to many other hydroxybenzoic acids, since these are decomposed by the high temperature required to induce reaction. amongst other attempts to produce condensation products with characteristics similar to those possessed by the tannins, those by gerhardt [footnote: liebig's _ann_, , , .] and loewe [footnote: _jahresh. f. chem._, , .] must be especially noted; they treated gallic acid with phosphorus oxychloride or arsenic acid, and thereby obtained amorphous compounds, exhibiting the reactions characteristic of tanning substances. e. fischer and freudenberg, [footnote: liebig's _ann._, , .] by treating _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid in the same way, succeeded in obtaining a didepside, and during the last years practically only these two investigators have demonstrated the syntheses of these depsides and produced high-molecular polydepsides. at the same time researches were instituted with the object of determining the constitution of tannin, and e. fischer succeeded in demonstrating its probable composition as being that of a glucoside containing molecules of digallic acid per molecule of glucose. this last-named class of synthetic tannins--which may be properly termed "tanning matters" in contradistinction to the true tannins--exhibit very distinct tanning character when brought in contact with animal hide, but from the point of view of chemical constitution have nothing in common with the natural tannins. not only are they of interest to the industry from a practical point of view; they have also been examined very closely from a chemical standpoint. it is, however, necessary to differentiate with great exactitude between the conception of _true tanning effect_ and _pickling effect_ when considering the action of chemical substances on pelt (i.e., animal hide, treated with lime, depilated, and the surplus flesh removed). whereas any _true tannage_ is characterised by the complete penetration of the substance and its subsequent fixation by the pelt in such a way that a thorough soaking and washing will not bring about a reconversion (of the leather) to the pelt state; _pickling_, on the other hand, is only characterised by the penetration of the substance in the pelt and fixation to such an extent that a subsequent washing of the pickled pelt will bring back the latter to a state closely approximating that of a true pelt. simple as such a differentiation appears, there are still a number of cases occupying a position between the two referred to, and which we may term _pseudo-tannage_. an example of the latter is formaldehyde tannage; formaldehyde has for a long time been employed in histological work for the purpose of hardening animal hide, by which it is readily absorbed from solution whereby it hardens the hide without, however, swelling it. a hide which has thus been treated with formaldehyde absorbs the natural tannins with greater ease; this, on the one hand, argues the probability of formaldehyde acting as a pickling agent; on the other hand, it is also one of its characteristics that it will either in neutral acid, [footnote: r. combret, ger. pat, , .] or, still better, in alkaline [footnote: j. pullman, ger. pat, , ; griffith, _lea. tr. rev._, .] solution, convert pelt into leather. in a formaldehyde-tanned leather, however, no trace of tannin can be detected; and the yield (of leather, based on the pelt employed), which, from a practical standpoint, is so important, is so very low that it is hardly possible to speak of it as a tannin in the ordinary sense of the word. formaldehyde must, therefore, be termed a pseudo-tannin. the tanning effect of formaldehyde is, according to thuau, [footnote: _collegium_, , , .] increased by those salts which bring about colloidal polymerisation of the formaldehyde, the resultant compounds being absorbed by the hide fibre. fahrion considers this to be a true tannage, and is supported by nierenstein [footnote: _ibid._, , , .]:-- r.nh_ r.nh-| +o.c.h. = ch_ + h_ o r.nh_ | r.nh-| (hide.) h (leather.) a peculiar combination between true tannage and pickling is to be found in the tawing process (tannage with potash, alum, and salt), whereby, firstly, the salt and the acid character of the alum produce a pickling effect, and secondly, the alum at the same time is hydrolysed, and its dissociation components partly adsorbed by the hide, thereby effecting true tannage. this double effect is still more pronounced in the synthetic tannins which contain colloidal bodies of pronounced tanning intensity on the one hand, inorganic and organic salts on the other, which then act as described above. their real mode of action can only be explained with the aid of experimental data. the following chapters will deal with the different behaviour of the various groups of synthetic tannins. part i section i the synthesis of vegetable tannins . tannin the first investigations of gall-tannin date from the year , at which time, however, no exact differentiation between tannin and gallic acid was made. the first step in this direction was made when scheele,[footnote: grell's _chem. ann._, , , i.] in , discovered gallic acid in fermented gall extract, and in the same year kunzemuller [footnote:_ibid._, , , .] separated gallic acid (or pyrogallol) as a crystalline body from oak galls. dize [footnote: _jour. chim. et phys._, , .] continued the investigations, which were brought to a conclusion with deyeux' work [footnote: _ann. chim._, , , i.]; both recognised that the substance isolated was not a single substance, but was a mixture of gallic acid, a green colouring matter, a rosin (tannin?), and extraneous matter. proust [footnote: _ibid._, , , .] was the first to differentiate the crystalline gallic acid from the amorphous, astringent substance, which latter he named "tannin." amongst the numerous subsequent investigations of tannin must be especially noted the one by berzelius [footnote: pogg,_ann._, , , .], who purified the potash salt and decomposed this with sulphuric acid. pelouze [footnote: liebig's _ann._, , , .], later on, observed the formation of the crystalline gallic acid from tannin, when the latter is boiled with sulphuric acid; this had already been observed by j. liebig.[footnote: _ibid._ , , .] both had noticed the absence of nitrogen. in addition to the methods of preparation of tannin then in vogue neutral solvents were mainly employed by subsequent investigators; pelouze [footnote: _jour. prakt. chem._, , , , and .] treated powdered galls with ether containing alcohol and water, and considered the upper layer to be a solution of gallic acid and impurities, the bottom layer to contain the pure tannin. the empirical formula of tannin has also been the subject of much speculation by the different investigators, the difficulty here being that of obtaining a pure specimen of the substance free from sugars, and which could be submitted to elementary analysis. whereas these early purified substances were thought to correspond to the formula of digallic acid (galloylgallic acid), c_ h_ o_ , fischer and freudenberg [footnote: _ber._, , and .] were able to show, with approximate certainty, that the constitution of tannin is that of a pentadigalloyl glucose. early attempts at _hydrolysing tannin_ gave varying results, some investigators claiming the presence, and others the absence of sugars. here, again, e. fischer and freudenberg [footnote: _ibid._] were able to conclusively prove that on hydrolysing tannin with dilute acids, . per cent. glucose is dissociated, and that hence glucose forms part of the tannin molecule. fischer and freudenberg also determined the optical activity of pure tannin in water: [greek: a]_d was found to lie between + ° and + °. graham found [footnote: _phil. transact._, , .] that the _tannin molecule_ is of considerable size, since its diffusion velocity is times less than that of common salt. paternò [footnote: _zeits. phys. chem._, , iv. .] was the first to determine the molecular weight of tannin, employing raoult's method; he found that tannin in aqueous solution behaves like a colloid and that hence raoult's method is not applicable. when, on the other hand, he dissolved tannin in acetic acid, results concordant with the formula of c_ h_ o_ , corresponding to a molecular weight of , were obtained. sabanajew [footnote: _ibid._, , v. .] later determined the molecular weight of tannin in aqueous solution as , in acetic acid solution as - , krafft [footnote: _ber._, , , .] as - in aqueous solution. walden [footnote: _ibid._, , .] determined the molecular weight of tannin-schuchardt as - , tannin-merck as - , digallic acid as - (calculated ). feist [footnote: _chem. ztg._, , .] determined the molecular weight of tannin as and one of his own preparation as , turkish tannin as and chinese tannin as . in this connection it should be noted that the calculated molecular weight of pentagalloyl glucose, which in e. fischer's opinion forms a substantial part of the tannin molecule, is , but fischer also thinks that this compound possesses a much higher molecular weight. structure of tannin--the oldest structural formula of tannin is schiff's digallic acid formula:--[footnote : _ber_., , , .] ---------co.o.---------- ^ ^ oh | | | | ho | | oh hooc | | oh v v oh a drawback to the acceptance of this formula is the absence of an asymmetrical c-atom; the formula, therefore, does not explain the optical activity exhibited by tannin. schiff attempted to overcome this difficulty by adopting a diagonal structural formula, but even when adopting clauss' diagonal formula for benzene the optical activity of a number of other compounds depends upon the existence of the asymmetrical c-atom. biginelli [footnote : _gazz chim. ital_., , , .] also opposed the digallic acid formula, and supported his view by referring to the arsenic compounds obtained by him on heating arsenic acid and gallic acid, instead of obtaining digallic acid. walden, [footnote : _ber_., , , .] on the other hand, found, on analysing the digallic acid thus prepared, only slight traces of arsenic and, by the elementary analysis, obtained figures closely corresponding to those of digallic acid. bottinger [footnote : _ibid_., , , .] prepared the so-called _[greek: b]_-digallic acid by heating ethyl gallate with pyroracemic acid and sulphuric acid and proposed the so-called ketone-tannin formula:-- ho_____oh ______oh ho{_____}--------co--------{______}oh cooh oh schiff completed this formula by a diagonal, so as to explain the optical activity observed-- ho oh ______oh ho{_____}--------co--------{______}oh cooh oh [diagonal bond between ho and cooh on left.] the ketone formula was corroborated by nierenstein, [footnote: _ber._ , , .] who distilled tannin with zinc dust and obtained diphenylmethane (smell of benzene) and a crystalline product, m.p. o°- ° c. (m.p. of diphenyl = ° c.). könig and kostanecki [footnote: _ibid._, , , .] sought to find the constitution of the tannins in the leuco-compounds of the oxyketones, to which catechin belongs. nierenstein (see above), however, emphasises that the high molecular weight and the optical activity speak against the digallic acid formula, but in favour of this are the following points: ( ) the decomposition of tannin with the formation of gallic acid; ( ) the decomposition of methylotannin with the formation of di- and trimethyl esters of gallic acid; and ( ) the production of diphenylmethane on distillation with zinc dust. the latter reaction especially illustrates the analogous formation of fluorene from compounds of the type-- --co.o ^ ______ ^ | | | | | | | | v v nierenstein gave the name "tannophor" to the mother-substance of tannin, phenylbenzoate, c_ h_ -coo-c_ h_ . dekker [footnote: "de looistoffen," vol. ii, p. ( ).] was, however, unable to detect diphenylmethane on distilling with zinc dust, and did, therefore, not accept nierenstein's views. in proposing the formula-- o || ho ^ _ __c | | | | | }o | | | __oh | |____|_c_/ \oh ho v \__/ oh oh oh dekker [footnote: _ber._, , , .] was enabled to account for most of the details in the behaviour of tannin, viz.: ( ) the empirical constitution, c_ h_ o_ ; ( ) the almost complete hydrolysis into gallic acid (the dotted line indicates the decomposition of the molecule into molecules gallic acid by taking up water); ( ) the formation of diphenylmethane as a result of distillation with zinc dust; and ( ) the electrical non-conductivity. since tannin on acetylating yields a considerable amount of triacetylgallic acid, it should, according to dekker, contain at least six acetylisable hydroxyls. nierenstein [footnote: _chem. ztg._, , , .] objected to this formula on account of its containing seven hydroxyl groups, whereas dekker found six, nierenstein five, and herzig still fewer hydroxyl groups. the formula would also favour the conception of tinctorial properties which could hardly be ascribed to tannin. lloyd [footnote: _chemical news_, , , .] proposed a very intricate formula containing three digallic acid groups joined into one six-ring system, which would then explain the optical activity; it would, on the other hand, also require an inactive cis-form. iljin [footnote: _jour. of the russian phys. chem. soc._, , , .] prepared two phenylhydrazine derivatives of tannin (c_ h_ n_ o_ and c_ h_ n_ o_ ) and proposed the formula, c_ h_ o_ , the constitution of which would be-- r_ r_ | | }c--o--o--c{ | | | r_ | r_ o r_ | r_ | | | }c--o--o--c{ | | r_ r_ where r = co c_ h_ (oh)_ and r = c_ h_ (oh)_ nierenstein [footnote: _ber._, , , ; , , ; , , and ; , , and ; _chem. ztg._, , , ; , , .] considers tannin to be a mixture of digallic acid and leucotannin, the latter possessing the formula-- ^-------ch.oh--o----^ oh | | | | ho v oh hooc v oh oh the optical activity of tannin is expressed in this formula and its probability is corroborated by nierenstein, who was able to resolve the acetylated tannin by fractional precipitation into pentacetyl tannin (m.p. °- ° c.) and pentacetyl leucotannin (m.p. ° c.). by oxidation, the former is converted into ellagic acid, and on hydrolysis with dilute sulphuric acid readily yielded gallic acid. hydrolysis of the pentacetyl leucotannin, however, yielded gallic aldehyde, and oxidation yielded purpurotannin (a naphthalene derivative) in addition to ellagic acid. nierenstein [footnote: _ber._, , , .] also succeeded in converting tannin into carboethoxytannin, the latter on saponification yielding crystalline, inactive digallic acid. on acetylating pentacetyl leucotannin with acetyl chloride a hexacetyl derivative (m.p. ° c.) is obtained, the strychnine salt of which is resolved into both of the active components. this proves the presence of digallic acid and leucotannin in tannin lev. pur. schering investigated by nierenstein. the latter author [footnote: liebig's _ann._, , , ; , .] later considered tannin to be polydigalloylleucodigallic acid anhydride and the simplest tannin to be a digalloylleucodigallic acid anhydride. this view, however, would not stand subsequent criticisms, being in disagreement with the earlier observations of molecular weight and acidic properties of tannin. manning [footnote: _ibid._, , , .] believed to have isolated a pentethylester of the pentagalloyl glucoside from tannin, but this was shown to be the ethyl ester of gallic acid. feist [footnote: _ber._, , , .] had arrived at the conclusion that tannin was a glucose compound, and maintained that tannin from turkish galls was a compound of glucogallic acid combined as an ester with molecules gallic acid. but fischer and strauss [footnote: _ibid._, , , .] synthetically prepared a glucoside of gallic acid exhibiting differences from feist's preparation which were so great that the latter no longer could be considered a single glucoside of gallic acid. fischer and freudenberg [footnote: _ibid._, , , ; , , .] subsequently elaborated a method of purifying tannin, and on investigating the purified substance, arrived at the conclusion that no other hydroxybenzoic acid than gallic acid was present in tannin. on repeating strecker's hydrolysis they obtained - per cent, sugar, and hence concluded that molecule of glucose was combined with about molecules of gallic acid. owing to the difficulty of isolating the intermediary hydrolysis products, and the subsequent impossibility of drawing any conclusions as to the constitution of tannin, the latter investigators decided to adopt the methods offered by synthesis. their basic idea was the absence of carboxylic groups in tannin, and that hence the total gallic acid must be present in ester form. these conditions are fulfilled if one views tannin as being an ester compound of molecule of glucose and molecules of digallic acid, of similar construction as, for example, pentacetyl glucose. fischer and freudenberg succeeded in preparing the former by shaking a mixture of finely powdered glucose, chloroform, and quinoline with an excess of tricarbomethoxygalloyl chloride for twenty-four hours and precipitating the resulting product with methyl alcohol; suitably purified, a light amorphous colourless substance was obtained which proved to be penta-(tricarbomethoxygalloyl) glucose. careful saponification with excess alkali in acetone-aqueous solution at room temperature yielded a tannin very closely resembling tannin, identified as pentagalloyl glucose. it is doubtful, however, whether this substance is homogeneous, and it is probably a mixture of two stereoisomers. fischer and freudenberg, therefore, further concluded that tannin is mainly an ester compound of glucose and molecules _m_-digallic acid. elucidation on this point offered itself advantageously in herzwig's methylotannin, [footnote: _ber._, , , .] which is obtained by the interaction of diazomethane and tannin. the first step was then to prepare pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid ch_ .o_______ ______cooh ch_ .o{_______}--co.o--{______} ch_ .o ch_ .o o.ch_ from trimethylgalloyl chloride and the _m-p_-dimethyl ether of gallic acid; the chloride of this substance, coupled with [greek: a]- and [greek: b]-glucose, yields-- _ch.or | | | ch.or h_______o.ch_ | | r=co{_______}o.ch_ o{ ch.or h o | | h_____o.ch_ | ch co{_____}o.ch_ | |	 h o.ch_ |_ch.or ch_ .or [illustration: penta-(pentamethyl-_m_-digalloyl)-glucose.] the [greek: a]- and [greek: b]-derivatives thus obtained differ in their behaviour towards polarised light, and are, again, probably mixtures of two stereoisomers, _i.e._, mixtures of derivatives of [greek: a]- and [greek: b]-glucose. compared to methylotannin, these preparations exhibit very close resemblance to the former, from which it may be concluded that they are closely related to this substance, and probably possess the same or a very similar structure; the result of the above experiments has, therefore, brought us at least in close proximity to the structure of tannin. it must, however, be borne in mind that the analysis and hydrolysis of tannin does not afford an explanation of the question as to whether tannin is a compound of glucose and , , or molecules of gallic acid; it is also possible, though not probable, that tannin would contain a polysaccharide instead of glucose itself. similarly to sugar, the true glucosides can be coupled with hydroxybenzoic acids, which is proved by the preparation of tetra-galloyl-[greek: a]-methyl glucoside; this substance, also, exhibits tannoid character. . digallic acid whereas, until recently, tannin had been considered to be gallic acid anhydride, or digallic acid, closer investigations have revealed that neither is tannin digallic acid nor is the synthetically prepared digallic acid identical with tannin. schiff [footnote: _ber._, , and .] prepared digallic acid by the interaction of phosphorus oxychloride and gallic acid, and believed the product obtained to be identical with tannin; to this latter he first ascribed an ether formula (i.), later an ester formula (ii.)-- (oh)_ (oh)_ ¦¦ ¦¦ c_ h_ --- ---c_ h_ ¦ ¦ cooh cooh (i.) (oh)_ ¦¦ c_ h_ (oh)_ --c--o.c_ h_ ¦¦ ¦ o cooh (ii.) froda [footnote: _gasz. chim._, , .] held that schiff's condensation product contained phosphorus or arsenic acid and ascribed its tanning properties to the latter; according to this investigator, digallic acid, when completely freed from arsenic acid, does not react with gelatine or quinine. biginelli [footnote: _ibid._, , , ii. and .] did not consider the action of arsenic acid that of a catalyst, but held that it entered into reaction; according to his investigations products containing arsenic (c_ h_ o_ as and c_ h_ o_ as) are obtained when gallic acid is heated with arsenic acid. in his preparation of digallic acid, iljin [footnote: _jour. f. prakt. chem._, , , .] could only obtain gallic acid, and the ethyl ether of gallic acid showing no characteristics of the tannins; when, however, he heated gallic acid with arsenic pentoxide, he obtained bodies exhibiting the reactions given by tannins. bottinger [foonote: _ber._, , .] made the first attempt at synthesising tannin; he heated gallic acid or its ethyl ester with glyoxylic acid or pyroracemic acid, and obtained a substance of the composition c_ h_ o_ . h_ o, which certainly showed some of the characteristics exhibited by tannin, but which by no means was identical with the latter. bottinger's preparation is probably identical with [greek: b]-digallic acid, one of two dibasic isomers having the composition-- c_ h_ (oh)_ cooh | c_ h(oh)_ cooh the other possible isomer having the composition c_ h(oh)_ cooh co | c_ h_ (oh)_ fischer [footnote: _ber_., , , .] obtained a digallic acid (m.p. °- ° c) by coupling tricarbomethoxygalloyl chloride with dicarbomethoxygallic acid. nierenstein [footnote: _ibid_., , , .] obtained, from the carbethoxy compound of tannin, a crystalline, optically active digallic acid, m.p. °- ° c. the pentacetate of this substance, obtained by reduction and acetylisation, yielded hexacetylleucotannin. a pentamethyldigallic acid methyl ester of the composition ((o.ch_ )_ )c_ h_ ----coo-----c_ h_ ((och_ )_ )coo.ch_ was obtained by mauthner [footnote: _jour. f. prakt. chem_., , , .] from the chloride of trimethylgallic acid and the methyl ester of the acid from the glucoside of syringin; on saponification with caustic potash the former compound yielded trimethylgallic acid and syringic acid. fischer [footnote: _ber_., , , .] synthesised the so-called _m_-digallic acid by coupling tricarbomethoxygalloyl chloride with carbonylgallic acid and subsequent splitting off of co_ . the _m_-digallic acid appears as rather thick, colourless, microscopic needles containing about per cent. water of crystallisation, m.p. ° c. they are slightly soluble in cold, soluble in hot water, and very soluble in methyl and ethyl alcohols. their aqueous solution gives dark blue coloration with ferric chloride, and precipitates gelatine and quinine. fischer and his students [footnote : _ibid_., , , , ; , , .] prepared quite a number of digallic acid derivatives, amongst which are the following:-- pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid methyl ester, c_ h_ o_ . pentacetyl-_m_-digallic acid, c_ h_ o_ . pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid, c_ h_ o_ . pentamethyl-_m_-digalloyl chloride, c_ h_ o_ cl. pentamethyl-_p_-digallic acid, c_ h_ o_ . pentamethyl-_p_-digallic acid methyl ester, c_ h_ o_ . hydrolysis of digallic acid yields gallic acid; oxidation, on the other hand, ellagic acid and luteic acid (luteo säure), which can be separated by shaking with pyridine. the reduction of digallic acid yields, by different methods, the same reduction compound, [footnote: nierenstein, abderhalden's "handb. d. biochem. arbeitsm.," vi. .] viz., the racemic leucodigallic acid, which differs from digallic acid by being devoid of any tannoid properties; the latter distinction may be ascribed to the transformation of the tannophor group--co.o--, to the tannoid-inactive group ch(oh)--o--. the successful resolving of racemic leucodigallic acid into both of its optically active components can only be brought about through the _d_- or _l_-hexacarbethoxyleucodigallic acid on introducing the latter into a per cent. pyridine solution and heating to °- ° c., whereby the _d_- or _l_-acid is formed accompanied by a strong evolution of carbon dioxide. hydrolysis of leucogallic acid yields gallic acid and gallic aldehyde; oxidation by means of hydrogen peroxide yields ellagic acid and luteic acid, and oxidation with potassium persulphate and sulphuric acid, in acetic acid solution, yields purpurotannin (see below) [footnote: liebig's _ann_., , , .]. another distinct difference between digallic acid and leucodigallic acid is the fact that the formaldehyde condensation product of the former resembles gallic acid, whereas that of the latter resembles tannin; it is therefore probable that the leucodigallic acid part of the tannin molecule imparts this characteristic property to tannin. ---co.o--- ^ ^ | | | | ho v oh cooh v oh oh oh [illustration: digallic acid becomes...] ---co.o--- ^ ^ oh | | | | ho v oh cooh v oh oh oh [illustration: luteic acid becomes...] ---co.o--- ^ ^ oh | | | | ho v --o.co-- v oh oh oh [illustration: ellagic acid becomes...] cooh cooh ^ _______ ^ | | | | ho v ---o--- v oh oh oh [illustration: purpuro tannin.] . ellagic acid ellagic acid was discovered in by braconnot, who named it "acide ellagique." its presence in the vegetable kingdom was not quite comprehended for some time, and nierenstein [footnote: _chem. ztg._, , .] was the first to prepare this substance from algarobilla, dividivi, oak bark, pomegranate, myrabolarms, and valonea. the acid is obtained by precipitating it with water from a hot alcoholic extraction of the plants referred to, and recrystallising the precipitate from hot alcohol. another method of preparation consists in boiling the disintegrated plants with dilute hydrochloric acid, washing the residue, and extracting with hot alcohol, from which the acid will then crystallise. according to lowe, [footnote: _zeits. f. analyt. chem._, , .] it may be obtained from dividivi, an aqueous extract of which is heated to ° c. in a tube closed at both ends, when crystalline ellagic acid is deposited. heinemann [footnote: ger. pat., , and , .] obtained ellagic acid by simply boiling repeatedly aqueous tannin solutions. lowe [footnote: _jour. f. prakt. chem._, , , .] first synthesised ellagic acid by heating gallic acid with arsenic acid or silver oxide. herzig [footnote: _monatshefte fur chemie_, , , .] states that ellagic acid is deposited when air is conducted through a mixture of the ethyl or methyl ester of gallic acid and ammonia. perkin [footnote: _proc. chem. soc._, , , .] obtained a substance very similar to ellagic acid by electrolysis of gallic acid in sulphuric acid solution; on oxidising gallic acid in concentrated sulphuric acid solution, perkin and nierenstein [footnote: _ibid._, , , .] obtained flavellagic acid. ellagic acid is also obtained by heating luteic acid in a per cent. soda solution. ellagic acid thus prepared crystallises with molecules of water as yellow micro-crystalline rhombic prisms or prismatic needles. the crystals lose this water when heated to ° c., and it is possible that it is water of constitution, in which case the substance would be hexoxydiphenylcarboxylic acid, and the substance left after drying at ° c., the dilactone.[footnote: _arch. d. pharm_., , , .] ellagic acid is slightly soluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but is easily soluble in caustic potash. with concentrated nitric acid the product assumes a red colour, which appears to be due to the presence of impurities; ellagic acid is commercially known as "alizarin yellow." the constitution of ellagic acid was uncertain for a long time, and different structural formulae were proposed which more or less corresponded to its properties. the most satisfactory structural formula was proposed by graebe--[footnote: _chem. ztg_., , .] ---co.o--- ^ -------- ^ oh | | | | ho v --o.co-- v oh oh this would represent a tetroxydiphenylmethylolide. the probability of the correctness of this formula is supported by the possibility of the following derivatives: monomethylellagic acid, c' h' o' (o.ch' ); dimethylellagic acid, c' h' o' (o.ch' )' ; tetramethylellagic acid, c' h' o' (o.ch' )' ; phenylhydrazinellagic acid, c' h' o' .n' h' c' h' . by the electrolytic reduction of ellagic acid, hexoxydiphenyl, (oh)' c' h' -c' h' (oh)' , is obtained; the ordinary methods of reduction yield leucoellagic acid, c' h' o' , which crystallises in small sharp needles, melting with decomposition at °- ° c. leucoellagic acid is soluble in ethyl and methyl alcohols, and in glacial acetic acid, insoluble in chloroform, benzene, toluene, carbon tetrachloride, and petrol ether; it gives a bluish-green colour with ferric chloride which quickly turns black. leucoellagic acid is soluble in alkalies, the solution assuming a deep-red coloration; it reduces silver nitrate in the cold, but is not adsorbed by mordanted cotton cloth, in which respect it differs from ellagic acid.[footnote: liebig's _ann_., , , . ellagitannic acid, c' h' 'o' - h' o, is closely related to ellagic acid; the former consists of faintly yellow needles, m.p. °- °c. it is soluble in water, precipitates gelatine, and is adsorbed by hide powder. it occurs with gallic acid, tannin, and ellagic acid in dividivi, myrabolams, algarobilla, and chestnut wood extracts. other bodies of this class include:-- metellagic acid, cl_ h_ o_ , derived from methoxybenzoic acid, and recrystallised from acetic acid, forms small crystalline needles, m.p. °- ° c., and yields fluorene on distillation with zinc dust. ----co.o---- ^ ---------- ^ | | | | v ---o.co--- v oh flavellagic acid, c_ h_ o_ , is obtained by the oxidation of gallic acid with concentrated sulphuric acid and potassium persulphate. it crystallises from pyridine in prismatic needles melting above ° c. distillation with zinc dust yields fluorene (see above)-- ----co.o---- ^ ---------- ^ oh | | | | ho v ---o.co--- v oh oh oh by heating ellagic acid for three-quarters of an hour at ° c. with concentrated sulphuric acid, ceruleo-ellagic acid (dioxyellagic acid), c_ h_ o_ , is formed as yellowish needles, m.p. ° c., which are but little soluble in the usual solvents. the acid is slightly soluble in strong caustic soda solution, the colour of the solution, on diluting, changing to green and blue. luteic acid (luteo saure, pentoxybiphenylmethylolide carboxylic acid),c_ h_ o_ , occurs, in addition to ellagic acid, in myrabolams-- [footnote: _ber_., , , .] ----co.o---- ^ ---------- ^ oh | | | | ho v oh hooc v oh oh oh it is obtained by extracting myrabolams for one hour and a half, under reflux condenser, with pyridine, filtering and adding twice the volume of water to the filtrate and boiling till complete solution is obtained. after about thirty hours a reddish powder deposits, from which ellagic acid may be extracted with pyridine; the mother-liquor on being concentrated yields luteic acid. it is also obtained by oxidising tannin with hydrogen peroxide, the other oxidation product being ellagic acid, and the two may then be separated as indicated above. luteic acid forms reddish needles which are decomposed, with evolution of gas, at °- ° c. heated with per cent. caustic soda solution it yields ellagic acid. in pyridine solution the carboxyl group maybe eliminated by hydrogen iodide, whereby pentoxybiphenylmethylolide is formed as long silky needles, which do not melt below ° c. the same substance may also be obtained when ellagic acid is boiled with concentrated caustic potash solution. when luteic acid is treated with diazomethane, it yields the methyl ester of pentamethoxybiphenylmethylolidcarboxylic acid. . depsides the most common decomposition products of the natural tannoids are hydroxybenzoic acids, notably gallic and proto-catechuic acids; furthermore, other aromatic and aliphatic hydroxy compounds frequently occur. so far, however, attempts at explaining the constitution of the complex decomposition products obtained by hydrolysing high molecular tannoids have not been successful. on the other hand, the constitution of the simpler natural tannoids is known to a greater or less extent; of these, lecanoric acid (lecanorsäure) is the best known, being an ester anhydride of orsellic acid (a dihydroxytoluylic acid). it combines with erythrite, forming another tannoid, erythrine. the fact that hydroxybenzoic acids are constantly encountered together with the products obtained on hydrolysis of the tannins, seems to point toward the conclusion that anhydrides of hydroxybenzoic acids are frequent constituents of the natural tannoid molecules. the assumption that, for instance, in tannin at least part of the gallic acid radicals are combined with one another is highly probable, and is supported by the formation of tri- and dimethylgallic acid from methylotannin, [footnote: herzig, _monatshefte f. chemie_, , , .] and by the formation of ellagic acid when tannin is oxidised. [footnote: nierenstein, _ber_., , , .] further proof is brought forward by the existence of the pentacetyl-tannin, [footnote: schiff, _ann. d. chem_., , , .] and by the results of hydrolysis which has yielded up to per cent. anhydrous gallic acid fiom tannin [footnote: sisley, _bull. soc. chim_. , , .] of the three classes of isomeric anhydrides which can be formed from hydroxybenzoic acids, the chemistry of the natural tannins is only concerned with the class comprising the ester anhydrides. if the carboxyl of the first molecule combines with a hydroxyl of the second molecule (ester formation), then a substance possessing character similar to that of a hydroxybenzoic acid is formed, which is capable of combining up with a further molecule in the same way. it is natural to assume that this ester form is much more prevalent in nature than a combination of two carboxyls by the elimination of water. from the point of view of the chemistry of the tannins, therefore, the starting-point would naturally be that of synthesising the ester anhydrides of hydroxybenzoic acids. amongst the small number of synthetically prepared ester anhydrides of hydroxybenzoic acids, a few occur exhibiting the properties of the natural tannoids. in order to simplify the terminology of these substances, fischer [footnote: liebig's _ann_., , , .] proposed the name "depsides" from [greek: depheiv] = to tan. in analogy with peptides and saccharides, the names di-, tri-, and polydepsides of hydroxybenzoic acids would be suitable for these substances. the principles underlying the synthesis of depsides are the following:--if the chlorides of carbomethoxy (or carbethoxy) hydroxybenzoic acids are coupled with the sodium salts of hydroxybenzoic acids, esters are formed, _e.g._, ch_ co o.o.c_ h_ .co.cl + nao.c_ h_ .coo.na = nacl + ch_ .coo.o.c_ h_ .co.o.c_ h_ .coo.na on gently saponifying the esters, these are converted into the corresponding hydroxy derivatives-- oh.c_ h_ .co.o.c_ h_ .cooh according to fischer and freudenberg, [footnote: liebig's _ann._, , , .] this method possesses the following advantages:-- . the synthesis takes place at low temperatures, so that any intramolecular rearrangements are improbable. . the composition of the substances is controlled by the intermediary compounds, the carboalkyloxy derivatives. . the synthesis permits of more definite evidence as regards the structure of the resulting compounds. . the substances obtained are easily purified. depsides produced in this manner are by no means new, and were obtained by klepl by simply heating _p_-hydroxy-benzoic acid (_cf._ introduction, p. ). this simple procedure, however, is not applicable to most other hydroxybenzoic acids which are decomposed at the high temperature necessary to induce reaction. lowe and schiff (_loc. cit._) have obtained products similar to tannins, the latter investigator by removing the elements of water from gallic acid, protocatechuic acid, salicylic acid, _m_-hydroxybenzoic acid, cresotinic acid, phloretinic acid, and pyrogallolcarboxylic acid. these depsides, however, are amorphous substances, and it is hence difficult to substantiate their homogeneity. carbomethoxylation of hydroxybenzoic acids amongst other compounds chlorphydroxybenzoic acid is used in the preparation of the materials employed in the synthesis of depsides; the free phenolic group, however, exerts a disturbing influence when aromatic acids are acted upon by phosphorus chloride, and another group, which can subsequently be easily removed, must therefore be introduced to cover the disturbing influence referred to. for this purpose, fischer [footnote: _ber_., , , .] chose the carbomethoxy group, and this investigator succeeded, by the action of chlorocarbonic alkyl ester and alkali upon hydroxybenzoic acid in cold aqueous solution, in obtaining substances with the properties required. [footnote: _ber._, , , .] in such substances (_e.g._, salicylic acid) where the hydroxyl occupies the ortho-position to the carboxyl, complete carbomethoxylation does not take place, whereas the _m_- or _p_- positions offer no hindrance. in the case of the _o_-position, however, the action of chlorocarbonic alkyl ester is successfully assisted by the presence of dimethylaniline in an inert solvent, _e.g._, benzene.[footnote: u.s. pat, , , , , xii., .] the difficulty encountered by the _o_-position is eliminated when the carboxyl is not directly linked to the benzene nucleus, _e.g._, _o_-cumaric acid. many hydroxybenzoic acids require an excess of chlorocarbonic methyl ester, which then also, to some extent, attacks the carboxyl group; but on dissolving the product in acetone and treating it with bicarbonate the carboxyl group as such is again restored without splitting off the carbomethoxy group.[footnote: _ber._, , , .] in this way all hydroxybenzoic acids may be carbomethoxylated. [footnote: _ibid._, , , , , ; , , , , , ; liebig's _ann._, , , , ; _ber._, , , , , .] the carbomethoxy group is easily removed by excess of aqueous alkali in the cold, and is also partially removed when insufficient alkali is present; the latter fact is of importance in the synthesis of didepsides. chlorides of carbomethoxyhydroxybenzoic acids the chlorides of these compounds are obtained when phosphorus pentachloride is allowed to act upon the acids, and are as a rule crystalline. for the purpose of synthesis they may be employed as follows: . they readily form esters with alcohols, which on subsequent saponification with alkali are converted into the esters of the free hydroxybenzoic acids. . the chlorides interact energetically with esters of amino-acids, and may be coupled with amino-acids in aqueous alkaline solution. on subsequently removing the carbo-methoxy group derivatives of hydroxybenzoic acids are obtained, _e.g._, ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.cl + nh_ ch_ .co.c_ h_ = nh_ .ch_ .co_ .c_ h_ + hcl + ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ co.nh.ch_ co_ c_ h_ . ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.nh.ch_ .co_ .c_ h_ + naoh = na_ co_ + c_ h_ oh + ch_ oh + ho.c_ h_ .co.nh.ch_ .coona. . in the presence of alcl_ the chlorides easily combine with benzene, and on removing the carbomethoxy group unsymmetrical hydroxy derivatives of benzophenone are formed:-- ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.cl + c_ h_ = ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.c_ h_ + hcl ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.c_ h_ + naoh = nao.c_ h_ .co.c_ h_ + na_ co_ + ch_ oh + h_ o . the chlorides may be coupled with free hydroxybenzoic acids, and on removing the carbomethoxy group didepsides are obtained. repetition of these operations yields tri- and tetradepsides. preparation of didepsides a simple application of these syntheses is offered by _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. when the chloride of its carbomethoxy derivative is allowed to interact with _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid in aqueous alkaline solution, in the cold, the alkali salt of carbomethoxy-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid is formed:--[footnote : _ber._, , , .] ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co.cl + nao.c_ h_ .coona = ch_ .co_ .o.c_ h_ .co_ .c_ h_ .co_ .na + nacl. being sparingly soluble, the salt in this case is readily deposited as crystals, but is readily converted into the free acid by hydrochloric acid. in most other cases, however, the alkali salts are easily soluble and the aqueous solution is then directly acidified with a mineral acid. the chlorides, being for the most part solids, the mode of procedure is as follows:--the hydroxybenzoic acid required for coupling is dissolved in normal or double-normal alkali (the volume calculated per molecule acid), a little acetone added, and the mixture well cooled; a further molecule of n caustic soda and the chloride (i molecule) dissolved in dry acetone are added in small portions, whilst stirring, to the mixture. in spite of the low temperature the coupling proceeds quickly and the sparingly soluble product can in most cases be precipitated from the solution by acidifying and diluting with water. in case of more easily soluble coupling products the acetone is driven off under reduced pressure or the liquid acidified and diluted, and the substance extracted with ether. instead of alkali, dimethylaniline may be employed, with the exclusion of water as a solvent for the purpose of coupling. another suitable method of obtaining _o_-didepsides is that of treating _o_-hydroxybenzoic acids with phosphorus trichloride and dimethylaniline (_e.g_., synthesis of disalicylic acid, boehringer & sons).[footnote: ger. pat., , .] the carbomethoxy derivatives of the depsides are as a rule crystalline substances of distinct acidic character, and decompose alkaline carbonates. the elimination of the carbomethoxy group may be brought about by dilute alkaline solutions in the cold, or by aqueous ammonia. if the depside formed is so stable as to resist the action of alkali for several hours, the use of the latter is very convenient for the purpose required. the substance is dissolved directly in sufficient normal alkali to neutralise the carboxyl group and a further molecules of caustic soda for each carbomethoxy group to be eliminated are added. the temperature should be about ° c., when the reaction as a rule is completed after one-half to three-quarters of an hour. it is usual, however, to use an aqueous ammonia solution in considerable excess, whereby the temperature should again be about ° c., and the solution of ammonia normal or half normal. the didepsides so far investigated are crystalline bodies, sparingly soluble in cold water; they--as a rule--decompose when fused, possess acid reaction, and are dissolved by bicarbonates. on account of the presence of a free phenolic group they give a coloration with ferric chloride; if the phenolic group occupies the _o_-position to carboxyl, the coloration with ferric chloride is red or bluish-violet excess of dilute alkali resolved all didepsides into their components at ordinary temperatures. the didepsides of gallic, proto-catechuic, gentisinic, and [greek: b]-resorcylic acids precipitate gelatine and quinine acetate, and in this respect approach the natural tannins. the following summary gives an account of depsides which have been prepared synthetically or which occur naturally:--[footnote : _ber._, , , ; , , ; , , ; , , , , , ; liebig's _ann._, , , , ; , , .] di-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. di-_m_-hydroxybenzoic acid. disalicylic acid. diprotocatechuic acid. digentisinic acid. di-[greek: b]-resorcylic acid. _p_-diorsellic acid. _o_-diorsellic acid. _m_-digallic acid. disyringic acid. di-_o_-cumaric acid. diferulic acid. di-[greek: b]-hydroxynaphthoic acid. _p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_m_-hydroxybenzoic acid. _m_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. salicyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanilloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. feruloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. [greek: a]-hydroxynaphthoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. orsellinoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. protocatechuyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. galloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. pyrogallolcarboy _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. syringoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. _p_-hydroxybenzoyl-syringic acid. pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid. pentamethyl-_p_-digallic acid. vanilloyl vanillin. preparation of tridepsides monohydroxybenzoic acids allow theoretically of tri-depsides of the type ho.c_ h_ coo.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .cooh only; if, on the other hand, di- or trihydroxybenzoic acids are dealt with, two formulae are possible, viz.:-- ho.c_ h_ .coo } c_ h_ .cooh ho.c_ h_ .coo of the former type, two compounds are known, _i.e._, di-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid and vanilloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid-- ho } c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .cooh ch_ o the first named of these two compounds was obtained by klepl, in addition to the didepside, by heating _p_-hydroxybenzoic acid. fischer and freudenberg obtained a beautifully crystalline form in the following way: carbethoxyhydroxy-benzoyl chloride was coupled with _p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid in alkaline solution, the compound dissolved in a mixture of pyridine and acetone, and ammonia added for the purpose of removing the carbethoxy group. the tridepside was then obtained as long needles by re-dissolving in acetone. both tridepsides melt well above ° c., are practically insoluble in water, and are but sparingly soluble in practically all organic solvents. in alcoholic solution they give colour reaction with ferric chloride similar to those given by _p_-hydroxybenzoic acids. preparation of tetradepsides [footnote: fischer and freudenberg, liebig's _ann._, , , .] here, again, two forms are known, _e.g._, tri-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid-- ho.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ coo.c_ h_ cooh and vanilloyl-di-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid-- ho } c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .coo.c_ h_ .cooh ch_ o the former has been prepared from carbethoxyhydroxy-benzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl chloride and _p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid in alkaline solution; the second tetradepside was prepared from carbomethoxyvanilloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoyl chloride and _p_-hydroxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxy-benzoic acid. the preparation of these compounds is rendered difficult by the slight solubility of the substances and their slight affinities for entering into reaction. both tetradepsides were obtained in crystalline form, and are but very little soluble in most organic solvents. they decompose on being fused. tannoid substances of the tannin type the preparation of pentagalloyl glucose has proved this compound to be nearly identical with tannin obtained from galls (_tannin_); a few other natural tannins belong to this type which fischer terms acyl compounds of sugar with hydroxybenzoic acids. the method of preparation employed in the synthesis of pentagalloyl glucose may be easily applied to other hydroxybenzoic acids, _e.g._ penta[_p_-hydroxybenzoyl] glucose [footnote: fischer and freudenberg, _ber._, , , .] was prepared in this way. similar characteristics are exhibited by pentasalicylo glucose. mention must also be made of the corresponding derivative of pyruvic acid and the compound with pyrogallolcarboxylic acid, penta-[pyrogallolcarboyl]glucose. [footnote: fischer and rapoport, _ber._, , , .] the latter is isomeric with pentagalloyl glucose and possesses similar properties; there is, however, a vast difference in the solubility of the two. whereas the galloyl compound is easily soluble in cold water, its isomer is hardly soluble in hot, and completely insoluble in cold water. considering the very similar structure of these two tannins, such differences appear surprising, but an analogy may be readily found in the existence of colloidal solutions of tannin and the (nearly) identical pentagalloyl glucose. these properties clearly show how dependent is the colloidal state on small differences in the structure of two substances. on the other hand, the formation of hydrosols is of the greatest importance relatively to the part played by these substances in nature as well as relating to their chemical characteristics; thus it is extremely difficult to make a solution of penta-[pyrogallolcarboyl]-glucose, at the same time ascertaining its astringent taste and its property of precipitating gelatine. the experience gained by the methyl glucosides makes it exceedingly probable that the simpler polyhydric alcohols also are suitable substances to employ in these syntheses; as a matter of fact, glycerol has been condensed with gallic acid. [footnote: fischer and freudenberg, _ber., , , .] one of the chief characteristics of synthetic tannins is their high molecular weight; for instance, the molecular weight of penta-[tricarbomethoxygalloyl]-glucose is , , that of penta-[pentamethyl-_m_-digalloyl]-glucose , . employing gallic acid derivatives, especially the tribenzoyl compounds, coupled with glucose, _e.g._, mannite, yielded a neutral ester of molecular weight , . the determination of the elementary composition of compounds of high molecular weight is greatly facilitated by employing their halogen derivatives; so, for instance, is _p_ iodophenyl maltosazone very suitable. coupling the latter with tribenzoylgalloyl chloride yielded hepta-[tribenzoyl-galloyl]-_p_-iodophenyl maltosazone, the structure of which is represented by-- ch:n_ h.c_ h_ i | c:n_ h.c_ h_ i | ch.o.r r = co.c_ h_ (o.co.c_ h_ )_ | ch.o.r | ch.o.r r r r r | o o o o | | | | | ch_ .o.ch.ch.ch.ch.ch.ch_ | | ---o--- the molecular weight of this substance is , , and probably represents the highest molecular organic body obtained in any chemical synthesis. from a physiological standpoint the recognition of tannins as esters of glucose and hydroxybenzoic acids, possessing characteristics similar to those of tannin, is of great importance. especially interesting appears the fact of plants utilising sugars for the esterification of acids, just as glycerol or monohydric alcohols may be employed for the same purpose. free acids, as a rule, are only tolerated in certain parts of the organism, the latter usually striving to neutralise acidic groups which may be brought about by salt formation; formation of amino compounds (proteins) or esterification (fats); and, lastly, esterformation by means of sugars. why nature should always build up substances of very complex constitution can only be explained by biochemical investigations, but it may, at any rate, be assumed that by this means any substance poisonous to the living organism is rendered inactive. the function of the tannins present in plants may thus be explained; if, for instance, phenols are formed by the oxidation of corresponding sugars, [footnote: mielke, "ueber die stellung der gerbstoffe im stoffwechsel der pflanzen" (hamburg, ).] the poisonous character of the former would be lessened by the introduction of the carbonic acid esters and subsequent coupling of the substances (depside formation). the depsides thus formed would serve as vehicle of the sugars and transport the migrating tannins, [footnote: kraus, "grundlinien zu einer physiologie der gerbstoffe" ( ).] and, after subsequent deposition of the sugars, would then be eliminated from the plant organism, either by oxidation into ellagic acid and phlobaphenes or by condensation with the formation of cork. diagrammatically, the following would represent the physiology of the tannins:--[footnote: nierenstein, "chemie der gerbstoffe" (stuttgart, ).] sugar-->phenol-->hydroxybenzoic acid-->depside--> |phlobaphene -->migrating depside-->glucoside-->free depside-->-{ellagic acid |cork. [illustration: chart showing the decomposition of products of tannin.] section ii synthesis of tanning matters . aromatic sulphonic acids in organic chemistry distinction is made between sulphonic acids of the aliphatic and the aromatic series, the characteristic group of these acids being the so-called _sulphonic acid group_, hso_ . when sulphides or mercaptans in glacial acetic acid solution are heated with permanganate, the resulting sulphonic acid compounds exhibit great similarity to compounds containing free carboxyl groups. the sulphonic acid group may also be directly introduced either by concentrated, or by fuming sulphuric acid, or by elimination of halogen by the action of sodium or silver sulphite on the halogen derivatives of the aliphatic compounds. saturated hydrocarbons do not react with sulphur trioxide, but unsaturated hydrocarbons are readily attacked by so_ . similarly, halogenated compounds and alcohols react with concentrated or fuming sulphuric acid forming sulphonic and hydrosulphonic acids respectively. the aromatic compounds form, as a rule, sulphonic acids with much greater facility. benzene, for instance, is easily converted into the _m_-disulphonic acid by gently heating with fuming sulphuric acid; stronger heating converts the _m_- into the _p_-disulphonic acid, and at ° c. the trisulphonic acid is formed. toluene treated with fuming sulphuric acid first yields _o_- and _p_-sulphonic acids, finally _o_- and _p_-disulphonic acids, ethylbenzene at the boiling point _p_-ethylbenzene-sulphonic acid. of the three isomeric xylenes _o_- and _m_-xylene dissolve in concentrated, _p_-xylene in fuming sulphuric acid only. the action of sulphuric acid on naphthalene is stronger even than on benzene. equal parts of naphthalene and sulphuric acid heated to ° c. yield per cent. [greek: a] and per cent. [greek: b]-monosulphonic acid. at °- °c. per cent [greek: a]- and per cent. [greek: b]-sulphonic acid is formed, and at higher temperatures [greek: b]-monosulphonic acid only. if, on the other hand, parts of naphthalene are heated with parts of concentrated sulphuric acid to ° c., two different naphthyldisulphonic acids are obtained. complete solution of the substance in sulphuric acid is, generally speaking, a criterion of complete sulphonation. a completely sulphonated compound should remain clear on dilution with water, or, in case precipitation occurs, the precipitate should be completely soluble in alkali or ammonia. it is necessary to submit the product to this test, since many organic substances are soluble in concentrated sulphuric acid without undergoing any alteration in composition. phosphoruspentoxide or potassium sulphate considerably increase the sulphonating property exhibited by fuming sulphuric acid. the separation of the sulphonic acids from sulphuric acid is effected by salting out the former with common salt, or by removing the sulphuric acid with calcium, barium, or lead salts, provided that the sulphonic acid salts of these metals are soluble in water. the sulphonic acid, in its chemically pure state, is best obtained from its crystalline barium salts, which are decomposed with the equivalent of sulphuric acid; another way is to decompose the calcium salts of the sulphonic acids with oxalic acid. the sulphonic acids are frequently hygroscopic and are easily soluble in water; the majority of their barium and lead salts are also soluble in water. the sulphonic acids are insoluble in ether. the halogens do not easily react with sulphonic acids, but when they do they usually replace the sulphonic acid group. in order to prepare the halogen substitution products, therefore, use is made of sulphonic chlorides. the latter are obtained by the action of chlorosulphonic acid on aromatic hydrocarbons; a simpler method, however, is to treat the dry alkali sulphonates with phosphorus pentachloride-- c_ h_ so_ na + pcl_ = c_ h_ so_ .cl + nacl + pocl_ derivatives of sulphonic chlorides are sulphonamides, which are easily prepared from the former by grinding with ammonium carbonate-- c_ h_ so_ .cl + (nh_ )_ co_ = c_ h_ .so_ .nh_ + nh_ cl + co_ + h_ o sulphonic chlorides react with alkaline sulphides to form thiosulphonic acids-- c_ h_ so_ .cl + k_ s = c_ h_ so_ .sk + kcl sulphonic chlorides, dissolved in ether, yield sulphinic acids on reduction with zinc dust or metallic sodium-- c_ h_ so_ .cl + h_ = c_ h_ so_ .h + hcl in the sulphonic acid compounds it is assumed that the sulphur is hexavalent, and it is hence possible to consider the sulphones to be esters of sulphinic acid. ==o r--s==o --h the sulphones are mostly solid bodies, which soften prior to melting when heated. they are very stable towards chemical reagents; for instance, saponification of a mono-sulphone very rarely yields sulphinic acid. if a hydroxyl is substituted for a hydrogen atom in the aromatic hydrocarbons, the action of sulphuric acid is greatly facilitated; thus, by merely mixing phenol with sulphuric acid, the sulphonic acid is at once formed, whereby, in the cold, _o_-phenolsulphonic acid prevails which on heating for some time to °- ° c. is completely converted into _p_-phenolsulphonic acid. in the absence of free sulphuric acid the conversion of _o_- into _p_-phenolsulphonic acid is brought about by heating the aqueous solution. phenol- , -disulphonic acid is prepared from _o_- or _p_-phenolsulphonic acid, whereas phenol- , , -trisulphonic acid is prepared directly from phenol by heating with concentrated sulphuric acid in presence of phosphorus pentoxide. phenolsulphonic acids are also obtained by fusing benzenedisulphonic acid with alkali. cresol is not so easily sulphonated as is phenol; _o_-cresol when heated eight to ten hours at ° c. with one and one-half times its weight of concentrated sulphuric acid, yields _o_-cresol-_p_-sulphonic acid. the phenolsulphonic acids are strong, rather stable acids; their alcoholic hydroxyl-hydrogen atom may, similarly to that of the phenols, be substituted by a metal or an alkyl radical. from [greek: a]- and [greek: b]-naphthol a number of sulphonic acids may easily be prepared; viz., mono-, di-, and trisulphonic acids. nearly all these acids are important as basic materials in the dyestuff industry, especially , -[greek: b]-naphtholmonosulphonic acid (s-acid), , , -[greek: b]-naphtholdisulphonic acid (r-acid) and , , -[greek: b]-naphtholdisulphonic acid (g-acid). . condensation of phenols phenolsulphonic acids exhibit pronounced tendencies to condensation, for which purpose a. v. baeyer ( ) employed aldehydes. the reaction is rather violent, and yields, in addition to well-defined crystalline substances, amorphous bodies resembling rosins. in addition to formaldehyde, paraformaldehyde, trioxymethylene, methylal, hexamethylene-tetramine, and other substances containing a reactive methylene group, as well as acetaldehyde, benzaldehyde and other aldehydes may be employed to induce reaction. a number of these condensation products are derivatives of diphenylamine or hydroxybenzyl alcohols. when the latter are heated, either by themselves or in presence of acids, anhydrides and polymerisation products are formed producing hard, brittle, fusible substances, insoluble in water but fairly soluble in organic solvents. the same substances are formed when phenols are condensed with formaldehyde, especially in the presence of acid contact substances and excess of phenol by sufficiently long heating at certain temperatures. the substances referred to are termed "novolak": similar to these are the so-called "resols," insoluble and non-fusible substances, very resistant to chemical and physical action. another member of the series is the so-called "bakelite" or "resitol," which does not fuse but softens when heated and swells in organic solvents. the ultimate product of this class of substances is "resit" which is obtained when concentrated hydrochloric acid is allowed to act upon a mixture of phenol and formaldehyde; the temperature rises spontaneously, and a hard, porous, insoluble mass of great resistance is obtained. by heating resols, resitols are formed which, on further heating, are finally converted into resits. [footnote: _ber.,_ , , .] of all these products, bakelite (resitol) has found the greatest industrial application; in its purest form, this substance is a nearly colourless or light yellow body of sp. gr. . and, being a poor conductor of heat and electricity, constitutes an excellent insulating material; it is exceedingly resistant towards most chemical reagents even in concentrated forms of the latter. its pronounced refractivity, and the ease with which it may be worked, makes bakelite a favourite substitute for amber (ger. pat, , ). similarly, the resols which can be easily moulded are used either as such or mixed with sand, pulverised cork, asbestos or wood, and the moulded substances then converted into the more highly resistant bakelite by heating. the constitution of these bodies no doubt depends largely on their method of preparation; baekeland [footnote: _chem. ztg.,_ , , .] considers resit a polymerised hydroxybenzylmethylene glycol anhydride; raschig, a diphenylmethane derivative (e.g., dihydroxydiphenylmethane alcohol); wohl [footnote: _ber.,_ , , .] considers them polymerisation products of methylene derivatives of tautomeric phenol. ch===ch h_ c:c{ }co ch===ch [note: lower right ch has double bond to co] this group possesses the characteristic property of being capable of converting animal hide into leather when suitably dissolved. the author has dissolved a number of these water-insoluble condensation products in alkali and alcohol and was able to demonstrate their tanning effects on pelt; bakelite is easily soluble in alkali; a faintly alkaline solution partially precipitates gelatine, and completely so when the alkali is neutralised. this latter solution gives a dirty brown precipitate with iron salts. these condensation products gained extraordinary importance for the tanning trade when stiasny [footnote: ger. pat, , ; austr. pat, , .] succeeded in preparing them in water-soluble form when they are enabled to directly exert their tannoid properties. this may be done by acting upon two molecules of concentrated phenolsulphonic acid with one molecule of formaldehyde, the temperature thereby not exceeding °c. by condensation, however, considerable heat is liberated, and hence the rise in temperature can only be limited by adding the diluted formaldehyde drop by drop, whilst stirring and cooling, to the phenolsulphonic acid. the original letters patent is worded as follows: kilos each of crude phenol and sulphuric acid ( ° bé.) are heated with stirring for two hours at °- °c., cooled to about °c., and kilos per cent. formaldehyde added during three hours, the temperature thereby not exceeding °c.; the stirring is continued for a couple of hours after the final addition of formaldehyde. this yields about kilos of the crude condensation product. on a commercial scale, however, cresol (cresylic acid) is substituted for phenol. there are three isomers of cresol, viz., _o_-, _m_-, and _p_-cresol, and it was naturally of interest to investigate whether one or the other of the isomers exerted any particular influence on the properties of the final product. it was found, however, that condensation products from the three isomers were distinguishable from one another neither in physical nor in tannoid properties. it is hence possible to employ crude cresol, which contains varying quantities of the _o_-, _m_-, and _p_-compounds, in the manufacture of these tanning matters. [footnote: gen pat, , .] the tar obtained from the rochling coal-gas generator contains considerable quantities of phenols (b.p.= °- °c.), and the author has protected the use of these for the production of synthetic tannins by ger. pat, , . a deep brown viscous mass is obtained which, when partly neutralised, yields similar results to those given by the product above referred to. it may be anticipated that by analogy from the chemical reactions taking place in the condensation of phenols on the one hand and cresolsulphonic acid on the other, that all other homologues of phenol, its polyvalent derivatives, substitution products and acids, would yield similar condensation products. the particular position occupied by the aromatic hydroxy compounds in the chemistry of substance possessing tannoid character is not only evidenced by the natural classification of the tannins, tannin derivatives, and decomposition products so far isolated and investigated, but also by other chemical behaviour shown by these substances. meunier and seyewetz [footnote:_collegium_, , , .], for example, were able to show that phenol, _p_-aminophenol, chlorophenol, trinitrophenol, catechol, resorcinol, hydroquinone, monochlorohydroquinone, orcinol, pyrogallol, and gallotannic acid precipitate gelatine from its aqueous solution, that is, to a certain extent possess tanning properties. the author has extended this series somewhat and obtained the following results:-- relative behaviour towards substances gelatine. hide powder. pelt. tribromophenol slight ppte. tans surface tannage [footnote: in alcoholic solution] _o_-nitrophenol no ppte. " " br-_o_-nitrophenol slight ppte. " " tribromopyrogallic ppte. " " acid bromophloroglucinol " " no tannage galloflavine slight ppte. " " bromosalicylic acid " " " bromo-[greek: b] " " tans -naphthol [footnote: in alcoholic solution] rosolic acid " " " [footnote: in alcoholic solution] gallic acid no ppte. no tannage no tannage by the condensation of their sulphonic acids, it may be demonstrated experimentally how the tannoid properties of nearly every member of the series are intensified. investigattion in this direction, however, has not been systematically undertaken, for which reason the author determined to examine this subject; but the enormous number of samples required, obtainable only with great difficulty during the war, made it impossible to conclude completely the researches in this field. what little has so far been done relatively to this subject should, when collected, indicate the way to be pursued in this wide field of investigation. what follows will hence comprise the conversion of a few of the most important members of this series of substances into their methylene-condensation products with a brief discussion of the qualitative and tannoid reactions of the latter. the didepside of phenolsulphonic acid is obtained by condensing carbomethoxyphenolsulphonic chloride with sodium phenolsulphonate in the presence of the calculated amount of caustic soda. a product of the composition ch_ . .coo.c_ h_ so_ . .c_ h_ .so_ na is first obtained, which on saponification with soda yields the pure didepside-- ho.c_ h_ .so_ .c_ h_ .so_ .na by acidifying the concentrated solution the didepside is obtained as a white crystalline substance; a solution of which precipitates gelatine without, however, exhibiting any tanning effect upon animal hide. if, on the other hand, the above ester is converted into the chloride ch_ o.coo.c_ h_ so_ .o.c_ h_ .so_ cl by treatment with pcl_ , and the chloride thus obtained further condensed with sodium phenolsulphonate, saponified, and the solution acidified, the pure tridepside ho.c_ h_ .so_ .o.c_ h_ .so_ .o.c_ h_ .so_ na is precipitated as white crystalline needles which not only precipitate gelatine, but are capable of converting animal hide into leather.[footnote: _chem. ztg._, , , .] of the class of hydroxy-cymenes _thymol_, c_ h_ .ch_ .c_ h_ oh, was converted into the water-soluble sulphonic acid by warming with concentrated sulphuric acid at ° c., the sulphonic acid being subsequently easily condensed with formaldehyde by slightly heating the mixture. the condensation product thus obtained is a viscous brown mass which is easily soluble in water, precipitates gelatine completely, gives a bluish-black coloration with iron salts, and gives a precipitate with aniline hydrochloride. to investigate its tannoid properties, the mixture was brought to the acidity gm = c.c. n/ naoh and a piece of bated calf skin was then introduced into a solution measuring about ° bé. after eighteen hours the pelt was nearly tanned through, and a further twenty-four hours completed the tanning process, after which a light fat-liquor was given. the dried leather was brownish-grey in colour, possessed soft and full feel and good tensile strength. on account of their importance, the three dihydroxybenzenes were examined with a view to test their suitability for conversion into tannoid substances. _o_-dihydroxybenzene, catechol, yields a sulphonic acid easily soluble in water, which on the careful addition of formaldehyde assumes a blue colour. the compound thus obtained may be heated to ° c., without depositing insolubles. a further addition of formaldehyde, however, results in the formation of a considerable quantity of insolubles whilst the liquid assumes a brown coloration. if, on the other hand, the sulphonic acid is diluted with twice its volume of water, formaldehyde added and the mixture heated on the water bath, the liquid immediately turns brown, the formaldehyde is completely fixed, and a condensation product soluble in water results. the latter gives a brownish-black coloration with ferric chloride, completely precipitates gelatine, but gives no opalescence with aniline hydrochloride. tanning experiments with the partly neutralised ( gm.= c.c. n/ naoh) substance resulted in both grain and flesh being tanned with a black colour, whereas the interior of the pelt was pickled (white colour). after a further forty-eight hours, however, the black colour penetrated the pelt, and tannage was complete. the washed and lightly fat-liquored leather was soft, of full feel and good tensile strength, and was greyish coloured throughout. with regard to the black colour possessed by leathers tanned with synthetic tannins the following should be noted. when sulphonating and especially when condensing substances, black dyestuffs or very finely divided carbon in the colloidal state are often formed. such a substance does not deposit the black particles, even when filtered through kaolin, and hence convert pelt into leather possessing black colour on the surface. the hide in this case acts as a perfect filtration medium, whereby the surface layers retaining the coloured particles assume their colour; thus only the pure tanning matter enters into the interior, which then, according to the composition of the former, imparts a colour varying from white to light brown to the inner layers. _m_-dihydroxybenzene, resorcinol, is also easily sulphonated by concentrated sulphuric acid, the brownish-coloured sulphonic acid being easily soluble in water. if the sulphonic acid is diluted with three times its volume of water, cooled down, a few drops of formaldehyde added and the mixture heated on the water bath to completely fix the formaldehyde, and this process repeated till no more formaldehyde is taken up, a brown water-soluble condensation product results, the aqueous solution of which precipitates gelatine completely, aniline hydrochloride only partly and which gives a deep blue colour with ferric chloride. a piece of calf skin immersed in a solution of the partly neutralised (as above) product was tanned through in twenty-four hours; when lightly fat-liquored, the resulting leather possessed a yellowish-green colour and good tensile strength, and was soft and full. _p_-dihydroxybenzene, hydroquinone, was converted into the water-soluble sulphonic acid by heating it with concentrated sulphuric acid at ° c.; the sulphonic acid, mixed with formaldehyde at ordinary temperature, immediately solidifies to a white mass, which is soluble in water and which had completely fixed the formaldehyde. if, however, this mass is heated for some time to °c, it assumes a light brown coloration and its solubility in water is diminished. a slight excess of formaldehyde and the application of heat result in dark violet insoluble condensation products. the aqueous solution precipitates gelatine, gives a deep blue colour with ferric chloride, but gives no precipitate with aniline hydrochloride; on the other hand, addition of potassium nitrite produces the yellow colour characteristic of hydroquinone. the product effects a slower tannage (seven days) than the former product, when a brown, soft, but rather empty leather of good tensile strength is obtained. of the _trihydroxybenzenes_ pyrogallol and phloroglucinol only were included in these investigations. when pyrogallol is sulphonated with concentrated sulphuric acid a violet-coloured sulphonic acid, soluble in water, is obtained, which, when treated with formaldehyde first in the cold and then when heated, yields a solid deep red-coloured mass, which precipitates gelatine but not aniline hydrochloride, and gives a blackish-brown colour with ferric chloride. the partly neutralised substance in aqueous solution tans pelt in twenty-four hours with black colour on the surface only, the intermediary layer being pickled (white colour) only, but the black-coloured tanning matter ultimately penetrates the pelt, which tanned through in seven days. the resultant leather is coloured black throughout, is full, soft, and possesses good tensile strength. sulphonation of phloroglucinol succeeds at higher temperatures only, the sulphonic acid being a solid which is scarcely soluble in water, the latter then assuming a wine-red colour. the condensation product--prepared as described for resorcinol, but requiring higher temperature--is a brick-red powder, insoluble in water. the same end-product also seems to be obtained by simply heating the sulphonic acid at a higher temperature; this also induces condensation with the formation of a reddish-brown mass insoluble in water. it is, of course, impossible to attempt any tanning experiments with this product in aqueous solution; attempts at dissolving the condensation product in alcohol proved barren of result, since only traces of impurities accompanying the substance dissolved, imparting a light reddish-brown colour to the solution. in highly concentrated alcohol, however, the condensation product is somewhat soluble, yielding a reddish-brown solution. a piece of pelt introduced into the alcoholic solution was surface tanned only after forty-eight hours, leaving the remainder of the pelt pickled; extending the experiment over a further four days produced no change in the pelt. the latter was therefore rinsed with water, lightly fat-liquored and dried, when a soft but empty leather of grey colour and good tensile strength was obtained. it appears, therefore, to be a case of pseudo-tannage, where an infinitesimal amount of synthetic tannin produces a tanning effect without, however, a true tannage being effected. the elberfelder farbenfabriken have protected the use of the condensation products of di- and polyhydroxybenzenes by ger. pat., , ; owing to the high cost of the latter substances, however, it is doubtful whether synthetic tannins prepared from these materials would not be too expensive for any other than pharmaceutical purposes. before leaving the phenols, mention must be made of the quinones, the use of which for tanning purposes was first protected by ger. pat., , ( th april ). according to this patent, only gm. of quinone are required for the conversion into leather of kilos pelt, drum tannage being preferable. during the process the leather first assumes a reddish colour, changing through violet to brown; its resistance to water, acids, and alkalies is said to be considerably greater than that exhibited by all other kinds of leather. the chemistry of the quinone tannage has been investigated, and an explanation given by thuau [footnote: _collegium_, , , .] assumes a reaction between the quinone and the amino groups of the hide protein with the formation of hydroquinone-- +-o oh | | | r.nh_ + c_ h_ | = c_ h_ + c_ h_ (o.nh.r)_ | | | +-o oh (pelt.) (leather.) fahrion has shown that, during the tanning process, the quinone loses its active oxygen, and this can only be brought about by the amino group of the hide protein, the amino group only being capable of effecting reduction of the quinone. an analogy is here offered by dianilinoquinone. a spent quinone liquor contains considerable amounts of hydroquinone. the tannage may also be effected by exposing pelt saturated with hydroquinone to oxidation by the air. the pelt, which is unaltered by the hydroquinone bath, on being removed from the latter, and in the presence of alkali, assumes a red colour at first, which changes into violet, blue, and finally brown, the pelt being thereby converted into a quinone-tanned leather. it may be noted that quinone only effects pseudo-tannage; quinone mixed with water deposits, in time, a black amorphous substance practically insoluble in water. this substance is easily adsorbed by hide powder, but is not capable of converting the latter into that insoluble form into which it is converted by the natural tannins. amongst polyhydric alcohols, the behaviour of the methyl ester of catechol, _guaiacol_ was investigated. the sulphonic acid was prepared by heating guaiacol with concentrated sulphuric acid, the resulting water-soluble product possessing a light, brownish-green colour. on condensing the sulphonic acid with formaldehyde, the same precautions were observed as in the case of resorcinol, but complete fixation of the formaldehyde could only be obtained by finally heating the product for a short time over a free flame, at about ° c. condensation was indicated by the brownish appearance of the liquid. no insoluble products were formed. the condensation product easily dissolves in water, the solution assuming a rich brown colour and exhibiting the following reactions: gelatine is completely precipitated, aniline hydrochloride produces opalescence, and ferric chloride a deep brown coloration. tannage, with the partly neutralised product, was rapid, the pelt being nearly tanned through in twenty-four hours, excepting a small white streak in the middle; after a further twenty-four hours this streak had vanished, and the completely tanned, dark grey-coloured leather, after washing, fat-liquoring, and drying, was soft, full, and of good tensile strength, very similar to the leather yielded by the catechol-condensation product. of the nitro-compounds, trinitrophenol, c_ h_ (no_ )_ oh (picric acid), was investigated. if a concentrated solution of picric acid is brought into contact with pelt it will penetrate the latter completely in a few days; it is, however, difficult to fat-liquor the resultant leather, since the fat is absorbed only with difficulty. if a pelt treated in this way be dried, a soft but rather flat leather results, the colour of which easily rubs off, the leather also tasting intensely bitter. these disagreeable qualities prevent a general use of this material for tanning purposes; in spite of them, however, picric acid, in admixture with boracic acid, salicylic acid, and glycerol, is used in the production of the so-called transparent leather. the latter is very flexible and possesses great tensile strength, but loses the latter quality when exposed to heat, and, when stored, also loses its flexibility. by simply washing with water, the leather is reconverted into pelt. when picric acid is treated with hot sulphuric acid and formaldehyde gradually added, a dark coloured water-soluble condensation product is formed which strongly precipitates gelatine. exposed to the action of bromine, the condensation product yields a mass which is insoluble in water. experience has taught that the amino bodies--the basic n-derivatives of the phenols--do not yield substances possessing tannoid properties on condensation. on account of their importance, however, a few have been included in this series of investigations. aminobenzene, c_ h_ nh_ , aniline, treated with sulphuric acid, yields the water-soluble aniline sulphate, which, on cautious addition of formaldehyde, yields a reddish-coloured gel, insoluble in water, in addition to a small volume of a reddish-yellow liquid. the latter precipitates gelatine, but is not capable of converting pelt into leather. the insoluble gel is likewise insoluble in alcohol, so that tanning experiments with this substance are excluded. dimethylaniline, c_ h_ n(ch_ )_ , when treated with sulphuric acid, yields a product soluble in water which neither reacts with nor fixes formaldehyde. hence the substance does not precipitate gelatine. if, on the other hand, nitrosodimethylaniline, no | c_ h_ | (ch_ )_ is sulphonated, and the water-soluble sulphonation product heated with formaldehyde for some time, the product remains soluble in water and precipitates gelatine. no tanning effect could, however, be detected. arylsulphaminoarylsulphonic acids and arylsulphoxyarylsulphonic acids precipitate gelatine but are devoid of tannoid character. the latter is acquired by compounds belonging to this class containing two or more sulphamino groups, or when they, in addition to one sulphamino group, contain a sulphoxy group and another sulphonic group. according to ger. pat., , (society oc chemical industry, basle), such compounds are obtained when, for instance, sodium sulphanilide in alkaline solution acts upon nitrotoluenesulphochloride, and the resulting nitrotoluenesulphamino compound is subsequently reduced with acetic acid and iron. the resulting aminotoluenesulphaminobenzenesulphonic acid is finally treated with p-toluenesulphonic chloride till the latter disappears. a compound of the composition -----nh-----so_ ----- ^ ^ ^ | | | | | | | | | |---nh---| | v v v so_ na ch_ is thereby obtained, which, when acidified, is readily capable of being used for tanning purposes. the intermediary product of the aminotoluenesulphaminobenzenesulphonic acid obtained by this process may again be employed for the purpose of reacting with one-half molecule soda and molecule nitrotoluenesulphonic chloride. the following compound is obtained-- ---nh---so_ --- ---nh---so_ --- ^ ^ ^ ch_ ^ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | v v ---nh---so_ --- v v so_ na ch_ ch_ if _p_-toluenesulphaminobenzenesulphonic chloride is condensed with sodium sulphanilide, a compound, ---so_ ---nh--- naso_ ^ ^ ^ | | | | | | | | | | | | v v ---so_ ---nh--- v so_ na is obtained which, when acidified, exhibits tannoid properties. on condensing sodium phenolsulphonate with nitrotoluenesulphonic chloride, reducing the condensation product and condensing the latter with _p_-toluenesulphonic chloride, a compound similar to the above is obtained-- ---o---so_ --- ^ ^ ^ ch_ | | | | | | | | | | | | v v ---nh---so_ --- v naso_ ch_ again, a similar product is obtained when _p_-toluenesulphaminobenzenesulphonic chloride or its homologues or isomers are condensed with sodium-_o_-cresylsulphonate-- ---so_ ---nh--- so_ na ^ ^ ^ | | | | | | | | | | ch_ | | v v ---so_ ---o--- v ch_ the chloride of this compound may again be condensed, for instance, with sodium aminotoluenesulphaminobenzene-sulphonate, and yields the compound-- ---nh---so_ --- ^ ^ ^ ---nh---so_ --- ^ | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | v v ---nh---so_ --- v v ch naso_ ch_ the three latter compounds, when dissolved in water and the solution acidified, exert tanning action. it is also possible to employ mixtures of arylsulphaminobenzylsulphonic acids in acidified aqueous solution for tanning purposes. according to ger. pat., , , such mixtures are obtained by nitrating benzylchloride and heating with an equimolecular amount of sodium sulphite; the sodium nitrobenzylsulphonate thus obtained is reduced to aminobenzylsulphonic acid with iron and acetic acid, and finally condensed with the calculated amount of _p_-toluenesulphonic chloride. a mixture _o_- and _p_-toluenesulphaminobenzylsulphonic acid [footnote : cf. also ger. pat, , and , .] thus results. amongst _aromatic alcohols_ the dihydric alcohols show characteristic behaviour; the latter combine with sulphonic acids with the elimination of water, condensation taking place without formaldehyde, and the resulting products being soluble in water and possessing tannoid properties. [footnote : ger. pat., , , of th september .] in addition to phenolic mono- and disulphonic acids (and higher sulphonation compounds), the homologues, cresols, xylenols, and naphthols enter into reaction. the two components condense with great ease, liberating heat; dilute solutions (of the components) are heated to about ° c., the process being complete in a few minutes. the products obtained are exceedingly pure and are easily crystallisable. employing , respectively , molecules of sulphonic acid, the reactions take place according to:-- oh ch_ .oh oh oh }c_ h_ + ho.c_ h_ { = h_ o + }c_ h_ -ch_ -c_ h_ { hso_ ch_ .oh hso_ ch_ .oh oh oh ch_ .oh ch_ .c_ h_ { }c_ h_ + ho.c_ h_ { = (h_ o) + ho.c_ h_ { hso_ hso_ ch_ .oh | oh ch_ .c_ h_ { hso_ oh ch_ .oh oh oh }c_ h_ .ch_ + ho.c_ h_ { = h_ o + }c_ h_ .ch_ .ch_ .c_ h_ { hso_ ch_ .oh hso_ ch_ .oh oh oh ch_ .oh ch_ .c_ h_ .ch_ { }c_ h_ .ch_ + ho.c_ h_ { = (h_ o) + ho.c_ h_ { hso_ hso_ ch_ .oh | oh ch_ .c_ h_ .ch_ { hso_ oh ch_ .oh oh oh }(c_ )h_ + ho.c_ h_ { = h_ o + }(c_ )h_ .ch_ .c_ h_ { hso_ ch_ .oh hso_ ch_ .oh oh oh ch_ .oh ch_ .(c_ )h_ { }(c_ )h_ + ho.c_ h_ { = (h_ o) + ho.c_ h_ { hso_ hso_ ch_ .oh | oh ch_ .(c_ )h_ { hso_ the condensation products above enumerated were tested with regard to their tanning power, both non-neutralised and partly neutralised ( : , : , and : c.c. n/ naoh) samples being examined. in all cases rapid tannage was observed yielding firm and soft leathers of light brown colour and varying degrees of swollenness. relatively to their reactions, all the products strongly precipitate gelatine, whereas only the condensation products of phenol, cresol, and xylenol derivatives give a characteristic coloration with iron salts. the tannin contents of the non-neutralised condensation products lie between - per cent.--figures which clearly indicate the purity and efficiency of these substances. notable amongst _aromatic acids_ is salicylic acid, c_ h_ .oh.cooh, which at higher temperatures is easily sulphonated with concentrated sulphuric acid; the sulphonation product represents a white solid, which easily dissolves in water forming a clear liquid. the sulphonic acid, when mixed with about one-third of its weight of water and heated to about ° c., is easily condensed with formaldehyde. towards the end of the reaction, considerable frothing sets in, but in spite of the high temperature required by this reaction no insoluble bakelites are formed. a reddish-brown fluid is obtained easily soluble in water, to which it imparts a brown colour. an aqueous solution of the product completely precipitates gelatine, gives a strong opalescence with aniline hydrochloride and a deep violet coloration with ferric chloride. neutralised as usual, the product, in a ° bé solution, converts pelt within three days into a white, full leather of good tensile strength. this process has been patented by the deutsch-koloniale gerb und farbstoff gesellschaft (german-colonial tanning and colour extracts ltd.) in karlsruhe, the letters patent also including the ring homologues of salicylic acid. similar results are obtained when cresotinic acid (hydroxy-toluic acid), oh.c_ h_ .ch_ .cooh, is employed as base. if the phenyl ester of salicylic acid, _salol_, ho.c_ h_ .co.o.c_ h_ is sulphonated, a product is obtained which is easily soluble in water, but which is identified as a mixture of the sulphonation products of salicylic acid and phenol, the salol being dissociated on sulphonation. the temperature must not exceed ° c. by condensation with formaldehyde, or insoluble bakelite will be formed from the phenol; the aldehyde must also be added gradually. an aqueous solution of the partly neutralised condensation product has a pronounced tanning effect on pelt, and converts the latter into leather in one to two days; the leather being very similar to that produced by the salicylic acid condensation product. the qualitative reactions of the product in aqueous solution are the same as those given by the salicylic acid condensation product. salicylic acid may, however, also be condensed with formaldehyde without first being sulphonated; in this case, a little hydrochloric acid should be present. a product slightly soluble in water is obtained, which may be looked upon as being methylenedisalicylic acid. in alkaline solution it is easily soluble, [footnote : its solubility in alcohol and alkalies renders this product an effective and cheap substitute for shellac.--_transl._] the liquid possessing an intensely bitter taste. the sodium salt gives a deep violet coloration with ferric chloride, a slight precipitate with gelatine, and slight opalescence with aniline hydrochloride. in contact with pelt, however, it exhibits no tanning effect, but when dissolved in alcohol, a pickling effect may be observed. [footnote : a similar reaction is observable in the case of the sodium salts of methylenedisalicylic acid brommated or iodised, which form a clear solution varying from red to reddish-brown.] the attempt at preparing a condensation product from sodium-_m_-hydroxybenzoate by means of formaldehyde and bisulphite is worthy of attention. a dark brown, viscous liquid is obtained which is perfectly soluble in water, and the aqueous solution of which gives opalescence with gelatine, a precipitate with aniline hydrochloride, and a bluish-black coloration with ferric chloride. its behaviour towards pelt is very similar to that of phenolsulphonic acid, and it yields a similar leather. a very similar condensation product was obtained by condensing sodium-_p_-hydroxybenzoate with formaldehyde and subsequent sulphonation with sulphuric acid. from a practical standpoint, however, these substances cannot be employed, since their tanning action is only effective in acid solutions of such concentration of acid as would gelatinise the pelt. if, on the other hand, non-condensed methane derivatives of phenol, _e.g._, hydroxyphenylmethanesulphonic acid, are partly neutralised and a solution of the product thus obtained used for tanning experiments, no tanning action is observable. the acidified solution does not precipitate gelatine, and gives a dark brown coloration only with ferric chloride. gallic acid, c_ h_ (oh)_ cooh, when heated with sulphuric acid, is easily converted into the insoluble rufigallic acid, which is also insoluble in alcohol. if, however, gallic acid is heated with an excess of sulphuric acid, the product cooled and treated with formaldehyde, a deep brown condensation product is obtained which is soluble in alcohol, and in this state is capable of converting pelt into a substance similar to leather which, though rather hard, possesses good tensile strength. this water-insoluble condensation product is also soluble in alkalies, the solution exhibiting properties similar to that described above. gallic acid, therefore, is not a suitable base for the production of synthetic tannins soluble in water. phthalic acid also is difficult to sulphonate: the sulphonated compound treated with formaldehyde gives only water-insoluble condensation products. . condensation of naphthalene derivatives the simplest method of condensing [greek: b]-naphthalene-sulphonic acid is to heat it at ° c. at a pressure of mm. for several hours.[footnote: austr. pat., , , of th september .] the resulting product is a cheesy mass which reacts strongly acid. by reducing the acidity of the substance to gm. = c.c. n/ o naoh, a grey, cheesy mass results, which easily dissolves in water, the solution being coloured a light yellow-brown and precipitating gelatine aniline hydrochloride; no coloration, however, appears on adding ferric chloride. the condensation of [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid, however, proceeds with much greater energy in the presence of formaldehyde. in practice, for instance, kilos of naphthalene is heated with the same weight of concentrated sulphuric acid ( ° bé), when the mixture is converted into [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid by heating for several hours at °- ° c; the sulphonation completed, the sulphonic acid is cooled to about ° c., and kilos of formaldehyde ( per cent, by weight) slowly added; finally, the product is stirred at the temperature mentioned till all formaldehyde has combined.[footnote: austr. pat., , , of th june ; ger. pat, , .] tanning experiments with this product yielded, in a short time, a nearly white coloured leather (see later). in addition to formaldehyde, there are other substances which induce condensation of naphthalenesulphonic acid; if, for instance, sulphur chloride is allowed to act upon [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid, a light brown solid of pronounced acidic character is obtained; if the latter is partly neutralised with caustic soda, a greyish-brown solid results, which dissolves in water with a light brown colour, the solution precipitating gelatine and aniline hydrochloride, but giving no coloration with ferric chloride.[footnote: austr. pat., , .] tanning experiments with this product in aqueous solution gave a light brown, rather soft leather, and this, in addition to the qualitative reactions of the substance, prove that this method of condensation hardly alters the character of the product from a tanning point of view. the brown coloration imparted to the leather tanned with this condensation product owes its existence to coloured intermediary products. attempts at condensing chloronaphthalenesulphonic acid and nitronaphthalenesulphonic acid resulted in soluble condensation products which gave some of the reactions given by the tannins (precipitation of gelatine and aniline hydrochloride), but which were incapable of tanning pelt, a light tannage being effected on the surface only. [greek: a]-naphthol dissolved in hot concentrated sulphuric acid and heated for some time on the water bath, yields the light brown, water-soluble [greek: a]-naphtholsulphonic acid. a dilute solution of the latter, when treated with formaldehyde in the cold, undergoes no change; on heating the mixture on the water bath a brown precipitate is thrown down. if gelatine solution is added to the opaque liquid, a yellow flocculent precipitate separates. if caustic soda is added to the opaque liquid containing the condensation product described above, a clear solution results from which no deposit separates on the addition of acetic acid. gelatine is precipitated by this solution. the concentrated hot a-naphtholsulphonic acid, upon addition of sufficient formaldehyde, effervesces strongly and yields a dark brown condensation product insoluble in water, but soluble in caustic soda. if acetic acid is added in excess to the alkaline solution, the resultant solution strongly precipitates gelatine. a suspension in water of the insoluble condensation product does not precipitate gelatine. b-naphthol, dissolved in hot concentrated sulphuric acid and heated for some time, yields the light brown, viscous b-naphtholsulphonic acid. a dilute solution of the latter, mixed with formaldehyde, remains clear; when heated on the water bath, however, it assumes a dark, reddish-yellow colour, and remains soluble in water and precipitates gelatine strongly. this condensation product, on adding excess of caustic soda, assumes a deep blue coloration, the alkaline solution giving no precipitate with gelatine; on adding acetic acid the solution turns brown, remains clear, and now precipitates gelatine. the concentrated b-naphtholsulphonic acid heated with formaldehyde on the water bath yields as condensation product a dark, reddish-yellow mass, soluble in water, which precipitates gelatine. a dilute solution, when allowed to act upon pelt, gave in a few days a light brown leather, the properties of which are very similar to those possessed by vegetable tanned leathers. the use of naphtholsulphonic and aminonaphtholsulphonic acids for the manufacture of synthetic tannins is protected by ger. pats., , , , , , , and , . [footnote: _cf._ austr. pat., , .] it is a remarkable fact that non-condensed methane derivatives of naphthol, _e.g._, b-naphthol-a-methanesulphonic acid, dissolved in water and partly neutralised, are devoid of tanning character when allowed to act upon pelt. neither does this substance precipitate gelatine, but it does give a deep blue coloration with ferric chloride. the condensation product of b-naphthol above referred to precipitates gelatine and aniline hydrochloride and gives a brown coloration with ferric chloride. thionaphtholsulphonic acid, when acted upon by formaldehyde, yields a condensation product of the following constitution:-- hso_ ^ ^ sh sh ^ ^ hso_ | | | | | | | | |_____ch_ _____| | | v v v v this is a light yellow powder which, dissolved in water, yields an opaque solution; the latter only exhibits any tanning properties when it is not neutralised and even slightly acidified and then precipitates gelatine, aniline hydrochloride and barium chloride; dissolved in alkali, it forms a clear, yellow solution devoid of tannoid properties. leather tanned with the acidified solution is very similar to those tanned with the phenolsulphonic acid condensation products; its colour, however, is more pronouncedly yellow. b-naphthol condensed with hydrochloric acid and formaldehyde yields a methylenedinaphthol, which is insoluble in water; the sodium salt, however, easily dissolves. the same condensation, however, takes place in alkaline solution with direct formation of the sodium salt. the condensation product gives a slight precipitate with gelatine, and a bluish-grey precipitate with ferric chloride; acids re-precipitate the insoluble methylene compound. towards pelt it exhibits tanning properties, whereby the insoluble product referred to above is deposited, and soft, full, and white leather is obtained, possessing, however, but little tensile strength. . condensation of the anthracene group anthracene heated with excess sulphuric acid yields the water-soluble anthracenesulphonic acid; the latter, when heated with formaldehyde, yields water-soluble, reddish-brown condensation products, which remain soluble on prolonged heating with formaldehyde. the aqueous solution of the condensation product shows no particular reactions; it gives a flocculent precipitate with gelatine and a green precipitate with copper sulphate, soluble with blue colour in excess of the reagent. the partly neutralised solution tans pelt--to which it imparts a brown colour--in eight days, but on the surface only; the inner layers are merely pseudo-tanned (white colour). when dried, pelt thus treated yields a full and soft leather with brown grain and flesh possessing but little tensile strength. hence, this condensation product exerts a pickling rather than a tanning effect. anthraquinone heated with sulphuric acid and treated with formaldehyde in the usual manner, yields a substance which, when mixed with water, forms an opaque, milky solution. this is not altered by excess of caustic soda. the aqueous solution precipitates gelatine and aniline hydrochloride; all other tannin reagents give no reaction. the partly neutralised solution of the condensation product exerts, in the main, a pickling action on pelt; only the surface of which is tanned, with brown colour, the remainder being merely pickled (white colour). during "tannage," bakelite is formed in the liquid, and practically all solubles originally present are deposited. the tannage completed, a light brown, fairly soft and full leather, possessing little tensile strength, results; this leather can be washed only with great difficulty and approaches more the character of a pickled pelt. -hydroxyanthraquinone, , -dichloroanthraquinone, l, -diaminoanthraquinone, -methylaminoanthraquinone, -benzoylamino, -chloranthraquinone, -_m_-toluidoanthraquinone, when treated with sulphuric acid and formaldehyde, all yield condensation products which are but little soluble in water, and which do not at all precipitate gelatine. tanning experiments with these condensation products in alcoholic solution yielded empty leathers of pronounced pickle character. if, however, -methylamino- -bromanthraquinone is condensed with sulphuric acid and formaldehyde, a condensation product is obtained which is but slightly soluble in water, but which precipitates gelatine. when phenanthrequinone is heated with excess of sulphuric acid for some time, a water-soluble, reddish-yellow coloured condensation product results. the latter, when treated with formaldehyde in the cold and then finally heated, gradually fixes the formaldehyde and forms a substance soluble in water. if the heating, however, is prolonged, insoluble bakelites are formed, which are neither soluble in alkali nor in alcohol. an aqueous solution of these condensation products gives no reactions with the usual tannin reagents, though it completely precipitates gelatine. when acting upon pelt, the partly neutralised dilute solution of the condensation product pickles the former, and after a few days the pelt is converted into a light brown, full, and rather soft leather possessing good tensile strength. when the condensation product is acted upon by bromine in hot aqueous solution, an additive compound is formed and the resulting product is soluble in water. the aqueous solution of the brominated product gives no special reactions with the usual tannin reagents, but precipitates gelatine completely. its tanning action upon pelt is much slower than that of the original condensation product; the surface of the pelt only is tanned with brown colour, the inner pelt being only pickled (light brown colour). when dried, a hard and empty leather of good tensile strength is obtained, possessing mainly the properties of a pickled pelt. co oh ^ ^ ^ quinizarene, | | | | , treated with sulphuric acid | | | | v v v co oh and formaldehyde, yields a condensation product which is but little soluble in water and which does not precipitate gelatine. quinoline, when sulphonated and condensed with formaldehyde, yields a dark coloured condensation product, completely soluble in water; the solution does not precipitate gelatine. oxyquinoline exhibits similar behaviour. on the other hand, the use of _retene_ (methylisopropylphenanthrene), ch_ ^ ___________ ^ | | | | | |___ch:ch___| | c_ h_ v v for the production of synthetic tannins, is protected by ger. pat., , [footnote : _cf_ austr. pat., , ] . di- and triphenylmethane groups if diphenylmethane, (c_ h_ )_ ch_ , is heated with excess sulphuric acid, a dark blue mass, easily soluble in water, is obtained. the product gently heated with formaldehyde yields a brown, water-soluble condensation product; once condensation is complete, the product will stand stronger heat. if, on the other hand, more formaldehyde is added, brown, water-insoluble bakelites are formed. the water-soluble condensation product precipitates gelatine, but not aniline hydrochloride. dissolved in water, it possesses tannoid properties: the pelt is, however, tanned on the surface only, the intermediary layers being merely pickled; after four days in the solution, the pelt after drying was found to be converted into a greyish-brown, badly coloured leather, which was empty, hard, and possessed but little tensile strength. carbazole (dibenzopyrrole), ^ _____ ^ | | | | | |__ __| | v v v n_ on the other hand, was found a suitable base for the commercial production of synthetic tannins; its use is protected by ger. pat, , . triphenylmethane, (c_ h_ )_ ch, heated with excess sulphuric acid, yields a nearly black mass which, when condensed with formaldehyde in the cold, and subsequently heated, yields a mass which is soluble in water. with gelatine and aniline hydrochloride it exhibits reactions similar to those given by the diphenylmethane condensation products; its tanning properties also are similar to those of the latter. the resultant leather is black, but is soft and full and possesses good tensile strength. baeyer's observation, [footnote: _ber_., , , , .] that pyrogallol on condensation with formaldehyde yields an amorphous body soluble in water, which precipitates gelatine and is very similar to tannin, was confirmed by caro [footnote: _ibid_., , , .] and kahl. [footnote: _ibid_., , , .] these investigators found that by the condensation of phenols and hydroxybenzoic acids with formaldehyde, diphenylmethane derivatives were formed; pyrogallol yields hexahydroxydiphenylmethane-- c_ h_ (oh)_ ch_ { c_ h_ (oh)_ nierenstein [footnote: _collegium_, , .] repeated these experiments, and found that in addition to the insoluble diphenylmethanes, water-soluble bodies were formed, which latter precipitate gelatine. the condensation product yielded by gallic acid was identified as hexahydroxyaurinecarboxylic acid-- _c_ h(oh)_ cooh c{-c_ h(oh)_ cooh | }c_ h(oh)_ cooh o which is formed in addition to hexahydroxydiphenylmethane-dicarboxylic acid-- c_ h(oh)_ cooh ch_ { c_ h(oh)_ cooh baeyer's experiment with pyrogallol probaly also yields, according to nierenstein, another compound of the following constitution-- c_ h_ (oh)_ c{-c_ h_ (oh)_ |_}c_ h_ (oh)_ o nierenstein considers these bodies confirmation of his hypothesis of the existence of a "tannophor,"--co--, in the tannins. this supposition was adopted by stiasny [footnote: _gerber_, , .] and kauschke [footnote: _collegium_, , .] and the latter points out that these easily soluable substances exhibit tanning properties. nierenstein [footnote: _ibid_., .] was further able to show that by all processes of condensation between phenols (or hydroxybenzoic acids) and formaldehyde, compounds of the character of hydroxyaurine (or hydroxyaurinecarboxylic acid) were formed in addition to the insoluble hydroxydiphenylmethanes (or hydroxydiphenylmethanecarboxylic acids), the former possessing the characteristic tannophor group and hence precipitating gelatine, _i.e._, exerting tanning action. if the formation of leather is viewed in the light of schiff's base, [footnote: _ibid_., , .] one may consider the constitution of a hexahydroxyaurinecarboxylic acid leather as follows:-- _c_ h_ (oh)_ .cooh c{-c_ h_ (oh)_ .cooh |_}c_ h_ (oh)_ .cooh r-n in the preparation of these and similar condensation products, nierenstein and webster [footnote: _ber_., , , .] observed a peculiar steric effect of the carboxyl group. each . gm. of the phenol or the acid in question were dissolved in c.c. of water, the solution brought to boil and c.c. formaldehyde ( per cent.) and . c.c. hydrochloric acid added drop by drop; the precipitate formed was filtered off after twenty-four hours, dried at ° c. to constant weight, extracted (in a gooch crucible) freely with water, and the residue again dried at ° c. till constant. the following values were obtained:-- total insol. aq. sol. aq. oxy- precipitate diphenylmethane aurinecarboxylic in grammes. derivatives acid. per cent. per cent. phloroglucinol . ... hydroquinone . ... " . ... pyrogallol . ... " . ... pyrocatechol . ... " . ... resorcinol . ... " . ... gallic acid . . . " . . . " . . . [greek: b]-resorcylic acid . . . " " . . . protocatechuic acid ... ... ... " " ... ... ... vanillic acid ... ... ... tannin . ... nearly all sol. digallic acid . . . leucodigallic acid . . . with the introduction of the carboxylic group the tendency of condensation to diphenylmethane derivatives is lessened; by protocatechuic acid the tendency is nil. nierenstein considers this reaction analogous to the formation of cork, to the genetic relation of which with the diphenylmethane formation drabble and nierenstein have referred in an earlier publication. [footnote: _biochemical jour._., , , .] it is hence possible that the plants may employ formaldehyde as a methylation medium, and produce these insoluble condensation products for the purpose of ridding themselves of the poisonous phenols and aromatic hydroxy acids (and tannins), in addition to oxidising processes whereby phlobaphenes, ellagic acid, etc., are formed. the reaction between phenols and aldehydes has been further studied by michael, [footnote: _amer.jour_., , ; , .] who prepared a condensation product from phenol and resorcinol with benzaldehyde, and russanow, [footnote: _ber_. , , .] who also employed benzaldehyde and phenol. lipp [footnote: diss., bern., .] investigated the action of benzaldehyde and piperonal on phenols, anisoles, cresols, cresylic ether, resorcinol, and the ether of the latter and phenol, and showed that when free phenols are condensed with benzaldehyde the hydroxyls occupy the same position as by the interaction between benzaldehyde and the corresponding phenolic ethers. the resulting dihydroxytriphenylmethane derivatives form beautiful crystals, which on oxidation are converted into benzaurines, the constitution of the latter probably being-- o= ^=_____ ^ oh | | | | | |== __| | =v v v c | c_ h_ in alkalies, the hydroxylated triphenylmethanes dissolve without imparting any colour to the solution; by concentrated sulphuric acid they are taken up with intense coloration. if the hydroxyls occupy the ortho-position to methyl, they may form xanthenes by splitting off water-- o ^ ^ ^ | | | | | | | | ch_ v v v ch_ ch | c_ h_ in the benzene series this reaction is difficult to establish, and has to be induced by distilling the particular dihydroxy-diphenylmethane at ordinary pressure. in the naphthalene series, on the other hand, the ring closes up by, for instance, the condensation of [greek: b]-naphthol with benzaldehyde or paraldehyde, and yields the following compounds:-- c_ h_ c_ h_ c_ h_ -ch{ }o ch_ -ch{ }o c_ h_ c_ h_ these xanthenes are white, silk-glossy needles, which are soluble in water and in alkalies. in concentrated sulphuric acid, they are taken up with beautiful fluorescence. . summary from the qualitative reactions of the different condensation products described it may be seen that their tannoid properties are not dependent on whether they precipitate gelatine or are adsorbed by hide powder or not. hydroxynaphthylmethanesulphonic acid, for instance, precipitates gelatine but does convert pelt into leather; on the other hand, sodium dicresylmethanesulphonate does not precipitate gelatine, and neither does it tan pelt; nevertheless it is adsorbed by hide powder as "tanning matter". the author discovered that _o_-nitrophenol does not precipitate gelatine, but has some tanning action on both hide powder and pelt. relatively to the possibilities of forming condensation products possessing tannoid properties, the following may be stated:-- all mono- and polyhydric phenols may be converted into true tanning matters by either condensing them as such, or after their conversion into the corresponding sulphonic acids, by substances capable of eliminating the elements of water. it makes no difference to the final product whether the condensation is the first step followed by sulphonation and consequent solubilisation of the intermediary insoluble product, or whether, vice versa, the sulphonic acid is subjected to condensation. alkaline solution of phenols may also be condensed, the reaction products, when condensed, constituting tanning matters soluble in water. among the substitution products of the phenols, the thio-, chloro-, bromo-, nitro-, and aminophenols as a rule yield tanning matters similar in character. the quinones are as such--_i.e._, without being condensed--substances possessing tannoid properties. the aromatic dihydric alcohols are easily condensed with the different sulphonic acids and yield valuable tanning matters. of aromatic acids all those which yield water-soluble sulphonation products seem suitable for the industrial production of tanning matters. if the acids themselves do not yield water-soluble sulphonation products, the alkali salts of the latter may be condensed with formaldehyde, and the resulting products then constitute tanning matters provided their solutions can be neutralised or faintly acidified without the solute being thrown out of solution in insoluble form. the diphenyl derivatives of the above groups often possess tannoid properties. the same holds good of those compounds with condensed nuclei (naphthalene, anthracene, etc.), and all their derivatives which satisfy the above conditions. the choice of condensing agent is, as a rule, of little significance. elimination of the elements of water by the mere application of heat succeeds in few cases only, since the high temperature required to induce reaction in many cases causes decomposition of the substances. this difficulty is overcome by heating _in vacuo_. condensation with formaldehyde always succeeds, with acetaldehyde and benzaldehyde only partly. the action on hide powder, pelt, and gelatine by these characteristic substances is tabulated below:-- relative behaviour towards substance. gelatine. hide powder pelt formaldehyde ... ... tanning phenol ppte. ... ... chlorophenol " ... ... surface tribromophenol slight ppte tanning tanning _o_ nitrophenol no ppte " " bromonitrophenol slight ppte " " trinitrophenol ppte " tanning bromotrinitrophenol slight ppte " " _p_ aminophenol ppte ... ... _m_ dihydroxybenzene " ... ... orcinol " ... ... _p_ dihydroxybenzene " tanning tanning monochloro _p_ dihydroxybenzene " ... ... _o_ dihydroxybenzene " ... ... pyrogallic acid " ... ... surface tribromopyrogallic acid " tanning tanning gallic acid no ppte not tanning not tanning bromophloroglucinol ppte tanning " gallotannic acid " " tanning galloflavine slight ppte " not tanning quinone " " tanning bromosalicylic acid " " not tanning dinaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid ppte " tanning diphenylmethanedisulphonic acid " " " dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid " " " sodium dicresylmethanedisulphonate acid no ppte " not tanning dixylylmethanedisulphonic acid ppte " tanning naphtholdisulphonic acid " not tanning not tanning methylenedinaphthol " tanning tanning hydroxyphenylmethanesulphonic " " " acid not tanning hydroxynaphthylmethanesulphonic slight ppte " " acid diaminonaphthylmethanedisulphonic ppte tanning not tanning acid dihydroxynaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid " " " dichloronaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid " " surface tanning dinitronaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid " " " dithionaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid " " tanning bromo _[greek: b]_ naphthol [ ] slight ppte " " rosolic acid_ [ ] ppte " " [footnote : in alcoholic solution.] section iii tanning effects of mixtures and natural products . mixture of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde the most important invention relatively to the search for new tanning materials was that of weinschenk,[footnote: ger. pat., , .] who first showed that pelt may be converted into leather by the action upon it of mixtures of naphthols and formaldehyde. this process consists of two steps: the pelt is first immersed in a . - . per cent, formaldehyde solution, and secondly in an aqueous solution of -[greek: a] or -[greek: b] naphthol; this order may be reversed. if, on the other hand, a pasty mixture is made of formaldehyde and naphthol, and this is allowed to act upon the pelt, the latter is rapidly converted into leather, but the mixture must be administered very gradually or otherwise the insoluble methylenedinaphthol is formed outside the pelt and hinders any tanning effect. leather obtained through the action of [greek: a]-naphthol is, when freshly tanned, pure white and sufficiently soft and firm, but quickly assumes a brown colour on storing; if, however, [greek: b]-naphthol is employed, a cream-coloured leather results, the colour of which turns only slightly more yellowish even when exposed to the direct rays of the sun. a similar process has recently ( , xii., ) been protected by ger. pat, , , granted to the deutsch-koloniale gerb--und farbstofif gesellschaft, in karlsruhe. according to this patent, pelt is treated in separate solutions, one of which is formaldehyde, the other being that of such aromatic compounds or their salts which yield water-soluble condensation products with formaldehyde; for example, pelt is immersed in - per cent, solution of formaldehyde for a few days, and is subsequently treated with - per cent neutral or faintly acidified solutions of [greek: a]-naphthylamine hydrochloride, resorcinol or sodium phenate or cresylate, for several days. the resultant leather is claimed to be soft and full and to possess good tensile strength. the tanning properties of mixtures of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde have been examined by the author with the following results:-- i. ii. iii. grammes formaldehyde " phenolsulphonic acid " caustic soda (sol, per cent.) " water the above solutions were made up and allowed to act upon pelt pieces weighing gm.; whereas solution i. remained clear throughout the experiment, solution ii. became somewhat clouded, and solution iii. assumed a milky appearance. the pelts were tanned through in seven days and yielded leathers which, after drying and finishing, possessed yellow colour, long fibre, and good tensile strength, but a rather empty feel. to prevent separation of insoluble matter during tannage, another experiment was carried out, in which the pelts were first submitted to the action of formaldehyde ( , , and gm. in c.c. water) for three days, being subsequently removed to fresh solutions of partly neutralised phenolsulphonic acid (_cf_. above). similar results were obtained, but the leather felt even more empty than those obtained by the former experiment. attempts at converting pelt into leather by first immersing the pelt in a partly neutralised solution of phenolsulphonic acid, and subsequently transferring it to fresh solutions of formaldehyde, gave merely negative results; the phenolsulphonic acid effected pickling action upon the pelt, but was subsequently quickly replaced by the formaldehyde, before the latter had penetrated the pelt in sufficient quantity to induce condensation, thereby exerting tanning action. to explain the tanning effects of these mixtures, the author analysed the leathers resulting from the effects of the latter, and was able to show, that in these cases also, condensation of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde takes place _inside_ the pelt, since on the one hand the analyses left no doubt but that true tannage had been effected, and on the other hand an ammoniacal extract of the leathers gave the typical reaction for condensation products of phenolsulphonic acid, with aniline hydrochloride. [footnote: _collegium_ , , .] the leather analyses gave the following figures:-- moisture - - - . per cent. fats - - - - . " _ ash - - - - . " leather { tannin - - - . " substance { hide substance - - . " a characteristic feature is the low value of tannin, which is considerably higher [footnote: _ibid_., , , .] where condensation products of phenolsulphonic acids are used as tanning agents; the action effected by the separate constituents, therefore, is more that of pickling. . mixture of phenolsulphonic acid and natural tannins a piece of pelt was immersed in a half-neutralised solution, measuring ° bé., of phenolsulphonic acid, and left sixteen hours in the solution, which completely penetrated the pelt during this time; it was then transferred to a ° bé. solution of a mixture of quebracho and chestnut, which in two days converted the pelt into a light coloured leather possessing good tensile strength. by using a bath composed of half-neutralised phenolsulphonic acid and quebracho extract in ° bé. solution, another piece of pelt was completely tanned in two days. the same result was obtained by first half neutralising the phenolsulphonic acid and then adding sulphited quebracho extract till a ° bé. solution was obtained. a piece of pelt received a º bé. liquor composed of parts of phenolsulphonic acid and part of formaldehyde for sixteen hours, and was then completely penetrated; it was subsequently transferred to a º bé. liquor composed of chestnut and quebracho, being completely tanned in two days. the same result was obtained on adding sufficient sodium sulphate to the above mixture of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde to raise the density from º- º bé. sixty grammes of phenolsulphonic acid were partly neutralised with c.c. of a per cent solution of caustic soda, and c.c. formaldehyde added to c.c. of the mixture ( º bé.): a piece of pelt was completely penetrated by the solution in sixteen hours, and was subsequently tanned in two days, using an extract of º bé. similarly, by treating a pelt with c.c. of a half-neutralised solution of phenolsulphonic acid ( º bé.) plus c.c. formaldehyde, and adding after eighteen hours sulphited quebracho extract to the same bath, strengthening the latter to º bé., the pelt was converted into leather in two days; in this case, however, much of the tannin was precipitated by the formaldehyde present in the solution. if, on the other hand, a mixture of gm. dilute phenolsulphonic acid ( : aq) and gm. of formaldehyde were cooled for several hours and subsequently strengthened with sulphited quebracho extract to º bé., no tannin was precipitated in the liquor, and a piece of pelt immersed in the latter was completely tanned in sixteen hours. to prevent the precipitation of tannin caused by the formaldehyde, sulphite cellulose extract (wood pulp) was substituted for sulphited quebracho extract, and the following experiments carried out:-- to c.c. of a º bé. sulphite cellulose extract plus c.c. of half-neutralised phenolsulphonic acid solution was added c.c. formaldehyde, and this solution tanned pelt in four days; the resultant leather was light brown, firm, and possessed good tensile strength and long fibre. another piece of pelt was immersed in a solution of c.c. phenolsulphonic acid of ºbé. plus c.c. formaldehyde for eighteen hours, and was then tanned in a º bé. solution of sulphite cellulose extract. the resultant leather was extremely light coloured, and possessed qualities similar to those described in the former experiment. finally, pelt was immersed in a ° bé. solution composed of gm. of a ° bé. sulphite cellulose extract, gm. of formaldehyde, gm. water, gm. phenolsulphonic acid, and gm. of a per cent caustic soda solution, and was tanned in four days. this leather also was coloured light brown, of good tensile strength, and rather firm. these experiments prove that when pelt is treated with formaldehyde, phenolsulphonic acid, and vegetable tannins, the two former components effect, more or less, actual tannage; it is admittedly a matter of some difficulty to establish whether the effect is one of pickling or pseudo-tannage, or whether the tannage may be considered a true one. the final effect, however, is nearly always that of a true tannage, _i.e_., by varying the composition of the tanning solutions leather is obtained with properties identical with those tanned with true tannins of vegetable origin. the only difficulty encountered in these combinations is the property of formaldehyde, of precipitating the natural tannins, and it is hence essential, for practical purposes, to so arrange the combination that their value is not reduced by the property referred to. the fact that not only compounds already existing may convert pelt into leather, but that a similar effect is obtained _inside the pelt_, by their components, is indeed of theoretical interest. . tanning effects of different natural substances in addition to the vegetable tannins, nature has also provided other substances of vegetable origin, which, admittedly, do not effect tannage in their original state, but which may, by suitable treatment, acquire this property. the oldest information on this point is supplied by resch, [footnote: _scherer's jour_., , , .] who carried out tanning experiments, using three parts of peat and one part of oak bark. by the action of nitric acid on substances of vegetable and animal origin, hatchett, [footnote: _gehlen's jour_., , , .] chevreul, [footnote: _ann. chim_., , , .] and vogel [footnote: _jour. chem. phys_., , , .] claim to have obtained tanning materials, whilst later, buff [footnote: _ibid_., , , .] obtained a material suitable for tanning purposes from indigo. by subsequent treatment with lime and soot, or tar, ashmore [footnote: _dingier's jour_., , , .] claims to have converted pelt into leather. by treating peat with nitric acid, jennings [footnote: _jahresber. d. chem_., , .] and payne [footnote: _ chem. centralbl_., , ii. ; ger. pat., , .] have produced artificial tanning materials. skey [footnote: _chem. news_, , ; _zeits. f. chem_., , .] obtained a dark brown extract, soluble in water and precipitating gelatine, by treating bituminous coal or lignite with nitric acid; by extracting coal with alkalies, reinsch [footnote: _pharm. centralh_., , .] isolated a substance (pyrofuscine) which, when partly neutralised with carbon dioxide, was capable of converting pelt into leather. in addition to these tanning materials the recovery of a substance possessing tanning properties from the so-called acid rosins has been made the subject of a patent; [footnote: _ger. pat_., , .] this rosin is formed when crude oil is treated with concentrated sulphuric acid in the oil refineries. the greasy substance is partly neutralised with alkali and is claimed to produce a very springy leather. the waste liquors obtained in the manufacture of cellulose, the so-called sulphite and sodium cellulose waste, have, however, been the subject of numerous investigations, and several hundred publications have appeared and a great number of patents [footnote: "literatur überisulfitablauge" - . (reprint from _wochewochenblpapiepapierfabrikation_)] taken out, the first one being that of mitscherlich [footnote: _jahresber. d. chem_., , ; ger. pat., , .] and hönig [footnote: _chem. centralbl_., , ii. ; ger. pat., , .] the waste liquors contain large quantities of acids and lime, and in order to utilise the liquors for tanning purposes, the excessive sulphuric and sulphurous acids as well as the lime must be removed. the active tannin is no doubt the ligninsulphonic acid, and those cellulose extracts containing the largest amounts of free ligninsulphonic acid may also be considered the most efficient. according to the author,[footnote: _technikum_, , , .] such sulphitecellulose extracts precipitate gelatine, aniline hydrochloride, ammoniacal zinc acetate, and basic coal-tar dyes, and give a greenish-black coloration with ferric chloride. these reactions indicate the presence of tanning matters in cellulose extracts. the official shake method of analysis gives the following results:--[footnote: _ibid_.] tanning matters . per cent. non-tannins . " insoluble matters . " water . " --------------- . per cent. ash . " sulphurous acid . " many other substances have been used for tanning experiments, a number of them precipitating gelatine. zacharias [footnote: _zeits. f. ang. chem_., , .] obtained leather by the action of many coal-tar dyes on pelt, similarly herzog and adler, by using prussian blue, neufuchsin, patent blue v, crystal violet, and colloidal gold. most inorganic substances possess tanning properties when in the colloidal state, _e.g_., sulphur, halogens, chromium salts, iron salts, silver oxide, and the salts of mercury, copper, bismuth, zinc, lead, platinum, cesium, vanadium, and the rare earths (salts of cerium, lanthanum, didymium, neodymium, thorium, and zerconium). for practical purposes, however, only sulphur, chrome, and alum salts are used, the latter two being of the greatest importance. section iv methods of examining tanning matters whereas the evaluation of vegetable tanning matters necessitates determinations of their practical applicability in addition to qualitative and quantitative analyses, the latter two determinations are of practically no value when dealing with synthetic tannins. the way in which tanning matters obtained by chemical means exert their action, in addition to the intensity with which they convert pelt into leather, is the only criterion of their quality for practical (tanning) purposes; both may be demonstrated by experimental tests. when dealing with the natural tanning materials it is desirable to know their contents of actual tanning matter, from which their special qualities as tanning agents may be deduced. where the vegetable tanning materials have already been converted into extracts, it is essential to establish the identity of the original material used by the qualitative reactions of the extract in addition to the quantitative estimation of actual tannin contents. it is frequently necessary to examine whether the extract in question has been actually prepared from the material giving the extract its name, or whether the extract has suffered the addition of other extracts of tanning materials of but low quality. such determinations may be undertaken by microscopical observations and by means of qualitative and quantitative reactions; for this purpose many colour reactions and precipitation methods are available in addition to the determination of the molybdenum figure (lauffmann),[footnote: collegium, , .] the alcohol and ethyl acetate figures and microscopical examination (grasser).[footnote: ibid., , .] of other adulterants tending to reduce the quality of extracts may be mentioned sugars, mineral salts, and coal-tar dyes; [footnote: grasser, _collegium_, , .] for the determination of these, the special literature should be consulted. [footnote: grasser, "handbuch f. gerbereichem. laboratorien" (leipzig, ); procter-paessler, "gerbereichem. untersuchungen" (berlin, ).] two methods are devised for the purpose of quantitatively determining the tannin contents, both of which employ hide powder, and which are known as the "shake method" and the "filter bell method" respectively: the former is adopted as the official method of the "international association of leather trades' chemists" (i.a.l.t.c.). [footnote: and also by the society of leather trades' chemists.-_transl._] the original method, [footnote: _leather manufacturer_, , no. j.s.c.i., , .] worked out in the laboratory of the yorkshire college (now the university of leeds), essentially consists in introducing - gm. of hide powder in a shaker, washing it at least twice with distilled water and carefully squeezing out the powder in a linen cloth between each washing. c.c. of the solution to be examined, which may not contain more than per cent, total solids, are introduced into the shaking bottle which is then weighed. about one-third of the washed hide powder is then added, and the bottle shaken ten to fifteen minutes; another third is then added and, after shaking, the third portion. the bottle plus contents is now weighed, and the amount of hide powder introduced ascertained by difference of the two weighings. the liquid is then filtered through filter paper, c.c. of the clear filtrate evaporated in a basin, dried and weighed. the residue in the original solution is then obtained by multiplying the former by (plus weight of water added with hide powder), and dividing by . this method was closely investigated by a large number of leather trades' chemists, was considerably improved, and in its final form presented a method of the highest degree of accuracy; the method was therefore adopted as _the official method of tanning analysis_ by the i.a.l.t.c., which body, at the same time, gave precise instructions as to the details of the method. the latest instructions, which are reprinted below, permit of any method of analysis which observes the following conditions:-- . the solution for analysis must contain between . and . gm. of tanning matter per litre, and solid materials must be extracted so that the greater part of the tannin is removed at a temperature not exceeding ° c. . the total solubles must be determined by the evaporation of a measured quantity of the solution previously filtered till optically clear, both by reflected and transmitted light. this is obtained when a bright object such as an electric light filament is distinctly visible through at least cm thickness, and a layer of cm. deep in a beaker placed on a black glass or black glazed paper appears dark and free from opalescence when viewed from above. any necessary mode of filtration may be employed, but if such filtration causes appreciable loss when applied to a clear solution, a correction must be determined and applied as described in paragraph . filtration shall take place between the temperatures of ° c. and ° c. evaporation to dryness shall take place between . ° c. and ° c. in shallow, flat-bottomed basins, which shall afterwards be dried until constant at the same temperature, and cooled before weighing for not less than twenty minutes in air-tight desiccators over dry calcium chloride. . the total solids must be determined by drying a weighed portion of the material, or a measured portion of its uniform turbid solution, at a temperature between . ° c. and ° c. in shallow, flat-bottomed basins, which shall afterwards be dried until constant weight at the same temperature, and cooled before weighing for not less than twenty minutes in air-tight desiccators over dry calcium chloride. "moisture" is the difference between and the percentage of total solids, and "insoluble" the difference between "total solids" and "total solubles." . _non-tannins._--the solution must be detannised by shaking with chromed hide powder till no turbidity or opalescence can be produced in the clear solution by salt-gelatine solution. the chromed powder must be added in one quantity equal to . - . gm. of dry hide powder per c.c. of the tanning solution, and must contain not less than . per cent. and not more than per cent. of chromium calculated on the dry weight, and must be so washed that in a blank experiment with distilled water, not more than mg. of solid residue shall be left on evaporation of c.c. all water contained in the powder should be determined and allowed for as water of dilution. . _preparation of infusion_.--such a quantity of material shall be employed as to give a solution containing as nearly as possible gm. of tanning matter per litre, and not less than . or more than . gm. liquid extracts shall be weighed in a basin or beaker and washed with boiling water into a litre flask, filled up to the mark with boiling water, and well mixed and rapidly cooled to a temperature of . ° c., after which it shall be accurately made up to the mark, again well mixed, and filtration at once proceeded with. sumac and myrabolam extracts should be dissolved at a lower temperature. solid extracts shall be dissolved by stirring in a beaker with successive quantities of boiling water, the dissolved portions being poured into a litre flask, and the undissolved being allowed to settle and treated with further portions of boiling water. after the whole of the soluble matter is dissolved, the solution is treated similarly to that of a liquid extract. solid tanning materials, previously ground till they will pass through a sieve of sixteen meshes per square centimetre, are extracted in koch's or procter's extractor with c.c. of water at a temperature not exceeding ° c.; the extraction is then continued with boiling water till the filtrate amounts to litre. it is desirable to allow the material to soak for some hours before commencing the percolation, which should occupy not less than three hours, so as to extract the maximum of tannin. any remaining solubles in the material must be neglected or reported separately as "difficultly soluble" substances. the volume of liquid in the flask must, after cooling, be accurately made up to litre. . _filtration_.--the infusion shall be filtered till optically clear (_vide_ ). no correction for absorption is needed for the berkefeld candle, or for s. and s. paper [footnote: schleicher and schüll, düren (rheinland), germany.] if a sufficient quantity ( - c.c.) is rejected before measuring the quantity for evaporation, and the solution may be passed through repeatedly to obtain a clear filtrate. if other methods of filtration are employed, the average correction necessary must be determined in the following manner:--about c.c. of the same or a similar tanning solution is filtered perfectly clear, and after thorough mixing c.c. is evaporated to determine "total soluble a." a further portion is now filtered in the exact method for which the correction is required (time of contact and volume rejected being kept as constant as possible), and c.c. is evaporated to determine "total soluble b." the difference between "a" and "b" is the correction sought, which must be added to the weight of the total solubles found in analysis. an alternative method of determining correction, which is equally accurate and often more convenient, is to filter a portion of the tanning solution through the berkefeld candle till optically clear, which can be generally accomplished by rejecting or c.c., and returning the remaining filtrate repeatedly; and at the same time to evaporate c.c. of the clear filtrate obtained by the method for which correction is required, when the difference between the residues will be the correction sought. an average correction must be obtained from at least five determinations. it will be found that this is approximately constant for all materials, and amounts in the case of s. and s. , c.c. being rejected, to about . gm., and where gm. of kaolin are employed in addition to . gm. the kaolin must be previously washed with c.c. of the same liquor, which is allowed to stand fifteen minutes and then poured off. paper has a special absorption for a yellow colouring matter often contained in sulphited extracts. . hide powder shall be of a woolly texture, thoroughly delimed, preferably with hydrochloric acid. it shall not require more than c.c. or less than . c.c. of decinormal naoh or koh to produce a permanent pink colour with phenolphthalein on . gm. of the dry powder suspended in water. if the acidity does not fall within these limits it must be corrected by soaking the powder before chroming for twenty minutes in ten to twelve times its weight of water, to which the requisite calculated quantity of standard alkali or acid has been added. the hide powder must not swell in chroming to such an extent as to render difficult the necessary squeezing to - per cent. of water, and must be sufficiently free from soluble organic matter to render it possible in the ordinary washing to reduce the total solubles in a blank experiment with distilled water below . gm per c.c. the powder, when sent out from the maker, shall not contain more than per cent. of moisture, and shall be sent out in air-tight tins. the detannisation shall be carried out in the following manner:-- the moisture in the air-dried powder is determined, and the quantity equal to . gm. actual dry powder is calculated, which will be practically constant if the powder be kept in an air-tight vessel. any multiple of this quantity is taken according to the number of analyses to be made, and wet back with approximately ten times its weight of distilled water. two grammes per of dry powder of crystallised chromic chloride, crcl_ . aq., is now dissolved in water and made basic with . gm. of na_ co_ by the gradual addition of . c.c. of normal na_ co_ , thus making the salt correspond to the formula cr_ cl_ (oh)_ . in laboratories where analyses are continually being made, it is more convenient to employ a per cent stock solution, made by dissolving gm. of cr_ cl_ . aq. in a little distilled water in a litre flask and very slowly adding a solution containing gm. of anhydrous sodium carbonate, with constant stirring, finally making up to the mark with distilled water and well mixing. of this solution c.c. per gm., or . c.c. per . gm. of dry powder, should be used. this solution is added to the powder, and the whole churned for one hour. at the end of the one hour the powder is squeezed in linen to free it as far as possible from the residual liquor, and washed and squeezed repeatedly with distilled water, until, on adding to c.c. of the filtrate one drop of per cent. k_ cro_ and four drops of decinormal silver nitrate, a brick-red colour appears. four or five squeezings are usually sufficient. such a filtrate cannot contain more than . gm. of nacl in c.c. the powder is then squeezed to contain - per cent, of water, and the whole weighed. the quantity q containing . gm. dry hide is thus found, weighed out, and added immediately to c.c. of the unfiltered tannin infusion along with ( . -q) of distilled water. the whole is corked up and agitated for fifteen minutes in a rotating bottle at not less than revs. per minute. it is then squeezed through linen, the fitrate stirred and filtered through a folded filter of sufficient size to hold the entire filtrate, returning till clear. sixty c.c. of the filtrate is then evaporated and calculated as c.c., or the residue of c.c. multiplied by / . the non-tannin filtrate must give no turbidity with a drop of a solution of per cent, gelatine and per cent, common salt. [footnote: it is convenient for technical purposes to employ the commercially obtainable chromed hide powder as prepared, for instance, by the german experimental station at freiberg, saxony.] one gramme of kaolin, freed from all soluble matter, may be added to the filtrate, or it may be used by mixing it with the hide powder in the shaking bottle. the analysis of used liquors and spent tans shall be made by the same methods as are employed for fresh tanning materials; the liquors being diluted, are concentrated by boiling _in vacuo_, or in a vessel so closed as to restrict access of air, until the tanning matter is if possible between . and . gm. per litre, but in no case beyond a concentration of gm. per litre of total solids, and the weight of hide powder used shall not be varied from . gm. the results shall be reported as shown by the direct estimation, but it is desirable that in addition efforts shall be made, by determination of acids in the original solution and in the non-tannin residue, to ascertain the amount of lactic and other non-volatile acids absorbed by the hide powder, and hence returned as "tanning matters." in the case of tanning materials it must be clearly stated in the report whether the calculation is on the sample with moisture as received, or upon some arbitrarily assumed percentage of water; and in that of liquors whether the percentage given refers to weight or to grammes per c.c., and in both cases the specific gravity shall be reported. all analyses reported must be the average result of duplicate determinations, which must agree in the case of liquid extracts within . per cent, and of solid extracts within . per cent, or the analysis shall be repeated until such agreement is obtained. all reports shall be marked: analysed in accordance with the rules of the s.l.t.c. (i.a.l.t.c.)--when the analyses have been carried out according to the method described above. as has been repeatedly emphasised in this treatise, the synthetic tannins form a special class of substances, and the results obtained by either of the two hide-powder methods do not give figures which are always comparable to those of the natural tannins. an example of the inapplicability of the methods where synthetic tannins are concerned is illustrated by the behaviour towards hide powder of them when partly neutralised to varying degrees: commercial neradol d of acidity gm.= c.c. n/ naoh contains per cent. tanning matters, completely neutralised neradol d, which exerts no true tanning action on pelt, still contains per cent tanning matter when analysed according to the official method; a difference hence exists regarding the adsorption by hide powder of a tannin and the adsorption of the latter by hide. as, however, we are unable to make a distinction between these two different properties by using hide powder only, we are also unable to draw the factor into account. another source of error is the swelling influence on hide powder by acids; for instance, an acid extract of vegetable tannins would show higher tannin contents in the analysis than would the same extract when less acid. the free sulphonic acid, however, is the active principle in synthetic tannins, and since the latter always contain other acids (of organic and inorganic origin) devoid of tannoid character, a source of error is thus introduced, which we cannot eliminate by the present method of analysis. of other methods of estimating the quality of a tanning material or tanning extract the _determination of solubility_, _ash_, _colour_, and _weight-giving properties_ in addition to the _firmness imparted to the leather_ by the particular material are of importance. as regards the synthetic tannins they are as a rule very soluble and it will generally be found sufficient to subject them to the ordinary qualitative examination. the ash determination in synthetic tannins, on the other hand, is not of such value as in the case of natural tanning extracts. from their composition we know that synthetic tannins contain considerable quantities of mineral salts, the presence of some of which on the one hand emphasises their pickling effect, and that on the other hand the property of dissolving phlobaphenes exhibited by the synthetic tannins is closely connected with their salt contents. a colour determination of synthetic tannins is not of much importance, since synthetic tannins nearly always impart a white or light brown colour to the hide. in those cases only where coloured decomposition products appear as a result of intermediary reactions, may the former impart greyish or dirty colorations of little beauty to the hide. this is easily ascertained by lightly tanning a pelt. the determination of the weight and solidity-giving properties is important both for leathers tanned with vegetable tanning extracts and for those treated with synthetic tannins, but the results obtained when using animalised cotton are not directly convertible into figures required for practical purposes. comparative figures are better obtained by actually tanning pieces of pelt on as practical a scale as is possible, and testing the weights and tensile strengths of the pieces as against those of the original pelts, whereby in the former case the yield (pelt --> leather) is obtained. its capability as a tanning agent may be ascertained by submitting the synthetic tannin to an actual test tannage. the latter is carried out by introducing the dilute extract into open glass jars, holding about c.c. at a width of about cm. [footnote: accumulator jars are excellent for the purpose.--_transl_.] the concentration of the solution is chosen according to acidity and salt contents of the synthetic tannin, the most suitable being . °- . ° bé. a piece of bated pelt is suspended in the liquor in such a way that the pelt is completely surrounded by liquor, without, however, being creased or touching the bottom. if the pelt were creased during tannage, the wrinkles would become fixed and would show in the finished leather. thus an unfair judgment of the extract would be delivered, since similar results are produced by liquors which are either too concentrated or are not properly composed, and naturally this property of an extract would be greatly to its disadvantage. the various stages of tannage may be judged from various standpoints when examining the pelt as tannage proceeds. on the one hand, the surface of the but slightly porous pelt is altered so as to present a more porous appearance, which is now rendered more capable of absorbing liquids. on the other hand, a similar alteration takes place _within_ the pelt, to the extent to which the tanning matter has penetrated it. how far the penetration has proceeded is easily determined by utilising the different adsorption of coal-tar dyes by untanned and tanned pelt (see p. ). an indicator for those synthetic tannins, which are derived from the phenols, is ferric chloride, which only colours those parts of the pelt which have been penetrated by the synthetic tannins; clearer and better results are, however, obtained when the dyestuffs referred to above are employed. as soon as the tanning matter has completely penetrated the pelt, the total time of tannage is noted, and the velocity with which the tanning matter converts the pelt into leather at that particular concentration is thus obtained. the tannage completed, the leather must be well washed in running water to remove excess of synthetic tannin and then dried. on examining the dry leathers, the colour may then be observed, and a cut will give an idea of the tensile strength and the length of fibre of the leather. the tensile strength is, however, not of much value in such a barely tanned leather and cannot be compared with that obtained in leathers tanned on a practical scale. the length of fibre is, however, of some importance, since a special feature of finished leathers tanned with synthetic tannins is the beautifully long fibre--a property which manifests itself when the leather is torn and in which an expression of the quality of the synthetic tannin may be found. similarly, tanning experiments combining synthetic and natural tannins may be carried out, the most interesting features of these being the different proportions in which the two products are mixed. such experiments may be done, for instance, by preparing ° bé. solutions of each extract and then mixing them in proportions of, say, : , : , : , etc. here it is again possible to infer the _tanning intensity_ of the synthetic tannin from the concentration and the time used for tannage. a further determination of the quality of a synthetic tannin is the capability of the latter of dissolving or precipitating the natural tannins. as is well known, synthetic tannins frequently possess the practically important property of rendering natural tannins easily soluble in water. in some cases, however, synthetic tannins appear to solubilise natural tannins in concentrated solutions; when, however, the latter are diluted, the natural tannin is precipitated with varying completeness, the reason of which is often the presence of excessive acid or the presence of such salts as have no phlobaphene-solubilising properties. for practical purposes this determination may be carried out by mixing, in different proportions, concentrated tannin solutions and the synthetic tannin; heating the mixture on the water bath for a short time, cooling and finally diluting , , and gm. of the mixture to c.c., which are then left in measuring cylinders for twelve to twenty-four hours; the amount deposited will then be an indication of the solubilising or precipitating effect exhibited by the synthetic tannin. other properties of the synthetic tannins connected with their practical application will be discussed in part ii. of this treatise. part ii synthetic tannins: their industrial production and application with regard to their _industrial production_, but few synthetic tannins are, to-day, of practical and commercial interest. in addition to simplicity in the method of manufacture a certain degree of purity of the raw materials constitutes the criterion of their suitability. the methods of manufacture, of which nearly all are the property of the b.a.s.f., have been so worked out that the production of synthetic tannins presents no difficulties on a practical scale. cresols, naphthalenes, and higher hydrocarbons are used as starting materials in the production of synthetic tannins; the former substances or their oxidation products are sulphonated by means of concentrated sulphuric acid, and the tanning matter produced by condensing the sulphonic acids with formaldehyde. the crude synthetic tannin thus obtained has yet to be diluted and partly neutralised before it can be applied in practice, and this is carried out by mixing the crude product with strong caustic lye. by these means the high acidity is reduced to a suitable degree learned from experience on the one hand; on the other hand, the salts of the sulphonic acids form valuable components of the commercial synthetic tannins. the first product placed on the market was named _neradol d_; this represents the condensation product of cresolsulphonic acid. the second synthetic tannin was _neradol n_, which represents the condensation product of naphthalenesulphonic acid; when diluted and neutralised to the same extent as is done in the case of neradol d, the product is named _neradol n d_. the latest synthetic tannin has been called _ordoval g_, the starting material of which is a still higher hydrocarbon. the tannoid-chemical properties of these synthetic tannins have been exhaustively determined by the author, who employed neradol d, which is most suitable for such a purpose, and the investigations relating to it will now be treated fully in the following chapters. the two other synthetic tannins exhibit very similar properties, but their few characteristics shall be shortly dealt with. the condensation product obtained by the method described on p. forms a viscous, dark coloured mass, the analysis of which by the shake method gives the following figures:- tanning matters . per cent. non tannins . " insolubles . " water . " --------------- . per cent. acidity: gm. = c.c. n/ naoh. according to its chemical constitution, this product may be considered to be dinaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid. samples of this crude, strongly acid material were partly neutralised, and the following figures obtained on analysis:-- acidity. tanning soluble water. matters. non-tans. per cent. per cent. per cent. gm. = c.c. n/ naoh . . . " = " " . . . " = " " . . . " = " " . . . " = " " . . . " = " " . . . " = " " . . . experimental tanning tests which were carried out with the various partly neutralised samples yielded leathers which, on an average, were nearly white, but which in comparison with a leather tanned with neradol d appeared rather more greyish and were much harder. a solution of the half-neutralised substance ( gm. = c.c. n/ naoh) gives the following reactions:--- gelatine--precipitate, partly soluble in excess tannin solution. ferric chloride-----no coloration. barium chloride-----precipitate, insoluble hno_ . bromine water-----no reaction. silver nitrate-----no reaction. aniline hydrochloride----precipitate, dissolves when solution is heated. this condensation product is very soluble in water, but insoluble in most solvents, excepting methyl and ethyl alcohols. the above reactions show the similarity of this dinaphthyl derivative to the dicresyl derivative, and the absence in the former of characteristic reactions with iron salts is mainly accounted for by its lack of phenolic groups. the absence of this reaction does not, of course, influence the tannoid character of dinaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid in the least, and is of no importance in practice, since the various stages of tannage may be demonstrated by means of a solution of indigotine. from a technical point of view the absence of this reaction is advantageous to this extent, that it eliminates the exceedingly great care to avoid the contact of tan liquors and tanned pelt with iron particles which has to be observed when tannins of phenolic character are employed. in a chemical and technological evaluation of this tanning matter, all those details apply which will be described when discussing neradol d. the most important advantage possessed by this tanning matter, from a commercial point of view, is the lower price which it owes to the greater ease with which naphthalene may be obtained. by treating the non-condensed crude product with barium chloride, a product completely devoid of sulphuric acid is easily obtained; the contents of sulphuric acid calculated as baso_ is about . per cent. this value is higher than that found by neradol d, and may be explained by the fact that a slight excess of sulphuric acid is necessary for the preparation of [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid. comparative tanning tests using products containing sulphuric acid and products free from sulphuric acid (neutralised to the same degree of acidity) yielded leathers which were very similar; the liquor containing no sulphates yielded slightly softer leather than that obtained from a liquor containing sulphates. an experiment was also carried out, using a liquor containing the tannin completely neutralised with caustic soda and subsequently acidified with acetic acid till the acidity of gm. = c.c n/ naoh; here, again, no essential difference could be detected in the leather as compared with that from a liquor containing sulphates. one of the most striking properties of this tanning matter is its solubilising effect on natural tannins and the phlobaphenes; this property may mainly be compared to the similar one of other condensed sulphonic acids in their behaviour towards natural tannins. if, therefore, natural tannins are mixed with this product and the solution used for tanning purposes, the resultant leather will possess a dark colour owing to the presence of solubilised phlobaphenes; if, on the other hand, a dark coloured leather, which has been tanned with natural tannins, is washed over with a ° bé solution of this synthetic tannin, or immersed for some time in the solution, the leather assumes a lighter colour owing to the phlobaphenes being dissolved and removed from the leather by the synthetic tannin. the presence of neradol nd in leathers is detected by methods to be described under neradol d (_cf_. p. ). the oxyazo reaction only succeeds when the solution has been boiled with a few drops of hypochlorite solution, quickly cooled and excess of ammonia added. when applying the indophenol reaction, the solution must be treated as follows: - drops of hypochlorite solution is added, and the solution heated for a short time; or - drops hypochlorite solution may be added, and the solution left for some time, in which case the heating may be omitted. the solution is then made distinctly ammoniacal, - drops of dimethyl-_p_-phenylenediamine solution and a layer of alcohol poured on the top. in most cases a blue coloration will appear; the addition of - drops of potassium ferricyanide solution with formation of a blue coloration indicates the presence of neradol nd without fail. the fact that a product possessing tanning properties may be obtained by condensing [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid makes it interesting to investigate the behaviour of a non-condensed [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid towards pelt. the following solutions were allowed to act upon pelt for twelve days:-- ( ) concentrated solution of [greek: a]-naphthalenesulphonic acid ( ° bé). ( ) " " [greek: b]- " " ( ° be.) ( ) " " , - " " ( ° bé.). solution swells the pelt to a considerable extent without, however, solubilising it. solution produces a similar effect. solution dissolves the pelt appreciably on the first day; after six days, solubilisation is complete. the reason of this different behaviour of the mono- and disulphonic acids is mainly to be sought in their difference of solubility; the monosulphonic acids are not very soluble, and are only capable of giving solutions measuring ° and ° bé, respectively, whereas the disulphonic acid yields an ° bé solution, in addition to which the much higher acidity of the latter quickly gelatinises the pelt. as regards the capability of the naphthalenesulphonic acids of dissolving phlobaphenes, the following results were obtained:--solid argentine quebracho extract was mixed with-- percent, [greek: a]-naphthalenesulphonic acid: opaque sol., large quantity of insolubles. " " " lesser " " " " " no insolubles. " " " " " [greek: b]-naphthalenesulphonic acid: opaque sol., lesser quantity of insolubles. " " " " " " " clear solution, no insolubles " " " " " , -naphthalenedisulphonic acid: opaque sol., large quantity of insolubles. " , " " as above. " , " " slightly opaque, some insolubles. " , " " nearly clear solution, no insolubles. it is hence clear that the [greek: b]-sulphonic acid possesses phlobaphene-solubilising qualities greater than those of the [greek: a]-sulphonic acid or the disulphonic acid; the greek: b]-sulphonic acid was therefore made the subject of ger. pat., , ( th february ). the synthetic tannin, _ordoval g_, is the formaldehyde condensation product of higher hydrocarbons (mainly _retenes_), and is a partly neutralised product containing no sulphuric acid. the author's analysis gave the following figures:-- tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . " insolubles . " water . " acidity: gm. = c.c. n/ naoh. density: ° be. ordoval g is completely soluble in water and glacial acetic acid. only its organic constituents are soluble in alcohol, ethyl acetate, and acetone, whereby a dark coloured crystalline mass separates. ordoval g is insoluble in benzene. the aqueous solution of ordoval g gives the following reactions:-- gelatine moderate flocculent precipitate. ferric chloride darkish coloration. potassium dichromate no reaction. aniline hydrochloride dark brown precipitate. formaldehyde hydrochloric acid no precipitate. bromine water no reaction. zinc acetate very slight opalescence. barium chloride slight opalescence. its capability of solubilising and consequent saving of natural tannins is shown by the fact that kilos of vegetable tanning material may be substituted by kilos of ordoval g and the material in question in order to obtain the entire tanning intensity of the latter. in one respect--that of its salts--ordoval g differs from the neradols; whereas the chromium and aluminium salts of the latter possess no such tannoid properties as will make the resultant leather exhibit any of the characteristics of either tannage, it is possible to carry out combined tannage with a mixture of ordoval g and metallic salts. tanning experiments carried out with the chromium, iron, aluminium, and calcium salts of ordoval g yielded leathers which possessed proportionate characteristics of either kind of tannage to the extent to which either material was present. this combination tannage seems to be assured of a great future; especially may a combination tannage of iron salts and ordoval g eventually entirely replace chrome tannage. the detection of ordoval g in leather is carried out as follows: gm. of leather are boiled with c.c. of acetic acid, a solution of gm. of cro_ in c.c. of a per cent, solution of acetic acid gradually added, and the mixture boiled for three hours, till the leather is decomposed and the solution has assumed a brown instead of the original light yellow colour. the solution is then evaporated, the residue dissolved in c.c. hot water, and the chromium precipitated with a ° bé. solution of caustic soda. the solution is filtered and cooled, and a little hydrosulphite is added to c.c. of the cold alkaline filtrate; in the presence of ordoval g, a red colour will appear (oxanthranolsulphonic acid). brief mention must be made of the so-called _corinal_ [footnote: swiss pat, , , , , , .] a synthetic tannin placed upon the market by chem. fabrik worms a.-g., in worms-on-the-rhine. it is a viscous, brown fluid, containing the aluminium salts of the tannoid acids. the latter are formaldehyde-condensation products of sulphonated tar oils, or the hydroxylated derivatives of the latter. the density being ° bé, it contains . per cent. tanning matters, per cent. soluble non-tannins, and . per cent. inorganic matter ( . per cent. al_ o_ and . per cent. na_ so_ . a similar product, containing chrome salts as base, is the so-called esco-extract, [footnote: schorlemmer, _collegium_, , ] manufactured by the chem. fabrik jucker & co. in haltingen (baden). this product is a dark, reddish-brown fluid, possessing acid reaction, which strongly precipitates gelatine. analysed by the filter method it contains - per cent. tanning matters, - per cent. soluble non-tannins, and per cent. ash, of which per cent. is cr o_ . this synthetic tannin may be employed alone or in conjunction with other tannins, and yields a leather similar to that obtained by chrome tannage. a. condensation of free phenolsulphonic acid in practice, the results of condensing phenolsulphonic acid with formaldehyde are manifold, according to whether these materials are used in their concentrated or dilute state; whether they interact in the cold or when heated; or whether their interaction is gradual or rapid. . if a moderately dilute solution of phenolsulphonic acid ( : ) is mixed with one-sixth of its volume of a dilute formaldehyde solution ( part per cent. hcho solution plus parts of water) in the cold, with continuous stirring, the solution remains clear and assumes a brown colour. when left several hours, a light, white flocculent precipitate deposits, which increases in quantity on diluting with water. the solution precipitates gelatine; the flocculent precipitate is easily soluble in hot caustic soda solution, and, when subsequently neutralised with acetic acid, precipitates gelatine. if equal parts of dilute phenolsulphonic acid and dilute formaldehyde (concentrations as above) are gradually mixed in the cold, whilst stirring, the mixture soon becomes opalescent, and a flocculent deposit separates after eighteen to twenty-four hours. these experiments carried out on the water bath immediately yield opalescent liquids, from which an insoluble, brown, gluey, and very sticky mass separates after twenty-four hours; the latter is sparingly soluble in alkalies, partly so in organic solvents. . if a moderately dilute solution of phenolsulphonic acid ( : ) is gradually mixed with one-sixth of its volume of a concentrated ( per cent.) formaldehyde solution in the cold, whilst stirring, slight opalescence immediately results, and a flocculent deposit separates after about twenty minutes, which gradually increases in quantity during the next few hours. if the volume of formaldehyde is increased to the same as that of phenolsulphonic acid solution, the flocculent deposit immediately separates, and after twenty-four hours a brown, gluey, and very sticky mass--of the same solubility as that described in the previous experiment--is to be found at the bottom of the vessel used. it should be noted that in both these experiments with concentrated formaldehyde solution a slight increase in temperature occurs concurrently with the process of condensation. if the experiments are carried out on the water bath, a gelatinous mass is instantly formed, which assumes the colours of grey, dirty light violet and dark violet, in the order named, and which, whilst left several hours--or when heated on the water bath--is suddenly converted into the insoluble, brown, gluey mass above referred to. . if, for the purpose of condensation, phenolsulphonic acid to which per cent, of water has been added, is employed, the reaction proceeds very quickly and energetically. if one-sixth of its volume of formaldehyde ( : of the per cent. solution) is added drop by drop to a cold solution of phenolsulphonic acid, a reddish, milky solution results, which assumes a slightly lighter colour on addition of more formaldehyde and deposits an insoluble flocculent precipitate. if the solution is kept below ° c., by artificial cooling, the light colour is maintained, but a gelatinous precipitate is soon formed, the viscosity of which increases on stirring, and finally is converted into an insoluble, tough, gummy mass. if, on the other hand, the mass is heated at the beginning of the reaction, or if the amount of formaldehyde is increased and the mass cooled during reaction, effervescence occurs, and a cheesy, dirty-coloured mass results, which, on cooling, rapidly becomes solid and yields a very firm, elastic, rubbery mass, which is absolutely insoluble in water. . the condensation proceeds exceedingly violently when concentrated phenolsulphonic acid is acted upon by one-sixth of its volume of formaldehyde. if the latter is firstly added drop by drop to the phenolsulphonic acid, a gel immediately results, the temperature of which quickly increases on further addition of formaldehyde and suddenly boils over, yielding a reaction product which, when cooled, forms a dirty violet, firm, elastic, and rubbery mass, insoluble in alkalies and hardly affected by organic solvents. finally, if the amounts of concentrated phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde stated above are mixed, strong effervescence occurs and heat is evolved, and a dirty blackish-violet mass is instantly formed which, on cooling, yields a rather brittle, hard product insoluble in water. . totally different end-products are, however, obtained when the addition of formaldehyde ( per cent.) in the proportion of one-sixth of the volume of dilute phenolsulphonic acid ( plus aq.) to the latter is extended over several hours. in this case a slightly opalescent liquid is obtained which, when left twelve hours, is transformed into a brown mass soluble in water, which strongly precipitates gelatine and possesses tanning properties. hence direct tannoid substances are obtained by this method of condensation. whereas no direct tanning experiment can be carried out with the insoluble compact mass obtained in the preparations described above on account of their absolute insolubility, it is still possible to carry out tanning experiments with opalescent colloidal solutions in the following ways:-- (a) if a bated pelt is immersed in a liquid containing a condensation product obtained by gradually mixing a moderately dilute solution of phenolsulphonic acid and a dilute solution of formaldehyde, the pelt is rapidly tanned on the surface. complete penetration of the substance does not occur even after several days, since the strong acidity of the solution causes a strong swelling of the pelt. (b) if a pelt is shaken for six hours in a shaking apparatus containing the liquid mentioned under (a), tannage again only takes place on the surface, penetration being impeded by the strong swelling effect of the liquid. repetition of the latter two experiments, with the addition of per cent, common salt, increases the tanning effect to some extent; the pelt, however, is not tanned through, but the non-tanned layers may be clearly seen to be pickled. the tanning effects described above are only exhibited when the colloidal tan-liquor is present in great excess over the pelt, since the former obviously only contains small amounts of tanning matter, and even the presence of common salt does not bring about complete tannage of the pelt. in order to prove the presence of "tanning matters" in the liquid described above, several freshly prepared samples of the latter were analysed by the shake method of analysis without being first filtered and the following figures obtained:-- . . . . per cent. per cent. per cent. per cent. tanning matters . . . . soluble non-tannins . . . . these condensation products suspended in water all precipitate gelatine strongly and leave behind a perfectly clear liquid. in all cases, an intense blue colour was obtained on adding ferric chloride, a slight precipitate only was obtained with aniline hydrochloride, and bromine was rapidly absorbed with the separation of an insoluble white deposit. the condensation products obtained by the interaction of dilute solutions of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde at moderately high temperature, which form slimy masses and are insoluble in water, are soluble in alcohol. an alcoholic solution of such a product was used in a tanning experiment, and a piece of pelt immersed in the solution was tanned through in a few days; the resultant leather being rather firm, springy, and slightly hard, and the colour was a light brownish-grey. all those condensation products which are easily or partly soluble in alcohol dissolve in caustic soda, sodium carbonate, in some cases also in borax and sodium sulphite. they are rendered soluble with greater ease when the _freshly prepared_ solution is heated on the water bath with the alkali; the alkaline solution, neutralised as far as is possible with acetic acid, yields light brown coloured solutions, the tanning effects of which have proved very satisfactory. leathers tanned in such solutions, however, are rather empty and hard, possess but little resilience and an uneven, dirty greyish-brown colour. a sample of such a product, as nearly as possible neutralised with acetic acid, contained . per cent. tanning matters, by the shake method of analysis. b. condensation of partly neutralised phenolsulphonic acid attempts were made at condensing partly neutralised phenolsulphonic acid; the latter was obtained by mixing equal quantities of phenolsulphonic acid and sodium phenolsulphonate (prepared by exactly neutralising phenolsulphonic acid with a concentrated solution of caustic soda). the consequent dilution and decrease in acidity, however, considerably diminished the velocity of the reaction. hence, if the half-neutralised solution a (_cf_. p. ) is diluted with water, taking equal volumes, and one-sixth of the volume of dilute formaldehyde ( : ) gradually added in the cold, condensation is not induced. when heated several hours an opalescent liquid results from which, however, no flocculent deposits separate when left for some time. using a concentrated solution of formaldehyde (experiment a , p. ) in the cold produces no reaction, but after heating for a time an opalescent liquid is obtained. both liquids give only slight precipitates with gelatine. excess formaldehyde does not influence the reaction. a repetition of experiment a (_cf_. p. ), using the above half-neutralised phenolsulphonic acid, similarly required heat to induce condensation, when a milky liquid of light reddish colour resulted. whereas the addition of formaldehyde to non-neutralised concentrated phenolsulphonic acid caused violent reaction, this proceeded very slowly in the case of half-neutralised phenolsulphonic acid, resulting in the formation of a semi-solid mass, which on heating became more viscous, and finally, when left twenty-four hours, became a solid, compact, insoluble mass possessing a dirty light violet colour. tanning experiments with these opalescent solutions proved them to exert a rapid penetration on the surface, complete tannage, however, taking place after eight days only, when a flat, greyish-coloured and rather hard leather resulted. c. condensation of completely neutralised phenolsulphonic acid if concentrated phenolsulphonic acid is gradually neutralised with concentrated caustic soda solution till the former is faintly alkaline, the sodium salt thus obtained is not so easily condensed with formaldehyde as is the case with the free acid. . if formaldehyde is gradually added to the neutralised phenolsulphonic acid in the cold, opalescence immediately results; on addition of water, the liquid assumes a milky appearance. on adding gelatine to this liquid, a slimy precipitate is thrown down, leaving a slightly opalescent liquid. . if formaldehyde is added to neutralised phenolsulphonic acid whilst it is heated on the water bath, a slimy mass instantly separates, which on cooling solidifies and forms a greyish-blue brittle mass, insoluble in water and but sparingly soluble in alcohol; the alcoholic solution is capable of converting pelt into leather. the filtrate from the solidified mass strongly precipitates gelatine, whereas the insoluble condensation product is soluble in caustic soda; this alkaline solution also precipitates gelatine and the addition of acetic acid transforms the mixture into the gel state. if the insoluble condensation product is dissolved in warm concentrated sulphuric acid, the solution remains clear upon the addition of water, but does not precipitate gelatine. if, finally, this solution is neutralised with caustic soda, the solution remains clear and precipitates gelatine strongly. d. condensation of cresolsulphonic acid experiments were carried out with the object of condensing _o_-, _m_-, and _p_-cresolsulphonic acids with formaldehyde in various ways; no essential differences could be detected as regards the mode of reaction or the properties of the intermediary and end-products as compared to those of phenolsulphonic acid. similarly, condensation of different samples of crude cresol containing varying quantities of _o_-, _m_-, and _p_-cresol did not yield end-products sufficiently different to justify describing them in detail. e. relative behaviour of an alkaline solution of bakelite and natural tannins phenolsulphonic acid was condensed with a little formaldehyde, and the reddish pasty condensation product dissolved in caustic soda. this alkaline solution of bakelite was exactly neutralised with acetic acid and mixed with strong solutions of an untreated quebracho extract. it was observed that the solubility of the quebracho extract was not increased by this treatment, but the faintly acidic character of the natural tannin caused the bakelite to be thrown down as an insoluble precipitate. crude phenolsulphonic acid, when added to a solution of the quebracho extract referred to, does not increase the solubility of the latter, which even deposits considerable amounts of insoluble tannin particles. quite different properties are exhibited by sodium phenolsulphonate, which completely converts quebracho tannin into a water-soluble substance, the aqueous solution of which deposits no insolubles. the partly neutralised condensation product of phenolsulphonic acid and formaldehyde exhibits similar properties [footnote: grasser, _collegium_, , , .] (see later). f. dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid (neradol d) [footnote: ger, pat., , ; austr. pat., , .] neradol d is a viscous liquid, measuring about ° bé., which is similar to extracts of natural tannins. one of its characteristics is its phenolic odour; it is completely soluble in water, forming a clear, semi-colloidal solution, but is insoluble in all organic solvents with the exception of alcohol, glacial acetic acid and ethyl acetate, which dissolve all but its inorganic constituents. the latter owe their presence to the neutralisation of the crude neradol with caustic soda, and are composed of sodium salts of the sulphonic acid in addition to glauber salts. the aqueous solution of neradol d shows properties similar to those exhibited by solutions of natural tannins and reacts as follows:--[footnote: grasser, _collegium_, , , .] methyl orange acid reaction. barium chloride white precipitate, insoluble in hno_ . ferric chloride deep blue coloration. silver nitrate slight opalescence. bromine water no precipitate. formaldehyde hydrochloric acid no precipitate. gelatine complete precipitation. aniline hydrochloride strong precipitate. the reactions with ferric chloride and gelatine should be especially noted, since they are analogous to those given by natural tannins. on the other hand, the reactions with bacl_ , bromine water and formaldehyde hydrochloric [footnote: stiasny carries out the reaction with formaldehyde-hydrochloric acid as follows:-- c.c. of the tannin solution, plus c.c. concentrated hydrochloric acid and c.c. formaldehyde ( per cent.) are heated under reflux condenser for ten minutes; most natural tannins are completely precipitated (_collegium_, , ; , _et_ ).] acid prove the different chemical composition of neradol d as compared to that of the natural tannins. the fact that a positive reaction is given with aniline hydrochloride [footnote: this reaction is carried out as follows:-- c.c. of the tannin solution to be examined (about gm. tanning matter per litre) are shaken violently in a test tube with . c.c. aniline and c.c. concentrated hcl added. all natural tannins are unaffected by this treatment, ligninsulphonic and other sulphonic acids cause opalescence. _note_.--employing formic acid in lieu of hydrochloric acid (knowles) renders the reaction no more reliable.--_transl_.] is very puzzling; none of the natural tannins are precipitated by this reagent, but only sulphite cellulose on account of its content of ligninsulphonic acid. one is justified in assuming that there is at least some connection between the constitution of ligninsulphonic acid and that of dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid. stiasny [footnote: _collegium_, , , .] recommends the following reaction for the detection of and differentiation between neradol d and wood pulp extract:-- c.c. of a per cent. solution of the extract to be analysed are violently shaken with - drops of a per cent. alum solution and about gm. of ammonium acetate. if only neradol d is present no precipitate separates even after twenty-four hours, but if wood pulp be present, a precipitate is thrown down in a quantity corresponding to the amount of wood pulp present. the official analysis gives the following figures: [footnote: grasser, _loc. cit._] tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . " insolubles . " water . " ------------- . per cent. ash . " acidity: gm. = c.c. n/ naoh. density: º bé. a comparison of its quantitative analysis to that of a natural tanning extract is illustrated by the following figures of a chestnut and a quebracho extract of same density ( º bé):-- chestnut quebracho per cent. per cent. tanning matters . . soluble non-tannins . . insolubles . . water . . ----- ----- . . ash . . this comparison shows that extracts of natural tannins firstly contain certain amounts of "insolubles," whereas neradol is completely soluble in water, forming a clear solution; secondly, natural tanning extracts contain smaller quantities of soluble non-tannins, consisting of colouring matter and sugars, in addition to small quantities of mineral matters (ash). neradol d contains considerable amounts of soluble non-tannins, derived from salts of sulphonic and sulphuric acids, again offering a satisfactory explanation of the high ash. if, therefore, a mixture of neradol d and a natural tanning extract was submitted to a quantitative analysis, the higher non-tannins and the high ash would indicate the presence of neradol d, provided that wood pulp or a highly sulphited extract were not components of the mixture. the chemical reactions taking place in the preparation of neradol d may be expressed thus:- oh oh oh oh h ^ h___o_____h ^ h h ^ h__ch_ __h ^ h | | || | | = | | | | + h_ o | | ch_ | |	 | | | | h v ch_ ch_ v	 h v ch_ ch_ v h hso_ hso_ hso_ hso_ . neradol d reactions . the quantitative determination of phenols introduced by bader, [footnote: _bull. soc. scient., bucarexi_, , , .] which consists in precipitating them as oxyazo compounds, has been modified by appelius and schmidt [footnote: _collegium_, , .] for the purpose of detecting neradol d:--to c.c. of the tannin solution (analytical strength) c.c. of diazo solution are added, the mixture filtered, if necessary, and the filtrate made alkaline with caustic soda; in the presence of neradol d in sufficient quantity, a blood-red coloration results. if but little neradol d be present, the procedure is altered as follows:--the tannin solution, to which the diazo solution has been added, is filtered, and the filtrate poured on a piece of filter paper which is then dried; a solution of caustic soda is spotted on the paper, when, if neradol d be present, a red-edged spot will appear. according to tschirch and edner, [footnote: _archiv. d. pharm_., , .] the diazo solution is prepared as follows:-- gm._p_-nitraniline are introduced into a c.c. measuring flask, c.c. of water and c.c. concentrated sulphuric acid added, the mixture shaken and a solution of gm. of sodium nitrite in c.c. of water plus c.c. of water added, and the whole then filled up to c.c. the solution should be stocked in the dark. . a less sensitive reaction for neradol and wood pulp extract constitutes that of appelius and schmidt employing cinchonine, [footnote: _collegium_ , .] while the presence of the substances in question yields characteristic precipitates. . seel and sander [footnote: _zeits. f. ang. chem._, , .] recommend the following method of detecting neradol d:-- _(a) oxyazo reaction_.--about c.c. of the tannin solution are rendered alkaline with caustic soda; after cooling with ice, about half the volume of alcohol is added. - drops of diazo solution are then added. frequently, this results in the solution assuming a blue coloration. if not, the solution is acidified with hydrochloric acid, ether added, and the mixture well shaken. the water is now separated from the mixture, fresh water added, together with some caustic soda solution, when, if neradol d be present, the salt of the colour acid formed dissolves in the water with a beautiful green or bluish-green colour. at the place of contact of the water and the ether a bluish-green ring appears. the diazo solution is prepared by dissolving _p_-aminophenol or its hydrochloric in a little dilute hydrochloric acid, cooling in ice and carefully diazotising in the cold till a slight excess of nitrous acid is present. it is essential that this solution should be tested before use, and this is carried out by coupling it with an alkaline phenol solution; if a dark blue oxyazo colour is formed, the solution may be used. it must be kept cool by surrounding it with ice. _(b) indophenol reaction_.--to c.c. of the solution to be tested, a drop of a solution of dimethyl-_p_-phenylenediamine is added, the solution rendered alkaline with caustic soda and - drops of a per cent. solution of potassium ferricyanide added. if neradol d be present, a blue colour appears, either immediately or after some time. the reaction is rendered more sensitive if alcohol is carefully poured on the solution after it has been rendered alkaline, and potassium ferricyanide is then added. at the place of contact a blue layer is formed, which ultimately diffuses into the alcohol. according to lauffmann [footnote: _collegium_, , .] the presence of natural tannins as well as that of wood pulp diminishes the sensitiveness of the reactions described above; [footnote: _zeits. f. ang. chem._, , .] this investigator recommends a modification of these reactions. . electro-chemical behaviour of neradol d the author's investigations of the electro-osmosis of an aqueous solution of neradol d [footnote: _collegium_, , , .] proved that dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid exhibits anodic migration; hence this product possesses negative charge and acidic character. the impurities accompanying the synthetic tannin, _i.e._, salts, free sulphuric acid, and some phenols, migrated anodic and cathodic respectively, according to their charges. a neradol d purified by electro-osmosis finally yielded a pure solution of dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid, which precipitated gelatine and exhibited pronounced tanning effects, but gave a greenish-black coloration with iron salts. this conclusively proves that the blue coloration given by neradol d with iron salts is no characteristic feature of the _pure_ synthetic tannin, but is caused by the phenolic impurities accompanying the latter. especially the first stage of the electro-osmosis produces a cathodic migration of the phenols, which may then be detected at a cathode by means of the iron and bromine reactions. it is characteristic of a dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid purified by electro-osmosis that it does not precipitate aniline hydrochloride. it appears, therefore, that this reaction--which is characteristic of most synthetic tannins--is again caused by the presence of impurities. . the influence of salts and acid contents on the tanning effect of neradol d chemical analysis of crude neradol revealed a natural dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid (the tanning agent) contents of about per cent, which agrees fairly well with the calculated amount. like other "strong" and "weak" acids this sulphonic acid exercises a strongly swelling influence on pelt. whereas the effect of acid present in solutions of neradol d of medium concentration and its tanning effect both influence the pelt and are fairly well balanced, this is not the case as regards highly concentrated and very dilute solutions. if, for instance, a very dilute solution of crude neradol (about . ° bé.) is used, the tanning effect of this solution is exceedingly small and does not show itself till after several hours. the relatively high dissociation of the acids at this high degree of dilution causes an extremely rapid and strong swelling of the pelt, which has therefore absorbed its maximum amount of water (maximum swelling) before the tanning effect of the sulphonic acid comes into play and by fixing the surface of the pelt is enabled to prevent the excessive swelling effect of the acids. the addition of neutral salts to the tan liquor diminishes the effect of the acids on pelt (dehydrates the pelt) and prevents "drawing" of the grain. if, for instance, common salt be added to a solution of crude neradol, the original quantity of sulphonic acid present would remain constant, but the presence of salt would diminish the degree of dissociation and consequently the swelling. this effect is still more pronounced when the absolute amount of free sulphonic acid is diminished. hence, if crude neradol is treated with increasing amounts of caustic soda, a series of products containing increasing quantities of salt and decreasing concentrations of sulphonic acid is obtained. the acidity of the neradols may be determined by titration with n/ caustic soda; this procedure hence establishes a means of determining the (unknown) acidities which may be expressed in terms of c.c. n/ naoh. the acidity of crude neradol was found to be-- gm. = c.c. n/ naoh _i.e._, gm. of crude neradol requires c.c. n/ naoh for complete neutralisation; the decrease in acidity causes a decrease in contents of tanning matters and the quantities of salts increase. the following table gives the figures obtained by differently neutralised neradols:-- acidity. tanning matters. na_ so_ . per cent. per cent. gm. = c.c. ... gm. = c.c. gm. = c.c. gm. = c.c. gm. = c.c. gm. = c.c. gm. = c.c. ... tanning experiments with these different neradols (employing solutions of ° bé. strength) demonstrated that neradols of acidity °, °, and ° exerted strong swelling and gave comparatively hard leathers; neradols of acidity °, °, and ° exert no swelling, yield quick tannage and soft leather. the swelling (hardening) effect of the acid and the dehydrating (softening) effect of the salts in this case, therefore, are well balanced, and this fact affords an explanation of the rapid change from hardening to softening effects exhibited by partly neutralised neradol where less acid and a greater quantity of salts respectively are present. it may finally be noted that the acidity of neradol d, gm. = c.c. n/ naoh, has been found to be the most suitable one for practical purposes. the author has, however, successfully employed some neradols of considerably higher acidities. the acidity above mentioned is possessed by a neradol d containing per cent. ash and per cent. sodium sulphonates and glauber's salts crystals respectively. this large quantity of salts present on the one hand effects the rapid pickle and tanning effect exhibited by neradol d, on the other hand it also effects the softness in the leather resulting from its use either alone or in admixture with natural tannins. . phlobaphene solubilising action of neradols a special feature of neradol d is its property of solubilising phlobaphenes, which may be ascribed to its contents of sulphonic acids or their salts. in order to demonstrate whether the sulphonic acids and their salts are capable of solubilising the insoluble or sparingly soluble anhydrides of the tannins (the phlobaphenes) before and after condensation, the following experiments were carried out:-- crude argentine solid quebracho extract was converted into a highly viscous liquid by treating it for several hours with water at ° c., and the anhydrides rendered insoluble by diluting the liquid with a large volume of cold water. the precipitate formed, consisting of quebracho phlobaphenes, was separated from the liquid by decantation, and purified by washing it several times with water. each gm. of this moist paste were treated in the cold with (_a_) free phenolsulphonic acid; (_b_) sodium phenolsulphonate; (_c_) crude neradol and (_d_) neradol d, c.c. of water at ° c. added, and the mixture allowed to cool slowly; the following solutions resulted:-- (_a_) opalescent solution, much deposit, (_b_) clear solution, no deposit. (_c_) nearly clear solution, very little deposit. (_d_) clear solution, no deposit. this clearly proves that free and condensed phenolsulphonic acids as such are not capable of completely solubilising phlobaphenes, whereas the sodium salts of free and condensed phenolsulphonic acids possess this property. the salt contents of neradol d, therefore, constitute an advantage in this respect, that not only may neradol d be mixed with solutions of any natural tannin without insolubles being thereby deposited, but it may also be added in large quantities to a tannin solution with the result that the sparingly soluble and wholly insoluble constituents (phlobaphenes) are completely brought into solution. the practical importance of the solubilising effect of neradol d relating to solid argentine quebracho extract is demonstrated in the following series of investigations carried out by the author:-- [footnote: _collegium_, , ; austr. pat., , .] solid neradol matters tanning abs. increase argentine d. calc. of mixture increase per quebracho found. in tanning gms. extract. matters. extract. gm. gm. per cent. per cent. . . ... ... . . ... ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . the maximum solubilising effect is exhibited in the mixture of parts of neradol and parts of quebracho, with an additional percentage of tanning matters in the mixture of . per cent.--a figure which is very nearly identical with that of the insolubles present in the original argentine quebracho extract. the phlobaphene-solubilising property of neradol d is closely connected with the influence of the latter on the colour of leathers tanned with natural tannins. if, on the one hand, a pelt is tanned with natural (_i.e._, non-treated) quebracho extract, a rather light coloured leather results, the fleshy colour of which is characteristic of quebracho. the dark coloured phlobaphenes present, on account of their insolubility, will have no influence on the colour of the leather. if, now, the quebracho extract be treated with sulphite and bisulphite in the usual way, the phlobaphenes are solubilised, but the reducing effect of the bisulphite tends to brighten the colour of the otherwise dark coloured phlobaphenes as well as that of the soluble tannins, and a reddish-yellow coloured extract results, imparting its own colour to the pelt. when, on the other hand, the quebracho extract is solubilised by means of neradol d, the phlobaphenes are brought into solution without reduction taking place, and a dark brownish-red extract results, which imparts a similar colour to the finished leather. this darkening effect of neradol d is most conspicuous in the case of mangrove, maletto, and chestnut, but is absent in the case of algarobilla, dividivi, gambir, sumac, and valonea. the varying phlobaphene contents of the tannins easily afford an explanation of the different properties above alluded to: the mangrove phlobaphenes are dark coloured bodies, those of mimosa, maletto, and chestnut are of lighter colour, and the last-named tanning materials enumerated above are either devoid of phlobaphenes or possess them only as very light coloured bodies. algarobilla, sumac, gambir, dividivi, and valonea, on the other hand, are associated with large amounts of sparingly soluble ellagic acid, known as "bloom" or "mud" which imparts a light colour to the finished leather, and conveniently covers the dark colour imparted to the leather by other tanning materials; for this reason the former are often used in the lay-aways or in the finishing processes. similar effects to those of neradol d are exhibited by other salts of sulphonic acids, _e.g._, sodium benzylsulphanilate (solvenol b.a.s.f., or solution salt ("solutionsalz") hoechst); the author prepared mixtures of such salts and untreated quebracho extract in order to determine their solubilising effects, and arrived at the following results:-- parts solvenol plus parts quebracho extract: clear solution, no deposit. parts solvenol plus parts quebracho extract: clear solution, very little deposit parts solvenol plus parts quebracho extract: nearly clear solution, very little deposit. parts solvenol plus parts quebracho extract: slightly opaque solution some deposit. leathers tanned with these mixtures were more or less dark coloured according to the amounts used of solvenol and the consequent solubilisation of the phlobaphenes. a similar effect, though of opposite nature from a tanning standpoint, is exhibited by sulphonates on certain colloidal dark coloured substances. a phenolsulphonic acid, which had been overheated during sulphonation and subsequently condensed (crude neradol), imparted a conspicuous greyish-brown colour to the leather; samples of this crude product were then partly neutralised with varying amounts of alkali, and these samples (containing increasing quantities of salts) tested for tannin and colour effects. it was found that the more highly neutralised samples imparted a darker colour to the solutions, but these dark products did not deposit the dark impurities on the pelt. one may therefore assume that tannoid substances are colloidally suspended, and when converted into true solutions are incapable of being fixed in insoluble form by the pelt. just as, by adding neradol d to a tanning extract, the phlobaphenes are solubilised and a dark coloured extract results, it is also possible to remove the mechanically deposited phlobaphenes and oxidised tannins from the finished leather, and, as a consequence, lighten the colour of the leather. for practical purposes, bleaching with neradol d is carried out by brushing over the darkly coloured leather with a °- ° bé. solution of neradol d, and then rinsing well with water, in order to remove the solubilised tannin. a lighter colour may also be obtained by immersing the leather in a liquor of the strength mentioned above for several hours, and then rinsing with water, but by this procedure not only the surface tannin is removed, but also tannin from the leather substance itself; this method is therefore not suitable for heavy leathers which are sold by weight. the advantage of employing neradol d as a bleach in this way is to be found in the fact that, on the one hand, the bleaching sulphonic acid attacks the leather to a much slighter extent than is the case with inorganic acids usually employed for this purpose; on the other hand, the method of brushing the sulphonic acid on the leather only introduces small amounts of sulphonic acid in the leather, thus lessening the harmful effects of acids upon leather. furthermore, the common methods of using alkalies as tannin-solubilising agents with the consequent running off and waste of alkaline tan liquors are here substituted by a method leaving liquors rich in tannin and neradol, and which may be used in the ordinary procedure of tannage. since neradol d contains neutral sodium sulphate (about per cent.), and the latter, by precipitating colouring matters present in tan liquors, may slightly bleach these, it was of interest to determine whether the sodium sulphate plays any part in the bleaching effected by neradol. mixtures of chestnut and quebracho extracts were prepared, to which were added:-- ( ) per cent. neradol d. ( ) per cent. neradol d. free from na_ so_ . ( ) ° per cent. sodium sulphate (corresponding to above neradol d). these mixtures were allowed to act upon pelt alongside of comparison tests using quebracho and chestnut extracts only, the strength of the liquors in all cases being . ° bé; the pelt was left in the solution till tanned through. the following results were obtained:-- ( ) quebracho tanned leather was darker; no difference in colour by chestnut extract. ( ) similar to (i). ( ) same colour as given by the original extracts. this experiment demonstrates that absence of sodium sulphate in the mixture is without influence on the colour of the resulting leather, and that an addition of sodium sulphate to natural extracts does not affect the colour imparted by them to pelt . effect of neradol d on pelt being a sulphonic acid derivative, the chemical constitution of neradol is obviously considerably different from that of the natural tannins, and the question has been asked: will neradol d, in its concentrated form, attack the hide substance?[footnote : _collegium_, , , .] bearing in mind that concentrated extracts of vegetable tannins in some circumstances effect a "dead" tannage (_cf_. case-hardening) and hence reduce their practical value, and that for this reason it is impossible to allow either concentrated extracts or concentrated neradol d to act upon pelt, the author still decided to carry out some experiments in this direction. concentrated neradol d ( ° bé.) and strong aqueous solutions of this material in strengths of-- ° ° ° ° ° ° ° ° bé. were therefore allowed to remain in contact with pelt for a period of ten days, when the pelts were taken out and washed in running water for twenty-four hours, and then dried. the resultant leathers possessed the following properties:-- ° bé. solution: completely gelatinised.[footnote ] ° " " " [footnote ] ° " two-thirds gelatinised; surface tanned. ° " one third gelatinised; surface "dead" tanned. ° " pelt was glassy throughout. ° " rather cracky leather, but well tanned. ° " normal tannage. ° " " " ° " " " [footnote : impossible to subject the pieces to a proper washing out.] the interiors of the leathers obtained from the ° and ° bé. solutions were completely gelatinised; this may be accounted for by assuming that the surface was "dead" tanned, and that hence the free dissociated sulphonic acid diffused into the leather, towards which it exhibited hydrolysing rather than a tannoid effect with the consequent result described above. above ° bé. the effect is more that of an acid with concentrations below ° bé.--the only ones of technical importance--however, no ill-effects may be observed. for tanning purposes, neradol d solutions of ° bé. are quite satisfactory, and it has been found [footnote : _technikum_, , , .] that solutions of this strength do not dissolve out any protein of the hide. [footnote : the translator cannot agree with the author on this point. he has, for instance, found that solutions of analytical strength dissolve considerable amounts of hide substance, and his practical experience confirms results arrived at in the laboratory.] a purely neradol d tanned leather may be produced by immersing a bated pelt, free from lime, in a ° bé. neradol d liquor for about four days; the resultant leather being nearly white and otherwise very similar to a leather tanned with vegetable tanning materials. the main application of neradol d is in admixture with vegetable tanning materials; especially in the early stages of tannage is this substance of value, since by its use not only a light coloured leather surface is obtained, but its presence prevents a subsequent dead tannage when strong vegetable tan liquors are applied, and it also imparts strength to the grain layer. it is thus possible to shorten the time consumed by the tanning process by employing neradol d in the manner described. a further explanation as to why the tanning process is considerably hastened by using neradol d, either alone or in conjunction with natural tannins, is afforded by the fact that though neradol d quickly penetrates the grain, it is but "loosely" fixed by the latter, _i.e._, it is not deposited to such an extent that it would prevent penetration of the vegetable tannins. in the case of a mixture of neradol d and vegetable tannins, the former quickly diffuses into the pelt and fixes the fibres, thus facilitating penetration of the vegetable tannins. this assumption is justified in view of the speed with which neradol d completely penetrates and tans the pelt, since neradol d containing acids and salts exhibits effects similar to those of a pickle. . reactions of neradol d with iron and alkalies a special characteristic of neradol d tannage is the sensitiveness of the latter to the action of iron and alkalies. the active principle of neradol d being free dicresylmethanedisul-phonic acid, which is easily neutralised by lime, ammonia, and amino-acids and hence rendered inactive for tanning purposes, it is essential that the pelt prior to tannage with neradol d should be completely delimed, bated, and freed from all constituents possessing alkaline reaction. it is, however, possible to regenerate neradol d liquors contaminated with alkali or partly neutralised by the addition of small quantities of organic (formic, acetic, lactic, and butyric) or inorganic (hydrochloric or sulphuric) acids,_i.e._, the dicresyl-methanedisulphonic acid is again partly liberated, and this procedure is always preferred where the tanning process does not allow of a complete deliming of the pelt prior to introducing the latter into a neradol d liquor. if, on the other hand, such liquors are kept properly, and the addition of acid referred to kept up, they will remain active for weeks and need only strengthening up with the requisite quantity of neradol prior to introducing fresh pack. the sensitiveness to alkalies of neradol d is considerably greater than in the case of natural tannins, and it appears that a vegetable tan liquor neutralised with lime will not even surface-tan when acting upon pelt and will neither impart a dark colour to the leather nor remove from it any appreciable amount of protein. similarly, a neradol d liquor neutralised with lime exerts no tanning action, but in contradistinction to the vegetable tan liquor similarly treated, will impart a blue or blackish-blue colour to the pelt, from which it removes larger quantities of protein. the author examined two such liquors relating to their contents of tanning matters and protein and obtained the following results:-- reaction. bark. tans. non-tans insol. proteins per per per per cent. cent. cent. cent. vegetable slightly ° . . . tan alkaline liquor neradol " " ° . . . these figures do not only show the higher protein contents of the neradol d liquor, but do also show higher contents in soluble non-tannins, which consist mainly of lime ( . per cent.) and sodium salts ( . per cent.), thus establishing the fact of the sensitiveness of neradol d to alkalies in addition to its lime-solubilising effects. the sensitiveness towards alkalies is also noticeable on a large scale where the tanpits have been built of cement; though the pelt may be quite free from lime, the neradol d is quickly neutralised by the cement, with results similar to those enumerated above. the blue coloured soluble compound of neradol d and iron salts, to which frequent reference has been made, is very important from a practical standpoint. whereas the catechol tannins (_i.e._, fir, gambir, hemlock, cutch, mangrove, and quebracho) are coloured black, those of the pyrogallol class (_i.e._, algarobilla, dividivi, valonea, gallotannic acid, myrabolams, and sumac) bluish-black, and the "mixed" tannins (_i.e._, canaigre, oak, and mimosa bark) bluish-purple by iron alum, neradol d is coloured a pure blue. how sensitive this reaction is, the following comparative analyses illustrate: to each litre of tan liquor containing gm. tanning matter prepared from (_a_) quebracho extract and (_b_) neradol d, c.c. of a per cent. iron alum solution were added, the solutions heated to ° c., cooled and filtered, and the colour of the filtrates and the weight of the precipitates determined:-- (_a_) quebracho solution: light reddish-brown filtrate, . gm. precipitate. (_b_) neradol solution: deep blue filtrate, . gm. precipitate. hence, on adding a soluble iron salt to a solution of a natural tannin, most of the tanning matter is precipitated; the colour of the filtrate, however, is much the same as that of the original solution. a neradol d liquor similarly treated gives no precipitate, but is coloured blue throughout. the filtrates from the above solutions were allowed to act upon pelt, and the following observations were made:-- (_a_) the light reddish-brown filtrate from the quebracho liquor exhibited no well-defined tanning effect on pelt, to which it imparted a light brown colour. (_b_) on the other hand, the deep blue filtrate from the neradol d liquor exhibited well-defined tanning effects, and imparted a deep blue colour to the pelt. for practical purposes, the sensitiveness of neradol d to iron is not only remarkable because any contact with iron particles will colour the liquor (and hence the pelt) blue, but also because the slight amount of iron always present in cement renders the use of cement pits prohibitive where neradol d liquors are used. this intense blue coloration might have made possible a colorimetric estimation of neradol d. the author has investigated this possibility, using different concentrations of neradol d liquors to which a solution of iron ammonium alum was added, and found that when, at certain concentrations, the maximum blue colour had been obtained, it was still possible to increase the quantity of neradol without the intensity of the colour being affected. addition of a little alkali tends at first to darken the blue colour, more alkali changes the blue colour to brown and yellow, successive additions of a weak organic acid (_e.g._, acetic acid) rapidly lighten the blue colour. since industrially used neradol d liquors always contain varying quantities of acid and may be neutral or even slightly alkaline, it must be considered impossible to make any use of such a colorimetric estimation for practical purposes. . reagents suitable for demonstrating the various stages of neradol d tannage the extent to which tannage with neradol d proceeds on the surface and within the pelt may be judged from the feel of the skin, but such a method is totally unsuited to any but a practical tanner. a suitable and reliable reagent is indigotine (b.a.s.f.), which clearly distinguishes tanned and untanned layers of the pelt. if, for instance, a - per cent, solution of indigotine is brought into contact with a fresh cut on a pelt, and the latter subsequently washed with warm water, the indigotine is only retained by the untanned parts; a leather tanned with neradol d is therefore only coloured by indigotine to the extent to which it has combined with the neradol. [footnote: according to seel and sander (_zeits. f. ang. chem._, , ), basic dyestuffs are also very suitable for demonstrating tanned parts of the pelt.] another reagent is constituted by iron ammonium sulphate; the extent of the penetration of neradol d, which gives an intense blue coloration with iron salts, into the leather may be determined by washing the pelt treated with neradol d, making a cut, again washing and treating the cut with a few drops of a weak solution of iron ammonium sulphate. those parts of the pelt which have been converted into leather then appear deep blue; on the other hand, those which have been in contact with neradol d, but have not yet been converted into leather, are light blue. those parts which have not yet been in contact with neradol d appear pure white; the results of this reaction are therefore opposite to those obtained by the use of indigotine. . combination tannages with neradol d whereas mixtures of neradol d and vegetable tannins impart properties to the leather consistent with the proportions in which these materials are present, it is not possible to combine neradol d with mineral tanning agents or fats (_e.g._, fish oils, etc.) in such a way that a leather characterised by the properties of either material is obtained. experiments were carried out using ( ) chrome salts plus neradol d; ( ) aluminium salts plus neradol d; and ( ) oils plus neradol d, and the following conclusions were arrived at:-- . chrome-neradol d liquors, containing comparatively larger amounts of neradol d, act too rapidly on the pelt and draw the grain; smaller amounts of neradol d seem without influence on the finished leather, which possesses pronounced characteristics of chrome leather. another disagreeable factor is the following: the chrome salts must possess a certain degree of basicity in order to produce good leather; the neradol d must, on the other hand, possess a certain acidity to produce the optimum results, and it is hence impossible to balance practically the basicity of the chrome salts and the acidity of the neradol in order to justify the presence of both. if one of the two is used separately before the other, a leather always results possessing the characteristics of the material first employed, provided the time of action has been sufficiently extended. if insufficient time has been allowed, the characteristics imparted by the main tanning agent are not altered. . aluminium salts and neradol require practically the same basicity and acidity respectively, and when combined always yield a leather possessing mainly the properties of one of the components. in addition to this fact, leathers tanned with aluminium salts possess great softness and stretch, those tanned with neradol d greater firmness and less stretch, and these opposing qualities completely compensate one another and render _nil_ the value of such mixtures. in addition to this, the presence of aluminium salts produces no better fixation on the leather fibre of basic coal-tar dyes, so that in this respect also a combination of aluminium salts and neradol d is of no value. . fat neradol d tannage: just as aluminium salts impart special characteristics to leather, this property is exhibited by fatty matters, especially so as regards stretchiness and softness. both of the latter are not apparent to the same extent in an oil tannage into which neradol d and oil enter as constituents. it is, however, not excluded that, in view of the fact that the combination of oils and neradol d appear to produce the most promising results of the three from a technical point of view, such combination would yield products possessing less stretch and greater softness which, by occupying an intermediary position, might possess certain advantages and be useful for certain technical purposes. . analysis of leather containing neradol d chemical examination of leathers tanned with neradol d or with mixtures of natural tannins and neradol d often involve a determination of the materials employed in tannage. in most leathers exclusively tanned with vegetable tanning materials, it is usually possible to determine at least the nature of the main tanning agent, whereas the attempts at determining those tannins which are only present in minor quantities rarely succeed. since neradol d usually is employed in comparatively small quantities, it has been imperative to find a method which also permits of the detection of smaller quantities of neradol d. provided the presence of not less than per cent. (on the weight of the leather) of neradol d, the following method yields reliable results:-- - gm. of the leather are ground or sliced as finely as possible and the powder (or the slices) treated in the cold with a sufficient volume of dilute ammonia solution ( c.c. ammonia plus c.c. of water) for eight to twelve hours. the object of this is to dissolve the tannins, but no protein should go into solution. the solution is filtered and the filtrate evaporated on the water bath till it occupies a volume of about c.c. a few c.c. of aniline hydrochloride are now cautiously added, when it should be carefully noted if a precipitate is thrown down which might be either completely or only partly soluble in excess of aniline hydrochloride. a precipitate is always thrown down when neradol d or wood pulp is present; only the neradol d precipitate is soluble in excess of aniline hydrochloride. partial solubility of the precipitate therefore indicates the presence of both wood pulp and neradol d. the quantitative determination of sulphuric acid--the detection and estimation of which in leather is important--is considerably influenced by the presence of neradol d. practically all methods in vogue dealing with its determination were based on the estimation of the sulphur introduced into leather by sulphuric acid. the presence of neradol d, the main constituent of which is dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid, renders it impossible by such methods to determine whether the combined sulphur owes its origin to sulphuric or sulphonic acid. it remains yet to be determined whether the sulphonic acid influences the leather substance to the extent that sulphuric acid does; it must, however, be borne in mind that neradol d in addition to free sulphonic acid also contains sulphonates and sulphates, which may enter into the leather and thus increase the sulphur contents of the latter. a method must hence be devised which estimates the free acid only and provides the means of distinguishing this from all other acids of organic and inorganic acids. paessler, [footnote: _collegium_, , , ; , ; , .] by extracting the leather and dialysing the filtrate, has effected a separation of the acids and the tanning and colouring matters and quantitatively estimated the sulphuric acid in the dialysate. immerheiser [footnote :_collegium_, , , .] devised a method, based upon the property of sulphuric acid of combining with ether, for the purpose of determining free sulphuric acid in leathers:-- gm. of the leather, cut into small pieces, are extracted three times with c.c. distilled water at room temperature, the time of each extraction being ten to twelve hours, and the combined extracts evaporated to dryness on the water bath, gm. of quart sand being added. the dry residue is now powdered, introduced into an erlenmeyer flask provided with a glass stopper, and c.c. of anhydrous ether [footnote : to be tested for water by shaking with anhydrous copper sulphate.] added. after about two hours, during which the flask is occasionally shaken, the ether is poured through a filter, the residue washed with a little ether, and the operation repeated twice with each c.c. anhydrous ether, using the same filter. to the combined ether extracts (about c.c.) hcl and [greek: b]acl_ are added, the ether distilled off and the residue evaporated on the water bath, in order to decompose the ether-sulphuric acid compound. c.c, of hot water acidified with hcl are now added, the precipitate allowed to settle, filtered, washed, dried, and weighed. the sulphuric acid thus estimated was present in the leather as _free sulphuric acid_. that present as sulphates soluble in water is estimated in the residue on the filter: the residue is extracted with hot water, the sand filtered off, the filtrate acidified with hcl, boiled for one quarter hour and filtered if necessary. the clear filtrate, which may be coloured, is brought to boil and [greek: b]acl_ is added. the barium sulphate indicates the sulphuric acid present in the leather as water-soluble sulphates. whether the latter be sulphates or bisulphates may be indicated by the aqueous extract of the above residue, since neutral reaction would indicate the absence of bisulphates, acid reaction their presence in addition to possible normal sulphates; the quantitative estimation of the metals would decide this point definitely. . properties of leathers tanned with neradol d whereas the colour of leathers tanned with neradol d only is nearly a pure white, those tanned with mixtures of neradol d and vegetable tanning materials are more or less light coloured according to the quantity of neradol d present, as has been explained when discussing the phlobaphene-solubilising action of neradol d. in any case, all leathers tanned with neradol d possess fibre of remarkable length, which explains their increased tensile strength and elasticity. the tensile strength of a leather tanned with a mixture of neradol d and vegetable tannins was . per cent, as compared to per cent when no neradol was used; the extension was per cent, when tanning with neradol d as against per cent, without the latter. the sensitiveness to light of leathers tanned with neradol d may be mentioned. exposed to direct sunlight, the surface of the leather assumes a yellowish colour after two days' exposure, and assumes a pure yellow colour after a further three days. a further fifteen days' exposure only darkens the leather slightly, the final colour being very little different from the one obtaining after five days' exposure. in passing, it may be remarked that this yellow colour is observed on the surface only, the grain otherwise possessing that pure white colour characteristic of neradol d tanned leather. further, it may be noted that leathers tanned--with neradol d fix basic coal-tar dyes excellently, whereas acid and substantive dyestuffs are fixed with other than their natural shades. the author has analysed a leather exclusively tanned with neradol d, and has obtained the following results:--[footnote: _collegium_, , , .] moisture - - - - - . per cent. ash - - - - - - . per cent. fats- - - - - - . per cent. extraneous matters - - - . per cent. leather substance |tanning matters- . per cent. leather substance |hide substance - . per cent. --------------- . per cent. [footnote: sp. gr., . .] from these figures, those of "degree of tannage" and "yield" (pelt-->leather) are calculated as . and respectively. these figures correspond closely to those obtained by the analysis of leathers tanned with vegetable tanning materials, and this proves the similarity between the neradol d tannage and a vegetable tannage in their chemical aspects. . neradol d free from sulphuric acid in order to prepare phenol and cresulphonic acids, such quantities of technical sulphuric acid are used as do not allow of the assumption of complete utilisation of the sulphuric acid; hence it was of theoretical interest to remove eventual traces of free sulphuric acid from the product. for this purpose, the author diluted crude neradol to ° bé. and gradually added small quantities of milk of lime; the precipitates were freed from the liquid by suction and washing, and a neradol free from sulphuric acid resulted, which was then brought to the acidity of neradol d with the calculated amount of alkali. from the calcium sulphate precipitate, the amount of sulphuric acid originally present was calculated, and was found to be only per cent. the acid-free sample of neradol was tested with regard to its suitability as a tanning agent; leather tanned with this sample differed from one tanned with an untreated sample (neradol d) by being harder and possessing a pronouncedly greyish colour. this difference, however, may not be due to the absence of sulphuric acid but to the presence of the slightly soluble calcium sulphate in the sample treated with milk of lime. to prove this point, another way of preparing neradol d free from sulphuric acid was looked out for. sodium acetate was added to a solution of crude neradol until the latter was no longer acid to congo-red; at this point no free sulphuric acid can be present in the solution. the product, partly neutralised till the acidity of neradol d was reached (part of the acidity then being due to liberated acetic acid), yielded a leather which neither in colour nor in feel differed from the usual neradol d tanned leather. this proves that the grey colour and the hardness of the leather described in the former experiment is due to the presence of calcium sulphate. if the crude neradol treated with sodium acetate is not partly neutralised, the analysis gives the following figures:-- tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . " insolubles . " water . " --------- . per cent. acidity: gm. = c.c. n/ naoh. compared to the analysis of crude neradol containing sulphuric acid, the figures show that, on the one hand, the presence of the comparatively small quantity of sodium acetate but slightly influences the contents of non-tannins and water, but, on the other hand, reduces the contents of tannins and also the acidity. the tanning intensity of this product, however, is considerably increased, and using a ° bé. solution a leather is obtained in a very short time very similar to that yielded by ordinary neradol d, but considerably harder; the latter property is due to higher acidity and almost complete absence of salts in the product treated with sodium acetate. the author finally attempted to partly neutralise crude neradol with various hydroxides and carried out tanning tests with samples containing the different metals. hardly any difference in the finished leathers could be observed as regards colour or quality; the tannage could by no means be described as that of a combination of neradol d and the respective metals. . neutral neradol crude neradol, completely neutralised with caustic soda, yields a product of the following composition:-- tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . " insolubles . " water . " ------------ . per cent. the qualitative reactions of this product differ from those of non-neutralised neradol to the extent that gelatine is not precipitated and iron salts are not coloured blue, but dirty brown, by the aqueous solution of this product. the completely neutralised product, diluted to various concentrations (of °, °, °, and ° bé.) and tested as to tanning properties, revealed the surprising fact that the pelts were not even surface tanned, and were coloured evenly blue throughout by indigotine. it might have been anticipated that sodium dicresylmethanedisulphonate would be as devoid of tanning powers as is a neutralised vegetable tannin, but it is difficult to explain the fact of the sodium salt being adsorbed by hide powder as "tanning matters" in the official method of analysis. brought to a logical conclusion, the figure . per cent, should be deducted from . per cent, obtained in the analysis of a _partly_ neutralised neradol d, which comparatively large quantities of the sodium sulphonate also adsorbed by hide powder, leaving the "tanning matters" of neradol d at . per cent. this diminished figure, however, does in no way reduce the value as a tanning agent of neradol d; it merely shows how inadequate is the hide powder method of analysis when applied to substances of the composition of neradol d. this is further confirmed by the loewenthal permanganate method, which yields the following figures:-- tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . [footnote: collegium, , , .] if, on the other hand, completely neutralised neradol is acidified with an organic acid, such as acetic acid, till the acidity, ( gm.= c.c. n/ naoh) is reached, the resulting product is in all respects similar to neradol d and yields a corresponding leather. it is permissible to assume that the irregularity exhibited by neradol d as regards the analytical estimation of its tannin contents is connected with the low molecular weight of the tanning principle. whereas all tannins so far isolated from the natural tanning materials possess rather high molecular weights, that of neradol d deviates considerably from this rule, as is shown by the following table:-- neradol d tannin cl_ h_ s_ o_ mangrove " c_ h_ o_ l oak bark " c_ h_ o_ myrabolam " c_ h_ o_ dividivi " c_ h_ o_ malletto " (c_ lh_ o_ )_ this low molecular weight may mainly account for the figures obtained by the incorrect oxymetric estimation with permanganate; the apparent tannoid property of the tannoid-inactive neutral salt of dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid may be explained by assuming that though it is, probably, in the colloidal state, and as such adsorbed by hide powder, it is still devoid of astringent properties. g. different methods of condensation as applied to phenolsulphonic acid in addition to formaldehyde, many other substances may, theoretically, induce condensation of phenolsulphonic acid; condensation takes place either with the elimination of water or, in addition to this, with the introduction of methane group. so far, the following condensing agents have been investigated:-- ( ) heating _in vacuo_. ( ) sulphur chloride. ( ) phosphorus compounds. ( ) aldehydes. ( ) glycerol. . condensation induced by heat if phenolsulphonic acid is heated _in vacuo_ at ° c. for twenty hours, condensation takes place [footnote: austr. pat., , .] without the addition of any condensing agent, and an anhydride of the ^ __o__ ^ | | | | | | | | v v hso_ hso_ composition is formed. this product is a viscous liquid, possessing a very corrosive action. added to a solution of gelatine, a light, fine flocculent precipitate is thrown down. analysed by the shake method of analysis, the tannin content of the product equals about per cent. its strongly acidic and hence swelling character does not express qualities consistent with the conception of suitability for tanning purposes: a sample of the product was therefore partly neutralised to the acidity of neradol d, when the shake method of analysis yielded the following figures:-- tanning matters . per cent. soluble non-tannins . " water . " -------------- . per cent. this partly neutralised sulphonic acid represents a white, pasty mass, which is not particularly easily soluble in water, yielding a solution of milky appearance. treated with the usual tannin reagents, it exhibits the following characteristics:-- gelatine light flocculent precipitate. bromine water compete fixation. ferric chloride cherry-red coloration. lead acetate very slight percipitate, insoluble hno_ . aniline hydrochlonde slight percipitate. solutions of this product in concentrations from °- ° bé. exerted no tanning action whatever, whereas more concentrated solutions ( ° bé.) converted pelt in eight days into a leather very similar to a neradol d leather in colour and feel, but considerably harder. in order to determine its phlobaphene-solubilising effects, samplesof the product were mixed with concentrated quebracho extract in the proportions , , , and per cent. on the weight of extract, and the following observations made:-- and per cent. were without effect, and per cent. showed some solubilising tendency, but on diluting the mixture with water the quebracho was completely thrown out of solution. apparently this anhydride is, in this respect also, quite different from the partly neutralised diphenylmethanedisulphonic acid. . condensation with sulphur chloride when sulphur chloride is allowed to act upon phenolsulphonic acid whilst heat is applied, a yellowish-grey mass results, which dissolves in water, forming a reddish-yellow solution. neutralised to acidity , it exhibits the following reactions:-- gelatine----------------precipitate. ferric chloride---------deep blue coloration. lead acetate------------white precipitate, insoluble hno_ . aniline hydrochloride---precipitate. bromine water-----------no reaction. the partly neutralised ° bé. solution of this product yielded a reddish-grey coloured leather, the qualities of which were very similar to that yielded by neradol d. . condensation with phosphorus compounds schiff's well-known synthesis, [footnote: liebig's _ann_., , .] in which phosphorus oxychloride interacts with phenolsulphonic acid, yields a product which exhibits some tannin reactions, but which, when acting on pelt, converts the latter into a leather which, when dried, is very cracky. if, on the other hand, cresolsulphonic acid is condensed with phosphorus oxychloride by heating the two together, products eminently suitable for tanning purposes result. these products are non-crystalline bodies easily soluble in water, and are coloured bluish-violet by ferric chloride and precipitate gelatine. solutions of the free acids and acidified solutions of the salts convert pelt into firm and white leathers possessing great softness and pliability.[footnote: austr. pat, , .] . condensation with aldehydes by treating phenolsulphonic acid with acetaldehyde in the usual way, a viscous brown mass is obtained, which is very soluble in water, the solution being of a brown colour. when brought to acidity , the following reactions are exhibited by the product:-- gelatine - - - precipitate. ferric chloride - - deep blue coloration. aqueous ammonia - - cherry-red coloration. lead acetate - - - yellowish precipitate, insoluble hno_ . aniline hydrochloride - - yellow precipitate, soluble excess aniline. bromine water- - - no reaction. tanning experiments with this substance yielded, even after extended tannage, an undertanned leather, the surfaces being coloured brown, the inner layers, however, white. further neutralisation reduces the tanning intensity of the product; the addition of sodium sulphate to the original partly neutralised product hastened tannage, the leather, however, possessing dark colour and being undertanned. the following constitution may be ascribed to this product:-- oh oh ^ ---ch_ ---ch_ --- ^ | | | | | | | | v v hso_ hso_ if benzaldehyde is used in lieu of acetaldehyde for condensing phenolsulphonic acid, a water-soluble product results, exhibiting reactions similar to those of the acetaldehyde-condensation product. the former product is more suitable as a tanning agent and yields a reddish-brown rather firm and hard leather; it possesses the constitution-- h oh || oh ^ ____c____ ^ | | ^ | | | | | | | | v | | v hso_ v hso_ for the purpose of condensing phenol with formaldehyde, it is not essential to first convert the phenol into the water-soluble phenolsulphonic acid, since it is possible to convert the condensation products of phenol and its derivatives, which are soluble in alkali, into water-soluble form by either heating the condensation products with concentrated solutions of formaldehyde and neutral sulphites, or by dissolving the condensation products in alkali and inducing reaction by means of formaldehyde bisulphite. [footnote: _collegium_, , , .] highly concentrated solutions result, which may be concentrated either as such or after the alkali present has been neutralised. the sulphurous acid formed prevents oxidation of the product on evaporation. a special advantage of this method of preparation is the fact that sulphuric acid, which is but difficultly removed from the end-product, is not employed at all. the product thus obtained is a yellowish-white crumbly mass, which is very soluble in water, forming a clear solution. the latter exhibits the following reactions:-- gelatine---------------precipitate. ferric chloride--------deep blue coloration. aqueous ammonia--------cherry-red coloration. lead acetate-----------white precipitate, insoluble in hno_ . aniline hydrochloride--precipitate. bromine water----------no reaction. the product brought to acidity , yielded on analysis the following figures:-- tanning matters------------------ . per cent. soluble non-tannins-------------- . " insolubles----------------------- . " water---------------------------- . " ------------- . per cent. tanning experiments with this substance yielded white and soft leathers, which were indistinguishable from those tanned with neradol d. a characteristic feature of this synthetic tannin is its behaviour in concentrated form towards pelt, which is not attacked by it, but is readily tanned even at such high concentrations. an explanation of this is to be found in the large quantity of salts present in the product. a disadvantage of this synthetic tannin is its complete incapability of dissolving phlobaphenes, which is even so far extended as to precipitate otherwise easily soluble tannins when adding it to solutions of the latter in comparatively large proportions; here, again, the salts are responsible for this behaviour, their large quantities effecting a salting out of the natural tannins. the class of aldehyde condensations also comprises that of inducing condensation by means of sugars; if phenolsulphonic acid is heated with glucose, a reddish-brown liquid results, which is soluble in water. the solution exhibits reactions similar to those of neradol d. it is, however, not possible, by this method of condensation, to prepare as highly concentrated products as is possible in the case of neradol d, since employing sugars as condensation agents means liberation of a large volume of water. analysis of this product, using the shake method, gives a tannin content of . per cent; tanning experiments demonstrated that the time of tannage, using a ° bé. solution, was the same as that required by neradol d, and yielded a leather, the surface of which was reddish-grey, the inner layers being white, but which is otherwise very similar to neradol d tanned leather. [footnote: austr. pat, , , , , , .] relatively to its capability of solubilising phlobaphenes, this product exhibits similar properties to that obtained by merely heating phenolsulphonic acid, to a slight extent only solubilising quebracho extract, which, on diluting the mixture, is completely thrown out of solution. . condensation with glycerol phenolsulphonic acid, when heated with glycerol, undergoes the process of condensation, and forms a brown fluid, which, when brought to acidity , exhibits the following reactions:-- gelatine-----------------precipitate. ferric chloride----------brown-black coloration. lead acetate-------------white precipitate, insoluble in hno_ . aniline hydrochloride----slight precipitate. tanning experiments with this partly neutralised product resulted in a very gradual conversion of the pelt into a greenish-grey coloured leather; the colour, however, does not penetrate the pelt and is hence caused by colloidally suspended impurities. if the solution is filtered through a filter candle, a somewhat clearer solution results, but the latter also tans very slowly and yields a brown coloured leather. analysis of the partly neutralised product reveals a tannin content of . per cent. a ° bé. solution of the non-neutralised product showed a rapid tanning effect at first, when brought into contact with pelt, on which it had a strong swelling effect, and to which it imparted a greenish colour; the tanning effect, however, slowed down considerably, after a few days, and the solution penetrated the pelt only very gradually; this is probably due to the presence of large quantities of colloidally suspended impurities, which, when the substance is partly neutralised with the formation of salts of the sulphonic acids, are brought into true solution and hence penetrate the pelt with greater rapidity. index of authors adler appelius ashmore bader badische anilin u.(german abbreviation for "und") soda-fabrik baekeland baeyer berzelius biginelli boehringer & sons bottinger braconnot buff caro chem. fabrik jucker & co. chevreul dekker deutsch-koloniale gerb u. farbstoff gesellschaft deyeux dizé drabble edner elberfelder farbenfabriken fahrion feist fischer, e. freudenberg froda gerhardt gesellschaft f.(german abbreviation for "für") chem. industrie, basle graebe graham grasser hatchett heinemann herzig herzog hönig iljin immerheiser jennings kahl kauschke klepl könig kostanecki krafft krauss kunzemüller lauffmann liebig lipp lloyd löwe manning mauthner meunier michael mielke mitscherlich nierenstein paessler paternò payne pelouze perkin proust rapoport raschig reinsch resch russanow sabanajew sander scheele schiff schmidt schorlemmer seel seyewetz sisley skey stiasny strauss thuau tschirch vogel walden webster weinschenk wohl zacharias a alcohol figure algarobilla alizarin alizarin yellow, in paste alkalies, reaction of, to neradol d alum-neradol tannage alum tannage aminobenzene aminophenol, _p_- aniline dyes anthracene anthraquinone arylsulphaminoarylsulphonic acids arylsulphoxyarylsulpho acids b bakelite bakelite solution benzoylamino -chloranthraquinone benzylsulphanilate sodium bismuth salts bleaching method for leather with neradol d bloom bromo-[greek: b]-naphthol bromonitrophenol bromophloroglucinol bromosalicylic acid bromotrinitrophenol c carbazole carbomethoxyhydroxybenzoic acid, carbomethoxyhydroxybenzoic acid chloride, catechine catechol cerium salts ceruleoellagic acid cesium salts chestnut wood extract chloronaphthalenesulphonic acid chlorophenol chrome-neradol d tannage chrome salts chrome tannage coal, bituminous coffee tannin combination tannage with ordoval combination tannage with neradol d condensation by heat condensation methods condensation with aldehydes condensation with glycerol condensation with phosphorus compounds condensation with sulphur chloride copper salts corinal cresol cresol-_p_-sulphonic acid, _o_- cresolsulphonic acid cresotinic acid d depsides detannisation with hide powder diaminoanthraquinone diaminonaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid dianilinoquinone dibenzopyrrol di-[greek: b]-oxynaphthoic di-[greek: b]-resorcylic acid dichloranthraquinone dichloronaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid dicresylmethanedisulphonic acid purified electro-osmotically dicresylmethane sulphonate sodium didepsides didymium salts diferulic acid digallic acid digallic acid, [greek: b]- digallic acid, inactive digallic acid, _m_- digalloylleucodigallic acid anhydride digentisinic acid dihydric alcohols, aromatic dihydroxybenzene, _m_- dihydroxybenzene, _o_- dihydroxybenzene, _p_- dihydroxybenzenes dimethylaniline dimethylellagic acid di-_m_-oxybenzoic acid dinaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid dinitronaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid di-_o_-cumaric acid diorsellic acid, _o_- diorsellic acid, _p_- dioxyellagic acid dioxynaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid dioxytoluic acid diphenylmethane diphenylmethanedisulphonic acid di-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid diprotocatechuic acid disalicylic acid disyringic acid dithionaphthylmethanedisulphonic acid dividivi dividivi tannin dixylylmethanedisulphonic acid e electro-chemical behaviour of neradol d electro-osmosis of neradol d ellagic acid ellagitannic acid empirical formula of tannin erythrine esco-extract ester formula of tannin ethyl acetate figure f fat-neradol d tannage feruloyl-_p_-oxybenzoic acid flavellagic acid fluorene formaldehyde formaldehyde tannage g g-acid gallate ethyl gallic acid galloflavine galloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid galls, oak gall tannin generator tar guaiacol h halogens hepta-[tribenzoyl-galloyl]-_p_-iodophenylmaltosazone hexahydroxyaurinecarboxylic acid hexoxyanthraquinone hexoxydiphenyl hexoxydiphenyldicarboxylic acid hexoxydiphenylmethanedicarboxylic acid humic acid hydrolysis of tannins hydroquinone hydroxybenzoate sodium, _m_- hydroxybenzoate sodium, _p_- hydroxybenzoic acid, _p_- hydroxybenzoic acid hydroxy-cymenes i indophenol reaction iron, reaction of, to neradol d iron salts k ketone formula of tannin l lanthanum salts lead salts leather analysis in presence of neradol d lecanoric acid leucodigallic acid leucoellagic acid leucotannin lignite luteic acid m malletto tannin mangrove tannin melangallic acid mercury salts metellagic acid methylamino- -bromanthraquinone methylenedinaphthol methylenedisalicylic acid methylenedisalicylic acid, brominated methylenedisalicylic acid, iodised methylisopropylphenanthrene methylotannin molybdenum figure monochloro-_p_-dihydroxybenzene mud myrabolams myrabolams, tannin n naphthalenesulphonic acid, [greek: b]- naphthol, [greek: a]- naphthol, [greek: b]- naphthol-[greek: a]-methanesulphonic acid naphtholdisulphonic acid naphtholmonosulphonic acid naphtholsulphonic acid, [greek: a]- naphtholsulphonic acid, [greek: b]- neodymium salts neradol d neradol d tannin neradol n neradol nd neradol nd, neutral nitronaphthalenesulphonic acid nitrophenol, _o_- nitrosodimethylaniline non-tannins novolak o oak bark oak bark tannin official method of tannin analysis orcinol ordoval g orsellic acid orsellinoyl-_p_-oxybenzoic acid oxyanthraquinone oxyazo reaction oxybenzoyl-_m_-hydroxybenzoic acid oxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid, _m_- oxybenzoylsyringic acid oxynaphthoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid, _a_- oxynaphthylmethanesulphonic acid oxyphenylmethanesulphonic acid oxyquinoline p patents-- _austrian_ , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , _german_ , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , ; , _swiss_ , ; , ; , _u.s.a._ , , peat pelts pelts, action on, of neradol d penta-[_p_-hydroxybenzoyl] glucose, penta-[_p_-methyl-_m_-digalloyl]-glucose penta-[pyrogalloylcarboyl]-glucose pentacetylleucotannin pentacetyl-_m_-digallic acid pentacetyl tannin pentadigalloylglucose pentagalloylglucose pentagalloylglucoside pentamethyldigallic acid, methyl ester pentamethyl-_m_-digalloyl chloride, pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid pentamethyl-_m_-digallic acid methyl ester pentamethyl-_p_-digallic acid pentamethyl-_p_-digallic acid methyl ester pentamethoxybiphenylmethylolide carboxylic acid methyl ester pentoxybiphenylmethylolide pentoxybiphenylmethylolide carboxylic acid phenanthraquinone phenolsulphonate sodium phenolsulphonic acid phenolsulphonic acid anhydride phenol, tautomeric phenylcarboxylic acid phenylhydrazine derivatives of tannin phenylhydrazine ellagic acid phlobaphene phlobaphene-solubilising action of neradols phloroglucinol phthalic acid pickling picric acid platinum salts polydepsides polydigalloylleucodigallic acid anhydride polyhydroxybenzenes pomegranate preparation of tannin infusion properties of leather tanned with neradol protocatechuic acid protocatechuyl-_p_-hydroxybemoic acid pseudo-tannage purpuro tannin pyrogallol pyrogallic acid pyrogalloylcarboyl-_p_-oxybenzoic acid pyruvic acid q quinazarene quinoline quinone r r-acid reaction, procter-hirst reagents for neradol d tannage resites resitol resols resorcinol resorcylic acid, [greek: b]- retene rosins, acid rosolic acid rufigallic acid s s-acid salicylic acid salicylic acid phenyl ester salicyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid salol silver oxide solution salt solvenol structure of tannin sulphinic acid sulphite cellulose extract sulphite lye sulphonamide sulphonic acids, aromatic sulphonic chloride sulphur sulphur tannage sulphuric acid-free neradol d sulphuric acid in leather syringoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid t tannin tannin action, real tannin analysis tanning matters tannin molecule tannin, pure tannophor test tannage tetradepsides tetragalloyl-[greek: a]-methylglucoside tetramethylellagic acid tetroxydiphenyldimethylolide thionaphtholsulphonic acid thiosulphonic acid thorium salts thymol toluidoanthraquinone, l-_m_- total solids total solubles tribromophenol tribromopyrogallic acid tricarbomethoxygalloyl chloride tridepside trihydroxybenzenes trinitrophenol triphenylmethane v valonea vanadium salts vanillic acid vanilloyl-di-_p_-oxybenzoyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid vanilloyl-_p_-hydroxybenzoic acid vanilloyl vanillin x xanthenes z zinc salts zirconium salts seasoning of wood a treatise on the natural and artificial processes employed in the preparation of lumber for manufacture, with detailed explanations of its uses, characteristics and properties _illustrations_ by joseph b. wagner author of "cooperage" [illustration] new york d. van nostrand company park place copyright, , by d. van nostrand company the·plimpton·press norwood·mass·u·s·a preface the seasoning and kiln-drying of wood is such an important process in the manufacture of woods that a need for fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific study of the behavior of various species at different mechanical temperatures, and under different drying processes is keenly felt. everyone connected with the woodworking industry, or its use in manufactured products, is well aware of the difficulties encountered in properly seasoning or removing the moisture content without injury to the timber, and of its susceptibility to atmospheric conditions after it has been thoroughly seasoned. there is perhaps no material or substance that gives up its moisture with more resistance than wood does. it vigorously defies the efforts of human ingenuity to take away from it, without injury or destruction, that with which nature has so generously supplied it. in the past but little has been known of this matter further than the fact that wood contained moisture which had to be removed before the wood could be made use of for commercial purposes. within recent years, however, considerable interest has been awakened among wood-users in the operation of kiln-drying. the losses occasioned in air-drying and improper kiln-drying, and the necessity for getting the material dry as quickly as possible after it has come from the saw, in order to prepare it for manufacturing purposes, are bringing about a realization of the importance of a technical knowledge of the subject. since this particular subject has never before been represented by any technical work, and appears to have been neglected, it is hoped that the trade will appreciate the endeavor in bringing this book before them, as well as the difficulties encountered in compiling it, as it is the first of its kind in existence. the author trusts that his efforts will present some information that may be applied with advantage, or serve at least as a matter of consideration or investigation. in every case the aim has been to give the facts, and wherever a machine or appliance has been illustrated or commented upon, or the name of the maker has been mentioned, it has not been with the intention either of recommending or disparaging his or their work, but has been made use of merely to illustrate the text. the preparation of the following pages has been a work of pleasure to the author. if they prove beneficial and of service to his fellow-workmen he will have been amply repaid. the author. september, contents section i timber pages characteristics and properties of same--structure of wood--properties of wood--classes of trees - section ii coniferous trees wood of coniferous trees--bark and pith--sapwood and heartwood--the annual or yearly ring--spring- and summer-wood--anatomical structure--list of important coniferous trees - section iii broad-leaved trees wood of broad-leaved trees--minute structure--list of most important broad-leaved trees--red gum--range of red gum--form of red gum--tolerance of red gum--its demands upon soil and moisture--reproduction of red gum--second-growth red gum--tupelo gum--uses of tupelo gum--range of tupelo gum - section iv grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood different grains of wood--color and odor of wood--weight of wood--weight of kiln-dried wood of different species--figure in wood - section v enemies of wood general remarks--ambrosia or timber beetles--round-headed borers--flat-headed borers--timber worms--powder post borers--conditions favorable for insect injury--crude products--round timber with bark on--how to prevent injury--saplings--stave, heading, and shingle bolts--unseasoned products in the rough--seasoned products in the rough--dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops--staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids - section vi water in wood distribution of water in wood--seasonal distribution of water in wood--composition of sap--effects of moisture on wood--the fibre-saturation point in wood - section vii what seasoning is what seasoning is--difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood--manner of evaporation of water--absorption of water by dry wood--rapidity of evaporation--physical properties that influence drying - section viii advantages of seasoning advantages of seasoning--prevention of checking and splitting--shrinkage of wood--expansion of wood--elimination of stain and mildew - section ix difficulties of drying wood difficulties of drying wood--changes rendering drying difficult--losses due to improper kiln-drying--properties of wood that effect drying--unsolved problems in kiln-drying - section x how wood is seasoned methods of drying--drying at atmospheric pressure--drying under pressure and vacuum--impregnation methods--preliminary treatments--out-of-door seasoning - section xi kiln-drying of wood advantages of kiln-drying over air drying--physical conditions governing the drying of wood--theory of kiln-drying--requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln--kiln-drying--remarks--underlying principles--objects of kiln-drying--conditions of success--different treatments according to kind--temperature depends--air circulation--humidity--kiln-drying--pounds of water lost in drying pounds of green wood in the kiln--kiln-drying gum--preliminary steaming--final steaming--kiln-drying of green red gum - section xii types of dry kilns different types of dry kilns--the "blower" or "hot blast" dry kiln--operating the "blower" or "hot blast" dry kiln--the "pipe" or "moist-air" dry kiln--operating the "pipe" or "moist-air" dry kiln--choice of drying method--kilns of different types--the "progressive" dry kiln--the "apartment" dry kiln--the "pocket" dry kiln--the "tower" dry kiln--the "box" dry kiln - section xiii dry kiln specialties kiln cars and method of loading same--the "cross-wise" piling method--the "end-wise" piling method--the "edge-wise" piling method--the automatic lumber stacker--the unstacker car--stave piling--shingle piling--stave bolt trucks--different types of kiln cars--different types of transfer cars--dry kiln doors--different types of kiln door carriers - section xiv helpful appliances in kiln drying the humidity diagram--examples of use--the hygrodeik--the recording hygrometer--the registering hygrometer--the recording thermometer--the registering thermometer--the recording steam gauge--the troemroid scalometer--test samples--weighing--examples of use--records of moisture content--saw mills--factories--the electric heater - section xv bibliography--glossary--index of latin names--index of common names - list of illustrations fig. page . board of pine . wood of spruce . group of fibres from pine wood . block of oak . board of oak . cross-section of oak highly magnified . highly magnified fibres of wood . isolated fibres and cells of wood . cross-section of basswood . a large red gum . a tupelo gum slough . second growth red gum . a cypress slough in dry season . a large cottonwood . spiral grain in wood . alternating spiral grain in cypress . wavy grain in beech . section of wood showing position of the grain at base of limb . cross-section of a group of wood fibres . isolated fibres of wood . orientation of wood samples . work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar . work of ambrosia beetles in oak . work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine . work of timber worms in oak . work of powder post borers in hickory poles . work of powder post borers in hickory poles . work of powder post borers in hickory handles . work of round-headed borers in white pine staves . u. s. forest service humidity controlled dry kiln . section through moist-air dry kiln . live steam single pipe heating apparatus . live steam double pipe heating apparatus . vertical pipe heating apparatus . progressive dry kilns . apartment dry kilns . pocket dry kilns . tower dry kiln . box dry kiln . edge-wise method of piling . edge-wise method of piling . automatic lumber stacker . automatic lumber stacker . battery of three automatic lumber stackers . battery of three automatic lumber stackers . lumber loaded edge-wise on kiln truck . the lumber unstacker . the lumber unstacker car . method of piling veneer on edge . kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln . kiln truck loaded cross-wise of kiln . kiln truck loaded end-wise of kiln . kiln truck loaded end-wise of kiln . method of piling staves on kiln truck . method of piling staves on kiln truck . method of piling tub or pail staves on kiln truck . method of piling bundled staves on kiln truck . method of piling shingles on kiln truck . method of piling shingles on kiln truck . method of piling shingles on kiln truck . kiln truck designed for loose pail staves . kiln truck designed for handling short stock . stave bolt truck . stave bolt truck . stave bolt truck . stave bolt truck . stave bolt truck . stave bolt truck . regular -rail transfer car . regular -rail transfer car . special -rail transfer car . regular -rail transfer car . regular -rail transfer car . underslung type -rail transfer car . underslung type -rail transfer car . flexible type -rail transfer car . regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks . regular transfer car for stave bolt trucks . special transfer car for stave bolt trucks . regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling . regular channel iron kiln truck for cross-wise piling . regular channel iron kiln truck for end-wise piling . special channel iron kiln truck for end-wise piling . regular dolly kiln truck for end-wise piling . asbestos-lined kiln door . twin door carrier with door loaded . twin door carrier for doors to feet wide . kiln door carrier . kiln door construction . kiln door construction . kiln door construction . kiln door construction . the humidity diagram _facing_ . the hygrodeik . the recording hygrometer . the registering hygrometer . the recording thermometer . the registering thermometer . the recording steam gauge . the troemroid scalometer . the electric heater seasoning of wood section i timber characteristics and properties timber was probably one of the earliest, if not the earliest, of materials used by man for constructional purposes. with it he built for himself a shelter from the elements; it provided him with fuel and oft-times food, and the tree cut down and let across a stream formed the first bridge. from it, too, he made his "dug-out" to travel along and across the rivers of the district in which he dwelt; so on down through the ages, for shipbuilding and constructive purposes, timber has continued to our own time to be one of the most largely used of nature's products. although wood has been in use so long and so universally, there still exists a remarkable lack of knowledge regarding its nature, not only among ordinary workmen, but among those who might be expected to know its properties. consequently it is often used in a faulty and wasteful manner. experience has been almost the only teacher, and theories--sometimes right, sometimes wrong--rather than well substantiated facts, lead the workman. one reason for this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material, but a complicated structure, and so variable, that one piece will behave very differently from another, although cut from the same tree. not only does the wood of one species differ from that of another, but the butt cut differs from that of the top log, the heartwood from the sapwood; the wood of quickly-grown sapling of the abandoned field, from that of the slowly-grown, old monarch of the forest. even the manner in which the tree was cut and kept influences its behavior and quality. it is therefore extremely difficult to study the material for the purpose of establishing general laws. the experienced woodsman will look for straight-grained, long-fibred woods, with the absence of disturbing resinous and coloring matter, knots, etc., and will quickly distinguish the more porous red or black oaks from the less porous white species, _quercus alba_. that the inspection should have regard to defects and unhealthy conditions (often indicated by color) goes without saying, and such inspection is usually practised. that knots, even the smallest, are defects, which for some uses condemn the material entirely, need hardly be mentioned. but that "season-checks," even those that have closed by subsequent shrinkage, remain elements of weakness is not so readily appreciated; yet there cannot be any doubt of this, since these, the intimate connections of the wood fibres, when once interrupted are never reestablished. careful woods-foremen and manufacturers, therefore, are concerned as to the manner in which their timber is treated after the felling, for, according to the more or less careful seasoning of it, the season checks--not altogether avoidable--are more or less abundant. there is no country where wood is more lavishly used or criminally neglected than in the united states, and none in which nature has more bountifully provided for all reasonable requirements. in the absence of proper efforts to secure reproduction, the most valuable kinds are rapidly being decimated, and the necessity of a more rational and careful use of what remains is clearly apparent. by greater care in selection, however, not only will the duration of the supply be extended, but more satisfactory results will accrue from its practice. there are few more extensive and wide-reaching subjects on which to treat than timber, which in this book refers to dead timber--the timber of commerce--as distinct from the living tree. such a great number of different kinds of wood are now being brought from various parts of the world, so many new kinds are continually being added, and the subject is more difficult to explain because timber of practically the same character which comes from different localities goes under different names, that if one were always to adhere to the botanical name there would be less confusion, although even botanists differ in some cases as to names. except in the cases of the older and better known timbers, one rarely takes up two books dealing with timber and finds the botanical names the same; moreover, trees of the same species may produce a much poorer quality of timber when obtained from different localities in the same country, so that botanical knowledge will not always allow us to dispense with other tests. the structure of wood affords the only reliable means of distinguishing the different kinds. color, weight, smell, and other appearances, which are often direct or indirect results of structure, may be helpful in this distinction, but cannot be relied upon entirely. furthermore, structure underlies nearly all the technical properties of this important product, and furnishes an explanation why one piece differs in these properties from another. structure explains why oak is heavier, stronger, and tougher than pine; why it is harder to saw and plane, and why it is so much more difficult to season without injury. from its less porous structure alone it is evident that a piece of young and thrifty oak is stronger than the porous wood of an old or stunted tree, or that a georgia or long-leaf pine excels white pine in weight and strength. keeping especially in mind the arrangement and direction of the fibres of wood, it is clear at once why knots and "cross-grain" interfere with the strength of timber. it is due to the structural peculiarities that "honeycombing" occurs in rapid seasoning, that checks or cracks extend radially and follow pith rays, that tangent or "bastard" cut stock shrinks and warps more than that which is quarter-sawn. these same peculiarities enable oak to take a better finish than basswood or coarse-grained pine. structure of wood the softwoods are made up chiefly of tracheids, or vertical cells closed at the ends, and of the relatively short parenchyma cells of the medullary rays which extend radially from the heart of the tree. the course of the tracheids and the rays are at right angles to each other. although the tracheids have their permeable portions or pits in their walls, liquids cannot pass through them with the greatest ease. the softwoods do not contain "pores" or vessels and are therefore called "non-porous" woods. the hardwoods are not so simple in structure as softwoods. they contain not only rays, and in many cases tracheids, but also thick-walled cells called fibres and wood parenchyma for the storage of such foods as starches and sugars. the principal structural features of the hardwoods are the pores or vessels. these are long tubes, the segments of which are made up of cells which have lost their end walls and joined end to end, forming continuous "pipe lines" from the roots to the leaves in the tree. since they possess pores or vessels, the hardwoods are called "porous" woods. red oak is an excellent example of a porous wood. in white oak the vessels of the heartwood especially are closed, very generally by ingrowths called tyloses. this probably explains why red oak dries more easily and rapidly than white oak. the red and black gums are perhaps the simplest of the hardwoods in structure. they are termed "diffuse porous" woods because of the numerous scattered pores they contain. they have only vessels, wood fibres, and a few parenchyma cells. the medullary rays, although present, are scarcely visible in most instances. the vessels are in many cases open, and might be expected to offer relatively little resistance to drying. properties of wood certain general properties of wood may be discussed briefly. we know that wood substance has the property of taking in moisture from the air until some balance is reached between the humidity of the air and the moisture in the wood. this moisture which goes into the cell walls hygroscopic moisture, and the property which the wood substance has of taking on hygroscopic moisture is termed hygroscopicity. usually wood contains not only hygroscopic moisture but also more or less free water in the cell cavities. especially is this true of sapwood. the free water usually dries out quite rapidly with little or no shrinkage or other physical change. in certain woods--for example, _eucalyptus globulus_ and possibly some oaks--shrinkage begins almost at once, thus introducing a factor at the very start of the seasoning process which makes these woods very refractory. the cell walls of some species, including the two already mentioned, such as western red cedar and redwood, become soft and plastic when hot and moist. if the fibres are hot enough and very wet, they are not strong enough to withstand the resulting force of the atmospheric pressure and the tensile force exerted by the departing free water, and the result is that the cells actually collapse. in general, however, the hygroscopic moisture necessary to saturate the cell walls is termed the "fibre saturation point." this amount has been found to be from to per cent of the dry wood weight. unlike _eucalyptus globulus_ and certain oaks, the gums do not begin to shrink until the moisture content has been reduced to about per cent of the dry wood weight. these woods are not subject to collapse, although their fibres become very plastic while hot and moist. upon the peculiar properties of each wood depends the difficulty or ease of the seasoning process. classes of trees the timber of the united states is furnished by three well-defined classes of trees: ( ) the needle-leaved, naked-seeded conifers, such as pine, cedar, etc., ( ) the broad-leaved trees such as oak poplar, etc., and ( ) to an inferior extent by the (one-seed leaf) palms, yuccas, and their allies, which are confined to the most southern parts of the country. broad-leaved trees are also known as deciduous trees, although, especially in warm countries, many of them are evergreen, while the needle-leaved trees (conifers) are commonly termed "evergreens," although the larch, bald cypress, and others shed their leaves every fall, and even the names "broad-leaved" and "coniferous," though perhaps the most satisfactory, are not at all exact, for the conifer "ginkgo" has broad leaves and bears no cones. among the woodsmen, the woods of broad-leaved trees are known as "hardwoods," though poplar is as soft as pine, and the "coniferous woods" are known as "softwoods," notwithstanding the fact that yew ranks high in hardness even when compared with "hardwoods." both in the number of different kinds of trees or species and still more in the importance of their product, the conifers and broad-leaved trees far excel the palms and their relatives. in the manner of their growth both the conifers and broad-leaved trees behave alike, adding each year a new layer of wood, which covers the old wood in all parts of the stem and limbs. thus the trunk continues to grow in thickness throughout the life of the tree by additions (annual rings), which in temperate climates are, barring accidents, accurate records of the tree. with the palms and their relatives the stem remains generally of the same diameter, the tree of a hundred years old being as thick as it was at ten years, the growth of these being only at the top. even where a peripheral increase takes place, as in the yuccas, the wood is not laid on in well-defined layers for the structure remains irregular throughout. though alike in the manner of their growth, and therefore similar in their general make-up, conifers and broad-leaved trees differ markedly in the details of their structure and the character of their wood. the wood of all conifers is very simple in its structure, the fibres composing the main part of the wood all being alike and their arrangement regular. the wood of the broad-leaved trees is complex in structure; it is made up of different kinds of cells and fibres and lacks the regularity of arrangement so noticeable in the conifers. this difference is so great that in a study of wood structure it is best to consider the two kinds separately. in this country the great variety of woods, and especially of useful woods, often makes the mere distinction of the kind or species of tree most difficult. thus there are at least eight pines of the thirty-five native ones in the market, some of which so closely resemble each other in their minute structure that one can hardly tell them apart, and yet they differ in quality and are often mixed or confounded in the trade. of the thirty-six oaks, of which probably not less than six or eight are marketed, we can readily recognize by means of their minute anatomy at least two tribes--the white and black oaks. the same is true of the eleven kinds of hickory, the six kinds of ash, etc., etc. the list of names of all trees indigenous to the united states, as enumerated by the united states forest service, is in number, the designation of "tree" being applied to all woody plants which produce naturally in their native habitat one main, erect stem, bearing a definite crown, no matter what size they attain. timber is produced only by the spermatophyta, or seed-bearing plants, which are subdivided into the gymnosperms (conifers), and angiosperms (broad-leaved). the conifer or cone-bearing tree, to which belong the pines, larches, and firs, is one of the three natural orders of gymnosperms. these are generally classed as "softwoods," and are more extensively scattered and more generally used than any other class of timber, and are simple and regular in structure. the so-called "hardwoods" are "dicotyledons" or broad-leaved trees, a subdivision of the angiosperms. they are generally of slower growth, and produce harder timber than the conifers, but not necessarily so. basswood, poplar, sycamore, and some of the gums, though classed with the hardwoods, are not nearly as hard as some of the pines. section ii coniferous trees wood of the coniferous trees examining a smooth cross-section or end face of a well-grown log of georgia pine, we distinguish an envelope of reddish, scaly bark, a small, whitish pith at the center, and between these the wood in a great number of concentric rings. bark and pith the bark of a pine stem is thickest and roughest near the base, decreases rapidly in thickness from one to one-half inches at the stump to one-tenth inch near the top of the tree, and forms in general about ten to fifteen per cent of the entire trunk. the pith is quite thick, usually one-eighth to one-fifth inch in southern species, though much less so in white pine, and is very thin, one-fifteenth to one twenty-fifth inch in cypress, cedar, and larch. in woods with a thick pith, the pith is finest at the stump, grows rapidly thicker toward the top, and becomes thinner again in the crown and limbs, the first one to five rings adjoining it behaving similarly. what is called the pith was once the seedling tree, and in many of the pines and firs, especially after they have been seasoning for a good while, this is distinctly noticeable in the center of the log, and detaches itself from the surrounding wood. sap and heartwood wood is composed of duramen or heartwood, and alburnum or sapwood, and when dry consists approximately of per cent by weight of carbon, per cent of hydrogen, per cent of oxygen, and per cent of ash, which is fairly uniform for all species. the sapwood is the external and youngest portion of the tree, and often constitutes a very considerable proportion of it. it lies next the bark, and after a course of years, sometimes many, as in the case of oaks, sometimes few, as in the case of firs, it becomes hardened and ultimately forms the duramen or heartwood. sapwood is generally of a white or light color, almost invariably lighter in color than the heartwood, and is very conspicuous in the darker-colored woods, as for instance the yellow sapwood of mahogany and similiar colored woods, and the reddish brown heartwood; or the yellow sapwood of _lignum-vitae_ and the dark green heartwood. sapwood forms a much larger proportion of some trees than others, but being on the outer circumference it always forms a large proportion of the timber, and even in sound, hard pine will be from per cent to per cent of the tree and in some cases much more. it is really imperfect wood, while the duramen or heartwood is the perfect wood; the heartwood of the mature tree was the sapwood of its earlier years. young trees when cut down are almost all sapwood, and practically useless as good, sound timber; it is, however, through the sapwood that the life-giving juices which sustain the tree arise from the soil, and if the sapwood be cut through, as is done when "girdling," the tree quickly dies, as it can derive no further nourishment from the soil. although absolutely necessary to the growing tree, sapwood is often objectionable to the user, as it is the first part to decay. in this sapwood many cells are active, store up starch, and otherwise assist in the life processes of the tree, although only the last or outer layer of cells forms the growing part, and the true life of the tree. the duramen or heartwood is the inner, darker part of the log. in the heartwood all the cells are lifeless cases, and serve only the mechanical function of keeping the tree from breaking under its own great weight or from being laid low by the winds. the darker color of the heartwood is due to infiltration of chemical substances into the cell walls, but the cavities of the cells in pine are not filled up, as is sometimes believed, nor do their walls grow thicker, nor are the walls any more liquified than in the sapwood. sapwood varies in width and in the number of rings which it contains even in different parts of the same tree. the same year's growth which is sapwood in one part of a disk may be heartwood in another. sapwood is widest in the main part of the stem and often varies within considerable limits and without apparent regularity. generally, it becomes narrower toward the top and in the limbs, its width varying with the diameter, and being the least in a given disk on the side which has the shortest radius. sapwood of old and stunted pines is composed of more rings than that of young and thrifty specimens. thus in a pine two hundred and fifty years old a layer of wood or an annual ring does not change from sapwood to heartwood until seventy or eighty years after it is formed, while in a tree one hundred years old or less it remains sapwood only from thirty to sixty years. the width of the sapwood varies considerably for different kinds of pine. it is small for long-leaf and white pine and great for loblolly and norway pines. occupying the peripheral part of the trunk, the proportion which it forms of the entire mass of the stem is always great. thus even in old long-leaf pines, the sapwood forms per cent of the merchantable log, while in the loblolly and in all young trees the sapwood forms the bulk of the wood. the annual or yearly rings the concentric annual or yearly rings which appear on the end face of a log are cross-sections of so many thin layers of wood. each such layer forms an envelope around its inner neighbor, and is in turn covered by the adjoining layer without, so that the whole stem is built up of a series of thin, hollow cylinders, or rather cones. a new layer of wood is formed each season, covering the entire stem, as well as all the living branches. the thickness of this layer or the width of the yearly ring varies greatly in different trees, and also in different parts of the same tree. in a normally-grown, thrifty pine log the rings are widest near the pith, growing more and more narrow toward the bark. thus the central twenty rings in a disk of an old long-leaf pine may each be one-eighth to one-sixth inch wide, while the twenty rings next to the bark may average only one-thirtieth inch. in our forest trees, rings of one-half inch in width occur only near the center in disks of very thrifty trees, of both conifers and hardwoods. one-twelfth inch represents good, thrifty growth, and the minimum width of one two hundred inch is often seen in stunted spruce and pine. the average width of rings in well-grown, old white pine will vary from one-twelfth to one-eighteenth inch, while in the slower growing long-leaf pine it may be one twenty-fifth to one-thirtieth of an inch. the same layer of wood is widest near the stump in very thrifty young trees, especially if grown in the open park; but in old forest trees the same year's growth is wider at the upper part of the tree, being narrowest near the stump, and often also near the very tip of the stem. generally the rings are widest near the center, growing narrower toward the bark. in logs from stunted trees the order is often reversed, the interior rings being thin and the outer rings widest. frequently, too, zones or bands of very narrow rings, representing unfavorable periods of growth, disturb the general regularity. few trees, even among pines, furnish a log with truly circular cross-section. usually it is an oval, and at the stump commonly quite an irregular figure. moreover, even in very regular or circular disks the pith is rarely in the center, and frequently one radius is conspicuously longer than its opposite, the width of some rings, if not all, being greater on one side than on the other. this is nearly always so in the limbs, the lower radius exceeding the upper. in extreme cases, especially in the limbs, a ring is frequently conspicuous on one side, and almost or entirely lost to view on the other. where the rings are extremely narrow, the dark portion of the ring is often wanting, the color being quite uniform and light. the greater regularity or irregularity of the annual rings has much to do with the technical qualities of the timber. spring- and summer-wood examining the rings more closely, it is noticed that each ring is made up of an inner, softer, light-colored and an outer, or peripheral, firmer and darker-colored portion. being formed in the forepart of the season, the inner, light-colored part is termed spring-wood, the outer, darker-portioned being the summer-wood of the ring. since the latter is very heavy and firm it determines to a very large extent the weight and strength of the wood, and as its darker color influences the shade of color of the entire piece of wood, this color effect becomes a valuable aid in distinguishing heavy and strong from light and soft pine wood. in most hard pines, like the long-leaf, the dark summer-wood appears as a distinct band, so that the yearly ring is composed of two sharply defined bands--an inner, the spring-wood, and an outer, the summer-wood. but in some cases, even in hard pines, and normally in the woods of white pines, the spring-wood passes gradually into the darker summer-wood, so that a darkly defined line occurs only where the spring-wood of one ring abuts against the summer-wood of its neighbor. it is this clearly defined line which enables the eye to distinguish even the very narrow lines in old pines and spruces. in some cases, especially in the trunks of southern pines, and normally on the lower side of pine limbs, there occur dark bands of wood in the spring-wood portion of the ring, giving rise to false rings, which mislead in a superficial counting of rings. in the disks cut from limbs these dark bands often occupy the greater part of the ring, and appear as "lunes," or sickle-shaped figures. the wood of these dark bands is similar to that of the true summer-wood. the cells have thick walls, but usually the compressed or flattened form. normally, the summer-wood forms a greater proportion of the rings in the part of the tree formed during the period of thriftiest growth. in an old tree this proportion is very small in the first two to five rings about the pith, and also in the part next to the bark, the intermediate part showing a greater proportion of summer-wood. it is also greatest in a disk taken from near the stump, and decreases upward in the stem, thus fully accounting for the difference in weight and firmness of the wood of these different parts. [illustration: fig. . board of pine. cs, cross-section; rs, radial section; ts, tangential section; _sw_, summer-wood; _spw_, spring-wood.] in the long-leaf pine the summer-wood often forms scarcely ten per cent of the wood in the central five rings; forty to fifty per cent of the next one hundred rings, about thirty per cent of the next fifty, and only about twenty per cent in the fifty rings next to the bark. it averages forty-five per cent of the wood of the stump and only twenty-four per cent of that of the top. sawing the log into boards, the yearly rings are represented on the board faces of the middle board (radial sections) by narrow parallel strips (see fig. ), an inner, lighter stripe and its outer, darker neighbor always corresponding to one annual ring. on the faces of the boards nearest the slab (tangential or bastard boards) the several years' growth should also appear as parallel, but much broader stripes. this they do if the log is short and very perfect. usually a variety of pleasing patterns is displayed on the boards, depending on the position of the saw cut and on the regularity of growth of the log (see fig. ). where the cut passes through a prominence (bump or crook) of the log, irregular, concentric circlets and ovals are produced, and on almost all tangent boards arrow or v-shaped forms occur. anatomical structure holding a well-smoothed disk or cross-section one-eighth inch thick toward the light, it is readily seen that pine wood is a very porous structure. if viewed with a strong magnifier, the little tubes, especially in the spring-wood of the rings, are easily distinguished, and their arrangement in regular, straight, radial rows is apparent. [illustration: fig. . wood of spruce. , natural size; , small part of one ring magnified times. the vertical tubes are wood fibres, in this case all "tracheids." _m_, medullary or pith ray; _n_, transverse tracheids of ray; _a_, _b_, and _c_, bordered pits of the tracheids, more enlarged.] scattered through the summer-wood portion of the rings, numerous irregular grayish dots (the resin ducts) disturb the uniformity and regularity of the structure. magnified one hundred times, a piece of spruce, which is similar to pine, presents a picture like that shown in fig. . only short pieces of the tubes or cells of which the wood is composed are represented in the picture. the total length of these fibres is from one-twentieth to one-fifth inch, being the smallest near the pith, and is fifty to one hundred times as great as their width (see fig. ). they are tapered and closed at their ends, polygonal or rounded and thin-walled, with large cavity, lumen or internal space in the spring-wood, and thick-walled and flattened radially, with the internal space or lumen much reduced in the summer-wood (see right-hand portion of fig. ). this flattening, together with the thicker walls of the cells, which reduces the lumen, causes the greater firmness and darker color of the summer-wood. there is more material in the same volume. as shown in the figure, the tubes, cells or "tracheids" are decorated on their walls by circlet-like structures, the "bordered pits," sections of which are seen more magnified as _a_, _b_, and _c_, fig. . these pits are in the nature of pores, covered by very thin membranes, and serve as waterways between the cells or tracheids. the dark lines on the side of the smaller piece ( , fig. ) appear when magnified (in , fig. ) as tiers of eight to ten rows of cells, which run radially (parallel to the rows of tubes or tracheids), and are seen as bands on the radial face and as rows of pores on the tangential face. these bands or tiers of cell rows are the medullary rays or pith rays, and are common to all our lumber woods. in the pines and other conifers they are quite small, but they can readily be seen even without a magnifier. if a radial surface of split-wood (not smoothed) is examined, the entire radial face will be seen almost covered with these tiny structures, which appear as fine but conspicuous cross-lines. as shown in fig. , the cells of the medullary or pith are smaller and very much shorter than the wood fibre or tracheids, and their long axis is at right angles to that of the fiber. [illustration: fig. . group of fibres from pine wood. partly schematic. the little circles are "border pits" (see fig. , _a-c_). the transverse rows of square pits indicate the places of contact of these fibres and the cells of the neighboring pith rays. magnified about times.] in pines and spruces the cells of the upper and lower rows of each tier or pith ray have "bordered" pits, like those of the wood fibre or tracheids proper, but the cells of the intermediate rows in the rays of cedars, etc., have only "simple" pits, _i.e._, pits devoid of the saucer-like "border" or rim. in pine, many of the pith rays are larger than the majority, each containing a whitish line, the horizontal resin duct, which, though much smaller, resembles the vertical ducts on the cross-section. the larger vertical resin ducts are best observed on removal of the bark from a fresh piece of white pine cut in the winter where they appear as conspicuous white lines, extending often for many inches up and down the stem. neither the horizontal nor the vertical resin ducts are vessels or cells, but are openings between cells, _i.e._, intercellular spaces, in which the resin accumulates, freely oozing out when the ducts of a fresh piece of sapwood are cut. they are present only in our coniferous woods, and even here they are restricted to pine, spruce, and larch, and are normally absent in fir, cedar, cypress, and yew. altogether, the structure of coniferous woods is very simple and regular, the bulk being made up of the small fibres called tracheids, the disturbing elements of pith rays and resin ducts being insignificant, and hence the great uniformity and great technical value of coniferous woods. list of important coniferous woods cedar light soft, stiff, not strong, of fine texture. sap- and heartwood distinct, the former lighter, the latter a dull grayish brown or red. the wood seasons rapidly, shrinks and checks but little, and is very durable in contact with the soil. used like soft pine, but owing to its great durability preferred for shingles, etc. cedars usually occur scattered, but they form in certain localities forests of considerable extent. (_a_) white cedars = . white cedar= (_thuya occidentalis_) (arborvitæ, tree of life). heartwood light yellowish brown, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, not strong, of fine texture, very durable in contact with the soil, very fragrant. scattered along streams and lakes, frequently covering extensive swamps; rarely large enough for lumber, but commonly used for fence posts, rails, railway ties, and shingles. this species has been extensively cultivated as an ornamental tree for at least a century. maine to minnesota and northward. = . canoe cedar= (_thuya gigantea_) (red cedar of the west). in oregon and washington a very large tree, covering extensive swamps; in the mountains much smaller, skirting the water courses. an important lumber tree. the wood takes a fine polish; suitable for interior finishing, as there is much variety of shading in the color. washington to northern california and eastward to montana. = . white cedar= (_chamæcyparis thyoides_). medium-sized tree. heartwood light brown with rose tinge, sapwood paler. wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained, easily worked, very durable in contact with the soil and very fragrant. used in boatbuilding cooperage, interior finish, fence posts, railway ties, etc. along the coast from maine to mississippi. = . white cedar= (_chamæcyparis lawsoniana_) (port orford cedar, oregon cedar, lawson's cypress, ginger pine). a very large tree. a fine, close-grained, yellowish-white, durable timber, elastic, easily worked, free of knots, and fragrant. extensively cut for lumber; heavier and stronger than any of the preceding. along the coast line of oregon. = . white cedar= (_libocedrus decurrens_) (incense cedar). a large tree, abundantly scattered among pine and fir. wood fine-grained. cascades and sierra nevada mountains of oregon and california. = . yellow cedar= (_cupressus nootkatensis_) (alaska cedar, alaska cypress). a very large tree, much used for panelling and furniture. a fine, close-grained, yellowish white, durable timber, easily worked. along the coast line of oregon north. (_b_) red cedars = . red cedar= (_juniperus virginiana_) (savin juniper, juniper, red juniper, juniper bush, pencil cedar). heartwood dull red color, thin sapwood nearly white. close even grain, compact structure. wood light, soft, weak, brittle, easily worked, durable in contact with the soil, and fragrant. used for ties, posts, interior finish, pencil cases, cigar boxes, silos, tanks, and especially for lead pencils, for which purpose alone several million feet are cut each year. a small to medium-sized tree scattered through the forests, or in the west sparsely covering extensive areas (cedar brakes). the red cedar is the most widely distributed conifer of the united states, occurring from the atlantic to the pacific, and from florida to minnesota. attains a suitable size for lumber only in the southern, and more especially the gulf states. = . red cedar= (_juniperus communis_) (ground cedar). small-sized tree, its maximum height being about feet. it is found widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. wood in its quality similar to the preceding. the fruit of this species is gathered in large quantities and used in the manufacture of gin; whose peculiar flavor and medicinal properties are due to the oil of juniper berries, which is secured by adding the crushed fruit to undistilled grain spirit, or by allowing the vapor to pass over it before condensation. used locally for construction purposes, fence posts, etc. ranges from greenland to alaska, in the east, southward to pennsylvania and northern nebraska; in the rocky mountains to texas, mexico, and arizona. = . redwood= (_sequoia sempervirens_) (sequoia, california redwood, coast redwood). wood in its quality and uses like white cedar. thick, red heartwood, changing to reddish brown when seasoned. thin sapwood, nearly white, coarse, straight grain, compact structure. light, not strong, soft, very durable in contact with the soil, not resinous, easily worked, does not burn easily, receives high polish. used for timber, shingles, flumes, fence posts, coffins, railway ties, water pipes, interior decorations, and cabinetmaking. a very large tree, limited to the coast ranges of california, and forming considerable forests, which are rapidly being converted into lumber. cypress = . cypress= (_taxodium distinchum_) (bald cypress, black, white, and red cypress, pecky cypress). wood in its appearance, quality, and uses similar to white cedar. "black" and "white cypress" are heavy and light forms of the same species. heartwood brownish; sapwood nearly white. wood close, straight-grain, frequently full of small holes caused by disease known as "pecky cypress." greasy appearance and feeling. wood light, soft, not strong, durable in contact with the soil, takes a fine polish. green wood often very heavy. used for carpentry, building construction, shingles, cooperage, railway ties, silos, tanks, vehicles, and washing machines. the cypress is a large, deciduous tree, inhabiting swampy lands, and along rivers and coasts of the southern parts of the united states. grows to a height of feet and feet in diameter. fir this name is frequently applied to wood and to trees which are not fir; most commonly to spruce, but also, especially in english markets, to pine. it resembles spruce, but is easily distinguished from it, as well as from pine and larch, by the absence of resin ducts. quality, uses, and habits similar to spruce. = . balsam fir= (_abies balsamea_) (balsam, fir tree, balm of gilead fir). heartwood white to brownish; sapwood lighter color; coarse-grained, compact structure, satiny. wood light, not durable or strong, resinous, easily split. used for boxes, crates, doors, millwork, cheap lumber, paper pulp. inferior to white pine or spruce, yet often mixed and sold with these species in the lumber market. a medium-sized tree scattered throughout the northern pineries, and cut in lumber operations whenever of sufficient size. minnesota to maine and northward. = . white fir= (_abies grandis_ and _abies concolor_). medium-to very large-sized tree, forming an important part of most of the western mountain forests, and furnishes much of the lumber of the respective regions. the former occurs from vancouver to california, and the latter from oregon to arizona and eastward to colorado and mexico. the wood is soft and light, coarse-grained, not unlike the "swiss pine" of europe, but darker and firmer, and is not suitable for any purpose requiring strength. it is used for boxes, barrels, and to a small extent for wood pulp. = . white fir= (_abies amabalis_). good-sized tree, often forming extensive mountain forests. wood similar in quality and uses to _abies grandis_. cascade mountains of washington and oregon. = . red fir= (_abies nobilis_) (noble fir) (not to be confounded with douglas spruce. see no. ). large to very large-sized tree, forming extensive forests on the slope of the mountains between , and , feet elevation. cascade mountains of oregon. = . red fir= (_abies magnifica_). very large-sized tree, forming forests about the base of mount shasta. sierra nevada mountains of california, from mount shasta southward. hemlock light to medium weight, soft, stiff, but brittle, commonly cross-grained, rough and splintery. sapwood and heartwood not well defined. the wood of a light reddish-gray color, free from resin ducts, moderately durable, shrinks and warps considerably in drying, wears rough, retains nails firmly. used principally for dimension stuff and timbers. hemlocks are medium- to large-sized trees, commonly scattered among broad-leaved trees and conifers, but often forming forests of almost pure growth. = . hemlock= (_tsuga canadensis_) (hemlock spruce, peruche). medium-sized tree, furnishes almost all the hemlock of the eastern market. maine to wisconsin, also following the alleghanies southward to georgia and alabama. = . hemlock= (_tsuga mertensiana_). large-sized tree, wood claimed to be heavier and harder than the eastern species and of superior quality. used for pulp wood, floors, panels, and newels. it is not suitable for heavy construction, especially where exposed to the weather, it is straight in grain and will take a good polish. not adapted for use partly in and partly out of the ground; in fresh water as piles will last about ten years, but as it is softer than fir it is less able to stand driving successfully. washington to california and eastward to montana. larch or tamarack wood like the best of hard pine both in appearance, quality, and uses, and owing to its great durability somewhat preferred in shipbuilding, for telegraph poles, and railway ties. in its structure it resembles spruce. the larches are deciduous trees, occasionally covering considerable areas, but usually scattered among other conifers. = . tamarack= (_larix laricina_ var. _americana_) (larch, black larch, american larch, hacmatac). heartwood light brown in color, sapwood nearly white, coarse conspicuous grain, compact structure, annual rings pronounced. wood heavy, hard, very strong, durable in contact with the soil. used for railway ties, fence posts, sills, ship timbers, telegraph poles, flagstaffs. medium-sized tree, often covering swamps, in which case it is smaller and of poor quality. maine to minnesota, and southward to pennsylvania. = . tamarack= (_larix occidentalis_) (western larch, larch). large-sized trees, scattered, locally abundant. is little inferior to oak in strength and durability. heartwood of a light brown color with lighter sapwood, has a fine, slightly satiny grain, and is fairly free from knots; the annual rings are distant. used for railway ties and shipbuilding. washington and oregon to montana. pine very variable, very light and soft in "soft" pine, such as white pine; of medium weight to heavy and quite hard in "hard" pine, of which the long-leaf or georgia pine is the extreme form. usually it is stiff, quite strong, of even texture, and more or less resinous. the sapwood is yellowish white; the heartwood orange brown. pine shrinks moderately, seasons rapidly and without much injury; it works easily, is never too hard to nail (unlike oak or hickory); it is mostly quite durable when in contact with the soil, and if well seasoned is not subject to the attacks of boring insects. the heavier the wood, the darker, stronger, and harder it is, and the more it shrinks and checks when seasoning. pine is used more extensively than any other wood. it is the principal wood in carpentry, as well as in all heavy construction, bridges, trestles, etc. it is also used in almost every other wood industry; for spars, masts, planks, and timbers in shipbuilding, in car and wagon construction, in cooperage and woodenware; for crates and boxes, in furniture work, for toys and patterns, water pipes, excelsior, etc. pines are usually large-sized trees with few branches, the straight, cylindrical, useful stem forming by far the greatest part of the tree. they occur gregariously, forming vast forests, a fact which greatly facilitates their exploitation. of the many special terms applied to pine as lumber, denoting sometimes differences in quality, the following deserve attention: "white pine," "pumpkin pine," "soft pine," in the eastern markets refer to the wood of the white pine (_pinus strobus_), and on the pacific coast to that of the sugar pine (_pinus lambertiana_). "yellow pine" is applied in the trade to all the southern lumber pines; in the northwest it is also applied to the pitch pine (_pinus regida_); in the west it refers mostly to the bull pine (_pinus ponderosa_). "yellow long-leaf pine" (georgia pine), chiefly used in advertisements, refers to the long-leaf pine (_pinus palustris_). (_a_) soft pines = . white pine= (_pinus strobus_) (soft pine, pumpkin pine, weymouth pine, yellow deal). large to very large-sized tree, reaching a height of to feet or more, and in some instances or feet in diameter. for the last fifty years the most important timber tree of the united states, furnishing the best quality of soft pine. heartwood cream white; sapwood nearly white. close straight grain, compact structure; comparatively free from knots and resin. soft, uniform; seasons well; easy to work; nails without splitting; fairly durable in contact with the soil; and shrinks less than other species of pine. paints well. used for carpentry, construction, building, spars, masts, matches, boxes, etc., etc., etc. = . sugar pine= (_pinus lambertiana_) (white pine, pumpkin pine, soft pine). a very large tree, forming extensive forests in the rocky mountains and furnishing most of the timber of the western united states. it is confined to oregon and california, and grows at from , to , feet above sea level. has an average height of to feet and a diameter of to feet, with a maximum height of feet and feet in diameter. the wood is soft, durable, straight-grained, easily worked, very resinous, and has a satiny luster which makes it appreciated for interior work. it is extensively used for doors, blinds, sashes, and interior finish, also for druggists' drawers, owing to its freedom from odor, for oars, mouldings, shipbuilding, cooperage, shingles, and fruit boxes. oregon and california. = . white pine= (_pinus monticolo_). a large tree, at home in montana, idaho, and the pacific states. most common and locally used in northern idaho. = . white pine= (_pinus flexilis_). a small-sized tree, forming mountain forests of considerable extent and locally used. eastern rocky mountain slopes, montana to new mexico. (_b_) hard pines = . long-leaf pine= (_pinus palustris_) (georgia pine, southern pine, yellow pine, southern hard pine, long-straw pine, etc.). large-sized tree. this species furnishes the hardest and most durable as well as one of the strongest pine timbers in the market. heartwood orange, sapwood lighter color, the annual rings are strongly marked, and it is full of resinous matter, making it very durable, but difficult to work. it is hard, dense, and strong, fairly free from knots, straight-grained, and one of the best timbers for heavy engineering work where great strength, long span, and durability are required. used for heavy construction, shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, and interior decoration. coast region from north carolina to texas. = . bull pine= (_pinus ponderosa_) (yellow pine, western yellow pine, western pine, western white pine, california white pine). medium- to very large-sized tree, forming extensive forests in the pacific and rocky mountain regions. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellowish white, and there is often a good deal of it. the resinous smell of the wood is very remarkable. it is extensively used for beams, flooring, ceilings, and building work generally. = . bull pine= (_pinus jeffreyi_) (black pine). large-sized tree, wood resembles _pinus ponderosa_ and replacing same at high altitudes. used locally in california. = . loblolly pine= (_pinus tæda_) (slash pine, old field pine, rosemary pine, sap pine, short-straw pine). a large-sized tree, forms extensive forests. wider-ringed, coarser, lighter, softer, with more sapwood than the long-leaf pine, but the two are often confounded in the market. the more northern tree produces lumber which is weak, brittle, coarse-grained, and not durable, the southern tree produces a better quality wood. both are very resinous. this is the common lumber pine from virginia to south carolina, and is found extensively in arkansas and texas. southern states, virginia to texas and arkansas. = . norway pine= (_pinus resinosa_) (american red pine, canadian pine). large-sized tree, never forming forests, usually scattered or in small groves, together with white pine. largely sapwood and hence not durable. heartwood reddish white, with fine, clear grain, fairly tough and elastic, not liable to warp and split. used for building construction, bridges, piles, masts, and spars. minnesota to michigan; also in new england to pennsylvania. = . short-leaf pine= (_pinus echinata_) (slash pine, spruce pine, carolina pine, yellow pine, old field pine, hard pine). a medium- to large-sized tree, resembling loblolly pine, often approaches in its wood the norway pine. heartwood orange, sapwood lighter; compact structure, apt to be variable in appearance in cross-section. wood usually hard, tough, strong, durable, resinous. a valuable timber tree, sometimes worked for turpentine. used for heavy construction, shipbuilding, cars, docks, beams, ties, flooring, and house trim. _pinus echinata_, _palustris_, and _tæda_ are very similar in character, of thin wood and very difficult to distinguish one from another. as a rule, however, _palustris_ (long-leaf pine) has the smallest and most uniform growth rings, and _pinus tæda_ (loblolly pine) has the largest. all are apt to be bunched together in the lumber market as southern hard pine. all are used for the same purposes. short-leaf is the common lumber pine of missouri and arkansas. north carolina to texas and missouri. = . cuban pine= (_pinus cubensis_) (slash pine, swamp pine, bastard pine, meadow pine). resembles long-leaf pine, but commonly has a wider sapwood and coarser grain. does not enter the markets to any extent. along the coast from south carolina to louisiana. = . pitch pine= (_pinus rigida_) (torch pine). a small to medium-sized tree. heartwood light brown or red, sapwood yellowish white. wood light, soft, not strong, coarse-grained, durable, very resinous. used locally for lumber, fuel, and charcoal. coast regions from new york to georgia, and along the mountains to kentucky. = . black pine= (_pinus murryana_) (lodge-pole pine, tamarack). small-sized tree. rocky mountains and pacific regions. = . jersey pine= (_pinus inops_ var. _virginiana_) (scrub pine). small-sized tree. along the coast from new york to georgia and along the mountains to kentucky. = . gray pine= (_pinus divaricata_ var. _banksiana_) (scrub pine, jack pine). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood pale brown, rarely yellow; sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained. used for fuel, railway ties, and fence posts. in days gone by the indians preferred this species for frames of canoes. maine, vermont, and michigan to minnesota. redwood (see cedar) spruce resembles soft pine, is light, very soft, stiff, moderately strong, less resinous than pine; has no distinct heartwood, and is of whitish color. used like soft pine, but also employed as resonance wood in musical instruments and preferred for paper pulp. spruces, like pines, form extensive forests. they are more frugal, thrive on thinner soils, and bear more shade, but usually require a more humid climate. "black" and "white" spruce as applied by lumbermen usually refer to narrow and wide-ringed forms of black spruce (_picea nigra_). = . black spruce= (_picea nigra_ var. _mariana_). medium-sized tree, forms extensive forests in northwestern united states and in british america; occurs scattered or in groves, especially in low lands throughout the northern pineries. important lumber tree in eastern united states. heartwood pale, often with reddish tinge; sapwood pure white. wood light, soft, not strong. chiefly used for manufacture of paper pulp, and great quantities of this as well as _picea alba_ are used for this purpose. used also for sounding boards for pianos, violins, etc. maine to minnesota, british america, and in the alleghanies to north carolina. = . white spruce= (_picea canadensis_ var. _alba_). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood light yellow; sapwood nearly white. generally associated with the preceding. most abundant along streams and lakes, grows largest in montana and forms the most important tree of the sub-arctic forest of british america. used largely for floors, joists, doors, sashes, mouldings, and panel work, rapidly superceding _pinus strobus_ for building purposes. it is very similar to norway pine, excels it in toughness, is rather less durable and dense, and more liable to warp in seasoning. northern united states from maine to minnesota, also from montana to pacific, british america. = . white spruce= (_picea engelmanni_). medium- to large-sized tree, forming extensive forests at elevations from , to , feet above sea level; resembles the preceding, but occupies a different station. a very important timber tree in the central and southern parts of the rocky mountains. rocky mountains from mexico to montana. = . tide-land spruce= (_picea sitchensis_) (sitka spruce). a large-sized tree, forming an extensive coast-belt forest. used extensively for all classes of cooperage and woodenware on the pacific coast. along the sea-coast from alaska to central california. = . red spruce= (_picea rubens_). medium-sized tree, generally associated with _picea nigra_ and occurs scattered throughout the northern pineries. heartwood reddish; sapwood lighter color, straight-grained, compact structure. wood light, soft, not strong, elastic, resonant, not durable when exposed. used for flooring, carpentry, shipbuilding, piles, posts, railway ties, paddles, oars, sounding boards, paper pulp, and musical instruments. montana to pacific, british america. bastard spruce spruce or fir in name, but resembling hard pine or larch in appearance, quality and uses of its wood. = . douglas spruce= (_pseudotsuga douglasii_) (yellow fir, red fir, oregon pine). one of the most important trees of the western united states; grows very large in the pacific states, to fair size in all parts of the mountains, in colorado up to about , feet above sea level; forms extensive forests, often of pure growth, it is really neither a pine nor a fir. wood very variable, usually coarse-grained and heavy, with very pronounced summer-wood. hard and strong ("red" fir), but often fine-grained and light ("yellow" fir). it is the chief tree of washington and oregon, and most abundant and most valuable in british columbia, where it attains its greatest size. from the plains to the pacific ocean, and from mexico to british columbia. = . red fir= (_pseudotsuga taxifolia_) (oregon pine, puget sound pine, yellow fir, douglas spruce, red pine). heartwood light red or yellow in color, sapwood narrow, nearly white, comparatively free from resins, variable annual rings. wood usually hard, strong, difficult to work, durable, splinters easily. used for heavy construction, dimension timber, railway ties, doors, blinds, interior finish, piles, etc. one of the most important of western trees. from the plains to the pacific ocean, and from mexico to british america. tamarack (see larch) yew wood heavy, hard, extremely stiff and strong, of fine texture with a pale yellow sapwood, and an orange-red heartwood; seasons well and is quite durable. extensively used for archery bows, turner's ware, etc. the yews form no forests, but occur scattered with other conifers. = . yew= (_taxus brevifolia_). a small to medium-sized tree of the pacific region. section iii broad-leaved trees wood of broad-leaved trees [illustration: fig. . block of oak. cs, cross-section; rs, radial section; ts, tangential section; _mr_, medullary or pith ray; _a_, height; _b_, width; and _e_, length of pith ray.] [illustration: fig. . board of oak. cs, cross-section; rs, radial section; ts, tangential section; _v_, vessels or pores, cut through.; a, slight curve in log which appears in section as an islet.] [illustration: fig. . cross-section of oak (magnified about times).] on a cross-section of oak, the same arrangement of pith and bark, of sapwood and heartwood, and the same disposition of the wood in well-defined concentric or annual rings occur, but the rings are marked by lines or rows of conspicuous pores or openings, which occupy the greater part of the spring-wood for each ring (see fig. , also ), and are, in fact the hollows of vessels through which the cut has been made. on the radial section or quarter-sawn board the several layers appear as so many stripes (see fig. ); on the tangential section or "bastard" face patterns similar to those mentioned for pine wood are observed. but while the patterns in hard pine are marked by the darker summer-wood, and are composed of plain, alternating stripes of darker and lighter wood, the figures in oak (and other broad-leaved woods) are due chiefly to the vessels, those of the spring-wood in oak being the most conspicuous (see fig. ). so that in an oak table, the darker, shaded parts are the spring-wood, the lighter unicolored parts the summer-wood. on closer examination of the smooth cross-section of oak, the spring-wood part of the ring is found to be formed in great part of pores; large, round, or oval openings made by the cut through long vessels. these are separated by a grayish and quite porous tissue (see fig. , a), which continues here and there in the form of radial, often branched, patches (not the pith rays) into and through the summer-wood to the spring-wood of the next ring. the large vessels of the spring-wood, occupying six to ten per cent of the volume of a log in very good oak, and twenty-five per cent or more in inferior and narrow-ringed timber, are a very important feature, since it is evident that the greater their share in the volume, the lighter and weaker the wood. they are smallest near the pith, and grow wider outward. they are wider in the stem than limb, and seem to be of indefinite length, forming open channels, in some cases probably as long as the tree itself. scattered through the radiating gray patches of porous wood are vessels similar to those of the spring-wood, but decidedly smaller. these vessels are usually fewer and larger near the outer portions of the ring. their number and size can be utilized to distinguish the oaks classed as white oaks from those classed as black and red oaks. they are fewer and larger in red oaks, smaller but much more numerous in white oaks. the summer-wood, except for these radial, grayish patches, is dark colored and firm. this firm portion, divided into bodies or strands by these patches of porous wood, and also by fine, wavy, concentric lines of short, thin-walled cells (see fig. , a), consists of thin-walled fibres (see fig. , b), and is the chief element of strength in oak wood. in good white oak it forms one-half or more of the wood, if it cuts like horn, and the cut surface is shiny, and of a deep chocolate brown color. in very narrow-ringed wood and in inferior red oak it is usually much reduced in quantity as well as quality. the pith rays of the oak, unlike those of the coniferous woods, are at least in part very large and conspicuous. (see fig. ; their height indicated by the letter _a_, and their width by the letter _b_.) the large medullary rays of oak are often twenty and more cells wide, and several hundred cell rows in height, which amount commonly to one or more inches. these large rays are conspicuous on all sections. they appear as long, sharp, grayish lines on the cross-sections; as short, thick lines, tapering at each end, on the tangential or "bastard" face, and as broad, shiny bands, "the mirrors," on the radial section. in addition to these coarse rays, there is also a large number of small pith rays, which can be seen only when magnified. on the whole, the pith rays form a much larger part of the wood than might be supposed. in specimens of good white oak it has been found that they form about sixteen to twenty-five per cent of the wood. [illustration: fig. . portion of the firm bodies of fibres with two cells of a small pith ray _mr_ (highly magnified).] [illustration: fig. . isolated fibres and cells, _a_, four cells of wood, parenchyma; _b_, two cells from a pith ray; _c_, a single joint or cell of a vessel, the openings _x_ leading into its upper and lower neighbors; _d_, tracheid; _e_, wood fibre proper.] minute structure [illustration: fig. . cross-section of basswood (magnified). _v_, vessels; _mr_, pith rays.] if a well-smoothed thin disk or cross-section of oak (say one-sixteenth inch thick) is held up to the light, it looks very much like a sieve, the pores or vessels appearing as clean-cut holes. the spring-wood and gray patches are seen to be quite porous, but the firm bodies of fibres between them are dense and opaque. examined with a magnifier it will be noticed that there is no such regularity of arrangement in straight rows as is conspicuous in pine. on the contrary, great irregularity prevails. at the same time, while the pores are as large as pin holes, the cells of the denser wood, unlike those of pine wood, are too small to be distinguished. studied with the microscope, each vessel is found to be a vertical row of a great number of short, wide tubes, joined end to end (see fig. , _c_). the porous spring-wood and radial gray tracts are partly composed of smaller vessels, but chiefly of tracheids, like those of pine, and of shorter cells, the "wood parenchyma," resembling the cells of the medullary rays. these latter, as well as the fine concentric lines mentioned as occurring in the summer-wood, are composed entirely of short tube-like parenchyma cells, with square or oblique ends (see fig. , _a_ and _b_). the wood fibres proper, which form the dark, firm bodies referred to, are very fine, thread-like cells, one twenty-fifth to one-tenth inch long, with a wall commonly so thick that scarcely any empty internal space or lumen remains (see figs. , _e_, and , b). if, instead of oak, a piece of poplar or basswood (see fig. ) had been used in this study, the structure would have been found to be quite different. the same kinds of cell-elements, vessels, etc., are, to be sure, present, but their combination and arrangement are different, and thus from the great variety of possible combinations results the great variety of structure and, in consequence, of the qualities which distinguish the wood of broad-leaved trees. the sharp distinction of sap wood and heartwood is wanting; the rings are not so clearly defined; the vessels of the wood are small, very numerous, and rather evenly scattered through the wood of the annual rings, so that the distinction of the ring almost vanishes and the medullary or pith rays in poplar can be seen, without being magnified, only on the radial section. list of most important broad-leaved trees (hardwoods) woods of complex and very variable structure, and therefore differing widely in quality, behavior, and consequently in applicability to the arts. ailanthus = . ailanthus= (_ailanthus glandulosa_). medium to large-sized tree. wood pale yellow, hard, fine-grained, and satiny. this species originally came from china, where it is known as the tree of "heaven," was introduced into the united states and planted near philadelphia during the th century, and is more ornamental than useful. it is used to some extent in cabinet work. western pennsylvania and long island, new york. ash wood heavy, hard, stiff, quite tough, not durable in contact with the soil, straight-grained, rough on the split surfaces and coarse in texture. the wood shrinks moderately, seasons with little injury, stands well, and takes a good polish. in carpentry, ash is used for stairways, panels, etc. it is used in shipbuilding, in the construction of cars, wagons, etc., in the manufacture of all kinds of farm implements, machinery, and especially of all kinds of furniture; for cooperage, baskets, oars, tool handles, hoops, etc., etc. the trees of the several species of ash are rapid growers, of small to medium height with stout trunks. they form no forests, but occur scattered in almost all our broad-leaved forests. = . white ash= (_fraxinus americana_). medium-, sometimes large-sized tree. heartwood reddish brown, usually mottled; sapwood lighter color, nearly white. wood heavy, hard, tough, elastic, coarse-grained, compact structure. annual rings clearly marked by large open pores, not durable in contact with the soil, is straight-grained, and the best material for oars, etc. used for agricultural implements, tool handles, automobile (rim boards), vehicle bodies and parts, baseball bats, interior finish, cabinet work, etc., etc. basin of the ohio, but found from maine to minnesota and texas. = . red ash= (_fraxinus pubescens_ var. _pennsylvanica_). medium-sized tree, a timber very similar to, but smaller than _fraxinus americana_. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, and coarse-grained. ranges from new brunswick to florida, and westward to dakota, nebraska, and kansas. = . black ash= (_fraxinus nigra_ var. _sambucifolia_) (hoop ash, ground ash). medium-sized tree, very common, is more widely distributed than the _fraxinus americana_; the wood is not so hard, but is well suited for hoops and basketwork. heartwood dark brown, sapwood light brown or white. wood heavy, rather soft, tough and coarse-grained. used for barrel hoops, basketwork, cabinetwork and interior of houses. maine to minnesota and southward to alabama. = . blue ash= (_fraxinus quadrangulata_). small to medium-sized tree. heartwood yellow, streaked with brown, sapwood a lighter color. wood heavy, hard, and coarse-grained. not common. indiana and illinois; occurs from michigan to minnesota and southward to alabama. = . green ash= (_fraxinus viridis_). small-sized tree. occurs from new york to the rocky mountains, and southward to florida and arizona. = . oregon ash= (_fraxinus oregana_). small to medium-sized tree. occurs from western washington to california. = . carolina ash= (_fraxinus caroliniana_). medium-sized tree. occurs in the carolinas and the coast regions southward. aspen (see poplar) basswood = . basswood= (_tilia americana_) (linden, lime tree, american linden, lin, bee tree). medium- to large-sized tree. wood light, soft, stiff, but not strong, of fine texture, straight and close-grained, and white to light brown color, but not durable in contact with the soil. the wood shrinks considerably in drying, works well and stands well in interior work. it is used for cooperage, in carpentry, in the manufacture of furniture and woodenware (both turned and carved), for toys, also for panelling of car and carriage bodies, for agricultural implements, automobiles, sides and backs of drawers, cigar boxes, excelsior, refrigerators, trunks, and paper pulp. it is also largely cut for veneer and used as "three-ply" for boxes and chair seats. it is used for sounding boards in pianos and organs. if well seasoned and painted it stands fairly well for outside work. common in all northern broad-leaved forests. found throughout the eastern united states, but reaches its greatest size in the valley of the ohio, becoming often feet in height, but its usual height is about feet. = . white basswood= (_tilia heterophylla_) (whitewood). a small-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similar to the preceding, only it is lighter in color. most abundant in the alleghany region. = . white basswood= (_tilia pubescens_) (downy linden, small-leaved basswood). small-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similar to _tilia americana_. this is a southern species which makes it way as far north as long island. is found at its best in south carolina. beech = . beech= (_fagus ferruginea_) (red beech, white beech). medium-sized tree, common, sometimes forming forests of pure growth. wood heavy, hard, stiff, strong, of rather coarse texture, white to light brown color, not durable in contact with the soil, and subject to the inroads of boring insects. rather close-grained, conspicuous medullary rays, and when quarter-sawn and well smoothed is very beautiful. the wood shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. beech is comparatively free from objectionable taste, and finds a place in the manufacture of commodities which come in contact with foodstuffs, such as lard tubs, butter boxes and pails, and the beaters of ice cream freezers; for the latter the persistent hardness of the wood when subjected to attrition and abrasion, while wet gives it peculiar fitness. it is an excellent material for churns. sugar hogsheads are made of beech, partly because it is a tasteless wood and partly because it has great strength. a large class of woodenware, including veneer plates, dishes, boxes, paddles, scoops, spoons, and beaters, which belong to the kitchen and pantry, are made of this species of wood. beech picnic plates are made by the million, a single machine turning out , a day. the wood has a long list of miscellaneous uses and enters in a great variety of commodities. in every region where it grows in commercial quantities it is made into boxes, baskets, and crating. beech baskets are chiefly employed in shipping fruit, berries, and vegetables. in maine thin veneer of beech is made specially for the sicily orange and lemon trade. this is shipped in bulk and the boxes are made abroad. beech is also an important handle wood, although not in the same class with hickory. it is not selected because of toughness and resiliency, as hickory is, and generally goes into plane, handsaw, pail, chisel, and flatiron handles. recent statistics show that in the production of slack cooperage staves, only two woods, red gum and pine, stood above beech in quantity, while for heading, pine alone exceeded it. it is also used in turnery, for shoe lasts, butcher blocks, ladder rounds, etc. abroad it is very extensively used by the carpenter, millwright, and wagon maker, in turnery and wood carving. most abundant in the ohio and mississippi basin, but found from maine to wisconsin and southward to florida. birch = . cherry birch= (_betula lenta_) (black birch, sweet birch, mahogany birch, wintergreen birch). medium-sized tree, very common. wood of beautiful reddish or yellowish brown, and much of it nicely figured, of compact structure, is straight in grain, heavy, hard, strong, takes a fine polish, and considerably used as imitation of mahogany. the wood shrinks considerably in drying, works well and stands well, but is not durable in contact with the soil. the medullary rays in birch are very fine and close and not easily seen. the sweet birch is very handsome, with satiny luster, equalling cherry, and is too costly a wood to be profitably used for ordinary purposes, but there are both high and low grades of birch, the latter consisting chiefly of sapwood and pieces too knotty for first class commodities. this cheap material swells the supply of box lumber, and a little of it is found wherever birch passes through sawmills. the frequent objections against sweet birch as box lumber and crating material are that it is hard to nail and is inclined to split. it is also used for veneer picnic plates and butter dishes, although it is not as popular for this class of commodity as are yellow and paper birch, maple and beech. the best grades are largely used for furniture and cabinet work, and also for interior finish. maine to michigan and to tennessee. = . white birch= (_betula populifolia_) (gray birch, old field birch, aspen-leaved birch). small to medium-sized tree, least common of all the birches. short-lived, twenty to thirty feet high, grows very rapidly. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. wood light, soft, close-grained, not strong, checks badly in drying, decays quickly, not durable in contact with the soil, takes a good polish. used for spools, shoepegs, wood pulp, and barrel hoops. fuel, value not high, but burns with bright flame. ranges from nova scotia and lower st. lawrence river, southward, mostly in the coast region to delaware, and westward through northern new england and new york to southern shore of lake ontario. = . yellow birch= (_betula lutea_) (gray birch, silver birch). medium- to large-sized tree, very common. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white, close-grained, compact structure, with a satiny luster. wood heavy, very strong, hard, tough, susceptible of high polish, not durable when exposed. is similar to _betula lenta_, and finds a place in practically all kinds of woodenware. a large percentage of broom handles on the market are made of this species of wood, though nearly every other birch contributes something. it is used for veneer plates and dishes made for pies, butter, lard, and many other commodities. tubs and pails are sometimes made of yellow birch provided weight is not objectionable. the wood is twice as heavy as some of the pines and cedars. many small handles for such articles as flatirons, gimlets, augers, screw drivers, chisels, varnish and paint brushes, butcher and carving knives, etc. it is also widely used for shipping boxes, baskets, and crates, and it is one of the stiffest, strongest woods procurable, but on account of its excessive weight it is sometimes discriminated against. it is excellent for veneer boxes, and that is probably one of the most important places it fills. citrus fruit from northern africa and the islands and countries of the mediterranean is often shipped to market in boxes made of yellow birch from veneer cut in new england. the better grades are also used for furniture and cabinet work, and the "burls" found on this species are highly valued for making fancy articles, gavels, etc. it is extensively used for turnery, buttons, spools, bobbins, wheel hubs, etc. maine to minnesota and southward to tennessee. = . red birch= (_betula rubra_ var. _nigra_) (river birch). small to medium-sized tree, very common. lighter and less valuable than the preceding. heartwood light brown, sapwood pale. wood light, fairly strong and close-grained. red birch is best developed in the middle south, and usually grows near the banks of rivers. its bark hangs in tatters, even worse than that of paper birch, but it is darker. in tennessee the slack coopers have found that red birch makes excellent barrel heads and it is sometimes employed in preference to other woods. in eastern maryland the manufacturers of peach baskets draw their supplies from this wood, and substitute it for white elm in making the hoops or bands which stiffen the top of the basket, and provide a fastening for the veneer which forms the sides. red birch bends in a very satisfactory manner, which is an important point. this wood enters pretty generally into the manufacture of woodenware within its range, but statistics do not mention it by name. it is also used in the manufacture of veneer picnic plates, pie plates, butter dishes, washboards, small handles, kitchen and pantry utensils, and ironing boards. new england to texas and missouri. = . canoe birch= (_betula paprifera_) (white birch, paper birch). small to medium-sized tree, sometimes forming forests, very common. heartwood light brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter color. wood of good quality, but light, fairly hard and strong, tough, close-grained. sap flows freely in spring and by boiling can be made into syrup. not as valuable as any of the preceding. canoe birch is a northern tree, easily identified by its white trunk and its ragged bark. large numbers of small wooden boxes are made by boring out blocks of this wood, shaping them in lathes, and fitting lids on them. canoe birch is one of the best woods for this class of commodities, because it can be worked very thin, does not split readily, and is of pleasing color. such boxes, or two-piece diminutive kegs, are used as containers for articles shipped and sold in small bulk, such as tacks, small nails, and brads. such containers are generally cylindrical and of considerably greater depth than diameter. many others of nearly similar form are made to contain ink bottles, bottles of perfumery, drugs, liquids, salves, lotions, and powders of many kinds. many boxes of this pattern are used by manufacturers of pencils and crayons for packing and shipping their wares. such boxes are made in numerous numbers by automatic machinery. a single machine of the most improved pattern will turn out , boxes an hour. after the boring and turning are done, they are smoothed by placing them into a tumbling barrel with soapstone. it is also used for one-piece shallow trays or boxes, without lids, and used as card receivers, pin receptacles, butter boxes, fruit platters, and contribution plates in churches. it is also the principal wood used for spools, bobbins, bowls, shoe lasts, pegs, and turnery, and is also much used in the furniture trade. all along the northern boundary of the united states and northward, from the atlantic to the pacific. black walnut (see walnut) blue beech = . blue beech= (_carpinus caroliniana_) (hornbeam, water beech, ironwood). small-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. wood very hard, heavy, strong, very stiff, of rather fine texture, not durable in contact with the soil, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, but works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. used chiefly in turnery, for tool handles, etc. abroad much used by mill-and wheelwrights. a small tree, largest in the southwest, but found in nearly all parts of the eastern united states. bois d'arc (see osage orange) buckeye wood light, soft, not strong, often quite tough, of fine, uniform texture and creamy white color. it shrinks considerably in drying, but works well and stands well. used for woodenware, artificial limbs, paper pulp, and locally also for building construction. = . ohio buckeye= (_Æsculus glabra_) (horse chestnut, fetid buckeye). small-sized tree, scattered, never forming forests. heartwood white, sapwood pale brown. wood light, soft, not strong, often quite tough and close-grained. alleghanies, pennsylvania to oklahoma. = . sweet buckeye= (_Æsculus octandra_ var. _flava_) (horse chestnut). small-sized tree, scattered, never forming forests. wood in its quality and uses similar to the preceding. alleghanies, pennsylvania to texas. buckthorne = . buckthorne= (_rhanmus caroliniana_) (indian cherry). small-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood almost white. wood light, hard, close-grained. does not enter the markets to any great extent. found along the borders of streams in rich bottom lands. its northern limits is long island, where it is only a shrub; it becomes a tree only in southern arkansas and adjoining regions. butternut = . butternut= (_juglans cinerea_) (white walnut, white mahogany, walnut). medium-sized tree, scattered, never forming forests. wood very similar to black walnut, but light, quite soft, and not strong. heartwood light gray-brown, darkening with exposure; sapwood nearly white, coarse-grained, compact structure, easily worked, and susceptible to high polish. has similar grain to black walnut and when stained is a very good imitation. is much used for inside work, and very durable. used chiefly for finishing lumber, cabinet work, boat finish and fixtures, and for furniture. butternut furniture is often sold as circassian walnut. largest and most common in the ohio basin. maine to minnesota and southward to georgia and alabama. catalpa the catalpa is a tree which was planted about years ago as a commercial speculation in iowa, kansas, and nebraska. its native habitat was along the rivers ohio and lower wabash, and a century ago it gained a reputation for rapid growth and durability, but did not grow in large quantities. as a railway tie, experiments have left no doubt as to its resistance to decay; it stands abrasion as well as the white oak (_quercus alba_), and is superior to it in longevity. catalpa is a tree singularly free from destructive diseases. wood cut from the living tree is one of the most durable timbers known. in spite of its light porous structure it resists the weathering influences and the attacks of wood-destroying fungi to a remarkable degree. no fungus has yet been found which will grow in the dead timber, and for fence posts this wood has no equal, lasting longer than almost any other species of timber. the wood is rather soft and coarse in texture, the tree is of slow growth, and the brown colored heartwood, even of very young trees, forms nearly three-quarters of their volume. there is only about one-quarter inch of sapwood in a -inch tree. = . catalpa= (_catalpa speciosa_ var. _bignonioides_) (indian bean). medium-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, very durable in contact with the soil, of coarse texture. used chiefly for railway ties, telegraph poles, and fence posts, but well suited for a great variety of uses. lower basin of the ohio river, locally common. extensively planted, and therefore promising to become of some importance. cherry = . cherry= (_prunus serotina_) (wild cherry, black cherry, rum cherry). wood heavy, hard, strong, of fine texture. sapwood yellowish white, heartwood reddish to brown. the wood shrinks considerably in drying, works well and stands well, has a fine satin-like luster, and takes a fine polish which somewhat resembles mahogany, and is much esteemed for its beauty. cherry is chiefly used as a decorative interior finishing lumber, for buildings, cars and boats, also for furniture and in turnery, for musical instruments, walking sticks, last blocks, and woodenware. it is becoming too costly for many purposes for which it is naturally well suited. the lumber-furnishing cherry of the united states, the wild black cherry, is a small to medium-sized tree, scattered through many of the broad-leaved trees of the western slope of the alleghanies, but found from michigan to florida, and west to texas. other species of this genus, as well as the hawthornes (_prunus cratoegus_) and wild apple (_pyrus_), are not commonly offered in the markets. their wood is of the same character as cherry, often finer, but in smaller dimensions. = . red cherry= (_prunus pennsylvanica_) (wild red cherry, bird cherry). small-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood pale yellow. wood light, soft, and close-grained. uses similiar to the preceding, common throughout the northern states, reaching its greatest size on the mountains of tennessee. chestnut the chestnut is a long-lived tree, attaining an age of from to years, but trees over years are usually hollow. it grows quickly, and sprouts from a chestnut stump (coppice chestnut) often attain a height of feet in the first year. it has a fairly cylindrical stem, and often grows to a height of feet and over. coppice chestnut, that is, chestnut grown on an old stump, furnishes better timber for working than chestnut grown from the nut, it is heavier, less spongy, straighter in grain, easier to split, and stands exposure longer. = . chestnut= (_castanea vulgaris_ var. _americana_). medium-to large-sized tree, never forming forests. wood is light, moderately hard, stiff, elastic, not strong, but very durable when in contact with the soil, of coarse texture. sapwood light, heartwood darker brown, and is readily distinguishable from the sapwood, which very early turns into heartwood. it shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works easily, stands well. the annual rings are very distinct, medullary rays very minute and not visible to the naked eye. used in cooperage, for cabinetwork, agricultural implements, railway ties, telegraph poles, fence posts, sills, boxes, crates, coffins, furniture, fixtures, foundation for veneer, and locally in heavy construction. very common in the alleghanies. occurs from maine to michigan and southward to alabama. = . chestnut= (_castanea dentata_ var. _vesca_). medium-sized tree, never forming forests, not common. heartwood brown color, sapwood lighter shade, coarse-grained. wood and uses similar to the preceding. occurs scattered along the st. lawrence river, and even there is met with only in small quantities. = . chinquapin= (_castanea pumila_). medium- to small-sized tree, with wood slightly heavier, but otherwise similiar to the preceding. most common in arkansas, but with nearly the same range as _castanea vulgaris_. = . chinquapin= (_castanea chrysophylla_). a medium-sized tree of the western ranges of california and oregon. coffee tree = . coffee tree= (_gymnocladus dioicus_) (coffee nut, stump tree). a medium- to large-sized tree, not common. wood heavy, hard, strong, very stiff, of coarse texture, and durable. sapwood yellow, heartwood reddish brown, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. it is used to a limited extent in cabinetwork and interior finish. pennsylvania to minnesota and arkansas. cottonwood (see poplar) crab apple = . crab apple= (_pyrus coronaria_) (wild apple, fragrant crab). small-sized tree. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood yellow. wood heavy, hard, not strong, close-grained. used principally for tool handles and small domestic articles. most abundant in the middle and western states, reaches its greatest size in the valleys of the lower ohio basin. cucumber tree (see magnolia) dogwood = . dogwood= (_cornus florida_) (american box). small to medium-sized tree. attains a height of about feet and about inches in diameter. the heartwood is a red or pinkish color, the sapwood, which is considerable, is a creamy white. the wood has a dull surface and very fine grain. it is valuable for turnery, tool handles, and mallets, and being so free from silex, watchmakers use small splinters of it for cleaning out the pivot holes of watches, and opticians for removing dust from deep-seated lenses. it is also used for butchers' skewers, and shuttle blocks and wheel stock, and is suitable for turnery and inlaid work. occurs scattered in all the broad-leaved forests of our country; very common. elm wood heavy, hard, strong, elastic, very tough, moderately durable in contact with the soil, commonly cross-grained, difficult to split and shape, warps and checks considerably in drying, but stands well if properly seasoned. the broad sapwood whitish, heartwood light brown, both with shades of gray and red. on split surfaces rough, texture coarse to fine, capable of high polish. elm for years has been the principal wood used in slack cooperage for barrel staves, also in the construction of cars, wagons, etc., in boat building, agricultural implements and machinery, in saddlery and harness work, and particularly in the manufacture of all kinds of furniture, where the beautiful figures, especially those of the tangential or bastard section, are just beginning to be appreciated. the elms are medium- to large-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, with stout trunks; they form no forests of pure growth, but are found scattered in all the broad-leaved woods of our country, sometimes forming a considerable portion of the arborescent growth. = . white elm= (_ulmus americana_) (american elm, water elm). medium- to large-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses as stated above. common. maine to minnesota, southward to florida and texas. = . rock elm= (_ulmus racemosa_) (cork elm, hickory elm, white elm, cliff elm). medium- to large-sized tree of rapid growth. heartwood light brown, often tinged with red, sapwood yellowish or greenish white, compact structure, fibres interlaced. wood heavy, hard, very tough, strong, elastic, difficult to split, takes a fine polish. used for agricultural implements, automobiles, crating, boxes, cooperage, tool handles, wheel stock, bridge timbers, sills, interior finish, and maul heads. fairly free from knots and has only a small quantity of sapwood. michigan, ohio, from vermont to iowa, and southward to kentucky. = . red elm= (_ulmus fulva_ var. _pubescens_) (slippery elm, moose elm). the red or slippery elm is not as large a tree as the white elm (_ulmus americana_), though it occasionally attains a height of feet and a diameter of feet. it grows tall and straight, and thrives in river valleys. the wood is heavy, hard, strong, tough, elastic, commonly cross-grained, moderately durable in contact with the soil, splits easily when green, works fairly well, and stands well if properly handled. careful seasoning and handling are essential for the best results. trees can be utilized for posts when very small. when green the wood rots very quickly in contact with the soil. poles for posts should be cut in summer and peeled and dried before setting. the wood becomes very tough and pliable when steamed, and is of value for sleigh runners and for ribs of canoes and skiffs. together with white elm (_ulmus americana_) it is extensively used for barrel staves in slack cooperage and also for furniture. the thick, viscous inner bark, which gives the tree its descriptive name, is quite palatable, slightly nutritious, and has a medicinal value. found chiefly along water courses. new york to minnesota, and southward to florida and texas. = . cedar elm= (_ulmus crassifolia_). medium- to small-sized tree, locally quite common. arkansas and texas. = . winged elm= (_ulmus alata_) (wahoo). small-sized tree, locally quite common. heartwood light brown, sapwood yellowish white. wood heavy, hard, tough, strong, and close-grained. arkansas, missouri, and eastern virginia. [illustration: fig. . a large red gum.] gum this general term applies to three important species of gum in the south, the principal one usually being distinguished as "red" or "sweet" gum (see fig. ). the next in importance being the "tupelo" or "bay poplar," and the least of the trio is designated as "black" or "sour" gum (see fig. ). up to the year little was known of gum as a wood for cooperage purposes, but by the continued advance in price of the woods used, a few of the most progressive manufacturers, looking into the future, saw that the supply of the various woods in use was limited, that new woods would have to be sought, and gum was looked upon as a possible substitute, owing to its cheapness and abundant supply. no doubt in the future this wood will be used to a considerable extent in the manufacture of both "tight" and "slack" cooperage. in the manufacture of the gum, unless the knives and saws are kept very sharp, the wood has a tendency to break out, the corners splitting off; and also, much difficulty has been experienced in seasoning and kiln-drying. [illustration: fig. . a tupelo gum slough.] in the past, gum, having no marketable value, has been left standing after logging operations, or, where the land has been cleared for farming, the trees have been "girdled" and allowed to rot, and then felled and burned as trash. now, however, that there is a market for this species of timber, it will be profitable to cut the gum with the other hardwoods, and this species of wood will come in for a greater share of attention than ever before. = . red gum= (_liquidamber styraciflua_) (sweet gum, hazel pine, satin walnut, liquidamber, bilsted). the wood is about as stiff and as strong as chestnut, rather heavy, it splits easily and is quite brash, commonly cross-grained, of fine texture, and has a large proportion of whitish sapwood, which decays rapidly when exposed to the weather; but the reddish brown heartwood is quite durable, even in the ground. the external appearance of the wood is of fine grain and smooth, close texture, but when broken the lines of fracture do not run with apparent direction of the growth; possibly it is this unevenness of grain which renders the wood so difficult to dry without twisting and warping. it has little resiliency; can be easily bent when steamed, and when properly dried will hold its shape. the annual rings are not distinctly marked, medullary rays fine and numerous. the green wood contains much water, and consequently is heavy and difficult to float, but when dry it is as light as basswood. the great amount of water in the green wood, particularly in the sap, makes it difficult to season by ordinary methods without warping and twisting. it does not check badly, is tasteless and odorless, and when once seasoned, swells and shrinks but little unless exposed to the weather. used for boat finish, veneers, cabinet work, furniture, fixtures, interior decoration, shingles, paving blocks, woodenware, cooperage, machinery frames, refrigerators, and trunk slats. range of red gum red gum is distributed from fairfield county, conn., to southeastern missouri, through arkansas and oklahoma to the valley of the trinity river in texas, and eastward to the atlantic coast. its commercial range is restricted, however, to the moist lands of the lower ohio and mississippi basins and of the southeastern coast. it is one of the commonest timber trees in the hardwood bottoms and drier swamps of the south. it grows in mixture with ash, cottonwood and oak (see fig. ). it is also found to a considerable extent on the lower ridges and slopes of the southern appalachians, but there it does not reach merchantable value and is of little importance. considerable difference is found between the growth in the upper mississippi bottoms and that along the rivers on the atlantic coast and on the gulf. in the latter regions the bottoms are lower, and consequently more subject to floods and to continued overflows (see fig. ). the alluvial deposit is also greater, and the trees grow considerably faster. trees of the same diameter show a larger percentage of sapwood there than in the upper portions of the mississippi valley. the mississippi valley hardwood trees are for the most part considerably older, and reach larger dimensions than the timber along the coast. form of the red gum in the best situations red gum reaches a height of feet, and a diameter of feet. these dimensions, however are unusual. the stem is straight and cylindrical, with dark, deeply-furrowed bark, and branches often winged with corky ridges. in youth, while growing vigorously under normal conditions, it assumes a long, regular, conical crown, much resembling the form of a conifer (see fig. ). after the tree has attained its height growth, however, the crown becomes rounded, spreading and rather ovate in shape. when growing in the forest the tree prunes itself readily at an early period, and forms a good length of clear stem, but it branches strongly after making most of its height growth. the mature tree is usually forked, and the place where the forking commences determines the number of logs in the tree or its merchantable length, by preventing cutting to a small diameter in the top. on large trees the stem is often not less than eighteen inches in diameter where the branching begins. the over-mature tree is usually broken and dry topped, with a very spreading crown, in consequence of new branches being sent out. tolerance of red gum throughout its entire life red gum is intolerant in shade, there are practically no red seedlings under the dense forest cover of the bottom land, and while a good many may come up under the pine forest on the drier uplands, they seldom develop into large trees. as a rule seedlings appear only in clearings or in open spots in the forest. it is seldom that an over-topped tree is found, for the gum dies quickly if suppressed, and is consequently nearly always a dominant or intermediate tree. in a hardwood bottom forest the timber trees are all of nearly the same age over considerable areas, and there is little young growth to be found in the older stands. the reason for this is the intolerance of most of the swamp species. a scale of intolerance containing the important species, and beginning with the most light-demanding, would run as follows: cottonwood, sycamore, red gum, white elm, white ash, and red maple. demands upon soil and moisture while the red gum grows in various situations, it prefers the deep, rich soil of the hardwood bottoms, and there reaches its best development (see fig. ). it requires considerable soil moisture, though it does not grow in the wetter swamps, and does not thrive on dry pine land. seedlings, however, are often found in large numbers on the edges of the uplands and even on the sandy pine land, but they seldom live beyond the pole stage. when they do, they form small, scrubby trees that are of little value. where the soil is dry the tree has a long tap root. in the swamps, where the roots can obtain water easily, the development of the tap root is poor, and it is only moderate on the glade bottom lands, where there is considerable moisture throughout the year, but no standing water in the summer months. reproduction of red gum [illustration: fig. . second growth red gum, ash, cottonwood, and sycamore.] red gum reproduces both by seed and by sprouts (see fig. ). it produces seed fairly abundantly every year, but about once in three years there is an extremely heavy production. the tree begins to bear seed when twenty-five to thirty years old, and seeds vigorously up to an age of one hundred and fifty years, when its productive power begins to diminish. a great part of the seed, however, is abortive. red gum is not fastidious in regard to its germinating bed; it comes up readily on sod in old fields and meadows, on decomposing humus in the forest, or on bare clay-loam or loamy sand soil. it requires a considerable degree of light, however, and prefers a moist seed bed. the natural distribution of the seed takes place for several hundred feet from the seed trees, the dissemination depending almost entirely on the wind. a great part of the seed falls on the hardwood bottom when the land is flooded, and is either washed away or, if already in the ground and germinating, is destroyed by the long-continued overflow. after germinating, the red gum seedling demands, above everything else, abundant light for its survival and development. it is for this reason that there is very little growth of red gum, either in the unculled forest or on culled land, where, as is usually the case, a dense undergrowth of cane, briers, and rattan is present. under the dense underbrush of cane and briers throughout much of the virgin forest, reproduction of any of the merchantable species is of course impossible. and even where the land has been logged over, the forest is seldom open enough to allow reproduction of cottonwood and red gum. where, however, seed trees are contiguous to pastures or cleared land, scattered seedlings are found springing up in the open, and where openings occur in the forest, there are often large numbers of red gum seedlings, the reproduction generally occurring in groups. but over the greater part of the southern hardwood bottom land forest reproduction is very poor. the growth of red gum during the early part of its life, and up to the time it reaches a diameter of eight inches breast-high, is extremely rapid, and, like most of the intolerant species, it attains its height growth at an early period. gum sprouts readily from the stump, and the sprouts surpass the seedlings in rate of height growth for the first few years, but they seldom form large timber trees. those over fifty years of age seldom sprout. for this reason sprout reproduction is of little importance in the forest. the principal requirements of red gum, then, are a moist, fairly rich soil and good exposure to light. without these it will not reach its best development. [illustration: fig. . a cypress slough in the dry season.] second-growth red gum second-growth red gum occurs to any considerable extent only on land which has been thoroughly cleared. throughout the south there is a great deal of land which was in cultivation before the civil war, but which during the subsequent period of industrial depression was abandoned and allowed to revert to forest. these old fields now mostly covered with second-growth forest, of which red gum forms an important part (see fig. ). frequently over fifty per cent of the stand consists of this species, but more often, and especially on the atlantic coast, the greater part is of cottonwood or ash. these stands are very dense, and the growth is extremely rapid. small stands of young growth are also often found along the edges of cultivated fields. in the mississippi valley the abandoned fields on which young stands have sprung up are for the most part being rapidly cleared again. the second growth here is considered of little value in comparison with the value of the land for agricultural purposes. in many cases, however, the farm value of the land is not at present sufficient to make it profitable to clear it, unless the timber cut will at least pay for the operation. there is considerable land upon which the second growth will become valuable timber within a few years. such land should not be cleared until it is possible to utilize the timber. = . tupelo gum= (_nyssa aquatica_) (bay poplar, swamp poplar, cotton gum, hazel pine, circassian walnut, pepperidge, nyssa). the close similarity which exists between red and tupelo gum, together with the fact that tupelo is often cut along with red gum, and marketed with the sapwood of the latter, makes it not out of place to give consideration to this timber. the wood has a fine, uniform texture, is moderately hard and strong, is stiff, not elastic, very tough and hard to split, but easy to work with tools. tupelo takes glue, paint, or varnish well, and absorbs very little of the material. in this respect it is equal to yellow poplar and superior to cottonwood. the wood is not durable in contact with ground, and requires much care in seasoning. the distinction between the heartwood and sapwood of this species is marked. the former varies in color from a dull gray to a dull brown; the latter is whitish or light yellow like that of poplar. the wood is of medium weight, about thirty-two pounds per cubic foot when dry, or nearly that of red gum and loblolly pine. after seasoning it is difficult to distinguish the better grades of sapwood from poplar. owing to the prejudice against tupelo gum, it was until recently marketed under such names as bay poplar, swamp poplar, nyssa, cotton gum, circassian walnut, and hazel pine. since it has become evident that the properties of the wood fit it for many uses, the demand for tupelo has largely increased, and it is now taking rank with other standard woods under its rightful name. heretofore the quality and usefulness of this wood were greatly underestimated, and the difficulty of handling it was magnified. poor success in seasoning and kiln-drying was laid to defects of the wood itself, when, as a matter of fact, the failures were largely due to the absence of proper methods in handling. the passing of this prejudice against tupelo is due to a better understanding of the characteristics and uses of the wood. handled in the way in which its particular character demands, tupelo is a wood of much value. uses of tupelo gum tupelo gum is now used in slack cooperage, principally for heading. it is used extensively for house flooring and inside finishing, such as mouldings, door jambs, and casings. a great deal is now shipped to european countries, where it is highly valued for different classes of manufacture. much of the wood is used in the manufacture of boxes, since it works well upon rotary veneer machines. there is also an increasing demand for tupelo for laths, wooden pumps, violin and organ sounding boards, coffins, mantelwork, conduits and novelties. it is also used in the furniture trade for backing, drawers, and panels. range of tupelo gum tupelo occurs throughout the coastal region of the atlantic states, from southern virginia to northern florida, through the gulf states to the valley of the nueces river in texas, through arkansas and southern missouri to western kentucky and tennessee, and to the valley of the lower wabash river. tupelo is being extensively milled at present only in the region adjacent to mobile ala., and in southern and central louisiana, where it occurs in large merchantable quantities, attaining its best development in the former locality. the country in this locality is very swampy (see fig. ), and within a radius of one hundred miles tupelo gum is one of the principal timber trees. it grows only in the swamps and wetter situations (see fig. ), often in mixture with cypress, and in the rainy season it stands in from two to twenty feet of water. = . black gum= (_nyssa sylvatica_) (sour gum). black gum is not cut to much extent, owing to its less abundant supply and poorer quality, but is used for repair work on wagons, for boxes, crates, wagon hubs, rollers, bowls, woodenware, and for cattle yokes and other purposes which require a strong, non-splitting wood. heartwood is light brown in color, often nearly white; sapwood hardly distinguishable, fine grain, fibres interwoven. wood is heavy, not hard, difficult to work, strong, very tough, checks and warps considerably in drying, not durable. it is distributed from maine to southern ontario, through central michigan to southeastern missouri, southward to the valley of the brazos river in texas, and eastward to the kissimmee river and tampa bay in florida. it is found in the swamps and hardwood bottoms, but is more abundant and of better size on the slightly higher ridges and hummocks in these swamps, and on the mountain slopes in the southern alleghany region. though its range is greater than that of either red or tupelo gum, it nowhere forms an important part of the forest. hackberry = . hackberry= (_celtis occidentalis_) (sugar berry, nettle tree). the wood is handsome, heavy, hard, strong, quite tough, of moderately fine texture, and greenish or yellowish color, shrinks moderately, works well and stands well, and takes a good polish. used to some extent in cooperage, and in the manufacture of cheap furniture. medium- to large-sized tree, locally quite common, largest in the lower mississippi valley. occurs in nearly all parts of the eastern united states. hickory the hickories of commerce are exclusively north american and some of them are large and beautiful trees of to feet or more in height. they are closely allied to the walnut, and the wood is very like walnut in grain and color, though of a somewhat darker brown. it is one of the finest of american hardwoods in point of strength; in toughness it is superior to ash, rather coarse in texture, smooth and of straight grain, very heavy and strong as well as elastic and tenacious, but decays rapidly, especially the sapwood when exposed to damp and moisture, and is very liable to attack from worms and boring insects. the cross-section of hickory is peculiar, the annual rings appear like fine lines instead of like the usual pores, and the medullary rays, which are also very fine but distinct, in crossing these form a peculiar web-like pattern which is one of the characteristic differences between hickory and ash. hickory is rarely subjected to artificial treatment, but there is this curious fact in connection with the wood, that, contrary to most other woods, creosote is only with difficulty injected into the sap, although there is no difficulty in getting it into the heartwood. it dries slowly, shrinks and checks considerably in seasoning; is not durable in contact with the soil or if exposed. hickory excels as wagon and carriage stock, for hoops in cooperage, and is extensively used in the manufacture of implements and machinery, for tool handles, timber pins, harness work, dowel pins, golf clubs, and fishing rods. the hickories are tall trees with slender stems, never forming forests, occasionally small groves, but usually occur scattered among other broad-leaved trees in suitable localities. the following species all contribute more or less to the hickory of the markets: = . shagbark hickory= (_hicoria ovata_) (shellbark hickory, scalybark hickory). a medium- to large-sized tree, quite common; the favorite among the hickories. heartwood light brown, sapwood ivory or cream-colored. wood close-grained, compact structure, annual rings clearly marked. very hard, heavy, strong, tough, and flexible, but not durable in contact with the soil or when exposed. used for agricultural implements, wheel runners, tool handles, vehicle parts, baskets, dowel pins, harness work, golf clubs, fishing rods, etc. best developed in the ohio and mississippi basins; from lake ontario to texas, minnesota to florida. = . mockernut hickory= (_hicoria alba_) (black nut hickory, black hickory, bull nut hickory, big bud hickory, white heart hickory). a medium- to large-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similar to the preceding. its range is the same as that of _hicoria ovata_. common, especially in the south. = . pignut hickory= (_hicoria glabra_) (brown hickory, black hickory, switchbud hickory). a medium- to large-sized tree. heavier and stronger than any of the preceding. heartwood light to dark brown, sapwood nearly white. abundant, all eastern united states. = . bitternut hickory= (_hicoria minima_) (swamp hickory). a medium-sized tree, favoring wet localities. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. wood in its quality and uses not so valuable as _hicoria ovata_, but is used for the same purposes. abundant, all eastern united states. = . pecan= (_hicoria pecan_) (illinois nut). a large tree, very common in the fertile bottoms of the western streams. indiana to nebraska and southward to louisiana and texas. holly = . holly= (_ilex opaca_). small to medium-sized tree. wood of medium weight, hard, strong, tough, of exceedingly fine grain, closer in texture than most woods, of white color, sometimes almost as white as ivory; requires great care in its treatment to preserve the whiteness of the wood. it does not readily absorb foreign matter. much used by turners and for all parts of musical instruments, for handles on whips and fancy articles, draught-boards, engraving blocks, cabinet work, etc. the wood is often dyed black and sold as ebony; works well and stands well. most abundant in the lower mississippi valley and gulf states, but occurring eastward to massachusetts and north to indiana. = . holly= (_ilex monticolo_) (mountain holly). small-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similar to the preceding, but is not very generally known. it is found in the catskill mountains and extends southward along the alleghanies as far as alabama. horse chestnut (see buckeye) ironwood = . ironwood= (_ostrya virginiana_) (hop hornbeam, lever wood). small-sized tree, common. heartwood light brown tinged with red, sapwood nearly white. wood heavy, tough, exceedingly close-grained, very strong and hard, durable in contact with the soil, and will take a fine polish. used for small articles like levers, handles of tools, mallets, etc. ranges throughout the united states east of the rocky mountains. laurel = . laurel= (_umbellularia californica_) (myrtle). a western tree, produces timber of light brown color of great size and beauty, and is very valuable for cabinet and inside work, as it takes a fine polish. california and oregon, coast range of the sierra nevada mountains. locust = . black locust= (_robinia pseudacacia_) (locust, yellow locust, acacia). small to medium-sized tree. wood very heavy, hard, strong, and tough, rivalling some of the best oak in this latter quality. the wood has great torsional strength, excelling most of the soft woods in this respect, of coarse texture, close-grained and compact structure, takes a fine polish. annual rings clearly marked, very durable in contact with the soil, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, the very narrow sapwood greenish yellow, the heartwood brown, with shades of red and green. used for wagon hubs, trenails or pins, but especially for railway ties, fence posts, and door sills. also used for boat parts, turnery, ornamentations, and locally for construction. abroad it is much used for furniture and farming implements and also in turnery. at home in the alleghany mountains, extensively planted, especially in the west. = . honey locust= (_gleditschia triacanthos_) (honey shucks, locust, black locust, brown locust, sweet locust, false acacia, three-thorned acacia). a medium-sized tree. wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, durable in contact with the soil, of coarse texture, susceptible to a good polish. the narrow sapwood yellow, the heartwood brownish red. so far, but little appreciated except for fences and fuel. used to some extent for wheel hubs, and locally in rough construction. found from pennsylvania to nebraska, and southward to florida and texas; locally quite abundant. = . locust= (_robinia viscosa_) (clammy locust). usually a shrub five or six feet high, but known to reach a height of feet in the mountains of north carolina, with the habit of a tree. wood light brown, heavy, hard, and close-grained. not used to much extent in manufacture. range same as the preceding. magnolia = . magnolia= (_magnolia glauca_) (swamp magnolia, small magnolia, sweet bay, beaver wood). small-sized tree. heartwood reddish brown, sap wood cream white. sparingly used in manufacture. ranges from essex county, mass., to long island, n. y., from new jersey to florida, and west in the gulf region to texas. = . magnolia= (_magnolia tripetala_) (umbrella tree). a small-sized tree. wood in its quality similiar to the preceding. it may be easily recognized by its great leaves, twelve to eighteen inches long, and five to eight inches broad. this species as well as the preceding is an ornamental tree. ranges from pennsylvania southward to the gulf. = . cucumber tree= (_magnolia accuminata_) (tulip-wood, poplar). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood yellowish brown, sapwood almost white. wood light, soft, satiny, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil, resembling and sometimes confounded with tulip tree (_liriodendron tulipifera_) in the markets. the wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without much injury, and works and stands well. it bends readily when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. used in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finishing lumber in house, car and shipbuilding, etc., also in the manufacture of toys, culinary woodenware, and backing for drawers. most common in the southern alleghanies, but distributed from western new york to southern illinois, south through central kentucky and tennessee to alabama, and throughout arkansas. maple wood heavy, hard, strong, stiff, and tough, of fine texture, frequently wavy-grained, this giving rise to "curly" and "blister" figures which are much admired. not durable in the ground, or when exposed. maple is creamy white, with shades of light brown in the heartwood, shrinks moderately, seasons, works, and stands well, wears smoothly, and takes a fine polish. the wood is used in cooperage, and for ceiling, flooring, panelling, stairway, and other finishing lumber in house, ship, and car construction. it is used for the keels of boats and ships, in the manufacture of implements and machinery, but especially for furniture, where entire chamber sets of maple rival those of oak. maple is also used for shoe lasts and other form blocks; for shoe pegs; for piano actions, school apparatus, for wood type in show bill printing, tool handles, in wood carving, turnery, and scroll work, in fact it is one of our most useful woods. the maples are medium-sized trees, of fairly rapid growth, sometimes form forests, and frequently constitute a large proportion of the arborescent growth. they grow freely in parts of the northern hemisphere, and are particularly luxuriant in canada and the northern portions of the united states. = . sugar maple= (_acer saccharum_) (hard maple, rock maple). medium- to large-sized tree, very common, forms considerable forests, and is especially esteemed. the wood is close-grained, heavy, fairly hard and strong, of compact structure. heartwood brownish, sapwood lighter color; it can be worked to a satin-like surface and take a fine polish, it is not durable if exposed, and requires a good deal of seasoning. medullary rays small but distinct. the "curly" or "wavy" varieties furnish wood of much beauty, the peculiar contortions of the grain called "bird's eye" being much sought after, and used as veneer for panelling, etc. it is used in all good grades of furniture, cabinetmaking, panelling, interior finish, and turnery; it is not liable to warp and twist. it is also largely used for flooring, for rollers for wringers and mangling machines, for which there is a large and increasing demand. the peculiarity known as "bird's eye," and which causes a difficulty in working the wood smooth, owing to the little pieces like knots lifting up, is supposed to be due to the action of boring insects. its resistance to compression across the grain is higher than that of most other woods. ranges from maine to minnesota, abundant, with birch, in the region of the great lakes. = . red maple= (_acer rubrum_) (swamp maple, soft maple, water maple). medium-sized tree. like the preceding but not so valuable. scattered along water-courses and other moist localities. abundant. maine to minnesota, southward to northern florida. = . silver maple= (_acer saccharinum_) (soft maple, white maple, silver-leaved maple). medium- to large-sized tree, common. wood lighter, softer, and inferior to _acer saccharum_, and usually offered in small quantities and held separate in the markets. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood ivory white, fine-grained, compact structure. fibres sometimes twisted, weaved, or curly. not durable. used in cooperage for woodenware, turnery articles, interior decorations and flooring. valley of the ohio, but occurs from maine to dakota and southward to florida. = . broad-leaved maple= (_acer macrophyllum_) (oregon maple). medium-sized tree, forms considerable forests, and, like the preceding has a lighter, softer, and less valuable wood than _acer saccharum_. pacific coast regions. = . mountain maple= (_acer spicatum_). small-sized tree. heartwood pale reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. wood light, soft, close-grained, and susceptible of high polish. ranges from lower st. lawrence river to northern minnesota and regions of the saskatchewan river; south through the northern states and along the appalachian mountains to georgia. = . ash-leaved maple= (_acer negundo_) (box elder). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood creamy white, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, close-grained, not strong. used for woodenware and paper pulp. distributed across the continent, abundant throughout the mississippi valley along banks of streams and borders of swamps. = . striped maple= (_acer pennsylvanicum_) (moose-wood). small-sized tree. produces a very white wood much sought after for inlaid and for cabinet work. wood is light, soft, close-grained, and takes a fine polish. not common. occurs from pennsylvania to minnesota. mulberry = . red mulberry= (_morus rubra_). a small-sized tree. wood moderately heavy, fairly hard and strong, rather tough, of coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil. the sapwood whitish, heartwood yellow to orange brown, shrinks and checks considerably in drying, works well and stands well. used in cooperage and locally in construction, and in the manufacture of farm implements. common in the ohio and mississippi valleys, but widely distributed in the eastern united states. myrtle (see laurel) oak wood very variable, usually very heavy and hard, very strong and tough, porous, and of coarse texture. the sapwood whitish, the heartwood "oak" to reddish brown. it shrinks and checks badly, giving trouble in seasoning, but stands well, is durable, and little subject to the attacks of boring insects. oak is used for many purposes, and is the chief wood used for tight cooperage; it is used in shipbuilding, for heavy construction, in carpentry, in furniture, car and wagon work, turnery, and even in woodcarving. it is also used in all kinds of farm implements, mill machinery, for piles and wharves, railway ties, etc., etc. the oaks are medium- to large-sized trees, forming the predominant part of a large proportion of our broad-leaved forests, so that these are generally termed "oak forests," though they always contain considerable proportion of other kinds of trees. three well-marked kinds--white, red, and live oak--are distinguished and kept separate in the markets. of the two principal kinds "white oak" is the stronger, tougher, less porous, and more durable. "red oak" is usually of coarser texture, more porous, often brittle, less durable, and even more troublesome in seasoning than white oak. in carpentry and furniture work red oak brings the same price at present as white oak. the red oaks everywhere accompany the white oaks, and, like the latter, are usually represented by several species in any given locality. "live oak," once largely employed in shipbuilding, possesses all the good qualities, except that of size, of white oak, even to a greater degree. it is one of the heaviest, hardest, toughest, and most durable woods of this country. in structure it resembles the red oak, but is less porous. = . white oak= (_quercus alba_) (american oak). medium-to large-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. annual rings well marked, medullary rays broad and prominent. wood tough, strong, heavy, hard, liable to check in seasoning, durable in contact with the soil, takes a high polish, very elastic, does not shrink much, and can be bent to any form when steamed. used for agricultural implements, tool handles, furniture, fixtures, interior finish, car and wagon construction, beams, cabinet work, tight cooperage, railway ties, etc., etc. because of the broad medullary rays, it is generally "quarter-sawn" for cabinet work and furniture. common in the eastern states, ohio and mississippi valleys. occurs throughout the eastern united states. = . white oak= (_quercus durandii_). medium- to small-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similiar to the preceding. texas, eastward to alabama. = . white oak= (_quercus garryana_) (western white oak). medium- to large-sized tree. stronger, more durable, and wood more compact than _quercus alba_. washington to california. = . white oak= (_quercus lobata_). medium- to large-sized tree. largest oak on the pacific coast. wood in its quality and uses similar to _quercus alba_, only it is finer-grained. california. = . bur oak= (_quercus macrocarpa_) (mossy-cup oak, over-cup oak). large-sized tree. heartwood "oak" brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, strong, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. used in ship- and boatbuilding, all sorts of construction, interior finish of houses, cabinet work, tight cooperage, carriage and wagon work, agricultural implements, railway ties, etc., etc. one of the most valuable and most widely distributed of american oaks, to feet in height, and, unlike most of the other oaks, adapts itself to varying climatic conditions. it is one of the most durable woods when in contact with the soil. common, locally abundant. ranges from manitoba to texas, and from the foot hills of the rocky mountains to the atlantic coast. it is the most abundant oak of kansas and nebraska, and forms the scattered forests known as "the oak openings" of minnesota. = . willow oak= (_quercus phellos_) (peach oak). small to medium-sized tree. heartwood pale reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained. occasionally used in construction. new york to texas, and northward to kentucky. = . swamp white oak= (_quercus bicolor_ var. _platanoides_). large-sized tree. heartwood pale brown, sapwood the same color. wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, coarse-grained, checks considerably in seasoning. used in construction, interior finish of houses, carriage-and boatbuilding, agricultural implements, in cooperage, railway ties, fencing, etc., etc. ranges from quebec to georgia and westward to arkansas. never abundant. most abundant in the lake states. = . over-cup oak= (_quercus lyrata_) (swamp white oak, swamp post oak). medium to large-sized tree, rather restricted, as it grows in the swampy districts of carolina and georgia. is a larger tree than most of the other oaks, and produces an excellent timber, but grows in districts difficult of access, and is not much used. lower mississippi and eastward to delaware. = . pin oak= (_quercus palustris_) (swamp spanish oak, water oak). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood pale brown with dark-colored sap wood. wood heavy, strong, and coarse-grained. common along the borders of streams and swamps, attains its greatest size in the valley of the ohio. arkansas to wisconsin, and eastward to the alleghanies. = . water oak= (_quercus aquatica_) (duck oak, possum oak). medium- to large-sized tree, of extremely rapid growth. eastern gulf states, eastward to delaware and northward to missouri and kentucky. = . chestnut oak= (_quercus prinus_) (yellow oak, rock oak, rock chestnut oak). heartwood dark brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, tough, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. used for railway ties, fencing, fuel, and locally for construction. ranges from maine to georgia and alabama, westward through ohio, and southward to kentucky and tennessee. = . yellow oak= (_quercus acuminata_) (chestnut oak, chinquapin oak). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood dark brown, sapwood pale brown. wood heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, durable in contact with the soil. used in the manufacture of wheel stock, in cooperage, for railway ties, fencing, etc., etc. ranges from new york to nebraska and eastern kansas, southward in the atlantic region to the district of columbia, and west of the alleghanies southward to the gulf states. = . chinquapin oak= (_quercus prinoides_) (dwarf chinquapin oak, scrub chestnut oak). small-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood darker color. does not enter the markets to any great extent. ranges from massachusetts to north carolina, westward to missouri, nebraska, kansas, and eastern texas. reaches its best form in missouri and kansas. = . basket oak= (_quercus michauxii_) (cow oak). large-sized tree. locally abundant. lower mississippi and eastward to delaware. = . scrub oak= (_quercus ilicifolia_ var. _pumila_) (bear oak). small-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood darker color. wood heavy, hard, strong, and coarse-grained. found in new england and along the alleghanies. = . post oak= (_quercus obtusiloda_ var. _minor_) (iron oak). medium- to large-sized tree, gives timber of great strength. the color is of a brownish yellow hue, close-grained, and often superior to the white oak (_quercus alba_) in strength and durability. it is used for posts and fencing, and locally for construction. arkansas to texas, eastward to new england and northward to michigan. = . red oak= (_quercus rubra_) (black oak). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood light brown to red, sapwood lighter color. wood coarse-grained, well-marked annual rings, medullary rays few but broad. wood heavy, hard, strong, liable to check in seasoning. it is found over the same range as white oak, and is more plentiful. wood is spongy in grain, moderately durable, but unfit for work requiring strength. used for agricultural implements, furniture, bob sleds, vehicle parts, boxes, cooperage, woodenware, fixtures, interior finish, railway ties, etc., etc. common in all parts of its range. maine to minnesota, and southward to the gulf. = . black oak= (_quercus tinctoria_ var. _velutina_) (yellow oak). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood bright brown tinged with red, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, checks considerably in seasoning. very common in the southern states, but occurring north as far as minnesota, and eastward to maine. = . barren oak= (_quercus nigra_ var. _marilandica_) (black jack, jack oak). small-sized tree. heartwood dark brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, not valuable. used in the manufacture of charcoal and for fuel. new york to kansas and nebraska, and southward to florida. rare in the north, but abundant in the south. = . shingle oak= (_quercus imbricaria_) (laurel oak). small to medium-sized tree. heartwood pale reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, checks considerably in drying. used for shingles and locally for construction. rare in the east, most abundant in the lower ohio valley. from new york to illinois and southward. reaches its greatest size in southern illinois and indiana. = . spanish oak= (_quercus digitata_ var. _falcata_) (red oak). medium-sized tree. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood much lighter. wood heavy, hard, strong, coarse-grained, and checks considerably in seasoning. used locally for construction, and has high fuel value. common in south atlantic and gulf region, but found from texas to new york, and northward to missouri and kentucky. = . scarlet oak= (_quercus coccinea_). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood light reddish-brown, sapwood darker color. wood heavy, hard, strong, and coarse-grained. best developed in the lower basin of the ohio, but found from minnesota to florida. = . live oak= (_quercus virens_) (maul oak). medium- to large-sized tree. grows from maryland to the gulf of mexico, and often attains a height of feet and feet in diameter. the wood is hard, strong, and durable, but of rather rapid growth, therefore not as good quality as _quercus alba_. the live oak of florida is now reserved by the united states government for naval purposes. used for mauls and mallets, tool handles, etc., and locally for construction. scattered along the coast from maryland to texas. = . live oak= (_quercus chrysolepis_) (maul oak, valparaiso oak). medium- to small-sized tree. california. osage orange = . osage orange= (_maclura aurantiaca_) (bois d'arc). a small-sized tree of fairly rapid growth. wood very heavy, exceedingly hard, strong, not tough, of moderately coarse texture, and very durable and elastic. sapwood yellow, heartwood brown on the end face, yellow on the longitudinal faces, soon turning grayish brown if exposed. it shrinks considerably in drying, but once dry it stands unusually well. much used for wheel stock, and wagon framing; it is easily split, so is unfit for wheel hubs, but is very suitable for wheel spokes. it is considered one of the timbers likely to supply the place of black locust for insulator pins on telegraph poles. seems too little appreciated; it is well suited for turned ware and especially for woodcarving. used for spokes, insulator pins, posts, railway ties, wagon framing, turnery, and woodcarving. scattered through the rich bottoms of arkansas and texas. papaw = . papaw= (_asimina triloba_) (custard apple). small-sized tree, often only a shrub, heartwood pale, yellowish green, sapwood lighter color. wood light, soft, coarse-grained, and spongy. not used to any extent in manufacture. occurs in eastern and central pennsylvania, west as far as michigan and kansas, and south to florida and texas. often forming dense thickets in the lowlands bordering the mississippi river. persimmon = . persimmon= (_diospyros virginiana_). small to medium-sized tree. wood very heavy, and hard, strong and tough; resembles hickory, but is of finer texture and elastic, but liable to split in working. the broad sapwood cream color, the heartwood brown, sometimes almost black. the persimmon is the virginia date plum, a tree of to feet high, and to inches in diameter; it is noted chiefly for its fruit, but it produces a wood of considerable value. used in turnery, for wood engraving, shuttles, bobbins, plane stock, shoe lasts, and largely as a substitute for box (_buxus sempervirens_)--especially the black or mexican variety,--also used for pocket rules and drawing scales, for flutes and other wind instruments. common, and best developed in the lower ohio valley, but occurs from new york to texas and missouri. poplar (see also tulip wood) wood light, very soft, not strong, of fine texture, and whitish, grayish to yellowish color, usually with a satiny luster. the wood shrinks moderately (some cross-grained forms warp excessively), but checks very little in seasoning; is easily worked, but is not durable. used in cooperage, for building and furniture lumber, for crates and boxes (especially cracker boxes), for woodenware, and paper pulp. = . cottonwood= (_populus monilifera_, var. _angulata_) (carolina poplar). large-sized tree, forms considerable forests along many of the western streams, and furnishes most of the cottonwood of the market. heartwood dark brown, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, not strong, and close-grained (see fig. ). mississippi valley and west. new england to the rocky mountains. = . cottonwood= (_populus fremontii_ var. _wislizeni_). medium-to large-sized tree. common. wood in its quality and uses similiar to the preceding, but not so valuable. texas to california. [illustration: fig. . a large cottonwood. one of the associates of red gum.] = . black cottonwood= (_populus trichocarpa_ var. _heterophylla_) (swamp cottonwood, downy poplar). the largest deciduous tree of washington. very common. heartwood dull brown, sapwood lighter brown. wood soft, close-grained. is now manufactured into lumber in the west and south, and used in interior finish of buildings. northern rocky mountains and pacific region. = . poplar= (_populus grandidentata_) (large-toothed aspen). medium-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. wood soft and close-grained, neither strong nor durable. chiefly used for wood pulp. maine to minnesota and southward along the alleghanies. = . white poplar= (_populus alba_) (abele-tree). small to medium-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similar to the preceding. found principally along banks of streams, never forming forests. widely distributed in the united states. = . lombardy poplar= (_populus nigra italica_). medium-to large-sized tree. this species is the first ornamental tree introduced into the united states, and originated in afghanistan. does not enter into the markets. widely planted in the united states. = . balsam= (_populus balsamifera_) (balm of gilead, tacmahac). medium- to large-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, not strong, close-grained. used extensively in the manufacture of paper pulp. common all along the northern boundary of the united states. = . aspen= (_populus tremuloides_) (quaking aspen). small to medium-sized tree, often forming extensive forests, and covering burned areas. heartwood light brown, sapwood nearly white. wood light, soft, close-grained, neither strong nor durable. chiefly used for woodenware, cooperage, and paper pulp. maine to washington and northward, and south in the western mountains to california and new mexico. red gum (see gum) sassafras = . sassafras= (_sassafras sassafras_). medium-sized tree, largest in the lower mississippi valley. wood light, soft, not strong, brittle, of coarse texture, durable in contact with the soil. the sapwood yellow, the heartwood orange brown. used to some extent in slack cooperage, for skiff- and boatbuilding, fencing, posts, sills, etc. occurs from new england to texas and from michigan to florida. sour gum (see gum) sourwood = . sourwood= (_oxydendrum arboreum_) (sorrel-tree). a slender tree, reaching the maximum height of feet. heartwood reddish brown, sapwood lighter color. wood heavy, hard, strong, close-grained, and takes a fine polish. ranges from pennsylvania, along the alleghanies, to florida and alabama, westward through ohio to southern indiana and southward through arkansas and louisiana to the coast. sweet gum (see gum) sycamore = . sycamore= (_platanus occidentalis_) (buttonwood, button-ball tree, plane tree, water beech). a large-sized tree, of rapid growth. one of the largest deciduous trees of the united states, sometimes attaining a height of feet. it produces a timber that is moderately heavy, quite hard, stiff, strong, and tough, usually cross-grained; of coarse texture, difficult to split and work, shrinks moderately, but warps and checks considerably in seasoning, but stands well, and is not considered durable for outside work, or in contact with the soil. it has broad medullary rays, and much of the timber has a beautiful figure. it is used in slack cooperage, and quite extensively for drawers, backs, and bottoms, etc., in furniture work. it is also used for cabinet work, for tobacco boxes, crates, desks, flooring, furniture, ox-yokes, butcher blocks, and also for finishing lumber, where it has too long been underrated. common and largest in the ohio and mississippi valleys, at home in nearly all parts of the eastern united states. = . sycamore= (_platanus racemosa_). the california species, resembling in its wood the eastern form. not used to any great extent. tulip tree = . tulip tree= (_liriodendron tulipifera_) (yellow poplar, tulip wood, white wood, canary wood, poplar, blue poplar, white poplar, hickory poplar). a medium- to large-sized tree, does not form forests, but is quite common, especially in the ohio basin. wood usually light, but varies in weight, it is soft, tough, but not strong, of fine texture, and yellowish color. the wood shrinks considerably, but seasons without much injury, and works and stands extremely well. heartwood light yellow or greenish brown, the sapwood is thin, nearly white, and decays rapidly. the heartwood is fairly durable when exposed to the weather or in contact with the soil. it bends readily when steamed, and takes stain and paint well. the mature forest-grown tree has a long, straight, cylindrical bole, clear of branches for at least two thirds of its length, surmounted by a short, open, irregular crown. when growing in the open, the tree maintains a straight stem, but the crown extends almost to the ground, and is of conical shape. yellow poplar, or tulip wood, ordinarily grows to a height of from to feet, with a diameter of from to feet, and a clear length of about feet. trees have been found feet high and ten feet in diameter. used in cooperage, for siding, for panelling and finishing lumber in houses, car- and shipbuilding, for sideboards, panels of wagons and carriages, for aeroplanes, for automobiles, also in the manufacture of furniture farm implements, machinery, for pump logs, and almost every kind of common woodenware, boxes shelving, drawers, etc., etc. also in the manufacture of toys, culinary woodenware, and backing for veneer. it is in great demand throughout the vehicle and implement trade, and also makes a fair grade of wood pulp. in fact the tulip tree is one of the most useful of woods throughout the woodworking industry of this country. occurs from new england to missouri and southward to florida. tupelo (see gum) waahoo = . waahoo= (_evonymus atropurpureus_). (burning bush, spindle tree). a small-sized tree. wood white, tinged with orange; heavy, hard, tough, and close-grained, works well and stands well. used principally for arrows and spindles. widely distributed. usually a shrub six to ten feet high, becoming a tree only in southern arkansas and oklahoma. walnut = . black walnut= (_juglans nigra_) (walnut). a large, beautiful, and quickly-growing tree, about feet and upwards in height. wood heavy, hard, strong, of coarse texture, very durable in contact with the soil. the narrow sapwood whitish, the heartwood dark, rich, chocolate brown, sometimes almost black; aged trees of fine quality bring fancy prices. the wood shrinks moderately in seasoning, works well and stands well, and takes a fine polish. it is quite handsome, and has been for a long time the favorite wood for cabinet and furniture making. it is used for gun-stocks, fixtures, interior decoration, veneer, panelling, stair newells, and all classes of work demanding a high priced grade of wood. black walnut is a large tree with stout trunk, of rapid growth, and was formerly quite abundant throughout the alleghany region. occurs from new england to texas, and from michigan to florida. not common. white walnut (see butternut) white wood (see tulip and also basswood) white willow = . white willow= (_salix alba_ var. _vitellina_) (willow, yellow willow, blue willow). the wood is very soft, light, flexible, and fairly strong, is fairly durable in contact with the soil, works well and stands well when seasoned. medium-sized tree, characterized by a short, thick trunk, and a large, rather irregular crown composed of many branches. the size of the tree at maturity varies with the locality. in the region where it occurs naturally, a height of to feet, and a diameter of three to four feet are often attained. when planted in the middle west, a height of from to feet, and a diameter of one and one-half to two feet are all that may be expected. when closely planted on moist soil, the tree forms a tall, slender stem, well cleared branches. is widely naturalized in the united states. it is used in cooperage, for woodenware, for cricket and baseball bats, for basket work, etc. charcoal made from the wood is used in the manufacture of gunpowder. it has been generally used for fence posts on the northwestern plains, because of scarcity of better material. well seasoned posts will last from four to seven years. widely distributed throughout the united states. = . black willow= (_salix nigra_). small-sized tree. heartwood light reddish brown, sapwood nearly white. wood soft, light, not strong, close-grained, and very flexible. used in basket making, etc. ranges from new york to rocky mountains and southward to mexico. = . shining willow= (_salix lucida_). a small-sized tree. wood in its quality and uses similiar to the preceding. ranges from newfoundland to rocky mountains and southward to pennsylvania and nebraska. = . perch willow= (_salix amygdaloides_) (almond-leaf willow). small to medium-sized tree. heartwood light brown, sapwood lighter color. wood light, soft, flexible, not strong, close-grained. uses similiar to the preceding. follows the water courses and ranges across the continent; less abundant in new england than elsewhere. common in the west. = . long-leaf willow= (_salix fluviatilis_) (sand bar willow). a small-sized tree. ranges from the arctic circle to northern mexico. = . bebb willow= (_salix bebbiana_ var. _rostrata_). a small-sized tree. more abundant in british america than in the united states, where it ranges southward to pennsylvania and westward to minnesota. = . glaucous willow= (_salix discolor_) (pussy willow). a small-sized tree. common along the banks of streams, and ranges from nova scotia to manitoba, and south to delaware; west to indiana and northwestern missouri. = . crack willow= (_salix fragilis_). a medium to large-sized tree. wood is very soft, light, very flexible and fairly strong, is fairly durable in contact with the soil, works well and stands well. used principally for basket making, hoops, etc., and to produce charcoal for gunpowder. very common, and widely distributed in the united states. = . weeping willow= (_salix babylonica_). medium- to large-sized tree. wood similiar to _salix nigra_, but not so valuable. mostly an ornamental tree. originally came from china. widely planted in the united states. yellow wood = . yellow wood= (_cladrastis lutea_) (virgilia). a small to medium-sized tree. wood yellow to pale brown, heavy, hard, close-grained and strong. not used to much extent in manufacturing. not common. found principally on the limestone cliffs of kentucky, tennessee, and north carolina. section iv grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood different grains of wood the terms "fine-grained," "coarse-grained," "straight-grained," and "cross-grained" are frequently applied in the trade. in common usage, wood is coarse-grained if its annual rings are wide; fine-grained if they are narrow. in the finer wood industries a fine-grained wood is capable of high polish, while a coarse-grained wood is not, so that in this latter case the distinction depends chiefly on hardness, and in the former on an accidental case of slow or rapid growth. generally if the direction of the wood fibres is parallel to the axis of the stem or limb in which they occur, the wood is straight-grained; but in many cases the course of the fibres is spiral or twisted around the tree (as shown in fig. ), and sometimes commonly in the butts of gum and cypress, the fibres of several layers are oblique in one direction, and those of the next series of layers are oblique in the opposite direction. (as shown in fig. the wood is cross or twisted grain.) wavy-grain in a tangential plane as seen on the radial section is illustrated in fig. , which represents an extreme case observed in beech. this same form also occurs on the radial plane, causing the tangential section to appear wavy or in transverse folds. when wavy grain is fine (_i.e._, the folds or ridges small but numerous) it gives rise to the "curly" structure frequently seen in maple. ordinarily, neither wavy, spiral, nor alternate grain is visible on the cross-section; its existence often escapes the eye even on smooth, longitudinal faces in the sawed material, so that the only guide to their discovery lies in splitting the wood in two, in the two normal plains. [illustration: fig. . spiral grain. season checks, after removal of bark, indicate the direction of the fibres or grain of the wood.] [illustration: fig. . alternating spiral grain in cypress. side and end view of same piece. when the bark was at _o_, the grain of this piece was straight. from that time, each year it grew more oblique in one direction, reaching a climax at _a_, and then turned back in the opposite direction. these alternations were repeated periodically, the bark sharing in these changes.] generally the surface of the wood under the bark, and therefore also that of any layer in the interior, is not uniform and smooth, but is channelled and pitted by numerous depressions, which differ greatly in size and form. usually, any one depression or elevation is restricted to one or few annual layers (_i.e._, seen only in one or few rings) and is then lost, being compensated (the surface at the particular spot evened up) by growth. in some woods, however, any depression or elevation once attained grows from year to year and reaches a maximum size, which is maintained for many years, sometimes throughout life. in maple, where this tendency to preserve any particular contour is very great, the depressions and elevations are usually small (commonly less than one-eighth inch) but very numerous. on tangent boards of such wood, the sections, pits, and prominences appear as circlets, and give rise to the beautiful "bird's eye" or "landscape" structure. similiar structures in the burls of black ash, maple, etc., are frequently due to the presence of dormant buds, which cause the surface of all the layers through which they pass to be covered by small conical elevations, whose cross-sections on the sawed board appear as irregular circlets or islets, each with a dark speck, the section of the pith or "trace" of the dormant bud in the center. [illustration: fig. . wavy grain in beech (_after nordlinger_).] in the wood of many broad-leaved trees the wood fibres are much longer when full grown than when they are first formed in the cambium or growing zone. this causes the tips of each fibre to crowd in between the fibres above and below, and leads to an irregular interlacement of these fibres, which adds to the toughness, but reduces the cleavability of the wood. at the juncture of the limb and stem the fibres on the upper and lower sides of the limb behave differently. on the lower side they run from the stem into the limb, forming an uninterrupted strand or tissue and a perfect union. on the upper side the fibres bend aside, are not continuous into the limb, and hence the connection is not perfect (see fig. ). owing to this arrangement of the fibres, the cleft made in splitting never runs into the knot if started on the side above the limb, but is apt to enter the knot if started below, a fact well understood in woodcraft. when limbs die, decay, and break off, the remaining stubs are surrounded, and may finally be covered by the growth of the trunk and thus give rise to the annoying "dead" or "loose" knots. [illustration: fig. . section of wood showing position of the grain at base of a limb. p, pith of both stem and limb; - , seven yearly layers of wood; _a_, _b_, knot or basal part of a limb which lived for four years, then died and broke off near the stem, leaving the part to the left of _a_, _b_, a "sound" knot, the part to the right a "dead" knot, which would soon be entirely covered by the growing stem.] color and odor of wood color, like structure, lends beauty to the wood, aids in its identification, and is of great value in the determination of its quality. if we consider only the heartwood, the black color of the persimmon, the dark brown of the walnut, the light brown of the white oaks, the reddish brown of the red oaks, the yellowish white of the tulip and poplars, the brownish red of the redwood and cedars, the yellow of the papaw and sumac, are all reliable marks of distinction and color. together with luster and weight, they are only too often the only features depended upon in practice. newly formed wood, like that of the outer few rings, has but little color. the sapwood generally is light, and the wood of trees which form no heartwood changes but little, except when stained by forerunners of disease. the different tints of colors, whether the brown of oak, the orange brown of pine, the blackish tint of walnut, or the reddish cast of cedar, are due to pigments, while the deeper shade of the summer-wood bands in pine, cedar, oak, or walnut is due to the fact that the wood being denser, more of the colored wood substance occurs on a given space, _i.e._, there is more colored matter per square inch. wood is translucent, a thin disk of pine permitting light to pass through quite freely. this translucency affects the luster and brightness of lumber. when lumber is attacked by fungi, it becomes more opaque, loses its brightness, and in practice is designated "dead," in distinction to "live" or bright timber. exposure to air darkens all wood; direct sunlight and occasional moistening hasten this change, and cause it to penetrate deeper. prolonged immersion has the same effect, pine wood becoming a dark gray, while oak changes to a blackish brown. odor, like color, depends on chemical compounds, forming no part of the wood substance itself. exposure to weather reduces and often changes the odor, but a piece of long-leaf pine, cedar, or camphor wood exhales apparently as much odor as ever when a new surface is exposed. heartwood is more odoriferous than sapwood. many kinds of wood are distinguished by strong and peculiar odors. this is especially the case with camphor, cedar, pine, oak, and mahogany, and the list would comprise every kind of wood in use were our sense of smell developed in keeping with its importance. decomposition is usually accompanied by pronounced odors. decaying poplar emits a disagreeable odor, while red oak often becomes fragrant, its smell resembling that of heliotrope. weight of wood a small cross-section of wood (as in fig. ) dropped into water sinks, showing that the substance of which wood fibre or wood is built up is heavier than water. by immersing the wood successively in heavier liquids, until we find a liquid in which it does not sink, and comparing the weight of the same with water, we find that wood substance is about . times as heavy as water, and that this is as true of poplar as of oak or pine. [illustration: fig. . cross-section of a group of wood fibres (highly magnified.)] separating a single cell (as shown in fig. , _a_), drying and then dropping it into water, it floats. the air-filled cell cavity or interior reduces its weight, and, like an empty corked bottle, it weighs less than the water. soon, however, water soaks into the cell, when it fills up and sinks. many such cells grown together, as in a block of wood, when all or most of them are filled with water, will float as long as the majority of them are empty or only partially filled. this is why a green, sappy pine pole soon sinks in "driving" (floating down stream). its cells are largely filled before it is thrown in, and but little additional water suffices to make its weight greater than that of the water. in a good-sized white pine log, composed chiefly of empty cells (heartwood), the water requires a very long time to fill up the cells (five years would not suffice to fill them all), and therefore the log may float for many months. when the wall of the wood fibre is very thick (five eighths or more of the volume, as in fig. , _b_), the fibre sinks whether empty or filled. this applies to most of the fibres of the dark summer-wood bands in pines, and to the compact fibres of oak or hickory, and many, especially tropical woods, have such thick-walled cells and so little empty or air space that they never float. [illustration: fig. . isolated fibres of wood.] here, then, are the two main factors of weight in wood; the amount of cell wall or wood substance constant for any given piece, and the amount of water contained in the wood, variable even in the standing tree, and only in part eliminated in drying. the weight of the green wood of any species varies chiefly as a second factor, and is entirely misleading, if the relative weight of different kinds is sought. thus some green sticks of the otherwise lighter cypress and gum sink more readily than fresh oak. the weight of sapwood or the sappy, peripheral part of our common lumber woods is always great, whether cut in winter or summer. it rarely falls much below forty-five pounds, and commonly exceeds fifty-five pounds to the cubic foot, even in our lighter wooded species. it follows that the green wood of a sapling is heavier than that of an old tree, the fresh wood from a disk of the upper part of a tree is often heavier than that of the lower part, and the wood near the bark heavier than that nearer the pith; and also that the advantage of drying the wood before shipping is most important in sappy and light kinds. when kiln-dried, the misleading moisture factor of weight is uniformly reduced, and a fair comparison possible. for the sake of convenience in comparison, the weight of wood is expressed either as the weight per cubic foot, or, what is still more convenient, as specific weight or density. if an old long-leaf pine is cut up (as shown in fig. ) the wood of disk no. is heavier than that of disk no. , the latter heavier than that of disk no. , and the wood of the top disk is found to be only about three fourths as heavy as that of disk no. . similiarly, if disk no. is cut up, as in the figure, the specific weight of the different parts is: _a_, about . _b_, about . _c_, about . _d_, _e_, _f_, about . showing that in this disk at least the wood formed during the many years' growth, represented in piece _a_, is much lighter than that of former years. it also shows that the best wood is the middle part, with its large proportion of dark summer bands. [illustration: fig. . orientation of wood samples.] cutting up all disks in the same way, it will be found that the piece _a_ of the first disk is heavier than the piece _a_ of the fifth, and that piece _c_ of the first disk excels the piece _c_ of all the other disks. this shows that the wood grown during the same number of years is lighter in the upper parts of the stem; and if the disks are smoothed on the radial surfaces and set up one on top of the other in their regular order, for the sake of comparison, this decrease in weight will be seen to be accompanied by a decrease in the amount of summer-wood. the color effect of the upper disks is conspicuously lighter. if our old pine had been cut one hundred and fifty years ago, before the outer, lighter wood was laid on, it is evident that the weight of the wood of any one disk would have been found to increase from the center outward, and no subsequent decrease could have been observed. in a thrifty young pine, then, the wood is heavier from the center outward, and lighter from below upward; only the wood laid on in old age falls in weight below the average. the number of brownish bands of summer-wood are a direct indication of these differences. if an old oak is cut up in the same manner, the butt cut is also found heaviest and the top lightest, but, unlike the disk of pine, the disk of oak has its firmest wood at the center, and each successive piece from the center outward is lighter than its neighbor. examining the pieces, this difference is not as readily explained by the appearance of each piece as in the case of pine wood. nevertheless, one conspicuous point appears at once. the pores, so very distinct in oak, are very minute in the wood near the center, and thus the wood is far less porous. studying different trees, it is found that in the pines, wood with narrow rings is just as heavy as and often heavier than the wood with wider rings; but if the rings are unusually narrow in any part of the disk, the wood has a lighter color; that is, there is less summer-wood and therefore less weight. in oak, ash, or elm trees of thrifty growth, the rings, fairly wide (not less than one-twelfth inch), always form the heaviest wood, while any piece with very narrow rings is light. on the other hand, the weight of a piece of hard maple or birch is quite independent of the width of its rings. the bases of limbs (knots) are usually heavy, very heavy in conifers, and also the wood which surrounds them, but generally the wood of the limbs is lighter than that of the stem, and the wood of the roots is the lightest. in general, it may be said that none of the native woods in common use in this country are when dry as heavy as water, _i.e._, sixty-two pounds to the cubic foot. few exceed fifty pounds, while most of them fall below forty pounds, and much of the pine and other coniferous wood weigh less than thirty pounds per cubic foot. the weight of the wood is in itself an important quality. weight assists in distinguishing maple from poplar. lightness coupled with great strength and stiffness recommends wood for a thousand different uses. to a large extent weight predicates the strength of the wood, at least in the same species, so that a heavy piece of oak will exceed in strength a light piece of the same species, and in pine it appears probable that, weight for weight, the strength of the wood of various pines is nearly equal. weight of kiln-dried wood of different species -----------------------------------------+---------------------------- | approximate |----------+----------------- | | weight of | |---------+------- species | specific | | , | weight | cubic | feet | | foot | lumber -----------------------------------------+----------+---------+------- (_a_) very heavy woods: | | | hickory, oak, persimmon, osage orange, | | | black locust, hackberry, blue beech, | | | best of elm and ash | . - . | - | , (_b_) heavy woods | | | ash, elm, cherry, birch, maple, beech, | | | walnut, sour gum, coffee tree, honey | | | locust, best of southern pine and | | | tamarack | . - . | - | , (_c_) woods of medium weight: | | | southern pine, pitch pine, tamarack, | | | douglas spruce, western hemlock, | | | sweet gum, soft maple, sycamore, | | | sassafras, mulberry, light grades of | | | birch and cherry | . - . | - | , (_d_) light woods: | | | norway and bull pine, red cedar, | | | cypress, hemlock, the heavier spruces | | | and firs, redwood, basswood, chestnut, | | | butternut, tulip, catalpa, buckeye, | | | heavier grades of poplar | . - . | - | , (_e_) very light woods: | | | white pine, spruce, fir, white cedar, | | | poplar | . - . | - | , -----------------------------------------+----------+---------+------- "figure" in wood many theories have been propounded as to the cause of "figure" in timber; while it is true that all timber possesses "figure" in some degree, which is more noticeable if it be cut in certain ways, yet there are some woods in which it is more conspicuous than in others, and which for cabinet or furniture work are much appreciated, as it adds to the value of the work produced. the characteristic "figure" of oak is due to the broad and deep medullary rays so conspicuous in this timber, and the same applies to honeysuckle. figure due to the same cause is found in sycamore and beech, but is not so pronounced. the beautiful figure in "bird's eye maple" is supposed to be due to the boring action of insects in the early growth of the tree, causing pits or grooves, which in time become filled up by being overlain by fresh layers of wood growth; these peculiar and unique markings are found only in the older and inner portion of the tree. pitch pine has sometimes a very beautiful "figure," but it generally does not go deep into the timber; walnut has quite a variety of "figures," and so has the elm. it is in mahogany, however, that we find the greatest variety of "figure," and as this timber is only used for furniture and fancy work, a good "figure" greatly enhances its value, as firmly figured logs bring fancy prices. mahogany, unlike the oak, never draws its "figure" from its small and almost unnoticeable medullary rays, but from the twisted condition of its fibres; the natural growth of mahogany produces a straight wood; what is called "figured" is unnatural and exceptional, and thus adds to its value as an ornamental wood. these peculiarities are rarely found in the earlier portion of the tree that is near the center, being in this respect quite different from maple; they appear when the tree is more fully developed, and consist of bundles of woody fibres which, instead of being laid in straight lines, behave in an erratic manner and are deposited in a twisted form; sometimes it may be caused by the intersection of branches, or possibly by the crackling of the bark pressing on the wood, and thus moving it out of its natural straight course, causing a wavy line which in time becomes accentuated. it will have been observed by most people that the outer portion of a tree is often indented by the bark, and the outer rings often follow a sinuous course which corresponds to this indention, but in most trees, after a few years, this is evened up and the annual rings assume their nearly circular form; it is supposed by some that in the case of mahogany this is not the case, and that the indentations are even accentuated. the best figured logs of timber are secured from trees which grow in firm rocky soil; those growing on low-lying or swampy ground are seldom figured. to the practical woodworker the figure in mahogany causes some difficulty in planing the wood to a smooth surface; some portions plane smooth, others are the "wrong way of the grain." figure in wood is effected by the way light is thrown upon it, showing light if seen from one direction, and dark if viewed from another, as may easily be observed by holding a piece of figured mahogany under artificial light and looking at it from opposite directions. the characteristic markings on mahogany are "mottle," which is also found in sycamore, and is conspicuous on the backs of fiddles and violins, and is not in itself valuable; it runs the transverse way of the fibres and is probably the effect of the wind upon the tree in its early stages of growth. "roe," which is said to be caused by the contortion of the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them, is also found in the hollow of bent stems and in the root structure, and when combined with "mottle" is very valuable. "dapple" is an exaggerated form of mottle. "thunder shake," "wind shake," or "tornado shake" is a rupture of the fibres across the grain, which in mahogany does not always break them; the tree swaying in the wind only strains its fibres, and thus produces mottle in the wood. section v enemies of wood from the writer's personal investigations of this subject in different sections of the country, the damage to forest products of various kinds from this cause seems to be far more extensive than is generally recognized. allowing a loss of five per cent on the total value of the forest products of the country, which the writer believes to be a conservative estimate, it would amount to something over $ , , annually. this loss differs from that resulting from insect damage to natural forest resources, in that it represents more directly a loss of money invested in material and labor. in dealing with the insects mentioned, as with forest insects in general, the methods which yield the best results are those which relate directly to preventing attack, as well as those which are unattractive or unfavorable. the insects have two objects in their attack: one is to obtain food, the other is to prepare for the development of their broods. different species of insects have special periods during the season of activity (march to november), when the adults are on the wing in search of suitable material in which to deposit their eggs. some species, which fly in april, will be attracted to the trunks of recently felled pine trees or to piles of pine sawlogs from trees felled the previous winter. they are not attracted to any other kind of timber, because they can live only in the bark or wood of pine, and only in that which is in the proper condition to favor the hatching of their eggs and the normal development of their young. as they fly only in april, they cannot injure the logs of trees felled during the remainder of the year. there are also oak insects, which attack nothing but oak; hickory, cypress, and spruce insects, etc., which have different habits and different periods of flight, and require special conditions of the bark and wood for depositing their eggs or for subsequent development of their broods. some of these insects have but one generation in a year, others have two or more, while some require more than one year for the complete development and transformation. some species deposit their eggs in the bark or wood of trees soon after they are felled or before any perceptible change from the normal living tissue has taken place; other species are attracted only to dead bark and dead wood of trees which have been felled or girdled for several months; others are attracted to dry and seasoned wood; while another class will attack nothing but very old, dry bark or wood of special kinds and under special conditions. thus it will be seen how important it is for the practical man to have knowledge of such of the foregoing facts as apply to his immediate interest in the manufacture or utilization of a given forest product, in order that he may with the least trouble and expense adjust his business methods to meet the requirements for preventing losses. the work of different kinds of insects, as represented by special injuries to forest products, is the first thing to attract attention, and the distinctive character of this work is easily observed, while the insect responsible for it is seldom seen, or it is so difficult to determine by the general observer from descriptions or illustrations that the species is rarely recognized. fortunately, the character of the work is often sufficient in itself to identify the cause and suggest a remedy, and in this section primary consideration is given to this phase of the subject. ambrosia or timber beetles [illustration: fig. . work of ambrosia beetles in tulip or yellow poplar wood. _a_, work of _xyleborus affinis_ and _xyleborus inermis_; _b_, _xyleborus obesus_ and work; _c_, bark; _d_, sapwood; _e_, heartwood.] [illustration: fig. . work of ambrosia beetles in oak. _a_, _monarthrum mali_ and work; _b_, _platypus compositus_ and work; _c_, bark; _d_, sapwood; _e_, heartwood; _f_, character of work in wood from injured log.] the characteristic work of this class of wood-boring beetles is shown in figs. and . the injury consists of pinhole and stained-wood defects in the sapwood and heartwood of recently felled or girdled trees, sawlogs, pulpwood, stave and shingle bolts, green or unseasoned lumber, and staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids. the holes and galleries are made by the adult parent beetles, to serve as entrances and temporary houses or nurseries for the development of their broods of young, which feed on a fungus growing on the walls of the galleries. the growth of this ambrosia-like fungus is induced and controlled by the parent beetles, and the young are dependent upon it for food. the wood must be in exactly the proper condition for the growth of the fungus in order to attract the beetles and induce them to excavate their galleries; it must have a certain degree of moisture and other favorable qualities, which usually prevail during the period involved in the change from living, or normal, to dead or dry wood; such a condition is found in recently felled trees, sawlogs, or like crude products. there are two general types or classes of these galleries: one in which the broods develop together in the main burrows (see fig. ), the other in which the individuals develop in short, separate side chambers, extending at right angles from the primary galleries (see fig. ). the galleries of the latter type are usually accompanied by a distinct staining of the wood, while those of the former are not. the beetles responsible for this work are cylindrical in form, apparently with a head (the prothorax) half as long as the remainder of the body (see figs. , _a_, and , _a_). north american species vary in size from less than one-tenth to slightly more than two-tenths of an inch, while some of the subtropical and tropical species attain a much larger size. the diameter of the holes made by each species corresponds closely to that of the body, and varies from about one-twentieth to one-sixteenth of an inch for the tropical species. round-headed borers [illustration: fig. . work of round-headed and flat-headed borers in pine. _a_, work of round-headed borer, "sawyer," _monohammus spiculatus_, natural size _b_, _ergates spiculatus_; _c_, work of flat-headed borer, _buprestis_, larva and adult; _d_, bark; _e_, sapwood; _f_, heartwood.] the character of the work of this class of wood- and bark-boring grubs is shown in fig. . the injuries consist of irregular flattened or nearly round wormhole defects in the wood, which sometimes result in the destruction of valuable parts of the wood or bark material. the sapwood and heartwood of recently felled trees, sawlogs, poles posts, mine props, pulpwood and cordwood, also lumber or square timber, with bark on the edges, and construction timber in new and old buildings, are injured by wormhole defects, while the valuable parts of stored oak and hemlock tanbark and certain kinds of wood are converted into worm-dust. these injuries are caused by the young or larvae of long-horned beetles. those which infest the wood hatch from eggs deposited in the outer bark of logs and like material, and the minute grubs hatching therefrom bore into the inner bark, through which they extend their irregular burrows, for the purpose of obtaining food from the sap and other nutritive material found in the plant tissue. they continue to extend and enlarge their burrows as they increase in size, until they are nearly or quite full grown. they then enter the wood and continue their excavations deep into the sapwood or heartwood until they attain their normal size. they then excavate pupa cells in which to transform into adults, which emerge from the wood through exit holes in the surface. this class of borers is represented by a large number of species. the adults, however, are seldom seen by the general observer unless cut out of the wood before they have emerged. flat-headed borers the work of the flat-headed borers (fig. ) is only distinguished from that of the preceding by the broad, shallow burrows, and the much more oblong form of the exit holes. in general, the injuries are similiar, and effect the same class of products, but they are of much less importance. the adult forms are flattened, metallic-colored beetles, and represent many species, of various sizes. timber worms [illustration: fig. . work of timber worms in oak. _a_, work of oak timber worm, _eupsalis minuta_; _b_, barked surface; _c_, bark; _d_, sapwood timber worm, _hylocoetus lugubris_, and work; _e_, sapwood.] the character of the work done by this class is shown in fig. . the injury consists of pinhole defects in the sapwood and heartwood of felled trees, sawlogs and like material which have been left in the woods or in piles in the open for several months during the warmer seasons. stave and shingle bolts and closely piled oak lumber and square timbers also suffer from injury of this kind. these injuries are made by elongate, slender worms or larvae, which hatch from eggs deposited by the adult beetles in the outer bark, or, where there is no bark, just beneath the surface of the wood. at first the young larvae bore almost invisible holes for a long distance through the sapwood and heartwood, but as they increase in size the same holes are enlarged and extended until the larvae have attained their full growth. they then transform to adults, and emerge through the enlarged entrance burrows. the work of these timber worms is distinguished from that of the timber beetles by the greater variation in the size of holes in the same piece of wood, also by the fact that they are not branched from a single entrance or gallery, as are those made by the beetles. [illustration: fig. . work of powder post beetle, _sinoxylon basilare_, in hickory poles, showing transverse egg galleries excavated by the adult, _a_, entrance; _b_, gallery; _c_, adult.] [illustration: fig. . work of powder post beetle, _sinoxylon basilare_, in hickory pole. _a_, character of work by larvae; _b_, exit holes made by emerging broods.] powder post borers the character of the work of this class of insects is shown in figs. , , and . the injury consists of closely placed burrows, packed with borings, or a completely destroyed or powdered condition of the wood of seasoned products, such as lumber, crude and finished handle and wagon stock, cooperage and wooden truss hoops, furniture, and inside finish woodwork, in old buildings, as well as in many other crude or finished and utilized woods. this is the work of both the adults and young stages of some species, or of the larval stage alone of others. in the former, the adult beetles deposit their eggs in burrows or galleries excavated for the purpose, as in figs. and , while in the latter (fig. ) the eggs are on or beneath the surface of the wood. the grubs complete the destruction by boring through the solid wood in all directions and packing their burrows with the powdered wood. when they are full grown they transform to the adult, and emerge from the injured material through holes in the surface. some of the species continue to work in the same wood until many generations have developed and emerged or until every particle of wood tissue has been destroyed and the available nutritive substance extracted. [illustration: fig. . work of powder post beetles, _lyctus striatus_, in hickory handles and spokes. _a_, larva; _b_, pupa; _c_, adult; _d_, exit holes; _e_, entrance of larvae (vents for borings are exits of parasites); _f_, work of larvae; _g_, wood, completely destroyed; _h_, sapwood; _i_, heartwood.] conditions favorable for insect injury--crude products--round timber with bark on newly felled trees, sawlogs, stave and heading bolts, telegraph poles, posts, and the like material, cut in the fall and winter, and left on the ground or in close piles during a few weeks or months in the spring or summer, causing them to heat and sweat, are especially liable to injury by ambrosia beetles (figs. and ), round and flat-headed borers (fig. ), and timber worms (fig. ), as are also trees felled in the warm season, and left for a time before working up into lumber. the proper degree of moisture found in freshly cut living or dying wood, and the period when the insects are flying, are the conditions most favorable for attack. this period of danger varies with the time of the year the timber is felled and with the different kinds of trees. those felled in late fall and winter will generally remain attractive to ambrosia beetles, and to the adults of round- and flat-headed borers during march, april, and may. those felled in april to september may be attacked in a few days after they are felled, and the period of danger may not extend over more than a few weeks. certain kinds of trees felled during certain months and seasons are never attacked, because the danger period prevails only when the insects are flying; on the other hand, if the same kinds of trees are felled at a different time, the conditions may be most attractive when the insects are active, and they will be thickly infested and ruined. the presence of bark is absolutely necessary for infestation by most of the wood-boring grubs, since the eggs and young stages must occupy the outer and inner portions before they can enter the wood. some ambrosia and timber worms will, however, attack barked logs, especially those in close piles, and others shaded and protected from rapid drying. the sapwood of pine, spruce, fir, cedar, cypress, and the like softwoods is especially liable to injury by ambrosia beetles, while the heartwood is sometimes ruined by a class of round-headed borers, known as "sawyers." yellow poplar, oak, chestnut, gum, hickory, and most other hardwoods are as a rule attacked by species of ambrosia beetles, sawyers, and timber worms, different from those infesting the pines, there being but very few species which attack both. mahogany and other rare and valuable woods imported from the tropics to this country in the form of round logs, with or without bark on, are commonly damaged more or less seriously by ambrosia beetles and timber worms. it would appear from the writer's investigations of logs received at the mills in this country, that the principal damage is done during a limited period--from the time the trees are felled until they are placed in fresh or salt water for transportation to the shipping points. if, however, the logs are loaded on a vessel direct from the shore, or if not left in the water long enough to kill the insects, the latter will continue their destructive work during transportation to other countries and after they arrive, and until cold weather ensues or the logs are converted into lumber. it was also found that a thorough soaking in sea-water, while it usually killed the insects at the time, did not prevent subsequent attacks by both foreign and native ambrosia beetles; also, that the removal of the bark from such logs previous to immersion did not render them entirely immune. those with the bark off were attacked more than those with it on, owing to a greater amount of saline moisture retained by the bark. how to prevent injury from the foregoing it will be seen that some requisites for preventing these insect injuries to round timber are: . to provide for as little delay as possible between the felling of the tree and its manufacture into rough products. this is especially necessary with trees felled from april to september, in the region north of the gulf states, and from march to november in the latter, while the late fall and winter cutting should all be worked up by march or april. . if the round timber must be left in the woods or on the skidways during the danger period, every precaution should be taken to facilitate rapid drying of the inner bark, by keeping the logs off the ground in the sun, or in loose piles; or else the opposite extreme should be adopted and the logs kept in water. . the immediate removal of all the bark from poles, posts, and other material which will not be seriously damaged by checking or season checks. . to determine and utilize the proper months or seasons to girdle or fell different kinds of trees: bald cypress in the swamps of the south are "girdled" in order that they may die, and in a few weeks or months dry out and become light enough to float. this method has been extensively adopted in sections where it is the only practicable one by which the timber can be transported to the sawmills. it is found, however, that some of these "girdled" trees are especially attractive to several species of ambrosia beetles (figs. and ), round-headed borers (fig. ) and timber worms (fig. ), which cause serious injury to the sapwood or heartwood, while other trees "girdled" at a different time or season are not injured. this suggested to the writer the importance of experiments to determine the proper time to "girdle" trees to avoid losses, and they are now being conducted on an extensive scale by the united states forest service, in co-operation with prominent cypress operators in different sections of the cypress-growing region. saplings saplings, including hickory and other round hoop-poles and similiar products, are subject to serious injuries and destruction by round- and flat-headed borers (fig. ), and certain species of powder post borers (figs. and ) before the bark and wood are dead or dry, and also by other powder post borers (fig. ) after they are dried and seasoned. the conditions favoring attack by the former class are those resulting from leaving the poles in piles or bundles in or near the forest for a few weeks during the season of insect activity, and by the latter from leaving them stored in one place for several months. stave, heading and shingle bolts these are attacked by ambrosia beetles (figs. and ), and the oak timber worm (fig. , _a_), which, as has been frequently reported, cause serious losses. the conditions favoring attack by these insects are similiar to those mentioned under "round timber." the insects may enter the wood before the bolts are cut from the log or afterward, especially if the bolts are left in moist, shady places in the woods, in close piles during the danger period. if cut during the warm season, the bark should be removed and the bolts converted into the smallest practicable size and piled in such manner as to facilitate rapid drying. unseasoned products in the rough freshly sawn hardwood, placed in close piles during warm, damp weather in july and september, presents especially favorable conditions for injury by ambrosia beetles (figs. , _a_, and , _a_). this is due to the continued moist condition of such material. heavy two-inch or three-inch stuff is also liable to attack even in loose piles with lumber or cross sticks. an example of the latter was found in a valuable lot of mahogany lumber of first grade, the value of which was reduced two thirds by injury from a native ambrosia beetle. numerous complaints have been received from different sections of the country of this class of injury to oak, poplar, gum, and other hardwoods. in all cases it is the moist condition and retarded drying of the lumber which induces attack; therefore, any method which will provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or after piling will tend to prevent losses. it is important that heavy lumber should, as far as possible, be cut in the winter months and piled so that it will be well dried out before the middle of march. square timber, stave and heading bolts, with the bark on, often suffer from injuries by flat- or round-headed borers, hatching from eggs deposited in the bark of the logs before they are sawed and piled. one example of serious damage and loss was reported in which white pine staves for paint buckets and other small wooden vessels, which had been sawed from small logs, and the bark left on the edges, were attacked by a round-headed borer, the adults having deposited their eggs in the bark after the stock was sawn and piled. the character of the injury is shown in fig. . another example was reported from a manufacturer in the south, where the pieces of lumber which had strips of bark on one side were seriously damaged by the same kind of borer, the eggs having been deposited in the logs before sawing or in the bark after the lumber was piled. if the eggs are deposited in the logs, and the borers have entered the inner bark or the wood before sawing, they may continue their work regardless of methods of piling, but if such lumber is cut from new logs and placed in the pile while green, with the bark surface up, it will be much less liable to attack than if piled with the bark edges down. this liability of lumber with bark edges or sides to be attacked by insects suggests the importance of the removal of the bark, to prevent damage, or, if this is not practicable, the lumber with the bark on the sides should be piled in open, loose piles with the bark up, while that with the bark on the edges should be placed on the outer edges of the piles, exposed to the light and air. [illustration: fig. . work of round-headed borers, _callidium antennatum_, in white pine bucket staves from new hampshire. _a_, where egg was deposited in bark; _b_, larval mine; _c_, pupal cell; _d_, exit in bark; _e_, adult.] in the southern states it is difficult to keep green timber in the woods or in piles for any length of time, because of the rapidity which wood-destroying fungi attack it. this is particularly true during the summer season, when the humidity is greatest. there is really no easily-applied, general specific for these summer troubles in the handling of wood, but there are some suggestions that are worth while that it may be well to mention. one of these, and the most important, is to remove all the bark from the timber that has been cut, just as soon as possible after felling. and, in this, emphasis should be laid on the all, as a piece of bark no larger than a man's little finger will furnish an entering place for insects, and once they get in, it is a difficult matter to get rid of them, for they seldom stop boring until they ruin the stick. and again, after the timber has been felled and the bark removed, it is well to get it to the mill pond or cut up into merchantable sizes and on to the pile as soon as possible. what is wanted is to get the timber up off the ground, to a place where it can get plenty of air, to enable the sap to dry up before it sours; and, besides, large units of wood are more likely to crack open on the ends from the heat than they would if cut up into the smaller units for merchandizing. a moist condition of lumber and square timber, such as results from close or solid piles, with the bottom layers on the ground or on foundations of old decaying logs or near decaying stumps and logs, offers especially favorable conditions for the attack of white ants. seasoned products in the rough seasoned or dry timber in stacks or storage is liable to injury by powder post borers (fig. ). the conditions favoring attack are: ( ) the presence of a large proportion of sapwood, as in hickory, ash, and similiar woods; ( ) material which is two or more years old, or that which has been kept in one place for a long time; ( ) access to old infested material. therefore, such stock should be frequently examined for evidence of the presence of these insects. this is always indicated by fine, flour-like powder on or beneath the piles, or otherwise associated with such material. all infested material should be at once removed and the infested parts destroyed by burning. dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops these are especially liable to attack and serious injury by powder post borers (fig. ), under the same or similiar conditions as the preceding. staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids these are liable to attack by ambrosia beetles (figs. , _a_, and , _a_), which are attracted by the moist condition and possibly by the peculiar odor of the wood, resembling that of dying sapwood of trees and logs, which is their normal breeding place. there are many examples on record of serious losses of liquors from leakage caused by the beetles boring through the staves and heads of the barrels and casks in cellars and storerooms. the condition, in addition to the moisture of the wood, which is favorable for the presence of the beetles, is proximity to their breeding places, such as the trunks and stumps of recently felled or dying oak, maple, and other hardwood or deciduous trees; lumber yards, sawmills, freshly-cut cordwood, from living or dead trees, and forests of hardwood timber. under such conditions the beetles occur in great numbers, and if the storerooms and cellars in which the barrels are kept stored are damp, poorly ventilated, and readily accessible to them, serious injury is almost certain to follow. section vi water in wood distribution of water in wood local distribution of water in wood as seasoning means essentially the more or less rapid evaporation of water from wood, it will be necessary to discuss at the very outset where water is found in wood, and its local seasonal distribution in a tree. water may occur in wood in three conditions: ( ) it forms the greater part (over per cent) of the protoplasmic contents of the living cells; ( ) it saturates the walls of all cells; and ( ) it entirely or at least partly fills the cavities of the lifeless cells, fibres, and vessels. in the sapwood of pine it occurs in all three forms; in the heartwood only in the second form, it merely saturates the walls. of pounds of water associated with pounds of dry wood substance taken from pounds of fresh sapwood of white pine, about pounds are needed to saturate the cell walls, less than pounds are contained in the living cells, and the remaining pounds partly fill the cavities of the wood fibres. this latter forms the sap as ordinarily understood. the wood next to the bark contains the most water. in the species which do not form heartwood, the decrease toward the pith is gradual, but where heartwood is formed the change from a more moist to a drier condition is usually quite abrupt at the sapwood limit. in long-leaf pine, the wood of the outer one inch of a disk may contain per cent of water, that of the next, or the second inch, only per cent, and that of the heartwood, only per cent. in such a tree the amount of water in any one section varies with the amount of sapwood, and is greater for the upper than the lower cuts, greater for the limbs than the stems, and greatest of all in the roots. different trees, even of the same kind and from the same place, differ as to the amount of water they contain. a thrifty tree contains more water than a stunted one, and a young tree more than on old one, while the wood of all trees varies in its moisture relations with the season of the year. seasonal distribution of water in wood it is generally supposed that trees contain less water in winter than in summer. this is evidenced by the popular saying that "the sap is down in the winter." this is probably not always the case; some trees contain as much water in winter as in summer, if not more. trees normally contain the greatest amount of water during that period when the roots are active and the leaves are not yet out. this activity commonly begins in january, february, and march, the exact time varying with the kind of timber and the local atmospheric conditions. and it has been found that green wood becomes lighter or contains less water in late spring or early summer, when transpiration through the foliage is most rapid. the amount of water at any one season, however, is doubtless much influenced by the amount of moisture in the soil. the fact that the bark peels easily in the spring depends on the presence of incomplete, soft tissue found between wood and bark during this season, and has little to do with the total amount of water contained in the wood of the stem. even in the living tree a flow of sap from a cut occurs only in certain kinds of trees and under special circumstances. from boards, felled timber, etc., the water does not flow out, as is sometimes believed, but must be evaporated. the seeming exceptions to this rule are mostly referable to two causes; clefts or "shakes" will allow water contained in them to flow out, and water is forced out of sound wood, if very sappy, whenever the wood is warmed, just as water flows from green wood when put in a stove. composition of sap the term "sap" is an ambiguous expression. the sap in the tree descends through the bark, and except in early spring is not present in the wood of the tree except in the medullary rays and living tissues in the "sapwood." what flows through the "sapwood" is chiefly water brought from the soil. it is not pure water, but contains many substances in solution, such as mineral salts, and in certain species--maple, birch, etc., it also contains at certain times a small percentage of sugar and other organic matter. the water rises from the roots through the sapwood to the leaves, where it is converted into true "sap" which descends through the bark and feeds the living tissues between the bark and the wood, which tissues make the annual growth of the trunk. the wood itself contains very little true sap and the heartwood none. the wood contains, however, mineral substances, organic acids, volatile oils and gums, as resin, cedar oil, etc. all the conifers--pines, cedars, junipers, cypresses, sequoias, yews, and spruces--contain resin. the sap of deciduous trees--those which shed their leaves at stated seasons--is lacking in this element, and its constituents vary greatly in the different species. but there is one element common to all trees, and for that matter to almost all plant growth, and that is albumen. both resin and albumen, as they exist in the sap of woods, are soluble in water; and both harden with heat, much the same as the white of an egg, which is almost pure albumen. these organic substances are the dissolved reserve food, stored during the winter in the pith rays, etc., of the wood and bark; generally but a mere trace of them is to be found. from this it appears that the solids contained in the sap, such as albumen, gum, sugar, etc., cannot exercise the influence on the strength of the wood which is so commonly claimed for them. effects of moisture on wood the question of the effect of moisture upon the strength and stiffness of wood offers a wide scope for study, and authorities consulted differ in conclusions. two authorities give the tensile strength in pounds per square inch for white oak as , and , , respectively; for spruce, , to , , and other species in similiar startling contrasts. wood, we are told, is composed of organic products. the chief material is cellulose, and this in its natural state in the living plant or green wood contains from to per cent of its weight in moisture. the moisture renders the cellulose substance pliable. what the physical action of the water is upon the molecular structure of organic material, to render it softer and more pliable, is largely a matter of conjecture. the strength of a timber depends not only upon its relative freedom from imperfections, such as knots, crookedness of grain, decay, wormholes or ring-shakes, but also upon its density; upon the rate at which it grew, and upon the arrangement of the various elements which compose it. the factors effecting the strength of wood are therefore of two classes: ( ) those inherent in the wood itself and which may cause differences to exist between two pieces from the same species of wood or even between the two ends of a piece, and ( ) those which are foreign to the wood itself, such as moisture, oils, and heat. though the effect of moisture is generally temporary, it is far more important than is generally realized. so great, indeed, is the effect of moisture that under some conditions it outweighs all the other causes which effect strength, with the exception, perhaps of decided imperfections in the wood itself. the fibre saturation point in wood water exists in green wood in two forms: ( ) as liquid water contained in the cavities of the cells or pores, and ( ) as "imbibed" water intimately absorbed in the substance of which the wood is composed. the removal of the free water from the cells or pores will evidently have no effect upon the physical properties or shrinkage of the wood, but as soon as any of the "imbibed" moisture is removed from the cell walls, shrinkage begins to take place and other changes occur. the strength also begins to increase at this time. the point where the cell walls or wood substance becomes saturated is called the "fibre saturation point," and is a very significant point in the drying of wood. it is easy to remove the free water from woods which will stand a high temperature, as it is only necessary to heat the wood slightly above the boiling point in a closed vessel, which will allow the escape of the steam as it is formed, but will not allow dry air to come in contact with the wood, so that the surface will not become dried below its saturation point. this can be accomplished with most of the softwoods, but not as a rule with the hardwoods, as they are injured by the temperature necessary. the chief difficulties are encountered in evaporating the "imbibed" moisture and also where the free water has to be removed through its gradual transfusion instead of boiling. as soon as the imbibed moisture begins to be extracted from any portion, shrinkage takes place and stresses are set up in the wood which tend to cause checking. the fibre saturation point lies between moisture conditions of and per cent of the dry weight of the wood, depending on the species. certain species of eucalyptus, and probably other woods, however, appear to be exceptional in this respect, in that shrinkage begins to take place at a moisture condition of to per cent of the dry weight. section vii what seasoning is seasoning is ordinarily understood to mean drying. when exposed to the sun and air, the water in green wood rapidly evaporates. the rate of evaporation will depend on: ( ) the kind of wood; ( ) the shape and thickness of the timber; and ( ) the conditions under which the wood is placed or piled. pieces of wood completely surrounded by air, exposed to the wind and the sun, and protected by a roof from rain and snow, will dry out very rapidly, while wood piled or packed close together so as to exclude the air, or left in the shade and exposed to rain and snow, will dry out very slowly and will also be subject to mould and decay. but seasoning implies other changes besides the evaporation of water. although we have as yet only a vague conception as to the exact nature of the difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, it is very probable that one of these consists in changes in the albuminous substances in the wood fibres, and possibly also in the tannins, resins, and other incrusting substances. whether the change in these substances is merely a drying-out, or whether it consists in a partial decomposition is at yet undetermined. that the change during the seasoning process is a profound one there can be no doubt, because experience has shown again and again that seasoned wood fibre is very much more permeable, both for liquids and gases than the living, unseasoned fibre. one can picture the albuminous substances as forming a coating which dries out and possibly disintegrates when the wood dries. the drying-out may result in considerable shrinkage, which may make the wood fibre more porous. it is also possible that there are oxidizing influences at work within these substances which result in their disintegration. whatever the exact nature of the change may be, one can say without hesitation that exposure to the wind and air brings about changes in the wood, which are of such a nature that the wood becomes drier and more permeable. when seasoned by exposure to live steam, similiar changes may take place; the water leaves the wood in the form of steam, while the organic compounds in the walls probably coagulate or disintegrate under the high temperature. the most effective seasoning is without doubt that obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure to the winds and the sun and under cover from the rain and snow, and is what has been termed "air-seasoning." by air-seasoning oak and similiar hardwoods, nature performs certain functions that cannot be duplicated by any artificial means. because of this, woods of this class cannot be successfully kiln-dried green from the saw. in drying wood, the free water within the cells passes through the cell walls until the cells are empty, while the cell walls remain saturated. when all the free water has been removed, the cell walls begin to yield up their moisture. heat raises the absorptive power of the fibres and so aids the passage of water from the interior of the cells. a confusion in the word "sap" is to be found in many discussions of kiln-drying; in some instances it means water, in other cases it is applied to the organic substances held in a water solution in the cell cavities. the term is best confined to the organic substances from the living cell. these substances, for the most part of the nature of sugar, have a strong attraction for water and water vapor, and so retard drying and absorb moisture into dried wood. high temperatures, especially those produced by live steam, appear to destroy these organic compounds and therefore both to retard and to limit the reabsorption of moisture when the wood is subsequently exposed to the atmosphere. air-dried wood, under ordinary atmospheric temperatures, retains from to per cent of moisture, whereas kiln-dried wood may have no more than per cent as it comes from the kiln. the exact figures for a given species depend in the first case upon the weather conditions, and in the second case upon the temperature in the kiln and the time during which the wood is exposed to it. when wood that has been kiln-dried is allowed to stand in the open, it apparently ceases to reabsorb moisture from the air before its moisture content equals that of wood which has merely been air-dried in the same place, and under the same conditions, in other words kiln-dried wood will not absorb as much moisture as air-dried wood under the same conditions. difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood although it has been known for a long time that there is a marked difference in the length of life of seasoned and of unseasoned wood, the consumers of wood have shown very little interest in its seasoning, except for the purpose of doing away with the evils which result from checking, warping, and shrinking. for this purpose both kiln-drying and air-seasoning are largely in use. the drying of material is a subject which is extremely important to most industries, and in no industry is it of more importance than in the lumber trade. timber drying means not only the extracting of so much water, but goes very deeply into the quality of the wood, its workability and its cell strength, etc. kiln-drying, which dries the wood at a uniformly rapid rate by artificially heating it in inclosed rooms, has become a part of almost every woodworking industry, as without it the construction of the finished product would often be impossible. nevertheless much unseasoned or imperfectly seasoned wood is used, as is evidenced by the frequent shrinkage and warping of the finished articles. this is explained to a certain extent by the fact that the manufacturer is often so hard pressed for his product that he is forced to send out an inferior article, which the consumer is willing to accept in that condition rather than to wait several weeks or months for an article made up of thoroughly seasoned material, and also that dry kilns are at present constructed and operated largely without thoroughgoing system. forms of kilns and mode of operation have commonly been copied by one woodworking plant after the example of some neighboring establishment. in this way it has been brought about that the present practices have many shortcomings. the most progressive operators, however, have experimented freely in the effort to secure special results desirable for their peculiar products. despite the diversity of practice, it is possible to find among the larger and more enterprising operators a measure of agreement, as to both methods and results, and from this to outline the essentials of a correct theory. as a result, properly seasoned wood commands a high price, and in some cases cannot be obtained at all. wood seasoned out of doors, which by many is supposed to be much superior to kiln-dried material, is becoming very scarce, as the demand for any kind of wood is so great that it is thought not to pay to hold it for the time necessary to season it properly. how long this state of affairs is going to last it is difficult to say, but it is believed that a reaction will come when the consumer learns that in the long run it does not pay to use poorly seasoned material. such a condition has now arisen in connection with another phase of the seasoning of wood; it is a commonly accepted fact that dry wood will not decay nearly so fast as wet or green wood; nevertheless, the immense superiority of seasoned over unseasoned wood for all purposes where resistance to decay is necessary has not been sufficiently recognized. in the times when wood of all kinds was both plentiful and cheap, it mattered little in most cases how long it lasted or resisted decay. wood used for furniture, flooring, car construction, cooperage, etc., usually got some chance to dry out before or after it was placed in use. the wood which was exposed to decaying influences was generally selected from those woods which, whatever their other qualities might be, would resist decay longest. to-day conditions have changed, so that wood can no longer be used to the same extent as in former years. inferior woods with less lasting qualities have been pressed into service. although haphazard methods of cutting and subsequent use are still much in vogue, there are many signs that both lumbermen and consumers are awakening to the fact that such carelessness and wasteful methods of handling wood will no longer do, and must give way to more exact and economical methods. the reason why many manufacturers and consumers of wood are still using the older methods is perhaps because of long custom, and because they have not yet learned that, though the saving to be obtained by the application of good methods has at all times been appreciable, now, when wood is more valuable, a much greater saving is possible. the increased cost of applying economical methods is really very slight, and is many times exceeded by the value of the increased service which can be secured through its use. manner of evaporation of water the evaporation of water from wood takes place largely through the ends, _i.e._, in the direction of the longitudinal axis of the wood fibres. the evaporation from the other surfaces takes place very slowly out of doors, and with greater rapidity in a dry kiln. the rate of evaporation differs both with the kind of timber and its shape; that is, thin material will dry more rapidly than heavier stock. sapwood dries faster than heartwood, and pine more rapidly than oak or other hardwoods. tests made show little difference in the rate of evaporation in sawn and hewn stock, the results, however, not being conclusive. air-drying out of doors takes from two months to a year, the time depending on the kind of timber, its thickness, and the climatic conditions. after wood has reached an air-dry condition it absorbs water in small quantities after a rain or during damp weather, much of which is immediately lost again when a few warm, dry days follow. in this way wood exposed to the weather will continue to absorb water and lose it for indefinite periods. when soaked in water, seasoned woods absorb water rapidly. this at first enters into the wood through the cell walls; when these are soaked, the water will fill the cell lumen, so that if constantly submerged the wood may become completely filled with water. the following figures show the gain in weight by absorption of several coniferous woods, air-dry at the start, expressed in per cent of the kiln-dry weight: absorption of water by dry wood --------------------------------------------------------------- | white pine | red cedar | hemlock | tamarack --------------------------------------------------------------- air-dried | | | | kiln-dried | | | | in water day | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | in water days | | | | --------------------------------------------------------------- rapidity of evaporation the rapidity with which water is evaporated, that is, the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the piece and on the structure of the wood. an inch board dries more than four times as fast as a four-inch plank, and more than twenty times as fast as a ten-inch timber. white pine dries faster than oak. a very moist piece of pine or oak will, during one hour, lose more than four times as much water per square inch from the cross-section, but only one half as much from the tangential as from the radial section. in a long timber, where the ends or cross-sections form but a small part of the drying surface, this difference is not so evident. nevertheless, the ends dry and shrink first, and being opposed in this shrinkage by the more moist adjoining parts, they check, the cracks largely disappearing as seasoning progresses. high temperatures are very effective in evaporating the water from wood, no matter how humid the air, and a fresh piece of sapwood may lose weight in boiling water, and can be dried to quite an extent in hot steam. in drying chemicals or fabrics, all that is required is to provide heat enough to vaporize the moisture and circulation enough to carry off the vapor thus secured, and the quickest and most economical means to these ends may be used. while on the other hand, in drying wood, whether in the form of standard stock or the finished product, the application of the requisite heat and circulation must be carefully regulated throughout the entire process, or warping and checking are almost certain to result. moreover, wood of different shapes and thicknesses is very differently effected by the same treatment. finally, the tissues composing the wood, which vary in form and physical properties, and which cross each other in regular directions, exert their own peculiar influences upon its behavior during drying. with our native woods, for instance, summer-wood and spring-wood show distinct tendencies in drying, and the same is true in a less degree of heartwood, as contrasted with sapwood. or, again, pronounced medullary rays further complicate the drying problem. physical properties that influence drying the principal properties which render the drying of wood peculiarly difficult are: ( ) the irregular shrinkage; ( ) the different ways in which water is contained; ( ) the manner in which moisture transfuses through the wood from the center to the surface; ( ) the plasticity of the wood substance while moist and hot; ( ) the changes which take place in the hygroscopic and chemical nature of the surface; and ( ) the difference produced in the total shrinkage by different rates of drying. the shrinkage is unequal in different directions and in different portions of the same piece. it is greatest in the circumferential direction of the tree, being generally twice as great in this direction as in the radial direction. in the longitudinal direction, for most woods, it is almost negligible, being from to over times as great circumferentially as longitudinally. there is a great variation in different species in this respect. consequently, it follows from necessity that large internal strains are set up when the wood shrinks, and were it not for its plasticity it would rupture. there is an enormous difference in the total amount of shrinkage of different species of wood, varying from a shrinkage of only per cent in volume, based on the green dimensions, in the case of some of the cedars to nearly per cent in the case of some species of eucalyptus. when the free water in the capillary spaces of the wood fibre is evaporated it follows the laws of evaporation from capillary spaces, except that the passages are not all free passages, and much of the water has to pass out by a process of transfusion through the moist cell walls. these cell walls in the green wood completely surround the cell cavities so that there are no openings large enough to offer a passage to water or air. the well-known "pits" in the cell walls extend through the secondary thickening only, and not through the primary walls. this statement applies to the tracheids and parenchyma cells in the conifer (gymnosperms), and to the tracheids, parenchyma cells, and the wood fibres in the broad-leaved trees (angiosperms); the vessels in the latter, however, form open passages except when clogged by ingrowth called tyloses, and the resin canals in the former sometimes form occasional openings. by heating the wood above the boiling point, corresponding to the external pressure, the free water passes through the cell walls more readily. to remove the moisture from the wood substance requires heat in addition to the latent heat of evaporation, because the molecules of moisture are so intimately associated with the molecules, minute particles composing the wood, that energy is required to separate them therefrom. carefully conducted experiments show this to be from . to . calories per grain of dry wood in the case of beech, long-leaf pine, and sugar maple. the difficulty imposed in drying, however, is not so much the additional heat required as it is in the rate at which the water transfuses through the solid wood. section viii advantages in seasoning three most important advantages of seasoning have already been made apparent: . seasoned timber lasts much longer than unseasoned. since the decay of timber is due to the attacks of wood-destroying fungi, and since the most important condition of the growth of these fungi is water, anything which lessens the amount of water in wood aids in its preservation. . in the case of treated timber, seasoning before treatment greatly increases the effectiveness of the ordinary methods of treatment, and seasoning after treatment prevents the rapid leaching out of the salts introduced to preserve the timber. . the saving in freight where timber is shipped from one place to another. few persons realize how much water green wood contains, or how much it will lose in a comparatively short time. experiments along this line with lodge-pole pine, white oak, and chestnut gave results which were a surprise to the companies owning the timber. freight charges vary considerably in different parts of the country; but a decrease of to per cent in weight is important enough to deserve everywhere serious consideration from those in charge of timber operations. when timber is shipped long distances over several roads, as is coming to be more and more the case, the saving in freight will make a material difference in the cost of lumber operations, irrespective of any other advantages of seasoning. prevention of checking and splitting under present methods much timber is rendered unfit for use by improper seasoning. green timber, particularly when cut during january, february, and march, when the roots are most active, contains a large amount of water. when exposed to the sun and wind or to high temperatures in a drying room, the water will evaporate more rapidly from the outer than from the inner parts of the piece, and more rapidly from the ends than from the sides. as the water evaporates, the wood shrinks, and when the shrinkage is not fairly uniform the wood cracks and splits. when wet wood is piled in the sun, evaporation goes on with such unevenness that the timbers split and crack in some cases so badly as to become useless for the purpose for which it was intended. such uneven drying can be prevented by careful piling, keeping the logs immersed in a log pond until wanted, or by piling or storing under an open shed so that the sun cannot get at them. experiments have also demonstrated that injury to stock in the way of checking and splitting always develops immediately after the stock is taken into the dry kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too low. the receiving end of the kiln should always be kept moist, where the stock has not been steamed before being put into the kiln, as when the air is too dry it tends to dry the outside of the stock first--which is termed "case-hardening"--and in so doing shrinks and closes up the pores. as the material is moved down the kiln (as in the case of "progressive kilns"), it absorbs a continually increasing amount of heat, which tends to drive off the moisture still present in the center of the piece, the pores on the outside having been closed up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being rapidly formed in the center of the piece. it must find its way out in some manner, and in doing so sets up strains, which result either in checking or splitting. if the humidity had been kept higher, the outside of the piece would not have dried so quickly, and the pores would have remained open for the exit of the moisture from the interior of the piece, and this trouble would have been avoided. (see also article following.) shrinkage of wood since in all our woods, cells with thick walls and cells with thin walls are more or less intermixed, and especially as the spring-wood and summer-wood nearly always differ from each other in this respect, strains and tendencies to warp are always active when wood dries out, because the summer-wood shrinks more than the spring-wood, and heavier wood in general shrinks more than light wood of the same kind. if a thin piece of wood after drying is placed upon a moist surface, the cells on the under side of the piece take up moisture and swell before the upper cells receive any moisture. this causes the under side of the piece to become longer than the upper side, and as a consequence warping occurs. soon, however, the moisture penetrates to all the cells and the piece straightens out. but while a thin board of pine curves laterally it remains quite straight lengthwise, since in this direction both shrinkage and swelling are small. if one side of a green board is exposed to the sun, warping is produced by the removal of water and consequent shrinkage of the side exposed; this may be eliminated by the frequent turning of the topmost pieces of the piles in order that they may be dried evenly. as already stated, wood loses water faster from the ends than from the longitudinal faces. hence the ends shrink at a different rate from the interior parts. the faster the drying at the surface, the greater is the difference in the moisture of the different parts, and hence the greater the strains and consequently also the greater amount of checking. this becomes very evident when freshly cut wood is placed in the sun, and still more when put into a hot, dry kiln. while most of these smaller checks are only temporary, closing up again, some large radial checks remain and even grow larger as drying progresses. their cause is a different one and will presently be explained. the temporary checks not only appear at the ends, but are developed on the sides also, only to a much smaller degree. they become especially annoying on the surface of thick planks of hardwoods, and also on peeled logs when exposed to the sun. so far we have considered the wood as if made up only of parallel fibres all placed longitudinally in the log. this, however, is not the case. a large part of the wood is formed by the medullary or pith rays. in pine over , of these occur on a square inch of a tangential section, and even in oak the very large rays, which are readily visible to the eye, represent scarcely a hundredth part of the number which a microscope reveals, as the cells of these rays have their length at right angles to the direction of the wood fibres. if a large pith ray of white oak is whittled out and allowed to dry, it is found to shrink greatly in its width, while, as we have stated, the fibres to which the ray is firmly grown in the wood do not shrink in the same direction. therefore, in the wood, as the cells of the pith ray dry they pull on the longitudinal fibres and try to shorten them, and, being opposed by the rigidity of the fibres, the pith ray is greatly strained. but this is not the only strain it has to bear. since the fibres shrink as much again as the pith ray, in this its longitudinal direction, the fibres tend to shorten the ray, and the latter in opposing this prevents the former from shrinking as much as they otherwise would. thus the structure is subjected to two severe strains at right angles to each other, and herein lies the greatest difficulty of wood seasoning, for whenever the wood dries rapidly these fibres have not the chance to "give" or accommodate themselves, and hence fibres and pith rays separate and checking results, which, whether visible or not, are detrimental in the use of the wood. the contraction of the pith rays parallel to the length of the board is probably one of the causes of the small amount of longitudinal shrinkage which has been observed in boards. this smaller shrinkage of the pith rays along the radius of the log (the length of the pith ray), opposing the shrinkage of the fibres in this direction, becomes one of the causes of the second great trouble in wood seasoning, namely, the difference in the shrinkage along the radius and that along the rings or tangent. this greater tangential shrinkage appears to be due in part to the causes just mentioned, but also to the fact that the greatly shrinking bands of summer-wood are interrupted along the radius by as many bands of porous spring-wood, while they are continuous in the tangential direction. in this direction, therefore, each such band tends to shrink, as if the entire piece were composed of summer-wood, and since the summer-wood represents the greater part of the wood substance, this greater tendency to tangential shrinkage prevails. the effect of this greater tangential shrinkage effects every phase of woodworking. it leads to permanent checks and causes the log or piece to split open on drying. sawed in two, the flat sides of the log become convex; sawed into timber, it checks along the median line of the four faces, and if converted into boards, the latter checks considerably from the end through the center, all owing to the greater tangential shrinkage of the wood. briefly, then, shrinkage of wood is due to the fact that the cell walls grow thinner on drying. the thicker cell walls and therefore the heavier wood shrinks most, while the water in the cell cavities does not influence the volume of the wood. owing to the great difference of cells in shape, size, and thickness of walls, and still more in their arrangement, shrinkage is not uniform in any kind of wood. this irregularity produces strains, which grow with the difference between adjoining cells and are greatest at the pith rays. these strains cause warping and checking, but exist even where no outward signs are visible. they are greater if the wood is dried rapidly than if dried slowly, but can never be entirely avoided. temporary checks are caused by the more rapid drying of the outer parts of any stick; permanent checks are due to the greater shrinkage, tangentially, along the rings than along the radius. this, too, is the cause of most of the ordinary phenomena of shrinkage, such as the difference in behavior of the entire and quartered logs, "bastard" (tangent) and rift (radial) boards, etc., and explains many of the phenomena erroneously attributed to the influence of bark, or of the greater shrinkage of outer and inner parts of any log. once dry, wood may be swelled again to its original size by soaking in water, boiling, or steaming. soaked pieces on drying shrink again as before; boiled and steamed pieces do the same, but to a slightly less degree. neither hygroscopicity, _i.e._, the capacity of taking up water, nor shrinkage of wood can be overcome by drying at temperatures below degrees fahrenheit. higher temperatures, however, reduce these qualities, but nothing short of a coaling heat robs wood of the capacity to shrink and swell. rapidly dried in a kiln, the wood of oak and other hardwoods "case-harden," that is, the outer part dries and shrinks before the interior has a chance to do the same, and thus forms a firm shell or case of shrunken, commonly checked wood around the interior. this shell does not prevent the interior from drying, but when this drying occurs the interior is commonly checked along the medullary rays, commonly called "honeycombing" or "hollow-horning." in practice this occurrence can be prevented by steaming or sweating the wood in the kiln, and still better by drying the wood in the open air or in a shed before placing in the kiln. since only the first shrinkage is apt to check the wood, any kind of lumber which has once been air-dried (three to six months for one-inch stuff) may be subjected to kiln heat without any danger from this source. kept in a bent or warped condition during the first shrinkage, the wood retains the shape to which it has been bent and firmly opposes any attempt at subsequent straightening. sapwood, as a rule, shrinks more than heartwood of the same weight, but very heavy heartwood may shrink more than lighter sapwood. the amount of water in wood is no criterion of its shrinkage, since in wet wood most of the water is held in the cavities, where it has no effect on the volume. the wood of pine, spruce, cypress, etc., with its very regular structure, dries and shrinks evenly, and suffers much less in seasoning than the wood of broad-leaved (hardwood) trees. among the latter, oak is the most difficult to dry without injury. desiccating the air with certain chemicals will cause the wood to dry, but wood thus dried at degrees fahrenheit will still lose water in the kiln. wood dried at degrees fahrenheit loses water still if dried at degrees fahrenheit, and this again will lose more water if the temperature be raised, so that _absolutely dry wood_ cannot be obtained, and chemical destruction sets in before all the water is driven off. on removal from the kiln, the dry wood at once takes up moisture from the air, even in the driest weather. at first the absorption is quite rapid; at the end of a week a short piece of pine, - / inches thick, has regained two thirds of, and, in a few months, all the moisture which it had when air-dry, to per cent, and also its former dimensions. in thin boards all parts soon attain the same degree of dryness. in heavy timbers the interior remains more moist for many months, and even years, than the exterior parts. finally an equilibrium is reached, and then only the outer parts change with the weather. with kiln-dried woods all parts are equally dry, and when exposed, the moisture coming from the air must pass through the outer parts, and thus the order is reversed. ordinary timber requires months before it is at its best. kiln-dried timber, if properly handled, is prime at once. dry wood if soaked in water soon regains its original volume, and in the heartwood portion it may even surpass it; that is to say, swell to a larger dimension than it had when green. with the soaking it continues to increase in weight, the cell cavities filling with water, and if left many months all pieces sink. yet after a year's immersion a piece of oak by inches and only inches long still contains air; _i.e._, it has not taken up all the water it can. by rafting or prolonged immersion, wood loses some of its weight, soluble materials being leached out, but it is not impaired either as fuel or as building material. immersion, and still more boiling and steaming, reduce the hygroscopicity of wood and therefore also the troublesome "working," or shrinking and swelling. exposure in dry air to a temperature of degrees fahrenheit for a short time reduces but does not destroy the hygroscopicity, and with it the tendency to shrink and swell. a piece of red oak which has been subjected to a temperature of over degrees fahrenheit still swells in hot water and shrinks in a dry kiln. expansion of wood it must not be forgotten that timber, in common with every other material, expands as well as contracts. if we extract the moisture from a piece of wood and so cause it to shrink, it may be swelled to its original volume by soaking it in water, but owing to the protection given to most timber in dwelling-houses it is not much affected by wet or damp weather. the shrinkage is more apparent, more lasting, and of more consequence to the architect, builder, or owner than the slight expansion which takes place, as, although the amount of moisture contained in wood varies with the climate conditions, the consequence of dampness or moisture on good timber used in houses only makes itself apparent by the occasional jamming of a door or window in wet or damp weather. considerable expansion, however, takes place in the wood-paving of streets, and when this form of paving was in its infancy much trouble occurred owing to all allowances not having been made for this contingency, the trouble being doubtless increased owing to the blocks not being properly seasoned; curbing was lifted or pushed out of line and gully grids were broken by this action. as a rule in street paving a space of one or two inches wide is now left next to the curb, which is filled with sand or some soft material, so that the blocks may expand longitudinally without injuring the contour or affecting the curbs. but even with this arrangement it is not at all unusual for an inch or more to have to be cut off paving blocks parallel to the channels some time after the paving has been laid, owing to the expansion of the wood exceeding the amounts allowed. considerable variation occurs in the expansion of wood blocks, and it is noticeable in the hardwoods as well as in the softwoods, and is often greater in the former than in the latter. expansion takes place in the direction of the length of the blocks as they are laid across the street, and causes no trouble in the other direction, the reason being that the lengthway of a block of wood is across the grain, of the timber, and it expands or contracts as a plank does. on one occasion, in a roadway forty feet wide, expansion occurred until it amounted to four inches on each side, or eight inches in all. this continual expansion and contraction is doubtless the cause of a considerable amount of wood street-paving bulging and becoming filled with ridges and depressions. elimination of stain and mildew a great many manufacturers, and particularly those located in the southern states, experience a great amount of difficulty in their timber becoming stained and mildewed. this is particularly true with gum wood, as it will frequently stain and mould in twenty-four hours, and they have experienced so much of this trouble that they have, in a great many instances, discontinued cutting it during the summer season. if this matter were given proper attention they should be able to eliminate a great deal of this difficulty, as no doubt they will find after investigation that the mould has been caused by the stock being improperly piled to the weather. freshly sawn wood, placed in close piles during warm, damp weather in the months of july and august, presents especially favorable conditions for mould and stain. in all cases it is the moist condition and retarded drying of the wood which causes this. therefore, any method which will provide for the rapid drying of the wood before or after piling will tend to prevent the difficulty, and the best method for eliminating mould is ( ) to provide for as little delay as possible between the felling of the tree, and its manufacture into rough products before the sap has had an opportunity of becoming sour. this is especially necessary with trees felled from april to september, in the region north of the gulf states, and from march to november in the latter, while the late fall and winter cutting should all be worked up by march or april. ( ) the material should be piled to the weather immediately after being sawn or cut, and every precaution should be taken in piling to facilitate rapid drying, by keeping the piles or ricks up off the ground. ( ) all weeds (and emphasis should be placed on the all) and other vegetation should be kept well clear of the piles, in order that the air may have a clear and unobstructed passage through and around the piles, and ( ) the piles should be so constructed that each stick or piece will have as much air space about it as it is possible to give to it. if the above instructions are properly carried out, there will be little or no difficulty experienced with mould appearing on the lumber. section ix difficulties of drying wood seasoning and kiln-drying is so important a process in the manufacture of woods that a need is keenly felt for fuller information regarding it, based upon scientific study of the behavior of various species at different mechanical temperatures and under different mechanical drying processes. the special precautions necessary to prevent loss of strength or distortion of shape render the drying of wood especially difficult. all wood when undergoing a seasoning process, either natural (by air) or mechanical (by steam or heat in a dry kiln), checks or splits more or less. this is due to the uneven drying-out of the wood and the consequent strains exerted in opposite directions by the wood fibres in shrinking. this shrinkage, it has been proven, takes place both end-wise and across the grain of the wood. the old tradition that wood does not shrink end-wise has long since been shattered, and it has long been demonstrated that there is an end-wise shrinkage. in some woods it is very light, while in others it is easily perceptible. it is claimed that the average end shrinkage, taking all the woods, is only about - / per cent. this, however, probably has relation to the average shrinkage on ordinary lumber as it is used and cut and dried. now if we depart from this and take veneer, or basket stock, or even stave bolts where they are boiled, causing swelling both end-wise and across the grain or in dimension, after they are thoroughly dried, there is considerably more evidence of end shrinkage. in other words, a slack barrel stave of elm, say, or inches in length, after being boiled might shrink as much in thoroughly drying-out as compared to its length when freshly cut, as a -foot elm board. it is in cutting veneer that this end shrinkage becomes most readily apparent. in trimming with scoring knives it is done to exact measure, and where stock is cut to fit some specific place there has been observed a shrinkage on some of the softer woods, like cottonwood, amounting to fully / of an inch in inches. and at times where drying has been thorough the writer has noted a shrinkage of / of an inch on an ordinary elm cabbage-crate strip inches long, sawed from the log without boiling. there are really no fixed rules of measurement or allowance, however, because the same piece of wood may vary under different conditions, and, again, the grain may cross a little or wind around the tree, and this of itself has a decided effect on the amount of what is termed "end shrinkage." there is more checking in the wood of the broad-leaf (hardwood) trees than in that of the coniferous (softwood) trees, more in sapwood than in heartwood, and more in summer-wood than in spring-wood. inasmuch as under normal conditions of weather, water evaporates less rapidly during the early seasoning of winter, wood that is cut in the autumn and early winter is considered less subject to checking than that which is cut in spring and summer. rapid seasoning, except after wood has been thoroughly soaked or steamed, almost invariably results in more or less serious checking. all hardwoods which check or warp badly during the seasoning should be reduced to the smallest practicable size before drying to avoid the injuries involved in this process, and wood once seasoned _should never again be exposed to the weather_, since all injuries due to seasoning are thereby aggravated. seasoning increases the strength of wood in every respect, and it is therefore of great importance to protect the wood against moisture. changes rendering drying difficult an important property rendering drying of wood peculiarly difficult is the changes which occur in the hygroscopic properties of the surface of a stick, and the rate at which it will allow moisture to pass through it. if wood is dried rapidly the surface soon reaches a condition where the transfusion is greatly hindered and sometimes appears almost to cease. the nature of this action is not well understood and it differs greatly in different species. bald cypress (_taxodium distichum_) is an example in which this property is particularly troublesome. the difficulty can be overcome by regulating the humidity during the drying operation. it is one of the factors entering into production of what is called "case-hardening" of wood, where the surface of the piece becomes hardened in a stretched or expanded condition, and subsequent shrinkage of the interior causes "honeycombing," "hollow-horning," or internal checking. the outer surface of the wood appears to undergo a chemical change in the nature of hydrolization or oxidization, which alters the rate of absorption and evaporation in the air. as the total amount of shrinkage varies with the rate at which the wood is dried, it follows that the outer surface of a rapidly dried board shrinks less than the interior. this sets up an internal stress, which, if the board be afterward resawed into two thinner boards by slicing it through the middle, causes the two halves to cup with their convex surfaces outward. this effect may occur even though the moisture distribution in the board has reached a uniform condition, and the board is thoroughly dry before it is resawed. it is distinct from the well-known "case-hardening" effect spoken of above, which is caused by unequal moisture conditions. the manner in which the water passes from the interior of a piece of wood to its surface has not as yet been fully determined, although it is one of the most important factors which influence drying. this must involve a transfusion of moisture through the cell walls, since, as already mentioned, except for the open vessels in the hardwoods, free resin ducts in the softwoods, and possibly the intercellular spaces, the cells of green wood are enclosed by membranes and the water must pass through the walls or the membranes of the pits. heat appears to increase this transfusion, but experimental data are lacking. it is evident that to dry wood properly a great many factors must be taken into consideration aside from the mere evaporation of moisture. losses due to improper kiln-drying in some cases there is practically no loss in drying, but more often it ranges from to per cent, and to per cent in refractory woods such as gum. in exceptional instances the losses are as high as per cent. in air-drying there is little or no control over the process; it may take place too rapidly on some days and too slowly on others, and it may be very non-uniform. hardwoods in large sizes almost invariably check. by proper kiln-drying these unfavorable circumstances may be eliminated. however, air-drying is unquestionably to be preferred to bad kiln-drying, and when there is any doubt in the case it is generally safer to trust to air-drying. if the fundamental principles are all taken care of, green lumber can be better dried in the dry kiln. properties of wood that affect drying it is clear, from the previous discussion of the structure of wood, that this property is of first importance among those influencing the seasoning of wood. the free water way usually be extracted quite readily from porous hardwoods. the presence of tyloses in white oak makes even this a difficult problem. on the other hand, its more complex structure usually renders the hygroscopic moisture quite difficult to extract. the lack of an open, porous structure renders the transfusion of moisture through some woods very slow, while the reverse may be true of other species. the point of interest is that all the different variations in structure affect the drying rates of woods. the structure of the gums suggests relatively easy seasoning. shrinkage is a very important factor affecting the drying of woods. generally speaking, the greater the shrinkage the more difficult it is to dry wood. wood shrinks about twice as much tangentially as radially, thus introducing very serious stresses which may cause loss in woods whose total shrinkage is large. it has been found that the amount of shrinkage depends, to some extent, on the rate and temperature at which woods season. rapid drying at high or low temperature results in slight shrinkage, while slow drying, especially at high temperature, increases the shrinkage. as some woods must be dried in one way and others in other ways, to obtain the best general results, this effect may be for the best in one case and the reverse in others. as an example one might cite the case of southern white oak. this species must be dried very slowly at low temperatures in order to avoid the many evils to which it is heir. it is interesting to note that this method tends to increase the shrinkage, so that one might logically expect such treatment merely to aggravate the evils. such is not the case, however, as too fast drying results in other defects much worse than that of excessive shrinkage. thus we see that the shrinkage of any given species of wood depends to a great extent on the method of drying. just how much the shrinkage of gum is affected by the temperature and drying rate is not known at present. there is no doubt that the method of seasoning affects the shrinkage of the gums, however. it is just possible that these woods may shrink longitudinally more than is normal, thus furnishing another cause for their peculiar action under certain circumstances. it has been found that the properties of wood which affect the seasoning of the gums are, in the order of their importance: ( ) the indeterminate and erratic grain; ( ) the uneven shrinkage with the resultant opposing stresses; ( ) the plasticity under high temperature while moist; and ( ) the slight apparent lack of cohesion between the fibres. the first, second, and fourth properties are clearly detrimental, while the third may possibly be an advantage in reducing checking and "case-hardening." the grain of the wood is a prominent factor also affecting the problem. it is this factor, coupled with uneven shrinkage, which is probably responsible, to a large extent, for the action of the gums in drying. the grain may be said to be more or less indeterminate. it is usually spiral, and the spiral may reverse from year to year of the tree's growth. when a board in which this condition exists begins to shrink, the result is the development of opposing stresses, the effect of which is sometimes disastrous. the shrinkage around the knots seems to be particularly uneven, so that checking at the knots is quite common. some woods, such as western red cedar, redwood, and eucalyptus, become very plastic when hot and moist. the result of drying-out the free water at high temperature may be to collapse the cells. the gums are known to be quite soft and plastic, if they are moist, at high temperature, but they do not collapse so far as we have been able to determine. the cells of certain species of wood appear to lack cohesion, especially at the junction between the annual rings. as a result, checks and ring shakes are very common in western larch and hemlock. the parenchyma cells of the medullary rays in oak do not cohere strongly and often check open, especially when steamed too severely. unsolved problems in kiln-drying . physical data of the properties of wood in relation to heat are meagre. . figures on the specific heat of wood are not readily available, though upon this rests not only the exact operation of heating coils for kilns, but the theory of kiln-drying as a whole. . great divergence is shown in the results of experiments in the conductivity of wood. it remains to be seen whether the known variation of conductivity with moisture content will reduce these results to uniformity. . the maximum or highest temperature to which the different species of wood may be exposed without serious loss of strength has not yet been determined. . the optimum or absolute correct temperature for drying the different species of wood is as yet entirely unsettled. . the inter-relation between wood and water is as imperfectly known to dry-kiln operators as that between wood and heat. . what moisture conditions obtain in a stick of air-dried wood? . how is the moisture distinguished? . what is its form? . what is the meaning of the peculiar surface conditions which even in air-dried wood appear to indicate incipient "case-hardening"? . the manner in which the water passes from the interior of a piece of wood to its surface has not as yet been fully determined. these questions can be answered thus far only by speculation or, at best, on the basis of incomplete data. until these problems are solved, kiln-drying must necessarily remain without the guidance of complete scientific theory. a correct understanding of the principles of drying is rare, and opinions in regard to the subject are very diverse. the same lack of knowledge exists in regard to dry kilns. the physical properties of the wood which complicate the drying operation and render it distinct from that of merely evaporating free water from some substance like a piece of cloth must be studied experimentally. it cannot well be worked out theoretically. section x how wood is seasoned methods of drying the choice of a method of drying depends largely upon the object in view. the principal objects may be grouped under three main heads, as follows: . to reduce shipping weight. . to reduce the quantity necessary to carry in stock. . to prepare the wood for its ultimate use and improve its qualities. when wood will stand the temperature without excessive checking or undue shrinkage or loss in strength, the first object is most readily attained by heating the wood above the boiling point in a closed chamber, with a large circulation of air or vapor, so arranged that the excess steam produced will escape. this process manifestly does not apply to many of the hardwoods, but is applicable to many of the softwoods. it is used especially in the northwestern part of the united states, where douglas fir boards one inch thick are dried in from to hours, and sometimes in as short a time as hours. in the latter case superheated steam at degrees fahrenheit was forced into the chamber but, of course, the lumber could not be heated thereby much above the boiling point so long as it contained any free water. this lumber, however, contained but per cent moisture to start with, and the most rapid rate was . per cent loss per hour. the heat of evaporation may be supplied either by superheated steam or by steam pipes within the kiln itself. the quantity of wood it is necessary to carry in stock is naturally reduced when either of the other two objects is attained and, therefore, need not necessarily be discussed. in drying to prepare for use and to improve quality, careful and scientific drying is called for. this applies more particularly to the hardwoods, although it may be required for softwoods also. drying at atmospheric pressure present practice of kiln-drying varies tremendously and there is no uniformity or standard method. temperatures vary anywhere from to degrees fahrenheit, or even higher, and inch boards three to six months on the sticks are being dried in from four days to three weeks, and three-inch material in from two to five months. all methods in use at atmospheric pressure may be classified under the following headings. the kilns may be either progressive or compartment, and preliminary steaming may or may not be used with any one of these methods: . dry air heated. this is generally obsolete. . moist air. _a._ ventilated. _b._ forced draft. _c._ condensing. _d._ humidity regulated. _e._ boiling. . superheated steam. drying under pressure and vacuum various methods of drying wood under pressures other than atmospheric have been tried. only a brief mention of this subject will be made. where the apparatus is available probably the quickest way to dry wood is first to heat it in saturated steam at as high a temperature as the species can endure without serious chemical change until the heat has penetrated to the center, then follow this with a vacuum. by this means the self-contained specific heat of the wood and the water is made available for the evaporation, and the drying takes place from the inside outwardly, just the reverse of that which occurs by drying by means of external heat. when the specimen has cooled this process is then to be repeated until it has dried down to fibre-saturation point. it cannot be dried much below this point by this method, since the absorption during the heating operation will then equal the evaporation during the cooling. it may be carried further, however, by heating in partially humidified air, proportioning the relative humidity each time it is heated to the degree of moisture present in the wood. the point to be considered in this operation is that during the heating process no evaporation shall be allowed to take place, but only during the cooling. in this way surface drying and "case-hardening" are prevented since the heat is from within and the moisture passes from the inside outwardly. however, with some species, notably oak, surface cracks appear as a network of fine checks along the medullary rays. in the first place, it should be borne in mind that it is the heat which produces evaporation and not the air nor any mysterious property assigned to a "vacuum." for every pound of water evaporated at ordinary temperatures approximately , british thermal units of heat are used up, or "become latent," as it is called. this is true whether the evaporation takes place in a vacuum or under a moderate air pressure. if this heat is not supplied from an outside source it must be supplied by the water itself (or the material being dried), the temperature of which will consequently fall until the surrounding space becomes saturated with vapor at a pressure corresponding to the temperature which the water has reached; evaporation will then cease. the pressure of the vapor in a space saturated with water vapor increases rapidly with increase of temperature. at a so-called vacuum of inches, which is about the limit in commercial operations, and in reality signifies an actual pressure of inches of mercury column, the space will be saturated with vapor at degrees fahrenheit. consequently, no evaporation will take place in such a vacuum unless the water be warmer than degrees fahrenheit, provided there is no air leakage. the qualification in regard to air is necessary, for the sake of exactness, for the following reason: in any given space the total actual pressure is made up of the combined pressures of all the gases present. if the total pressure ("vacuum") is inches, and there is no air present, it is all produced by the water vapor (which saturates the space at degrees fahrenheit); but if some air is present and the total pressure is still maintained at inches, then there must be less vapor present, since the air is producing part of the pressure and the space is no longer saturated at the given temperature. consequently further evaporation may occur, with a corresponding lowering of the temperature of the water, until a balance is again reached. without further explanation it is easy to see that but little water can be evaporated by a vacuum alone without addition of heat, and that the prevalent idea that a vacuum can of itself produce evaporation is a fallacy. if heat be supplied to the water, however, either by conduction or radiation, evaporation will take place in direct proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so long as the pressure is kept down by the vacuum pump. at inches of mercury pressure (one atmosphere) the space becomes saturated with vapor and equilibrium is established at degrees fahrenheit. if heat be now supplied to the water, however, evaporation will take place in proportion to the amount of heat supplied, so long as the pressure remains that of one atmosphere, just as in the case of the vacuum. evaporation in this condition, where the vapor pressure at the temperature of the water is equal to the gas pressure on the water, is commonly called "boiling," and the saturated vapor entirely displaces the air under continuous operation. whenever the space is not saturated with vapor, whether air is present or not, evaporation will take place, by boiling if no air be present or by diffusion under the presence of air, until an equilibrium between temperature and vapor pressure is resumed. relative humidity is simply the ratio of the actual vapor pressure present in a given space to the vapor pressure when the space is saturated with vapor at the given temperature. it matters not whether air be present or not. one hundred per cent humidity means that the space contains all the vapor which it can hold at the given temperature--it is saturated. thus at per cent humidity and degrees fahrenheit the space is saturated, and since the pressure of saturated vapor at this temperature is one atmosphere, no air can be present under these conditions. if, however, the total pressure at this temperature were pounds ( pounds gauge), then it would mean that there was pounds air pressure present in addition to the vapor, yet the space would still be saturated at the given temperature. again, if the temperature were degrees fahrenheit, the pressure of saturated vapor would be only pound, and the additional pressure of pounds, if the total pressure were atmospheric, would be made up of air. in order to have no air present and the space still saturated at degrees fahrenheit, the total pressure must be reduced to pound by a vacuum pump. fifty per cent relative humidity, therefore, signifies that only half the amount of vapor required to saturate the space at the given temperature is present. thus at degrees fahrenheit temperature the vapor pressure would only be - / pounds (vacuum of inches gauge). if the total pressure were atmospheric, then the additional - / pounds would be simply air. "live steam" is simply water-saturated vapor at a pressure usually above atmospheric. we may just as truly have live steam at pressures less than atmospheric, at a vacuum of inches for instance. only in the latter case its temperature would be lower, _viz._, degrees fahrenheit. superheated steam is nothing more than water vapor at a relative humidity less than saturation, but is usually considered at pressures above atmospheric, and in the absence of air. the atmosphere at, say, per cent relative humidity really contains superheated steam or vapor, the only difference being that it is at a lower temperature and pressure than we are accustomed to think of in speaking of superheated steam, and it has air mixed with it to make up the deficiency in pressure below the atmosphere. two things should now be clear; that evaporation is produced by heat and that the presence or absence of air does not influence the amount of evaporation. it does, however, influence the rate of evaporation, which is retarded by the presence of air. the main things influencing evaporation are, first, the quantity of heat supplied and, second, the relative humidity of the immediately surrounding space. drying by superheated steam what this term really signifies is simply water vapor in the absence of air in a condition of less than saturation. kilns of this type are, properly speaking, vapor kilns, and usually operate at atmospheric pressure, but may be used at greater pressures or at less pressures. as stated before, the vapor present in the air at any humidity less than saturation is really "superheated steam," only at a lower pressure than is ordinarily understood by this term, and mixed with air. the main argument in favor of this process seems to be based on the idea that steam is moist heat. this is true, however, only when the steam is near saturation. when it is superheated it is just as dry as air containing the same relative humidity. for instance, steam at atmospheric pressure and heated to degrees fahrenheit has a relative humidity of only per cent and is just as dry as air containing the same humidity. if heated to degrees fahrenheit, its relative humidity is reduced to per cent; that is to say, the ratio of its actual vapor pressure (one atmosphere) to the pressure of saturated vapor at this temperature (five atmospheres) is : , or per cent. superheated vapor in the absence of air, however, parts with its heat with great rapidity and finally becomes saturated when it has lost all of its ability to cause evaporation. in this respect it is more moist than air when it comes in contact with bodies which are at a lower temperature. when saturated steam is used to heat the lumber it can raise the temperature of the latter to its own temperature, but cannot produce evaporation unless, indeed, the pressure is varied. only by the heat supplied above the temperature of saturation can evaporation be produced. impregnation methods methods of partially overcoming the shrinkage by impregnation of the cell walls with organic materials closely allied to the wood substance itself are in use. in one of these which has been patented, sugar is used as the impregnating material, which is subsequently hardened or "caramelized" by heating. experiments which the united states forest service has made substantiate the claims that the sugar does greatly reduce the shrinkage of the wood; but the use of impregnation processes is determined rather from a financial economic standpoint than by the physical result obtained. another process consists in passing a current of electricity through the wet boards or through the green logs before sawing. it is said that the ligno cellulose and the sap are thus transformed by electrolysis, and that the wood subsequently dries more rapidly. preliminary treatments in many dry kiln operations, especially where the kilns are not designed for treatments with very moist air, the wood is allowed to air-season from several months to a year or more before running it into the dry kiln. in this way the surface dries below its fibre-saturation point and becomes hardened or "set" and the subsequent shrinkage is not so great. moreover, there is less danger of surface checking in the kiln, since the surface has already passed the danger point. many woods, however, check severely in air-drying or case-harden in the air. it is thought that such woods can be satisfactorily handled in a humidity-regulated kiln direct from the saw. preliminary steaming is frequently used to moisten the surface if case-hardened, and to heat the lumber through to the center before drying begins. this is sometimes done in a separate chamber, but more often in a compartment of the kiln itself, partitioned off by means of a curtain which can be raised or lowered as circumstances require. this steaming is usually conducted at atmospheric pressure and frequently condensed steam is used at temperatures far below degrees fahrenheit. in a humidity-regulated kiln this preliminary treatment may be omitted, since nearly saturated conditions can be maintained and graduated as the drying progresses. recently the process of steaming at pressures up to pounds gauge in a cylinder for short periods of time, varying from to minutes, is being advocated in the united states. the truck load is run into the cylinder, steamed, and then taken directly out into the air. it may subsequently be placed in the dry kiln if further drying is desired. the self-contained heat of the wood evaporates considerable moisture, and the sudden drying of the boards causes the shrinkage to be reduced slightly in some cases. such short periods of steaming under pounds pressure do not appear to injure the wood mechanically, although they do darken the color appreciably, especially of the sapwood of the species having a light-colored sap, as black walnut (_juglans nigra_) and red gum (_liquidamber styraciflua_). longer periods of steaming have been found to weaken the wood. there is a great difference in the effect on different species, however. soaking wood for a long time before drying has been practised, but experiments indicate that no particularly beneficial results, from the drying standpoint, are attained thereby. in fact, in some species containing sugars and allied substances it is probably detrimental from the shrinkage standpoint. if soaked in boiling water some species shrink and warp more than if dried without this treatment. in general, it may be said that, except possibly for short-period steaming as described above, steaming and soaking hardwoods at temperatures of degrees fahrenheit or over should be avoided if possible. it is the old saying that wood put into water shortly after it is felled, and left in water for a year or more, will be perfectly seasoned after a short subsequent exposure to the air. for this reason rivermen maintain that timber is made better by rafting. herzenstein says: "floating the timber down rivers helps to wash out the sap, and hence must be considered as favorable to its preservation, the more so as it enables it to absorb more preservative." wood which has been buried in swamps is eagerly sought after by carpenters and joiners, because it has lost all tendency to warp and twist. when first taken from the swamp the long-immersed logs are very much heavier than water, but they dry with great rapidity. a cypress log from the mississippi delta, which two men could barely handle at the time it was taken out some years ago, has dried out so much since then that to-day one man can lift it with ease. white cedar telegraph poles are said to remain floating in the water of the great lakes sometimes for several years before they are set in lines and to last better than freshly cut poles. it is very probable that immersion for long periods in water does materially hasten subsequent seasoning. the tannins, resins, albuminous materials, etc., which are deposited in the cell walls of the fibres of green wood, and which prevent rapid evaporation of the water, undergo changes when under water, probably due to the action of bacteria which live without air, and in the course of time many of these substances are leached out of the wood. the cells thereby become more and more permeable to water, and when the wood is finally brought into the air the water escapes very rapidly and very evenly. herzenstein's statement that wood prepared by immersion and subsequent drying will absorb more preservative, and that with greater rapidity, is certainly borne out by experience in the united states. it is sometimes claimed that all seasoning preparatory to treatment with a substance like tar oil might be done away with by putting the green wood into a cylinder with the oil and heating to degrees fahrenheit, thus driving the water off in the form of steam, after which the tar oil would readily penetrate into the wood. this is the basis of the so-called "curtiss process" of timber treatment. without going into any discussion of this method of creosoting, it may be said that the same objection made for steaming holds here. in order to get a temperature of degrees fahrenheit in the center of the treated wood, the outside temperature would have to be raised so high that the strength of the wood might be seriously injured. a company on the pacific coast which treats red fir piling asserts that it avoids this danger by leaving the green timber in the tar oil at a temperature which never exceeds degrees fahrenheit for from five to twelve hours, until there is no further evidence of water vapor coming out of the wood. the tar oil is then run out, and a vacuum is created for about an hour, after which the oil is run in again and is kept in the cylinders under pounds pressure for from ten to twelve hours, until the required amount of absorption has been reached (about pounds per cubic foot). out-of-door seasoning the most effective seasoning is without doubt that obtained by the uniform, slow drying which takes place in properly constructed piles outdoors, under exposure to the winds and the sun. lumber has always been seasoned in this way, which is still the best for ordinary purposes. it is probable for the sake of economy, air-drying will be eliminated in the drying process of the future without loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no effective method has been discovered whereby this may be accomplished, because nature performs certain functions in air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial means. because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be successfully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw, and must receive a certain amount of preliminary air-drying before being placed in a dry kiln. the present methods of air-seasoning in use have been determined by long experience, and are probably as good as they could be made for present conditions. but the same care has not up to this time been given to the seasoning of such timber as ties, bridge material, posts, telegraph and telephone poles, etc. these have sometimes been piled more or less intelligently, but in the majority of cases their value has been too low to make it seem worth while to pile with reference to anything beyond convenience in handling. in piling material for air-seasoning, one should utilize high, dry ground when possible, and see that the foundations are high enough off the ground, so that there is proper air circulation through the bottom of the piles, and also that the piles are far enough apart so that the air may circulate freely through and around them. it is air circulation that is desired in all cases of drying, both in dry kilns and out-of-doors, and not sunshine; that is, not the sun shining directly upon the material. the ends also should be protected from the sun, and everything possible done to induce a free circulation of air, and to keep the foundations free from all plant growth. naturally, the heavier the material to be dried, the more difficulty is experienced from checking, which has its most active time in the spring when the sap is rising. in fact the main period of danger in material checking comes with the march winds and the april showers, and not infrequently in the south it occurs earlier than that. in other words, as soon as the sap begins to rise, the timber shows signs of checking, and that is the time to take extra precautions by careful piling and protection from the sun. when the hot days of summer arrive the tendency to check is not so bad, but stock will sour from the heat, stain from the sap, mildew from moisture, and fall a prey to wood-destroying insects. it has been proven in a general way that wood will season more slowly in winter than in summer, and also that the water content during various months varies. in the spring the drying-out of wood cut in october and november will take place more rapidly. section xi kiln-drying of wood advantages of kiln-drying over air-drying some of the advantages of kiln-drying to be secured over air-drying in addition to reducing the shipping weight and lessening quantity of stock are the following: . less material lost. . better quality of product. . prevention of sap stain and mould. . fixation of gums and resins. . reduction of hygroscopicity. this reduction in the tendency to take up moisture means a reduction in the "working" of the material which, even though slight, is of importance. the problem of drying wood in the best manner divides itself into two distinct parts, one of which is entirely concerned with the behavior of the wood itself and the physical phenomena involved, while the other part has to do with the control of the drying process. physical conditions governing the drying of wood . wood is soft and plastic while hot and moist, and becomes "set" in whatever shape it dries. some species are much more plastic than others. . wood substance begins to shrink only when it dries below the fibre-saturation point, at which it contains from to per cent moisture based on its dry weight. eucalyptus and certain other species appear to be exceptions to this law. . the shrinkage of wood is about twice as great circumferentially as in the radial direction; lengthwise, it is very slight. . wood shrinks most when subjected, while kept moist, to slow drying at high temperatures. . rapid drying produces less shrinkage than slow drying at high temperatures, but is apt to cause case-hardening and honeycombing, especially in dense woods. . case-hardening, honeycombing, and cupping result directly from conditions , , and , and chemical changes of the outer surface. . brittleness is caused by carrying the drying process too far, or by using too high temperatures. safe limits of treatment vary greatly for different species. . wood absorbs or loses moisture in proportion to the relative humidity in the air, not according to the temperature. this property is called its "hygroscopicity." . hygroscopicity and "working" are reduced but not eliminated by thorough drying. . moisture tends to transfuse from the hot towards the cold portion of the wood. . collapse of the cells may occur in some species while the wood is hot and plastic. this collapse is independent of subsequent shrinkage. theory of kiln-drying the dry kiln has long since acquired particular appreciation at the hands of those who have witnessed its time-saving qualities, when practically applied to the drying of timber. the science of drying is itself of the simplest, the exposure to the air being, indeed, the only means needed where the matter of time is not called into question. otherwise, where hours, even minutes, have a marked significance, then other means must be introduced to bring about the desired effect. in any event, however, the same simple and natural remedy pertains,--the absorption of moisture. this moisture in green timber is known as "sap", which is itself composed of a number of ingredients, most important among which are water, resin, and albumen. all dry kilns in existence use heat to season timber; that is, to drive out that portion of the "sap" which is volatile. the heat does not drive out the resin of the pines nor the albumen of the hardwoods. it is really of no advantage in this respect. resin in its hardened state as produced by heat is only slowly soluble in water and contains a large proportion of carbon, the most stable form of matter. therefore, its retention in the pores of the wood is a positive advantage. to produce the ideal effect the drying must commence at the heart of the piece and work outward, the moisture being removed from the surface as fast as it exudes from the pores of the wood. to successfully accomplish this, adjustments must be available to regulate the temperature, circulation, and humidity according to the variations of the atmospheric conditions, the kind and condition of the material to be dried. this ideal effect is only attained by the use of a type of dry kiln in which the surface of the lumber is kept soft, the pores being left open until all the moisture within has been volatilized by the heat and carried off by a free circulation of air. when the moisture has been removed from the pores, the surface is dried without closing the pores, resulting in timber that is clean, soft, bright, straight, and absolutely free from stains, checks, or other imperfections. now, no matter how the method of drying may be applied, it must be remembered that vapor exists in the atmosphere at all times, its volume being regulated by the capacity of the temperature absorbed. to kiln-dry properly, a free current of air must be maintained, of sufficient volume to carry off this moisture. now, the capacity of this air for drying depends entirely upon the ability of its temperature to absorb or carry off a larger proportion of moisture than that apportioned by natural means. thus, it will be seen, a cubic foot of air at degrees fahrenheit is capable of absorbing only two grains of water, while at degrees, it will dispose of ninety grains. the air, therefore, should be made as dry as possible and caused to move freely, so as to remove all moisture from the surface of the wood as soon as it appears. thus the heat effects a double purpose, not only increasing the rate of evaporation, but also the capacity of the air for absorption. where these means are applied, which rely on the heat alone to accomplish this purpose, only that of the moisture which is volatile succumbs, while the albumen and resin becoming hardened under the treatment close up the pores of the wood. this latter result is oft-times accomplished while moisture yet remains and which in an enforced effort to escape bursts open the cells in which it has been confined and creates what is known as "checks." therefore, taking the above facts into consideration, the essentials for the successful kiln-drying of wood may be enumerated as follows: . the evaporation from the surface of a stick should not exceed the rate at which the moisture transfuses from the interior to the surface. . drying should proceed uniformly at all points, otherwise extra stresses are set up in the wood, causing warping, etc. . heat should penetrate to the interior of the piece before drying begins. . the humidity should be suited to the condition of the wood at the start and reduced in the proper ratio as drying progresses. with wet or green wood it should usually be held uniform at a degree which will prevent the surface from drying below its saturation point until all the free water has evaporated, then gradually reduced to remove the hygroscopic moisture. . the temperature should be uniform and as high as the species under treatment will stand without excessive shrinkage, collapse, or checking. . rate of drying should be controlled by the amount of humidity in the air and not by the rate of circulation, which should be made ample at all times. . in drying refractory hardwoods, such as oak, best results are obtained at a comparatively low temperature. in more easily dried hardwoods, such as maple, and some of the more difficult softwoods, as cypress, the process may be hastened by a higher temperature but not above the boiling point. in many of the softwoods, the rate of drying may be very greatly increased by heating above the boiling point with a large circulation of vapor at atmospheric pressure. . unequal shrinkage between the exterior and interior portions of the wood and also unequal chemical changes must be guarded against by temperatures and humidities suited to the species in question to prevent subsequent cupping and warping. . the degree of dryness attained should conform to the use to which the wood is put. . proper piling of the material and weighting to prevent warping are of great importance. requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln the requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln are: . control of humidity at all times. . ample air circulation at all points. . uniform and proper temperatures. in order to meet these requirements the united states forestry service has designed a kiln in which the humidity, temperature, and circulation can be controlled at all times. briefly, it consists of a drying chamber with a partition on either side, making two narrow side chambers open top and bottom. the steam pipes are in the usual position underneath the material to be dried. at the top of the side chambers is a spray; at the bottom are gutters and an eliminator or set of baffle plates to separate the fine mist from the air. the spray accomplishes two things: it induces an increased circulation and it regulates the humidity. this is done by regulating the temperature of the spray water. the air under the heating coil is saturated at whatever temperature is required. this temperature is the dew point of the air after it passes up into the drying chamber above the coils. knowing the temperature in the drying room and the dew point, the relative humidity is thus determined. the relative humidity is simply the ratio of the vapor pressure at the dew point to the pressure of saturated vapor (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. . section through united states forestry service humidity-controlled dry kiln.] theory and description of the forestry service kiln the humidities and temperatures in the piles of lumber are largely dependent upon the circulation of air within the kiln. the temperature and humidity within the kiln, taken alone, are no criterion of the conditions of drying the pile of lumber if the circulation in any portion is deficient. it is possible to have an extremely rapid circulation of air within the dry kiln itself and yet have stagnation within the individual piles, the air passing chiefly through open spaces and channels. wherever stagnation exists or the movement of air is too sluggish the temperature will drop and the humidity increase, perhaps to the point of saturation. when in large kilns the forced circulation is in the opposite direction from that induced by the cooling of the air by the lumber, there is always more or less uncertainty as to the movement of the air through the piles. even with the boards placed edge-wise, with stickers running vertically, and with the heating pipes beneath the lumber, it was found that although the air passed upward through most of the spaces it was actually descending through others, so that very unequal drying resulted. while edge piling would at first thought seem ideal for the freest circulation in an ordinary kiln with steam pipes below, it in fact produces an indeterminate condition; air columns may pass downward through some channels as well as upward through others, and probably stagnate in still others. nevertheless, edge piling is greatly superior to flat piling where the heating system is below the lumber. from experiments and from study of conditions in commercial kilns the idea was developed of so arranging the parts of the kiln and the pile of lumber that advantage might be taken of this cooling of the air to assist the circulation. that this can be readily accomplished without doing away with the present features of regulation of humidity by means of a spray of water is clear from fig. , which shows a cross-section of the improved humidity-regulated dry kiln. in the form shown in the sketch a chamber or flue b runs through the center near the bottom. this flue is only about or feet in height and, together with the water spray f and the baffle plates dd, constitutes the humidity-control feature of the kiln. this control of humidity is affected by the temperature of the water used in the spray. this spray completely saturates the air in the flue b at whatever predetermined temperature is required. the baffle plates dd are to separate all entrained particles of water from the air, so that it is delivered to the heaters in a saturated condition at the required temperature. this temperature is, therefore, the dew point of the air when heated above, and the method of humidity control may therefore be called the dew-point method. it is a very simple matter by means of the humidity diagram (see fig. ), or by a hygrodeik (fig. ), to determine what dew-point temperature is needed for any desired humidity above the heaters. besides regulating the humidity the spray f also acts as an ejector and forces circulation of air through the flue b. the heating system h is concentrated near the outer walls, so as to heat the rising column of air. the temperature within the drying chamber is controlled by means of any suitable thermostat, actuating a valve on the main steam line. the lumber is piled in such a way that the stickers slope downward toward the sides of the kiln. m is an auxiliary steam spray pointing downward for use at very high temperatures. c is a gutter to catch the precipitation and conduct it back to the pump, the water being recirculated through the sprays. g is a pipe condenser for use toward the end of the drying operation. k is a baffle plate for diverting the heated air and at the same time shielding the under layers of boards from direct radiation of the steam pipes. the operation of the kiln is simple. the heated air rises above the pipes hh and between the piles of lumber. as it comes in contact with the piles, portions of it are cooled and pass downward and outward through the layers of boards into the space between the condensers gg. here the column of cooled air descends into the spray flue b, where its velocity is increased by the force of the water spray. it then passes out from the baffle plates to the heaters and repeats the cycle. one of the greatest advantages of this natural circulation method is that the colder the lumber when placed in the kiln the greater is the movement produced, under the very conditions which call for the greatest circulation--just the opposite of the direct-circulation method. this is a feature of the greatest importance in winter, when the lumber is put into the kiln in a frozen condition. one truckload of lumber at per cent moisture may easily contain over , pounds of ice. in the matter of circulation the kiln is, in fact, seldom regulatory--the colder the lumber the greater the circulation produced, with the effect increased toward the cooler and wetter portions of the pile. preliminary steaming may be used in connection with this kiln, but experiments indicate that ordinarily it is not desirable, since the high humidity which can be secured gives as good results, and being at as low a temperature as desired, much better results in the case of certain difficult woods like oak, eucalyptus, etc., are obtained. this kiln has another advantage in that its operation is entirely independent of outdoor atmospheric conditions, except that barometric pressure will effect it slightly. kiln-drying remarks drying is an essential part of the preparation of wood for manufacture. for a long time the only drying process used or known was air-drying, or the exposure of wood to the gradual drying influences of the open air, and is what has now been termed "preliminary seasoning." this method is without doubt the most successful and effective seasoning, because nature performs certain functions in air-drying that cannot be duplicated by artificial means. because of this, hardwoods, as a rule, cannot be successfully kiln-dried green or direct from the saw. within recent years, considerable interest is awakening among wood users in the operation of kiln-drying. the losses occasioned in air-drying and in improper kiln-drying, and the necessity for getting material dry as quickly as possible from the saw, for shipping purposes and also for manufacturing, are bringing about a realization of the importance of a technical knowledge of the subject. the losses which occur in air-drying wood, through checking, warping, staining, and rotting, are often greater than one would suppose. while correct statistics of this nature are difficult to obtain, some idea may be had of the amount of degrading of the better class of lumber. in the case of one species of soft wood, western larch, it is commonly admitted that the best grades fall off sixty to seventy per cent in air-drying, and it is probable that the same is true in the case of southern swamp oaks. in western yellow pine, the loss is great, and in the southern red gum, it is probably as much as thirty per cent. it may be said that in all species there is some loss in air-drying, but in some easily dried species such as spruce, hemlock, maple, etc., it is not so great. it would hardly be correct to state at the present time that this loss could be entirely prevented by proper methods of kiln-drying the green lumber, but it is safe to say that it can be greatly reduced. it is well where stock is kiln-dried direct from the saw or knife, after having first been steamed or boiled--as in the case of veneers, etc.,--to get them into the kiln while they are still warm, as they are then in good condition for kiln-drying, as the fibres of the wood are soft and the pores well opened, which will allow of forcing the evaporation of moisture without much damage being done to the material. with softwoods it is a common practice to kiln-dry direct from the saw. this procedure, however, is ill adapted for the hardwoods, in which it would produce such warping and checking as would greatly reduce the value of the product. therefore, hardwoods, as a rule, are more or less thoroughly air-dried before being placed in the dry kiln, where the residue of moisture may be reduced to within three or four per cent, which is much lower than is possible by air-drying only. it is probable that for the sake of economy, air-drying will be eliminated in the drying processes of the future without loss to the quality of the product, but as yet no method has been discovered whereby this may be accomplished. the dry kiln has been, and probably still is, one of the most troublesome factors arising from the development of the timber industry. in the earlier days, before power machinery for the working-up of timber products came into general use, dry kilns were unheard-of, air-drying or seasoning was then relied upon solely to furnish the craftsman with dry stock from which to manufacture his product. even after machinery had made rapid and startling strides on its way to perfection, the dry kiln remained practically an unknown quantity, but gradually, as the industry developed and demand for dry material increased, the necessity for some more rapid and positive method of seasoning became apparent, and the subject of artificial drying began to receive the serious attention of the more progressive and energetic members of the craft. kiln-drying which is an artificial method, originated in the effort to improve or shorten the process, by subjecting the wood to a high temperature or to a draught of heated air in a confined space or kiln. in so doing, time is saved and a certain degree of control over the drying operation is secured. the first efforts in the way of artificial drying were confined to aiding or hastening nature in the seasoning process by exposing the material to the direct heat from fires built in pits, over which the lumber was piled in a way to expose it to the heat rays of the fires below. this, of course, was a primitive, hazardous, and very unsatisfactory method, to say the least, but it marked the first step in the evolution of the present-day dry kiln, and in that particular only is it deserving of mention. underlying principles in addition to marking the first step in artificial drying, it illustrated also, in the simplest manner possible, the three underlying principles governing all drying problems: ( ) the application of heat to evaporate or volatilize the water contained in the material; ( ) with sufficient air in circulation to carry away in suspension the vapor thus liberated; and ( ) with a certain amount of humidity present to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior. the last performs two distinct functions: (a) it makes the wood more permeable to the passage of the moisture from the interior of the wood to the surface, and (b) it supplies the latent heat necessary to evaporate the moisture after it reaches the surface. the air circulation is important in removing the moisture after it has been evaporated by the heat, and ventilation also serves the purpose of bringing the heat in contact with the wood. if, however, plain, dry heat is applied to the wood, the surface will become entirely dry before the interior moisture is even heated, let alone removed. this condition causes "case-hardening" or "hollow-horning." so it is very essential that sufficient humidity be maintained to prevent the surface from drying too rapidly, while the heat is allowed to penetrate to the interior. this humidity or moisture is originated by the evaporation from the drying wood, or by the admission of steam into the dry kiln by the use of steam spray pipes, and is absolutely necessary in the process of hastening the drying of wood. with green lumber it keeps the sap near the surface of the piece in a condition that allows the escape of the moisture from its interior; or, in other words, it prevents the outside from drying first, which would close the pores and cause case-hardening. the great amount of latent heat necessary to evaporate the water after it has reached the surface is shown by the fact that the evaporation of only one pound of water will extract approximately degrees from , cubic feet of air, allowing the air to drop in temperature from to degrees fahrenheit. in addition to this amount of heat, the wood and the water must also be raised to the temperature at which the drying is to be accomplished. it matters not what type of dry kiln is used, source or application of heating medium, these underlying principles remain the same, and must be the first things considered in the design or selection of the equipment necessary for producing the three essentials of drying: heat, humidity, and circulation. although these principles constitute the basis of all drying problems and must, therefore, be continually carried in mind in the consideration of them, it is equally necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the characteristics of the materials to be dried, and its action during the drying process. all failures in the past, in the drying of timber products, can be directly attributed to either the kiln designer's neglect of these things, or his failure to carry them fully in mind in the consideration of his problems. wood has characteristics very much different from those of other materials, and what little knowledge we have of it and its properties has been taken from the accumulated records of experience. the reason for this imperfect knowledge lies in the fact that wood is not a homogeneous material like the metals, but a complicated structure, and so variable that one stick will behave in a manner widely different from that of another, although it may have been cut from the same tree. the great variety of woods often makes the mere distinction of the kind or species of the tree most difficult. it is not uncommon to find men of long experience disagree as to the kind of tree a certain piece of lumber was cut from, and, in some cases, there is even a wide difference in the appearance and evidently the structure of timber cut from the same tree. objects of kiln-drying the objects of kiln-drying wood may be placed under three main headings: ( ) to reduce shipping expenses; ( ) to reduce the quantity necessary to maintain in stock; and ( ) to reduce losses in air-drying and to properly prepare the wood for subsequent use. item number naturally follows as a consequence of either or . the reduction in weight on account of shipping expenses is of greatest significance with the northwestern lumbermen in the case of douglas fir, redwood, western red cedar, sugar pine, bull pine, and other softwoods. very rapid methods of rough drying are possible with some of these species, and are in use. high temperatures are used, and the water is sometimes boiled off from the wood by heating above degrees fahrenheit. these high-temperature methods will not apply to the majority of hardwoods, however, nor to many of the softwoods. it must first of all be recognized that the drying of lumber is a totally different operation from the drying of a fabric or of thin material. in the latter, it is largely a matter of evaporated moisture, but wood is not only hygroscopic and attracts moisture from the air, but its physical behavior is very complex and renders the extraction of moisture a very complicated process. an idea of its complexity may be had by mentioning some of the conditions which must be contended with. shrinkage is, perhaps, the most important. this is unequal in different directions, being twice as great tangentially as radially and fifty times as great radially as longitudinally. moreover, shrinkage is often unequal in different portions of the same piece. the slowness of the transfusion of moisture through the wood is an important factor. this varies with different woods and greatly in different directions. wood becomes soft and plastic when hot and moist, and will yield more or less to internal stresses. as some species are practically impervious to air when wet, this plasticity of the cell walls causes them to collapse as the water passes outward from the cell cavities. this difficulty has given much trouble in the case of western red cedar, and also to some extent in redwood. the unequal shrinkage causes internal stresses in the wood as it dries, which results in warping, checking, case-hardening, and honeycombing. case-hardening is one of the most common defects in improperly dried lumber. it is clearly shown by the cupping of the two halves when a case-hardened board is resawed. chemical changes also occur in the wood in drying, especially so at higher temperatures, rendering it less hygroscopic, but more brittle. if dried too much or at too high a temperature, the strength and toughness is seriously reduced. conditions of success commercial success in drying therefore requires that the substance be exposed to the air in the most efficient manner; that the temperature of the air be as high as the substance will stand without injury, and that the air change or movement be as rapid as is consistent with economical installation and operation. conditions of success therefore require the observance of the following points, which embody the basic principles of the process: ( ) the timber should be heated through before drying begins. ( ) the air should be very humid at the beginning of the drying process, and be made drier only gradually. ( ) the temperature of the lumber must be maintained uniformly throughout the entire pile. ( ) control of the drying process at any given temperature must be secured by controlling the relative humidity, not by decreasing the circulation. ( ) in general, high temperatures permit more rapid drying than do lower temperatures. the higher the temperature of the lumber, the more efficient is the kiln. it is believed that temperatures as high as the boiling point are not injurious to most woods, providing all other fundamentally important features are taken care of. some species, however, are not able to stand as high temperatures as others, and ( ) the degree of dryness attained, where strength is the prime requisite, should not exceed that at which the wood is to be used. different treatment according to kind the rapidity with which water may be evaporated, that is, the rate of drying, depends on the size and shape of the piece and on the structure of the wood. thin stock can be dried much faster than thick, under the same conditions of temperature, circulation, and humidity. pine can be dried, as a general thing, in about one third of the time that would be required for oak of the same thickness, although the former contains the more water of the two. quarter-sawn oak usually requires half again as long as plain oak. mahogany requires about the same time as plain oak; ash dries in a little less time, and maple, according to the purpose for which it is intended, may be dried in one fifth the time needed for oak, or may require a slightly longer treatment. for birch, the time required is from one half to two thirds, and for poplar and basswood, from, one fifth to one third that required for oak. all kinds and thicknesses of lumber cannot be dried at the same time in the same kiln. it is manifest that green and air-dried lumber, dense and porous lumber, all require different treatment. for instance, southern yellow pine when cut green from the log will stand a very high temperature, say degrees fahrenheit, and in fact this high temperature is necessary together with a rapid circulation of air in order to neutralize the acidity of the pitch which causes the wood to blue and discolor. this lumber requires to be heated up immediately and to be kept hot throughout the length of the kiln. hence the kiln must not be of such length as to allow of the air being too much cooled before escaping. temperature depends while it is true that a higher temperature can be carried in the kiln for drying pine and similar woods, this does not altogether account for the great difference in drying time, as experience has taught us that even when both woods are dried in the same kiln, under the same conditions, pine will still dry much faster, proving thereby that the structure of the wood itself affects drying. the aim of all kiln designers should be to dry in the shortest possible time, without injury to the material. experience has demonstrated that high temperatures are very effective in evaporating water, regardless of the degree of humidity, but great care must be exercised in using extreme temperatures that the material to be dried is not damaged by checking, case-hardening, or hollow-horning. the temperature used should depend upon the species and condition of the material when entering the kiln. in general, it is advantageous to have as high a temperature as possible, both for economy of operation and speed of drying, but the physical properties of the wood will govern this. many species cannot be dried satisfactorily at high temperatures on account of their peculiar behavior. this is particularly so with green lumber. air-dried wood will stand a relatively higher temperature, as a rule, than wet or green wood. in drying green wood direct from the saw, it is usually best to start with a comparatively low temperature, and not raise the temperature until the wood is nearly dry. for example, green maple containing about per cent of its dry weight in water should be started at about degrees fahrenheit and when it reaches a dryness of per cent, the temperature may be raised gradually up to degrees. it is exceedingly important that the material be practically at the same temperature throughout if perfect drying is to be secured. it should be the same temperature in the center of a pile or car as on the outside, and the same in the center of each individual piece of wood as on its surface. this is the effect obtained by natural air-drying. the outside atmosphere and breezes (natural air circulation) are so ample that the heat extracted for drying does not appreciably change the temperature. when once the wood has been raised to a high temperature through and through and especially when the surface has been rendered most permeable to moisture, drying may proceed as rapidly as it can be forced by artificial circulation, provided the heat lost from the wood through vaporization is constantly replaced by the heat of the kiln. it is evident that to secure an even temperature, a free circulation of air must be brought in contact with the wood. it is also evident that in addition to heat and a circulation of air, the air must be charged with a certain amount of moisture to prevent surface drying or case-hardening. there are some twenty-five different makes of dry kilns on the market, which fulfill to a varying degree the fundamental requirements. probably none of them succeed perfectly in fulfilling all. it is well to have the temperature of a dry kiln controlled by a thermostat which actuates the valve on the main steam supply pipe. it is doubly important to maintain a uniform temperature and avoid fluctuations in the dry kiln, since a change in temperature will greatly alter the relative humidity. in artificial drying, temperatures of from to degrees fahrenheit are usually employed. pine, spruce, cypress, cedar, etc., are dried fresh from the saw, allowing four days for -inch stuff. hardwoods, especially oak, ash, maple, birch, sycamore, etc., are usually air-seasoned for three to six months to allow the first shrinkage to take place more gradually, and are then exposed to the above temperatures in the kiln for about six to ten days for -inch stuff, other dimensions in proportion. freshly cut poplar and cottonwood are often dried direct from the saw in a kiln. by employing lower temperatures, to degrees fahrenheit, green oak, ash, etc., can be seasoned in dry kilns without much injury to the material. steaming and sweating the wood is sometimes resorted to in order to prevent checking and case-hardening, but not, as has been frequently asserted, to enable the material to dry. air circulation air circulation is of the utmost importance, since no drying whatever can take place when it is lacking. the evaporation of moisture requires heat and this must be supplied by the circulating air. moreover, the moisture laden air must be constantly removed and fresh, drier air substituted. probably this is the factor which gives more trouble in commercial operations than anything else, and the one which causes the greatest number of failures. it is necessary that the air circulate through every part of the kiln and that the moving air come in contact with every portion of the material to be dried. in fact, the humidity is dependent upon the circulation. if the air stagnates in any portion of the pile, then the temperature will drop and the humidity rise to a condition of saturation. drying will not take place at this portion of the pile and the material is apt to mould and rot. the method of piling the material on trucks or in the kiln, is therefore, of extreme importance. various methods are in use. ordinary flat piling is probably the poorest. flat piling with open chimney spaces in the piles is better. but neither method is suitable for a kiln in which the circulation is mainly vertical. edge piling with stickers running vertically is in use in kilns when the heating coils are beneath. this is much better. air being cooled as it comes in contact with a pile of material, becomes denser, and consequently tends to sink. unless the material to be dried is so arranged that the air can pass gradually downward through the pile as it cools, poor circulation is apt to result. in edge-piled lumber, with the heating system beneath the piles, the natural tendency of the cooled air to descend is opposed by the hot air beneath which tends to rise. an indeterminate condition is thus brought about, resulting in non-uniform drying. it has been found that air will rise through some layers and descend through others. humidity humidity is of prime importance because the rate of drying and prevention of checking and case-hardening are largely dependent thereon. it is generally true that the surface of the wood should not dry more rapidly than the moisture transfuses from the center of the piece to its surface, otherwise disaster will result. as a sufficient amount of moisture is removed from the wood to maintain the desired humidity, it is not good economy to generate moisture in an outside apparatus and force it into a kiln, unless the moisture in the wood is not sufficient for this purpose; in that case provision should be made for adding any additional moisture that may be required. the rate of evaporation may best be controlled by controlling the amount of vapor present in the air (relative humidity); it should not be controlled by reducing the air circulation, since a large circulation is needed at all times to supply the necessary heat. the humidity should be graded from per cent at the receiving end of the kiln, to whatever humidity corresponds with the desired degree of dryness at the delivery end. the kiln should be so designed that the proper degree may be maintained at its every section. a fresh piece of sapwood will lose weight in boiling water and can also be dried to quite an extent in steam. this proves conclusively that a high degree of humidity does not have the detrimental effect on drying that is commonly attributed to it. in fact, a proper degree of humidity, especially in the loading or receiving end of a kiln, is just as necessary to good results in drying as getting the proper temperature. experiments have demonstrated also that injury to stock in the way of checking, warping, and hollow-horning always develops immediately after the stock is taken into the kiln, and is due to the degree of humidity being too low. the receiving end of the kiln should always be kept moist, where the stock has not been steamed before being put into the kiln. the reason for this is simple enough. when the air is too dry it tends to dry the outside of the material first--which is termed "case-hardening"--and in so doing shrinks and closes up the pores of the wood. as the stock is moved down the kiln, it absorbs a continually increasing amount of heat, which tends to drive off the moisture still present in the center of the stock. the pores on the outside having been closed up, there is no exit for the vapor or steam that is being rapidly formed in the center. it must find its way out some way, and in doing so sets up strains, which result either in checking, warping, or hollow-horning. if the humidity had been kept higher, the outside of the material would not have dried so quickly, and the pores would have remained open for the exit of moisture from the interior of the wood, and this trouble would have been avoided. where the humidity is kept at a high point in the receiving end of the kiln, a higher rate of temperature may also be carried, and in that way the drying process is hastened with comparative safety. it is essential, therefore, to have an ample supply of heat through the convection currents of the air; but in the case of wood the rate of evaporation must be controlled, else checking will occur. this can be done by means of the relative humidity, as stated before. it is clear now that when the air--or, more properly speaking, the space--is completely saturated no evaporation can take place at the given temperature. by reducing the humidity, evaporation takes place more and more rapidly. another bad feature of an insufficient and non-uniform supply of heat is that each piece of wood will be heated to the evaporating point on the outer surface, the inside remaining cool until considerable drying has taken place from the surface. ordinarily in dry kilns high humidity and large circulation of air are antitheses to one another. to obtain the high humidity the circulation is either stopped altogether or greatly reduced, and to reduce the humidity a greater circulation is induced by opening the ventilators or otherwise increasing the draft. this is evidently not good practice, but as a rule is unavoidable in most dry kilns of present make. the humidity should be raised to check evaporation without reducing the circulation if possible. while thin stock, such as cooperage and box stuff is less inclined to give trouble by undue checking than -inch and thicker, one will find that any dry kiln will give more uniform results and, at the same time, be more economical in the use of steam, when the humidity and temperature is carried at as high a point as possible without injury to the material to be dried. any well-made dry kiln which will fulfill the conditions required as to circulation and humidity control should work satisfactorily; but each case must be studied by itself, and the various factors modified to suit the peculiar conditions of the problem in hand. in every new case the material should be constantly watched and studied and, if checking begins, the humidity should be increased until it stops. it is not reducing the circulation, but adding the necessary moisture to the air, that should be depended on to prevent checking. for this purpose it is well to have steam jets in the kiln so that if needed they are ready at hand. kiln-drying there are two distinct ways of handling material in dry kilns. one way is to place the load of lumber in a chamber where it remains in the same place throughout the operation, while the conditions of the drying medium are varied as the drying progresses. this is the "apartment" kiln or stationary method. the other is to run the lumber in at one end of the chamber on a wheeled truck and gradually move it along until the drying process is completed, when it is taken out at the opposite end of the kiln. it is the usual custom in these kilns to maintain one end of the chamber moist and the other end dry. this is known as the "progressive" type of kiln, and is the one most commonly used in large operations. it is, however, the least satisfactory of the two where careful drying is required, since the conditions cannot be so well regulated and the temperatures and humidities are apt to change with any change of wind. the apartment method can be arranged so that it will not require any more kiln space or any more handling of lumber than the progressive type. it does, however, require more intelligent operation, since the conditions in the drying chamber must be changed as the drying progresses. with the progressive type the conditions, once properly established, remain the same. to obtain draft or circulation three methods are in use--by forced draft or a blower usually placed outside the kiln, by ventilation, and by internal circulation and condensation. a great many patents have been taken out on different methods of ventilation, but in actual operation few kilns work exactly as intended. frequently the air moves in the reverse direction for which the ventilators were planned. sometimes a condenser is used in connection with the blower and the air is recirculated. it is also--and more satisfactorily--used with the gentle internal-gravity currents of air. many patents have been taken out for heating systems. the differences among these, however, have more to do the mechanical construction than with the process of drying. in general, the heating is either direct or indirect. in the former steam coils are placed in the chamber with the lumber, and in the latter the air is heated by either steam coils or a furnace before it is introduced into the drying chamber. moisture is sometimes supplied by means of free steam jets in the kiln or in the entering air; but more often the moisture evaporated from the lumber is relied upon to maintain the humidity necessary. a substance becomes dry by the evaporation of its inherent moisture into the surrounding space. if this space be confined it soon becomes saturated and the process stops. hence, constant change is necessary in order that the moisture given off may be continually carried away. in practice, air movement, is therefore absolutely essential to the process of drying. heat is merely a useful accessory which serves to decrease the time of drying by increasing both the rate of evaporation and the absorbing power of the surrounding space. it makes no difference whether this space is a vacuum or filled with air; under either condition it will take up a stated weight of vapor. from this it appears that the vapor molecules find sufficient space between the molecules of air. but the converse is not true, for somewhat less air will be contained in a given space saturated with vapor than in one devoid of moisture. in other words the air does not seem to find sufficient space between the molecules of vapor. if the temperature of the confined space be increased, opportunity will thereby be provided for the vaporization of more water, but if it be decreased, its capacity for moisture will be reduced and visible water will be deposited. the temperature at which this takes place is known as the "dew-point" and depends upon the initial degree of saturation of the given space; the less the relative saturation the lower the dew-point. careful piling of the material to be dried, both in the yard and dry kiln, is essential to good results in drying. air-dried material is not dry, and its moisture is too unevenly distributed to insure good behavior after manufacture. it is quite a difficult matter to give specific or absolute correct weights of any species of timber when thoroughly or properly dried, in order that one may be guided in these kiln operations, as a great deal depends upon the species of wood to be dried, its density, and upon the thickness which it has been cut, and its condition when entering the drying chamber. elm will naturally weigh less than beech, and where the wood is close-grained or compact it will weigh more than coarse-grained wood of the same species, and, therefore, no set rules can be laid down, as good judgment only should be used, as the quality of the drying is not purely one of time. sometimes the comparatively slow process gives excellent results, while to rush a lot of stock through the kiln may be to turn it out so poorly seasoned that it will not give satisfaction when worked into the finished product. the mistreatment of the material in this respect results in numerous defects, chief among which are warping and twisting, checking, case-hardening, and honeycombing, or, as sometimes called, hollow-horning. since the proportion of sap and heartwood varies with size, age, species, and individual trees, the following figures as regards weight must be regarded as mere approximations: pounds of water lost in drying pounds of green wood in the kiln ========================================================================= |sapwood or | heartwood |outer part | or interior ========================================================================= | | ( ) pine, cedar, spruce, and fir | - | - ( ) cypress, extremely variable | - | - ( ) poplar, cottonwood, and basswood | - | - ( ) oak, beech, ash, maple, birch, elm, hickory,| | chestnut, walnut, and sycamore | - | - ========================================================================= the lighter kinds have the most water in the sapwood; thus sycamore has more water than hickory, etc. the efficiency of the drying operations depends a great deal upon the way in which, the lumber is piled, especially when the humidity is not regulated. from the theory of drying it is evident that the rate of evaporation in dry kilns where the humidity is not regulated depends entirely upon the rate of circulation, other things being equal. consequently, those portions of the wood which receive the greatest amount of air dry the most rapidly, and vice versa. the only way, therefore, in which anything like uniform drying can take place is where the lumber is so piled that each portion of it comes in contact with the same amount of air. in the forestry service kiln (fig. ), where the degree of relative humidity is used to control the rate of drying, the amount of circulation makes little difference, provided it exceeds a certain amount. it is desirable to pile the lumber so as to offer as little frictional resistance as possible and at the same time secure uniform circulation. if circulation is excessive in any place it simply means waste of energy but no other injury to the lumber. the best method of piling is one which permits the heated air to pass through the pile in a somewhat downward direction. the natural tendency of the cooled air to descend is thus taken advantage of in assisting the circulation in the kiln. this is especially important when cold or green lumber is first introduced into the kiln. but even when the lumber has become warmed the cooling due to the evaporation increases the density of the mixture of the air and vapor. kiln-drying gum the following article was published by the united states forestry service as to the best method of kiln-drying gum: =piling.=--perhaps the most important factor in good kiln-drying, especially in the case of the gums, is the method of piling. it is our opinion that proper and very careful piling will greatly reduce the loss due to warping. a good method of piling is to place the lumber lengthwise of the kiln and on an incline cross-wise. the warm air should rise at the higher side of the pile and descend between the courses of lumber. the reason for this is very simple and the principle has been applied in the manufacture of the best ice boxes for some time. the most efficient refrigerators are iced at the side, the ice compartment opening to the cooling chamber at the top and bottom. the warm air from above is cooled by melting the ice. it then becomes denser and settles down into the main chamber. the articles in the cooling room warm the air as they cool, so it rises to the top and again comes in contact with the ice, thus completing the cycle. the rate of this natural circulation is automatically regulated by the temperature of the articles in the cooling chamber and by the amount of ice in the icing compartment; hence the efficiency of such a box is high. now let us apply this principle to the drying of lumber. first we must understand that as long as the lumber is moist and drying, it will always be cooler than the surrounding air, the amount of this difference being determined by the rate of drying and the moisture in the wood. as the lumber dries, its temperature gradually rises until it is equal to that of the air, when perfect dryness results. with this fact in mind it is clear that the function of the lumber in a kiln is exactly analogous to that of the ice in an ice box; that is, it is the cooling agent. similarly, the heating pipes in a dry kiln bring about the same effect as the articles of food in the ice box in that they serve to heat the air. therefore, the air will be cooled by the lumber, causing it to pass downward through the piles. if the heating units are placed at the sides of the kiln, the action of the air in a good ice box is duplicated in the kiln. the significant point in this connection is that, the greener and colder the lumber, the faster is the circulation. this is a highly desirable feature. a second vital point is that as the wood becomes gradually drier the circulation automatically decreases, thus resulting in increased efficiency, because there is no need for circulation greater than enough to maintain the humidity of the air as it leaves the lumber about the same as it enters. therefore, we advocate either the longitudinal side-wise inclined pile or edge stacking, the latter being much preferable when possible. of course the piles in our kiln were small and could not be weighted properly, so the best results as to reducing warping were not obtained. =preliminary steaming.=--because the fibres of the gums become plastic while moist and hot without causing defects, it is desirable to heat the air-dried lumber to about degrees fahrenheit in saturated steam at atmospheric pressure in order to reduce the warping. this treatment also furnishes a means of heating the lumber very rapidly. it is probably a good way to stop the sap-staining of green lumber, if it is steamed while green. we have not investigated the other effects of steaming green gum, however, so we hesitate to recommend it. temperatures as high as degrees fahrenheit were used with no apparent harm to the material. the best result was obtained with the temperature of degrees fahrenheit, after the first preliminary heating in steam to degrees fahrenheit. higher temperatures may be used with air-dried gum, however. the best method of humidity control proved to be to reduce the relative humidity of the air from per cent (saturated steam) very carefully at first and then more rapidly to per cent in about four days. if the change is too marked immediately after the steaming period, checking will invariably result. under these temperature and humidity conditions the stock was dried from per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight, to per cent in five days' time. the loss due to checking was about per cent, based on the actual footage loss, not on commercial grades. =final steaming.=--from time to time during the test runs the material was resawed to test for case-hardening. the stock dried in five days showed slight case-hardening, so it was steamed at atmospheric pressure for minutes near the close of the run, with the result that when dried off again the stresses were no longer present. the material from one run was steamed for three hours at atmospheric pressure and proved very badly case-hardened, but in the reverse direction. it seems possible that by testing for the amount of case-hardening one might select a final steaming period which would eliminate all stresses in the wood. kiln-drying of green red gum the following article was published by the united states forestry service on the kiln-drying of green red gum: a short time ago fifteen fine, red-gum logs feet long were received from sardis, miss. they were in excellent condition and quite green. it has been our belief that if the gum could be kiln-dried directly from the saw, a number of the difficulties in seasoning might be avoided. therefore, we have undertaken to find out whether or not such a thing is feasible. the green logs now at the laboratory are to be used in this investigation. one run of a preliminary nature has just been made, the method and results of which i will now tell. this method was really adapted to the drying of southern pine, and one log of the green gum was cut into -inch stock and dried with the pine. the heartwood contained many knots and some checks, although it was in general of quite good quality. the sapwood was in fine condition and almost as white as snow. this material was edge-stacked with one crosser at either end and one at the center, of the -foot board. this is sufficient for the pine, but was absolutely inadequate for drying green gum. a special shrinkage take-up was applied at the three points. the results proved very interesting in spite of the warping which was expected with but three crossers in feet. the method of circulation described was used. it is our belief that edge piling is best for this method. this method of kiln-drying depends on the maintenance of a high velocity of slightly superheated steam through the lumber. in few words, the object is to maintain the temperature of the vapor as it leaves the lumber at slightly above degrees fahrenheit. in order to accomplish this result, it is necessary to maintain the high velocity of circulation. as the wood dries, the superheat may be increased until a temperature of degrees or degrees fahrenheit of the exit air is recorded. the -inch green gum was dried from . per cent to . per cent moisture, based on the dry wood weight in hours. the loss due to checking was per cent. nearly every knot in the heartwood was checked, showing that as the knots could be eliminated in any case, this loss might not be so great. it was significant that practically all of the checking occurred in the heartwood. the loss due to warping was per cent. of course this was large; but not nearly enough crossers were used for the gum. it is our opinion that this loss due to warping can be very much reduced by using at least eight crossers and providing for taking up of the shrinkage. a feature of this process which is very important is that the method absolutely prevents all sap staining. another delightful surprise was the manner in which the superheated steam method of drying changed the color of the sapwood from pure white to a beautifully uniform, clean-looking, cherry red color which very closely resembles that of the heartwood. this method is not new by any means, as several patents have been granted on the steaming of gum to render the sapwood more nearly the color of the heartwoods. the method of application in kiln-drying green gum we believe to be new, however. other methods for kiln-drying this green stock are to be tested until the proper process is developed. we expect to have something interesting to report in the near future.[ ] [footnote : the above test was made at the united states forestry service laboratory, madison, wis.] section xii types of dry kilns different types of dry kilns dry kilns as in use to-day are divided into two classes: the "pipe" or "moist-air" kiln, in which natural draft is relied upon for circulation and, the "blower" or "hot blast" kiln, in which the circulation is produced by fans or blowers. both classes have their adherents and either one will produce satisfactory results if properly operated. the "blower" or "hot blast" kiln the blower kiln in its various types has been in use so long that it is hardly necessary to give to it a lengthy introduction. these kilns at their inauguration were a wonderful improvement over the old style "bake-oven" or "sweat box" kiln then employed, both on account of the improved quality of the material and the rapidity at which it was dried. these blower kilns have undergone steady improvement, not only in the apparatus and equipment, but also in their general design, method of introducing air, and provision for controlling the temperature and humidity. with this type of kiln the circulation is always under absolute control and can be adjusted to suit the conditions, which necessarily vary with the conditions of the material to be dried and the quantity to be put through the kiln. in either the blower or moist-air type of dry kiln, however, it is absolutely essential, in order to secure satisfactory results, both as to rapidity in drying and good quality of stock, that the kiln be so designed that the temperature and humidity, together with circulation, are always under convenient control. any dry kiln in which this has not been carefully considered will not give the desired results. in the old style blower kiln, while the circulation and temperature was very largely under the operator's control, it was next to impossible to produce conditions in the receiving end of the kiln so that the humidity could be kept at the proper point. in fact, this was one reason why the natural draft, or so-called moist-air kiln was developed. the advent of the moist-air kiln served as an education to kiln designers and manufacturers, in that it has shown conclusively the value of a proper degree of humidity in the receiving end of any progressive dry kiln, and it has been of special benefit also in that it gave the manufacturers of blower kilns an idea as to how to improve the design of their type of kiln to overcome the difficulty referred to in the old style blower kilns. this has now been remedied, and in a decidedly simple manner, as is usually the case with all things that possess merit. it was found that by returning from one third to one half of the moist air _after_ having passed through the kiln back to the fan room and by mixing it with the fresh and more or less dry air going into the drying room, that the humidity could be kept under convenient control. the amount of air that can be returned from a kiln of this class depends upon three things: ( ) the condition of the material when entering the drying room; ( ) the rapidity with which the material is to be dried; and ( ) the condition of the outside atmosphere. in the winter season it will be found that a larger proportion of air may be returned to the drying room than in summer, as the air during the winter season contains considerably less moisture and as a consequence is much drier. this is rather a fortunate coincidence, as, when the kiln is being operated in this manner, it will be much more economical in its steam consumption. in the summer season, when the outside atmosphere is saturated to a much greater extent, it will be found that it is not possible to return as great a quantity of air to the drying room, although there have been instances of kilns of this class, which in operation have had all the air returned and found to give satisfactory results. this is an unusual condition, however, and can only be accounted for by some special or peculiar condition surrounding the installation. in some instances, the desired amount of humidity in a blower type of kiln is obtained by the addition of a steam spray in the receiving end of the kiln, much in the same manner as that used in the moist-air kilns. this method is not as economical as returning the moisture-laden air from the drying room as explained in the preceding paragraph. with the positive circulation that may be obtained in a blower kiln, and with the conditions of temperature and humidity under convenient control, this type of kiln has the elements most necessary to produce satisfactory drying in the quickest possible elapsed time. it must not be inferred from this, however, that this class of dry kiln may be installed and satisfactory results obtained regardless of how it is handled. a great deal of the success of any dry kiln--or any other apparatus, for that matter--depends upon intelligent operation. operation of the "blower" dry kiln it is essential that the operator be supplied with proper facilities to keep a record of the material as it is placed into the drying room, and when it is taken out. an accurate record should be kept of the temperature every two or three hours, for the different thicknesses and species of lumber, that he may have some reliable data to guide him in future cases. any man possessing ordinary intelligence can operate dry kilns and secure satisfactory results, providing he will use good judgment and follow the basic instructions as outlined below: . when cold and before putting into operation, heat the apparatus slowly until all pipes are hot, then start the fan or blower, gradually bringing it up to its required speed. . see that _all_ steam supply valves are kept wide open, unless you desire to lengthen the time required to dry the material. . when using exhaust steam, the valve from the header (which is a separate drip, independent of the trap connection) must be kept wide open, but must be closed when live steam is used on that part of the heater. . the engines as supplied by the manufacturers are constructed to operate the fan or blower at a proper speed with its throttle valve wide open, and with not less than pounds pressure of steam. . if the return steam trap does not discharge regularly, it is important that it be opened and thoroughly cleaned and the valve seat re-ground. . as good air circulation is as essential as the proper degree of heat, and as the volume of air and its contact with the material to be dried depends upon the volume delivered by the fan or blower, it is necessary to maintain a regular and uniform speed of the engine. . atmospheric openings must always be maintained in the fan or heater room for fresh air supply. . successful drying cannot be accomplished without ample and free circulation of air at all times. if the above instructions are fully carried out, and good judgment used in the handling and operation of the blower kiln, no difficulties should be encountered in successfully drying the materials at hand. the "pipe" or "moist-air" dry kiln while in the blower class of dry kiln, the circulation is obtained by forced draft with the aid of fans or blowers, in the moist-air kilns (see fig. ); the circulation is obtained by natural draft only, aided by the manipulation of dampers installed at the receiving end of the drying room, which lead to vertical flues through a stack to the outside atmosphere. the heat in these kilns is obtained by condensing steam in coils of pipe, which are placed underneath the material to be dried. as the degree of heat required, and steam pressure govern the amount of radiation, there are several types of radiating coils. in fig. will be seen the single row heating coils for live or high pressure steam, which are used when the low temperature is required. figure shows the double (or ) row heating coils for live or high pressure steam. this apparatus is used when a medium temperature is required. in fig. will be seen the vertical type heating coils which is recommended where exhaust or low-pressure steam is to be used, or may be used with live or high-pressure steam when high temperatures are desired. [illustration: fig. . section through a typical moist-air dry kiln.] these heating coils are usually installed in sections, which permit any degree of heat from the minimum to the maximum to be maintained by the elimination of, or the addition of, any number of heating sections. this gives a dry kiln for the drying of green softwoods, or by shutting off a portion of the radiating coils--thus reducing the temperature--a dry kiln for drying hardwoods, that will not stand the maximum degree of heat. [illustration: fig. . single pipe heating apparatus for dry kilns, arranged for the use of live steam. for low temperatures.] [illustration: fig. . double pipe heating apparatus for dry kilns, arranged for the use of live steam. for medium temperatures.] in the moist-air or natural draft type of dry kiln, any degree of humidity, from clear and dry to a dense fog may be obtained; this is in fact, the main and most important feature of this type of dry kiln, and the most essential one in the drying of hardwoods. it is not generally understood that the length of a kiln has any effect upon the quantity of material that may be put through it, but it is a fact nevertheless that long kilns are much more effective, and produce a better quality of stock in less time than kilns of shorter length. experience has proven that a kiln from to feet in length will produce the best results, and it should be the practice, where possible, to keep them within these figures. the reason for this is that in a long kiln there is a greater drop in temperature between the discharge end and the green or receiving end of the kiln. it is very essential that the conditions in the receiving end of the kiln, as far as the temperature and humidity are concerned, must go hand in hand. it has also been found that in a long kiln the desired conditions may be obtained with higher temperatures than with a shorter kiln; consequently higher temperatures may be carried in the discharge end of the kiln, thereby securing greater rapidity in drying. it is not unusual to find that a temperature of degrees fahrenheit is carried in the discharge end of a long dry kiln with safety, without in any way injuring the quality of the material, although, it would be better not to exceed degrees in the discharge end, and about degrees in the receiving or green end in order to be on the safe side. operation of the "moist-air" dry kiln to obtain the best results these kilns should be kept in continuous operation when once started, that is, they should be operated continuously day and night. when not in operation at night or on sundays, and the kiln is used to season green stock direct from the saw, the large doors at both ends of the kiln should be opened wide, or the material to be dried will "sap stain." [illustration: fig. . vertical pipe heating apparatus for dry kilns; may be used in connection with either live or exhaust steam for high or low temperatures.] it is highly important that the operator attending any drying apparatus keep a minute and accurate record of the condition of the material as it is placed into the drying room, and its final condition when taken out. records of the temperature and humidity should be taken frequently and at stated periods for the different thicknesses and species of material, in order that he may have reliable data to guide him in future operations. the following facts should be taken into consideration when operating the moist-air dry kiln: . before any material has been placed in the drying room, the steam should be turned into the heating or radiating coils, gradually warming them, and bringing the temperature in the kiln up to the desired degree. . care should be exercised that there is sufficient humidity in the receiving or loading end of the kiln, in order to guard against checking, case-hardening, etc. therefore it is essential that the steam spray at the receiving or loading end of the kiln be properly manipulated. . as the temperature depends principally upon the pressure of steam carried in the boilers, maintain a steam pressure of not less than pounds at all times; it may range as high as pounds. the higher the temperature with its relatively high humidity the more rapidly the drying will be accomplished. . since air circulation is as essential as the proper degree of heat, and as its contact with the material to be dried depends upon its free circulation, it is necessary that the dampers for its admittance into, and its exit from, the drying room be efficiently and properly operated. successful drying cannot be accomplished without ample and free circulation of air at all times during the drying process. if the above basic principles are carefully noted and followed out, and good common sense used in the handling and operation of the kiln apparatus, no serious difficulties should arise against the successful drying of the materials at hand. choice of drying method at this point naturally arises the question: which of the two classes of dry kilns, the "moist-air" or "blower" kiln is the better adapted for my particular needs? this must be determined entirely by the species of wood to be dried, its condition when it goes into the kiln, and what kind of finished product is to be manufactured from it. almost any species of hardwood which has been subjected to air-seasoning for three months or more may be dried rapidly and in the best possible condition for glue-jointing and fine finishing with a "blower" kiln, but green hardwood, direct from the saw, can only be successfully dried (if at all) in a "moist-air" kiln. most furniture factories have considerable bent stock which must of necessity be thoroughly steamed before bending. by steaming, the initial process of the moist-air kiln has been consummated. hence, the blower kiln is better adapted to the drying of such stock than the moist-air kiln would be, as the stock has been thoroughly soaked by the preliminary steaming, and all that is required is sufficient heat to volatilize the moisture, and a strong circulation of air to remove it as it comes to the surface. the moist-air kiln is better adapted to the drying of tight cooperage stock, while the blower kiln is almost universally used throughout the slack cooperage industry for the drying of its products. for the drying of heavy timbers, planks, blocks, carriage stock, etc., and for all species of hardwood thicker than one inch, the moist-air kiln is undoubtedly the best. both types of kilns are equally well adapted to the drying of -inch green norway and white pine, elm, hemlock, and such woods as are used in the manufacture of flooring, ceiling, siding, shingles, hoops, tub and pail stock, etc. the selection of one or the other for such work is largely matter of personal opinion. kilns of different types all dry kilns as in use to-day are divided as to method of drying into two classes: the "pipe" or "moist-air" kiln; the "blower" or "hot blast" kiln; both of which have been fully explained in a previous article. the above two classes are again subdivided into five different types of dry kilns as follows: the "progressive" kiln; the "apartment" kiln; the "pocket" kiln; the "tower" kiln; the "box" kiln. the "progressive" dry kiln dry kilns constructed so that the material goes in at one end and is taken out at the opposite end are called progressive dry kilns, from the fact that the material gradually progresses through the kiln from one stage to another while drying (see fig. ). in the operation of the progressive kiln, the material is first subjected to a sweating or steaming process at the receiving or loading end of the kiln with a low temperature and a relative high humidity. it then gradually progresses through the kiln into higher temperatures and lower humidities, as well as changes of air circulation, until it reaches the final stage at the discharge end of the kiln. progressive kilns, in order to produce the most satisfactory results, especially in the drying of hardwoods or heavy softwood timbers, should be not less than feet in length (see fig. ). in placing this type of kiln in operation, the following instructions should be carefully followed: when steam has been turned into the heating coils, and the kiln is fairly warm, place the first car of material to be dried in the drying room--preferably in the morning--about feet from the kiln door on the receiving or loading end of the kiln, blocking the wheels so that it will remain stationary. [illustration: fig. . exterior view of four progressive dry kilns, each feet long by feet wide. cross-wise piling, fire-proof construction.] five hours later, or about noon, run in the second car and stop it about five feet from the first one placed in the drying room. five hours later, or in the evening push car number two up against the first car; then run in car number three, stopping it about five feet from car number two. on the morning of the second day, push car number three against the others, and then move them all forward about feet, and then run in car number four, stopping it about five feet from the car in advance of it. five hours later, or about noon, run in car number five and stop it about five feet from car number four. in the evening or about five hours later, push these cars against the ones ahead, and run in loaded car number six, stopping it about five feet from the preceding car. on the morning of the third day, move all the cars forward about six feet; then run in loaded car number seven stop it about four feet from the car preceding it. five hours later or about noon push this car against those in advance of it, and run in loaded car number eight moving all cars forward about six feet, and continue in this manner until the full complement of cars have been placed in the kiln. when the kiln has been filled, remove car number one and push all the remaining cars forward and run in the next loaded car, and continue in this manner as long as the kiln is in operation. as the temperature depends principally upon the pressure of steam, maintain a steam pressure of not less than pounds at all times; it may range up to as high as pounds. the higher the temperature with a relatively higher humidity the more rapidly the drying will be accomplished. if the above instructions are carried out, the temperatures, humidities, and air circulation properly manipulated, there should be complete success in the handling of this type of dry kiln. the progressive type of dry kiln is adapted to such lines of manufacture that have large quantities of material to kiln-dry where the species to be dried is of a similiar nature or texture, and does not vary to any great extent in its thickness, such, for instance, as: oak flooring plants; maple flooring plants; cooperage plants; large box plants; furniture factories; etc. in the selection of this kind of dry kiln, consideration should be given to the question of ground space of sufficient length or dimension to accommodate a kiln of proper length for successful drying. the "apartment" dry kiln the apartment system of dry kilns are primarily designed for the drying of different kinds or sizes of material at the same time, a separate room or apartment being devoted to each species or size when the quantity is sufficient (see fig. ). these kilns are sometimes built single or in batteries of two or more, generally not exceeding or feet in length with doors and platforms at both ends the same as the progressive kilns; but in operation each kiln is entirely filled at one loading and then closed, and the entire contents dried at one time, then emptied and again recharged. any number of apartments may be built, and each apartment may be arranged to handle any number of cars, generally about three or four, or they may be so constructed that the material is piled directly upon the floor of the drying room. [illustration: fig. . exterior view of six apartment dry kilns, each feet wide by feet long, end-wise piling. they are entirely of fire-proof construction and equipped with double doors (hussey asbestos outside and canvas inside), and are also equipped with humidity and air control dampers, which may be operated from the outside without opening the kiln doors, which is a very good feature.] when cars are used, it is well to have a transfer car at each end of the kilns, and stub tracks for holding cars of dry material, and for the loading of the unseasoned stock, as in this manner the kilns may be kept in full operation at all times. in this type of dry kiln the material receives the same treatment and process that it would in a progressive kiln. the advantages of apartment kilns is manifest where certain conditions require the drying of numerous kinds as well as thicknesses of material at one and the same time. this method permits of several short drying rooms or apartments so that it is not necessary to mix hardwoods and softwoods, or thick and thin material in the same kiln room. in these small kilns the circulation is under perfect control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more extensive plants, and will readily appeal to manufacturers whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume of material of uniform size and grade. apartment kilns are recommended for industries where conditions require numerous kinds and thicknesses of material to be dried, such as: furniture factories; piano factories; interior woodwork mills; planing mills; etc. the "pocket" dry kiln "pocket" dry kilns (see fig. ) are generally built in batteries of several pockets. they have the tracks level and the lumber goes in and out at the same end. each drying room is entirely filled at one time, the material is dried and then removed and the kiln again recharged. the length of "pocket" kilns ranges generally from feet to about feet. the interior equipment for this type of dry kiln is arranged very similiar to that used in the apartment kiln. the heating or radiating coils and steam spray jets extend the whole length of the drying room, and are arranged for the use of either live or exhaust steam, as desired. inasmuch as pocket kilns have doors at one end only, this feature eliminates a certain amount of door exposure, which conduces towards economy in operation. in operating pocket kilns, woods of different texture and thickness should be separated and placed in different drying rooms, and each kiln adjusted and operated to accommodate the peculiarities of the species and thickness of the material to be dried. [illustration: fig. . exterior view of five pocket dry kilns, built in two batteries with the front of each set facing the other, and a transfer system between. they are also equipped with the asbestos doors.] naturally, the more complex the conditions of manufacturing wood products in any industry, the more difficult will be the proper drying of same. pocket kilns, are, therefore, recommended for factories having several different kinds and thicknesses of material to dry in small quantities of each, such as: planing mills; chair factories; furniture factories; sash and door factories; etc. the "tower" dry kiln the so-called "tower" dry kiln (see fig. ) is designed for the rapid drying of small stuff in quantities. although the general form of construction and the capacity of the individual bins or drying rooms may vary, the same essential method of operation is common to all. that is, the material itself, such as wooden novelties, loose staves, and heading for tubs, kits, and pails, for box stuff, kindling wood, etc., is dumped directly into the drying rooms from above, or through the roof, in such quantities as effectually to fill the bin, from which it is finally removed when dry, through the doors at the bottom. these dry kilns are usually operated as "blower" kilns, the heating apparatus is generally located in a separate room or building adjacent to the main structure or drying rooms, and arranged so that the hot air discharged through the inlet duct (see illustration) is thoroughly distributed beneath a lattice floor upon which rests the material to be dried. through this floor the air passes directly upward, between and around the stock, and finally returns to the fan or heating room. this return air duct is so arranged that by means of dampers, leading from each drying room, the air may be returned in any quantity to the fan room where it is mixed with fresh air and again used. this is one of the main features of economy of the blower system of drying, as by the employment of this return air system, considerable saving may be made in the amount of steam required for drying. [illustration: fig. . exterior and sectional view of a battery of tower dry kilns. this is a "blower" or "hot blast" type, and shows the arrangement of the fan blower, engine, etc. this type of dry kin is used principally for the seasoning of small, loose material.] the lattice floors in this type of dry kiln are built on an incline, which arrangement materially lessens the cost, and increases the convenience with which the dried stock may be removed from the bins or drying rooms. in operation, the material is conveyed in cars or trucks on an overhead trestle--which is inclosed--from which the material to be dried is dumped directly into the drying rooms or bins, through hoppers arranged for that purpose thereby creating considerable saving in the handling of the material to be dried into the kiln. the entire arrangement thus secures the maximum capacity, with a minimum amount of floor space, with the least expense. of course, the higher these kilns are built, the less relative cost for a given result in the amount of material dried. in some instances, these kilns are built less in height and up against an embankment so that teamloads of material may be run directly onto the roof of the kilns, and dumped through the hoppers into the drying rooms or bins, thus again reducing to a minimum the cost of this handling. the return air duct plays an important part in both of these methods of filling, permitting the air to become saturated to the maximum desired, and utilizing much of the heat contained therein, which would otherwise escape to the atmosphere. the "tower" kiln is especially adapted to factories of the following class: sawmills; novelty factories; woodenware factories; tub and pail factories; etc. the "box" dry kiln the "box" kiln shown in figure is an exterior view of a kiln of this type which is feet wide, feet deep, and feet high, which is the size generally used when the space will permit. box kilns are used mostly where only a small quantity of material is to be dried. they are not equipped with trucks or cars, the material to be dried being piled upon a raised platform inside the drying room. this arrangement, therefore, makes them of less cost than the other types of dry kilns. they are particularly adapted to any and all species and size of lumber to be dried in very small quantities. [illustration: fig. . exterior view of the box dry kiln. this particular kiln is feet wide, feet deep and feet high. box kilns are used mostly where only a small amount of kiln-dried lumber of various sizes is required. they are not equipped with trucks or cars, and therefore cost less to construct than any other type of dry kiln.] in these small kilns the circulation is under perfect control, so that the efficiency is equal to that of the more extensive plants. these special kilns will readily appeal to manufacturers, whose output calls for the prompt and constant seasoning of a large variety of small stock, rather than a large volume material of uniform size and grade. section xiii dry kiln specialties kiln cars and method of loading within recent years, the edge-wise piling of lumber (see figs. and ), upon kiln cars has met with considerable favor on account of its many advantages over the older method of flat piling. it has been proven that lumber stacked edge-wise dries more uniformly and rapidly, and with practically no warping or twisting of the material, and that it is finally discharged from the dry kiln in a much better and brighter condition. this method of piling also considerably increases the holding and consequent drying capacities of the dry kiln by reason of the increased carrying capacities of the kiln cars, and the shorter period of time required for drying the material. [illustration: fig. . car loaded with lumber on its edges by the automatic stacker, to go into the dry kiln cross-wise. equipped with two edge piling kiln trucks.] in figures and are shown different views of the automatic lumber stacker for edge-wise piling of lumber on kiln cars. many users of automatic stackers report that the grade of their lumber is raised to such an extent that the system would be profitable for this reason alone, not taking into consideration the added saving in time and labor, which to anyone's mind should be the most important item. [illustration: fig. . car loaded with lumber on its edges by the automatic stacker, to go into the dry kiln end-wise. the bunks on which the lumber rests are channel steel. the end sockets are malleable iron and made for i-beam stakes.] in operation, the lumber is carried to these automatic stackers on transfer chains or chain conveyors, and passes on to the stacker table. when the table is covered with boards, the "lumber" lever is pulled by the operator, which raises a stop, preventing any more lumber leaving the chain conveyor. the "table" lever then operates the friction drive and raises the table filled with the boards to a vertical position. as the table goes up, it raises the latches, which fall into place behind the piling strips that had been previously laid on the table. when the table returns to the lower position, a new set of piling strips are put in place on the table, and the stream of boards which has been accumulating on the conveyor chain are again permitted to flow onto the table. as each layer of lumber is added, the kiln car is forced out against a strong tension. when the car is loaded, binders are put on over the stakes by means of a powerful lever arrangement. [illustration: fig. . the above illustration shows the construction of the automatic lumber stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln end-wise.] [illustration: fig. . the above illustration shows the construction of the automatic lumber stacker for edge piling of lumber to go into the dry kiln cross-wise.] [illustration: fig. . the above illustration shows a battery of three automatic lumber stackers.] [illustration: fig. . the above illustration shows another battery of three automatic lumber stackers.] [illustration: fig. . cars loaded with lumber on its edges by the automatic lumber stackers.] after leaving the dry kilns, the loaded car is transferred to the unstacker (see fig. ). here it is placed on the unstacker car which, by means of a tension device, holds the load of lumber tight against the vertical frame of the unstacker. the frame of the unstacker is triangular and has a series of chains. each chain has two special links with projecting lugs. the chains all travel in unison. the lug links engage a layer of boards, sliding the entire layer vertically, and the boards, one at a time, fall over the top of the unstacker frame onto the inclined table, and from there onto conveyor chains from which they may be delivered to any point desired, depending upon the length and direction of the chain conveyor. with these unstackers one man can easily unload a kiln car in twenty minutes or less. [illustration: fig. . the lumber unstacker car, used for unloading cars of lumber loaded by the automatic stacker.] [illustration: fig. . the lumber unstacker car and unstacker, used for unloading lumber loaded by the automatic stacker.] the experience of many users prove that these edge stacking machines are not alike. this is important, because there is one feature of edge stacking that must not be overlooked. unless each layer of boards is forced into place by power and held under a strong pressure, much slack will accumulate in an entire load, and the subsequent handling of the kiln cars, and the effect of the kiln-drying will loosen up the load until there is a tendency for the layers to telescope. and unless the boards are held in place rigidly and with strong pressure they will have a tendency to warp. [illustration: fig. . the above illustration shows method of loading kiln cars with veneer on its edges by the use of the tilting platform.] a kiln car of edge-stacked lumber, properly piled, is made up of alternate solid sheets of lumber and vertical open-air spaces, so that the hot air and vapors rise naturally and freely through the lumber, drying both sides of the board evenly. the distribution of the heat and moisture being even and uniform, the drying process is naturally quickened, and there is no opportunity or tendency for the lumber to warp. in figure will be seen a method of loading kiln cars with veneer on edge by the use of a tilting platform. on the right of the illustration is seen a partially loaded kiln car tilted to an angle of degrees, to facilitate the placing of the veneer on the car. at the left is a completely loaded car ready to enter the dry kiln. gum, poplar, and pine veneers are satisfactorily dried in this manner in from to hours. in figure will be seen method of piling lumber on the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three tracks. [illustration: fig. . method of loading lumber on its flat, cross-wise of the dry kiln when same has three tracks.] in figure will be seen another method of piling lumber on the flat, "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three tracks. in figure will be seen method of piling lumber on the flat, "end-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. in figure will be seen another method of piling lumber on the flat, "end-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. in figure will be seen method of piling slack or tight barrel staves "cross-wise" of the kiln when same has three tracks. in figure will be seen another method of piling slack or tight barrel staves "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three tracks. in figure will be seen method of piling small tub or pail staves "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. in figure will be seen method of piling bundled staves "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. [illustration: fig. . method of loading lumber on its flat, cross-wise of the dry kiln when same has three tracks.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading lumber on its flat, end-wise of the dry kiln by the use of the single-sill or dolly truck.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading lumber on its flat, end-wise of the dry kiln by the use of the double-sill truck.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with tight or slack barrel staves cross-wise of dry kiln.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with tight or slack barrel staves cross-wise of dry kiln.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with tub or pail staves cross-wise of dry kiln.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with bundled staves cross-wise of dry kiln.] in figure will be seen method of piling shingles "cross-wise" of dry kiln when same has three tracks. in figure will be seen another method of piling shingles "cross-wise" of the dry kiln when same has three tracks. [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with shingles cross-wise of dry kiln.] [illustration: fig. . method of loading kiln car with shingles cross-wise of dry kiln.] in figure will be seen method of piling shingles "end-wise" of the dry kiln when same has two tracks. in figure will be seen a kiln car designed for handling short tub or pail staves through a dry kiln. [illustration: fig. . car loaded with , shingles. equipped with four long end-wise piling trucks and to go into dry kiln end-wise.] [illustration: fig. . kiln car designed for handling short tub or pail staves through a dry kiln.] in figure will be seen a kiln car designed for short piece stock through a dry kiln. in figure will be seen a type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen another type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen another type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen another type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen another type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen another type of truck designed for the handling of stave bolts about a stave mill or through a steam box. in figure will be seen the regular -rail transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "end-wise." in figure will be seen another type of regular -rail transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "end-wise." in figure will be seen a specially-designed -rail transfer car for -rail kiln cars which have been built to accommodate extra long material to be dried. in figure will be seen the regular -rail transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." in figure will be seen another type of regular -rail transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." in figure will be seen the regular -rail underslung type of transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." two important features in the construction of this transfer car make it extremely easy in its operation. it has extra large wheels, diameter - / inches, and being underslung, the top of its rails are no higher than the other types of transfer cars. note the relative size of the wheels in the illustration, yet the car is only about inches in height. [illustration: fig. . kiln car designed for handling short piece stock through a dry kiln.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a stave bolt truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a special -rail transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail underslung transfer truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular -rail underslung transfer truck.] in figure will be seen the regular -rail underslung type of transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "end-wise." this car also has the important features of large diameter wheels and low rail construction, which make it very easy in its operation. [illustration: fig. . a special -rail flexible transfer truck.] in figure will be seen the special -rail flexible type of transfer car designed for the handling of -rail kiln cars which have been loaded "cross-wise." this car is equipped with double the usual number of wheels, and by making each set of trucks a separate unit (the front and rear trucks being bolted to a steel beam with malleable iron connection), a slight up-and-down movement is permitted, which enables this transfer car to adjust itself to any unevenness in the track, which is a very good feature. in figure will be seen the regular transfer car designed for the handling of stave bolt trucks. in figure will be seen another type of regular transfer car designed for the handling of stave bolt trucks. in figure will be seen a special transfer car designed for the handling of stave bolt trucks. [illustration: fig. . a regular transfer car for handling stave bolt trucks.] [illustration: fig. . a regular transfer car for handling stave bolt trucks.] [illustration: fig. . a special transfer car for handling stave bolt trucks.] in figure will be seen the regular channel-iron kiln truck designed for edge piling "cross-wise" of the dry kiln. in figure will be seen another type of regular channel-iron kiln truck designed for edge piling "cross-wise" of the dry kiln. [illustration: fig. . a regular channel-iron kiln truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular channel-iron kiln truck.] in figure will be seen the regular channel-iron kiln truck designed for flat piling "end-wise" of the dry kiln. [illustration: fig. . a regular channel-iron kiln truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular channel-iron kiln truck.] [illustration: fig. . a regular single-sill or dolly kiln truck.] in figure will be seen the regular channel-iron kiln truck with i-beam cross-pieces designed for flat piling "end-wise" of the dry kiln. in figure will be seen the regular small dolly kiln truck designed for flat piling "end-wise" of the dry kiln. different types of kiln doors in figure will be seen the asbestos-lined door. the construction of this kiln door is such that it has no tendency to warp or twist. the framework is solid and the body is made of thin slats placed so that the slat on either side covers the open space of the other with asbestos roofing fabric in between. this makes a comparatively light and inexpensive door, and one that absolutely holds the heat. these doors may be built either swinging, hoisting, or sliding. [illustration: fig. . an asbestos-lined kiln door of the hinge type.] in figure will be seen the twin carrier type of door hangers with doors loaded and rolling clear of the opening. [illustration: fig. . twin carrier with kiln door loaded and rolling clear of opening.] [illustration: fig. . twin carriers for kiln doors to feet wide.] in figure will be seen the twin carrier for doors to feet wide, idle on a section of the track. in figure will be seen another type of carrier for kiln doors. in figure will be seen the preceding type of kiln door carrier in operation. in figure will be seen another type of carrier for kiln doors. in figure will be seen kiln doors seated, wood construction, showing - / " × - / " inch-track timbers and trusses, supported on -inch by -inch jamb posts. "t" rail track, top and side, inclined shelves on which the kiln door rests. track timber not trussed on openings under feet wide. [illustration: fig. . kiln door carrier engaged to door ready for lifting.] in figure will be seen kiln doors seated, fire-proof construction, showing -inch, channel, steel lintels, " × " steel angle mullions, track brackets bolted to the steel lintels and "t" rail track. no track timbers or trusses used. [illustration: fig. . kiln door carrier shown on doors of wood construction.] [illustration: fig. . kiln door construction with door carrier out of sight.] [illustration: fig. . kiln door construction. doors seated. wood construction.] [illustration: fig. . kiln door construction. doors seated. fire-proof construction.] section xiv helpful appliances in kiln-drying the humidity diagram [illustration: fig. . the united states forest service humidity diagram for determination of absolute humidities. dew points and vapor pressures; also relative humidities by means of wet and dry-bulb thermometer, for any temperatures and change in temperature.] some simple means of determining humidities and changes in humidity brought about by changes in temperature in the dry kiln without the use of tables is almost a necessity. to meet this requirement the united states forestry service has devised the humidity diagram shown in figure . it differs in several respects from the hydrodeiks now in use. the purpose of the humidity diagram is to enable the dry-kiln operator to determine quickly the humidity conditions and vapor pressure, as well as the changes which take place with changes of temperature. the diagram above is adapted to the direct solution of problems of this character without recourse to tables or mathematical calculations. the humidity diagram consists of two distinct sets of curves on the same sheet. one set, the convex curves, is for the determination of relative humidity of wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer; the other, the concave curves, is derived from the vapor pressures and shows the amount of moisture per cubic foot at relative humidities and temperatures when read at the dew-point. the latter curves, therefore, are independent of all variables affecting the wet-bulb readings. they are proportional to vapor pressures, not to density, and, therefore, may be followed from one temperature to another with correctness. the short dashes show the correction (increase or decrease) which is necessary in the relative humidity, read from the convex curves, with an increase or decrease from the normal barometric pressure of inches, for which the curves have been plotted. this correction, except for very low temperatures, is so small that it may usually be disregarded. the ordinates, or vertical distances, are relative humidity expressed in per cent of saturation, from per cent at the bottom to per cent at the top. the abscissae, or horizontal distances, are temperatures in degrees fahrenheit from degrees below zero, at the left, to degrees above, at the right. examples of use the application of the humidity diagram can best be understood by sample problems. these problems also show the wide range of conditions to which the diagram will apply. example . to find the relative humidity by use of wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer or psychrometer: place the instrument in a strong circulation of air, or wave it to and fro. read the temperature of the dry bulb and the wet, and subtract. find on the horizontal line the temperature shown by the dry-bulb thermometer. follow the vertical line from this point till it intersects with the convex curve marked with the difference between the wet and dry readings. the horizontal line passing through this intersection will give the relative humidity. example: dry bulb °, wet bulb °, difference °. find ° on the horizontal line of temperature. follow up the vertical line from ° until it intersects with the convex curve marked °. the horizontal line passing through this intersection shows the relative humidity to be per cent. example . to find how much water per cubic foot is contained in the air: find the relative humidity as in example . then the nearest concave curve gives the weight of water in grains per cubic foot when the air is cooled to the dew-point. using the same quantities as in example , this will be slightly more than grains. example . to find the amount of water required to saturate air at a given temperature: find on the top line ( per cent humidity) the given temperature; the concave curve intersecting at or near this point gives the number of grains per cubic foot. (interpolate, if great accuracy is desired.) example . to find the dew-point: obtain the relative humidity as in example . then follow up parallel to the nearest concave curve until the top horizontal (indicating per cent relative humidity) is reached. the temperature on this horizontal line at the point reached will be the dew-point. example: dry bulb °, wet bulb °. on the vertical line for ° find the intersection with the hygrometer (convex) curve for °. this will be found at nearly per cent relative humidity. then follow up parallel with the vapor pressure (concave) curve marked grains to its intersection at the top of the chart with the per cent humidity line. this gives the dew-point as °. example . to find the change in the relative humidity produced by a change in temperature: example: the air at ° fahr. is found to contain per cent humidity; what will be its relative humidity if heated to ° fahr.? starting from the intersection of the designated humidity and temperature coordinates, follow the vapor-pressure curve (concave) until it intersects the ° temperature ordinate. the horizontal line then reads per cent relative humidity. the same operation applies to reductions in temperature. in the above example what is the humidity at °? following parallel to the same curve in the opposite direction until it intersects the ° ordinate gives per cent; at ° it becomes per cent, reaching the dew-point. example . to find the amount of condensation produced by lowering the temperature: example: at ° the wet bulb reads °. how much water would be condensed if the temperature were lowered to °? the intersection of the hygrometer curve for ° ( °- °) with temperature line for ° shows a relative humidity of per cent. the vapor-pressure curve (concave) followed up to the per cent relative humidity line shows grains per cubic foot at the dew-point, which corresponds to a temperature of °. at ° it is seen that the air can contain but grains per cubic foot (saturation). consequently, there will be condensed minus , or grains per cubic foot of space measured at the dew-point. example . to find the amount of water required to produce saturation by a given rise in temperature: example: take the values given in example . the air at the dew-point contains slightly over grains per cubic foot. at ° it is capable of containing grains per cubic foot. consequently, - = grains of water which can be evaporated per cubic foot of space at the dew-point when the temperature is raised to °. but the latent heat necessary to produce evaporation must be supplied in addition to the heat required to raise the air to °. example . to find the amount of water evaporated during a given change of temperature and humidity: example: at ° suppose the humidity is found to be per cent and at ° it is found to be per cent. how much water has been evaporated per cubic foot of space? at ° temperature and per cent humidity there are grains of water present per cubic foot at the dew-point (example ). at ° and per cent humidity there are grains present. therefore, - = grains of water which have been evaporated per cubic foot of space, figuring all volumes at the dew-point. example . to correct readings of the hygrometer for changes in barometric pressure: a change of pressure affects the reading of the wet bulb. the chart applies at a barometric pressure of inches, and, except for great accuracy, no correction is generally necessary. find the relative humidity as usual. then look for the nearest barometer line (indicated by dashes). at the end of each barometer line will be found a fraction which represents the proportion of the relative humidity already found, which must be added or subtracted for a change in barometric pressure. if the barometer reading is less than inches, add; if greater than inches, subtract. the figures given are for a change of inch; for other changes use proportional amounts. thus, for a change of inches use twice the indicated ratio; for half an inch use half, and so on. example: dry bulb °, wet bulb °, barometer inches. the relative humidity is found, by the method given in example , to equal per cent. the barometric line--gives a value of / h for each inch of change. since the barometer is inches below , multiply / h by , giving / h. the correction will, therefore, be / of , which equals . . since the barometer is below , this is to be added, giving a corrected relative humidity of . per cent. this has nothing to do with the vapor pressure (concave) curves, which are independent of barometric pressure, and consequently does not affect the solution of the previous problems. example . at what temperature must the condenser be maintained to produce a given humidity? example: suppose the temperature in the drying room is to be kept at ° fahr., and a humidity of per cent is desired. if the humidity is in excess of per cent the air must be cooled to the dew-point corresponding to this condition (see example ), which in this case is . °. hence, if the condenser cools the air to this dew point the required condition is obtained when the air is again heated to the initial temperature. example . determination of relative humidity by the dew-point: the quantity of moisture present and relative humidity for any given temperature may be determined directly and accurately by finding the dew-point and applying the concave (vapor-pressure) curves. this does away with the necessity for the empirical convex curves and wet-and-dry-bulb readings. to find the dew-point some form of apparatus, consisting essentially of a thin glass vessel containing a thermometer and a volatile liquid, such as ether, may be used. the vessel is gradually cooled through the evaporation of the liquid, accelerated by forcing air through a tube until a haze or dimness, due to condensation from the surrounding air, first appears upon the brighter outer surface of the glass. the temperature at which the haze first appears is the dew-point. several trials should be made for this temperature determination, using the average temperature at which the haze appears and disappears. to determine the relative humidity of the surrounding air by means of the dew-point thus determined, find the concave curve intersecting the top horizontal ( per cent relative humidity) line nearest the dew-point temperature. follow parallel with this curve till it intersects the vertical line representing the temperature of the surrounding air. the horizontal line passing through this intersection will give the relative humidity. example: temperature of surrounding air is ; dew-point is ; relative humidity is per cent. the dew-point determination is, however, not as convenient to make as the wet-and-dry-bulb hygrometer readings. therefore, the hygrometer (convex) curves are ordinarily more useful in determining relative humidities. the hygrodeik in figure will be seen the hygrodeik. this instrument is used to determine the amount of moisture in the atmosphere. it is a very useful instrument, as the readings may be taken direct with accuracy. to find the relative humidity in the atmosphere, swing the index hand to the left of the chart, and adjust the sliding pointer to that degree of the wet-bulb thermometer scale at which the mercury stands. then swing the index hand to the right until the sliding pointer intersects the curved line, which extends downwards to the left from the degree of the dry-bulb thermometer scale, indicated by the top of the mercury column in the dry-bulb tube. at that intersection, the index hand will point to the relative humidity on scale at bottom of chart (for example see fig. ). should the temperature indicated by the wet-bulb thermometer be degrees, and that of the dry-bulb degrees, the index hand will indicate humidity degrees, when the pointer rests on the intersecting line of degrees and degrees. the recording hygrometer in figure is shown the recording hygrometer complete with wet and dry bulbs, two connecting tubes and two recording pens and special moistening device for supplying water to the wet bulb. this equipment is designed particularly for use in connection with dry rooms and dry kilns and is arranged so that the recording instrument and the water supply bottle may be installed outside of the dry kiln or drying room, while the wet and dry bulbs are both installed inside the room or kiln at the point where it is desired to measure the humidity. this instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the entire week. [illustration: fig. . the hygrodeik.] the registering hygrometer in figure is shown the registering hygrometer, which consists of two especially constructed thermometers. the special feature of the thermometers permits placing the instrument in the dry kiln without entering the drying room, through a small opening, where it is left for about minutes. [illustration: fig. . the recording hygrometer, complete with wet and dry bulbs. this instrument records on a weekly chart the humidity for each hour of the day, during the entire week.] the temperature of both the dry and wet bulbs are automatically recorded, and the outside temperature will not affect the thermometers when removed from the kiln. from these recorded temperatures, as shown when the instrument is removed from the kiln, the humidity can be easily determined from a simple form of chart which is furnished free by the makers with each instrument. the recording thermometer [illustration: fig. . the registering hygrometer.] [illustration: fig. . the recording thermometer.] in figure is shown the recording thermometer for observing and recording the temperatures within a dry kiln, and thus obtaining a check upon its operation. this instrument is constructed to record automatically, upon a circular chart, the temperatures prevailing within the drying room at all times of the day and night, and serves not only as a means of keeping an accurate record of the operation of the dry kiln, but as a valuable check upon the attendant in charge of the drying process. [illustration: fig. . the registering thermometer.] [illustration: fig. . the recording steam-pressure gauge.] the registering thermometer in figure is shown the registering thermometer, which is a less expensive instrument than that shown in figure , but by its use the maximum and minimum temperatures in the drying room during a given period can be determined. the recording steam gauge in figure is shown the recording steam pressure gauge, which is used for accurately recording the steam pressures kept in the boilers. this instrument may be mounted near the boilers, or may be located at any distance necessary, giving a true and accurate record of the fluctuations of the steam pressure that may take place within the boilers, and is a check upon both the day and night boiler firemen. the troemroid scalometer in figure is shown the troemroid scalometer. this instrument is a special scale of extreme accuracy, fitted with agate bearings with screw adjustment for balancing. the beam is graduated from to ounces, divided into parts, each division representing - th of an ounce; and by using the pointer attached to the beam weight, the - th part of an ounce can be weighed. [illustration: fig. . the troemroid scalometer.] the percentage table no. ii has a range from one half of per cent to per cent and is designed for use where extremely fine results are needed, or where a very small amount of moisture is present. table no. iii ranges from per cent up to per cent. these instruments are in three models as described below. model a. (one cylinder) ranges from / of per cent to per cent and is to be used for testing moisture contents in kiln-dried and air-dried lumber. model b. (two cylinders) ranges from / of per cent up to per cent and is to be used for testing the moisture contents of kiln-dried, air-dried, and green lumber. model c. (one cylinder) ranges from per cent to per cent and is applicable to green lumber only. =test samples.=--the green boards and all other boards intended for testing should be selected from boards of fair average quality. if air-dried, select one about half way up the height of the pile of lumber. if kiln-dried, two thirds the height of the kiln car. do not remove the kiln car from the kiln until after the test. three of four test pieces should be cut from near the middle of the cross-wise section of the board, and / to / inch thick. remove the superfluous sawdust and splinters. when the test pieces are placed on the scale pan, be sure their weight is less than two ounces and more than - / ounces. if necessary, use two or more broken pieces. it is better if the test pieces can be cut off on a fine band saw. =weighing.=--set the base of the scale on a level surface and accurately balance the scale beam. put the test pieces on the scale pan and note their weight on the lower edge of the beam. set the indicator point on the horizontal bar at a number corresponding to this weight, which may be found on the cylinder at the top of the table. dry the test pieces on the electric heater (fig. ) to minutes, or on the engine cylinder two or three hours. weigh them at once and note the weight. then turn the cylinder up and at the left of it under the small pointer find the number corresponding to this weight. the percentage of moisture lost is found directly under pointer on the horizontal bar first mentioned. the lower portion on the cylinder table no. ii is an extension of the upper portion, and is manipulated in the same manner except that the bottom line of figures is used for the first weight, and the right side of cylinder for second weight. turn the cylinder down instead of up when using it. examples (test pieces) model a. table no. ii, kiln-dried or air-dried lumber: if first weight is - / and the second weight is , the cylinder table will show the board from which the test pieces were taken had a moisture content of . per cent. model b. tables no. ii and iii, air-dried (also green and kiln-dried) lumber. if the first weight on lower cylinder is and the second weight is , the table will show . per cent of moisture. model c. table iii, green lumber: if the first weight is and the second weight is , the table shows . per cent of moisture. keep records of the moisture content =saw mills.=--should test and mark each pile of lumber when first piled in the yard, and later when sold it should be again tested and the two records given to the purchaser. =factories.=--should test and mark the lumber when first received, and if piled in the yard to be kiln-dried later, it should be tested before going into the dry kiln, and again before being removed, and these records placed on file for future reference. kiln-dried lumber piled in storage rooms (without any heat) will absorb to per cent of moisture, and even when so stored should be tested for moisture before being manufactured into the finished product. never work lumber through the factory that has more than or per cent of moisture or less than per cent. dry storage rooms should be provided with heating coils and properly ventilated. oak or any other species of wood that shows or per cent of moisture when going into the dry kiln, will take longer to dry than it would if it contained to per cent, therefore the importance of testing before putting into the kiln as well as when taking it out. the electric heater in figure is shown the electric heater. this heater is especially designed to dry quickly the test pieces for use in connection with the scalometer (see fig. ) without charring them. it may be attached to any electric light socket of volts direct or alternating current. a metal rack is provided to hold the test pieces vertically on edge. [illustration: fig. . the electric heater.] turn the test pieces over once or twice while drying. it will require from minutes to one hour to remove all the moisture from the test pieces when placed on this heater, depending on whether they are cut from green, air-dried, or kiln-dried boards. test pieces cut from softwoods will dry quicker than those cut from hardwoods. when the test pieces fail to show any further loss in weight, they are then free from all moisture content. bibliography american blower company, detroit, mich. imre, james e., "the kiln-drying of gum," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry. national dry kiln company, indianapolis, ind. prichard, reuben p., "the structure of the common woods," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . roth, filibert, "timber," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . standard dry kiln company, indianapolis, ind. sturtevant company, b. f., boston, mass. tieman, h. d., "the effects of moisture upon the strength and stiffness of wood," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . tieman, h. d., "principles of kiln-drying lumber," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry. tieman, h. d., "the theory of drying and its application, etc.," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, "check list of the forest trees of the united states." the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . von schrenk, herman, "seasoning of timbers," the united states dept. of agriculture, division of forestry, bulletin no. . wagner, j. b., "cooperage," . glossary =abnormal.= differing from the usual structure. =acuminate.= tapering at the end. =adhesion.= the union of members of different floral whorls. =air-seasoning.= the drying of wood in the open air. =albumen.= a name applied to the food store laid up outside the embryo in many seeds; also nitrogenous organic matter found in plants. =alburnam.= sapwood. =angiosperms.= those plants which bear their seeds within a pericarp. =annual rings.= the layers of wood which are added annually to the tree. =apartment kiln.= a drying arrangement of one or more rooms with openings at each end. =arborescent.= a tree in size and habit of growth. =baffle plate.= an obstruction to deflect air or other currents. =bastard cut.= tangential cut. wood of inferior cut. =berry.= a fruit whose entire pericarp is succulent. =blower kiln.= a drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room. =box kiln.= a small square heating room with openings in one end only. =brittleness.= aptness to break; not tough; fragility. =burrow.= a shelter; insect's hole in the wood. =calorie.= unit of heat; amount of heat which raises the temperature. =calyx.= the outer whorl of floral envelopes. =capillary.= a tube or vessel extremely fine or minute. =case-harden.= a condition in which the pores of the wood are closed and the outer surface dry, while the inner portion is still wet or unseasoned. =cavity.= a hollow place; a hollow. =cell.= one of the minute, elementary structures comprising the greater part of plant tissue. =cellulose.= a primary cell-wall substance. =checks.= the small chinks or cracks caused by the rupture of the wood fibres. =cleft.= opening made by splitting; divided. =coarse-grained.= wood is coarse-grained when the annual rings are wide or far apart. =cohesion.= the union of members of the same floral whorl. =contorted.= twisted together. =corolla.= the inner whorl of floral envelopes. =cotyledon.= one of the parts of the embryo performing in part the function of a leaf, but usually serving as a storehouse of food for the developing plant. =crossers.= narrow wooden strips used to separate the material on kiln cars. =cross-grained.= wood is cross-grained when its fibres are spiral or twisted. =dapple.= an exaggerated form of mottle. =deciduous.= not persistent; applied to leaves that fall in autumn and to calyx and corolla when they fall off before the fruit develops. =definite.= limited or defined. =dew-point.= the point at which water is deposited from moisture-laden air. =dicotyledon.= a plant whose embryo has two opposite cotyledons. =diffuse.= widely spreading. =disk.= a circular, flat, thin piece or section of the tree. =duramen.= heartwood. =embryo.= applied in botany to the tiny plant within the seed. =enchinate.= beset with prickles. =expansion.= an enlargement across the grain or lengthwise of the wood. =fibres.= the thread-like portion of the tissue of wood. =fibre-saturation point.= the amount of moisture wood will imbibe, usually to per cent of its dry-wood weight. =figure.= the broad and deep medullary rays as in oak showing when the timber is cut into boards. =filament.= the stalk which supports the anther. =fine-grained.= wood is fine-grained when the annual rings are close together or narrow. =germination.= the sprouting of a seed. =girdling.= to make a groove around and through the bark of a tree, thus killing it. =glands.= a secreting surface or structure; a protuberance having the appearance of such an organ. =glaucous.= covered or whitened with a bloom. =grain.= direction or arrangement of the fibres in wood. =grubs.= the larvae of wood-destroying insects. =gymnosperms.= plants bearing naked seeds; without an ovary. =habitat.= the geographical range of a plant. =heartwood.= the central portion of tree. =hollow-horning.= internal checking. =honeycombing.= internal checking. =hot-blast kiln.= a drying arrangement in which the air is blown through heating coils into the drying room. =humidity.= damp, moist. =hygroscopicity.= the property of readily imbibing moisture from the atmosphere. =indefinite.= applied to petals or other organs when too numerous to be conveniently counted. =indigenous.= native to the country. =involute.= a form of vernation in which the leaf is rolled inward from its edges. =kiln-drying.= drying or seasoning of wood by artificial heat in an inclosed room. =leaflet.= a single division of a compound leaf. =limb.= the spreading portion of the tree. =lumen.= internal space in the spring- and summer-wood fibres. =median.= situated in the middle. =medulla.= the pith. =medullary rays.= rays of fundamental tissue which connect the pith with the bark. =membranous.= thin and rather soft, more or less translucent. =midrib.= the central or main rib of a leaf. =moist-air kiln.= a drying arrangement in which the heat is taken from radiating coils located inside the drying room. =mottle.= figure transverse of the fibres, probably caused by the action of wind upon the tree. =non-porous.= without pores. =oblong.= considerably longer than broad, with flowing outline. =obtuse.= blunt, rounded. =oval.= broadly elliptical. =ovary.= the part of the pistil that contains the ovules. =parted.= cleft nearly, but not quite to the base or midrib. =parenchyma.= short cells constituting the pith and pulp of the tree. =pericarp.= the walls of the ripened ovary, the part of the fruit that encloses the seeds. =permeable.= capable of being penetrated. =petal.= one of the leaves of the corolla. =pinholes.= small holes in the wood caused by worms or insects. =pistil.= the modified leaf or leaves which bear the ovules; usually consisting of ovary, style and stigma. =plastic.= elastic, easily bent. =pocket kilns.= small drying rooms with openings on one end only and in which the material to be dried is piled directly on the floor. =pollen.= the fertilizing powder produced by the anther. =pores.= minute orifices in wood. =porous.= containing pores. =preliminary steaming.= subjecting wood to a steaming process before drying or seasoning. =progressive kiln.= a drying arrangement with openings at both ends, and in which the material enters at one end and is discharged at the other. =rick.= a pile or stack of lumber. =rift.= to split; cleft. =ring shake.= a large check or crack in the wood following an annual ring. =roe.= a peculiar figure caused by the contortion of the woody fibres, and takes a wavy line parallel to them. =sapwood.= the outer portions of the tree next to the bark; alburnam. =saturate.= to cause to become completely penetrated or soaked. =season checks.= small openings in the ends of the wood caused by the process of drying. =seasoning.= the process by which wood is dried or seasoned. =seedholes.= minute holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms or insects. =shake.= a large check or crack in wood caused by the action of the wind on the tree. =shrinkage.= a lessening or contraction of the wood substance. =skidways.= material set on an incline for transporting lumber or logs. =species.= in science, a group of existing things, associated according to properties. =spermatophyta.= seed-bearing plants. =spring-wood.= wood that is formed in the spring of the year. =stamen.= the pollen-bearing organ of the flower, usually consisting of filament and anther. =stigma.= that part of the pistil which receives the pollen. =style.= that part of the pistil which connects the ovary with the stigma. =taproot.= the main root or downward continuation of the plant axis. =temporary checks.= checks or cracks that subsequently close. =tissue.= one of the elementary fibres composing wood. =thunder shake.= a rupture of the fibres of the tree across the grain, which in some woods does not always break them. =tornado shake.= (see thunder shake.) =tracheids.= the tissues of the tree which consist of vertical cells or vessels closed at one end. =warping.= turning or twisting out of shape. =wind shake.= (see thunder shake.) =working.= the shrinking and swelling occasioned in wood. =wormholes.= small holes in wood caused by wood-destroying worms. =vernation.= the arrangement of the leaves in the bud. =whorl.= an arrangement of organs in a circle about a central axis. index of latin names abies amabalis, abies balsamea, abies concolor, abies grandis, abies magnifica, abies nobilis, acer macrophyllum, acer negundo, acer pennsylvanicum, acer rubrum, acer saccharinum, acer saccharum, acer spicatum, Æsculus flava, Æsculus glabra, Æsculus octandra, ailanthus glandulosa, asimina triloba, betula lenta, betula lutea, betula nigra, betula papyrifera, betula populifolia, betula rubra, buxus sempervirens, carpinus caroliana, castanea americana, castanea chrysophylla, castanea dentata, castanea pumila, castanea vesca, castanea vulgaris, catalpa bignonioides, catalpa speciosa, celtis occidentalis, chamæcyparis lawsonia, chamæcyparis thyoides, cladrastis lutea, cornus florida, cupressus nootkatensis, diospyros virginia, evonymus atropurpureus, fagus ferruginea, fraxinus americana, fraxinus caroliniana, fraxinus nigra, fraxinus oregana, fraxinus pennsylvanica, fraxinus pubescens, fraxinus quadrangulata, fraxinus sambucifolia, fraxinus viridis, gleditschia triacanthos, gymnocladus dioicus, hicoria alba, hicoria glabra, hicoria minima, hicoria ovata, hicoria pecan, ilex monticolo, ilex opaca, juglans cinerea, juglans nigra, juniperus communis, juniperus virginiana, larix americana, larix laricina, larix occidentalis, libocedrus decurrens, liquidamber styraciflua, liriodendron tulipfera, maclura aurantiaca, magnolia acuminata, magnolia glauca, magnolia tripetala, morus rubra, nyssa aquatica, nyssa sylvatica, ostrya virginiana, oxydendrum arboreum, picea alba, picea canadensis, picea engelmanni, picea mariana, picea nigra, picea rubens, picea sitchensis, pinus banksiana, pinus cubensis, pinus divaricata, pinus enchinata, pinus flexilis, pinus inops, pinus jeffreyi, pinus lambertiana, pinus monticolo, pinus murryana, pinus palustris, pinus ponderosa, pinus resinosa, pinus rigida, pinus strobus, pinus tæda, pinus virginiana, platanus occidentalis, platanus racemosa, populus alba, populus angulata, populus balsamifera, populus fremontii, populus grandidentata, populus heteropylla, populus monilifera, populus nigra italica, populus tremuloides, populus trichocarpa, populus wislizeni, prunus pennsylvanica, prunus serotina, pseudotsuga douglasii, pseudotsuga taxifolia, pyrus coronaria, quercus acuminata, quercus alba, quercus aquatica, quercus bicolor, quercus chrysolepis, quercus coccinea, quercus digitata, quercus durandii, quercus falcata, quercus garryana, quercus ilicijolia, quercus imbricaria, quercus lobata, quercus lyrata, quercus macrocarpa, quercus marilandica, quercus michauxii, quercus minor, quercus nigra, quercus obtusiloda, quercus palustris, quercus phellos, quercus platanoides, quercus prinoides, quercus prinus, quercus pumila, quercus rubra, quercus tinctoria, quercus velutina, quercus virens, rhamnus caroliniana, robinia pseudacacia, robinia viscosa, salix alba, salix amygdaloides, salix babylonica, salix bebbiana, salix discolor, salix fluviatilis, salix fragilis, salix lucida, salix nigra, salix rostrata, salix vitellina, sassafras sassafras, sequoia sempervirens, taxodium distinchum, taxus brevifolia, thuya gigantea, thuya occidentalis, tilia americana, tilia heterophylla, tilia pubescens, tsuga canadensis, tsuga mertensiana, ulmus alata, ulmus americana, ulmus crassifolia, ulmus fulva, ulmus pubescens, ulmus racemosa, umbellularia californica, index abele, tree, absorption of water by dry wood, acacia, acacia, false, acacia, three-thorned, according to species, different kiln drying, advantages in seasoning, advantages of kiln-drying over air-drying, affect drying, properties of wood that, ailanthus, air circulation, air-drying, advantages of kiln-drying over, alaska cedar, alaska cypress, alcoholic liquids, stave and heads of barrels containing, almond-leaf willow, ambrosia or timber beetles, american box, american elm, american larch, american linden, american oak, american red pine, anatomical structure, annual ring, the yearly or, apartment dry kiln, apple, crab, apple, custard, apple, wild, appliances in kiln-drying, helpful, arborvitæ, ash, ash, black, ash, blue, ash, carolina, ash, green, ash, ground, ash, hoop, ash-leaved maple, ash, oregon, ash, red, ash, white, aspen, , aspen, large-toothed, aspen-leaved birch, aspen, quaking, atmospheric pressure, drying at, bald cypress, ball tree, button, balm of gilead, balm of gilead fir, balsam, , balsam fir, bark and pith, bark on, round timber with, barrels containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of, barren oak, bar willow, sand, basket oak, basswood, basswood, small-leaved, basswood, white, bastard pine, bastard spruce, bay poplar, bay, sweet, bear oak, beaver wood, bebb willow, bee tree, beech, beech, blue, beech, red, beech, water, , beech, white, berry, sugar, beetles, ambrosia or timber, big bud hickory, bilsted, birch, birch, aspen-leaved, birch, black, birch, canoe, birch, cherry, birch, gray, birch, mahogany, birch, old field, birch, paper, birch, red, birch, river, birch, silver, birch, sweet, birch, white, , birch, wintergreen, birch, yellow, bird cherry, bitternut hickory, black ash, black birch, black cherry, black cottonwood, black cypress, black gum, black hickory, black jack, black larch, black locust, black nut hickory, black oak, black pine, , black spruce, black walnut, , black willow, blower dry kiln, operation of, blower or hot blast dry kiln, blue ash, blue beech, blue poplar, blue willow, bois d'arc, , bolts, stave, heading and shingle, borers, flat-headed, borers, powder post, borers, round-headed, box, american, box elder, box dry kiln, broad-leaved maple, broad-leaved trees, broad-leaved trees, list of most important, broad-leaved trees, wood of, brown hickory, brown locust, buckeye, buckeye, fetid, buckeye, ohio, buckeye, sweet, buckthorne, bud hickory, big, bull nut hickory, bull pine, bur oak, burning bush, bush, burning, bush, juniper, butternut, button ball tree, button wood, california redwood, california white pine, canadian pine, canary wood, canoe birch, canoe cedar, carolina ash, carolina pine, carolina poplar, cars, method of loading kiln, catalpa, cedar, cedar, alaska, cedar, canoe, cedar, elm, cedar, ground, cedar, incense, cedar of the west, red, cedar, oregon, cedar, pencil, cedar, port orford, cedar, red, , cedar, white, , cedar, yellow, changes rendering drying difficult, characteristics and properties of wood, checking and splitting, prevention of, cherry, cherry birch, cherry, bird, cherry, black, cherry, indian, cherry, red, cherry, rum, cherry, wild, cherry, wild red, chestnut, chestnut, horse, , chestnut oak, chestnut oak, rock, chestnut oak, scrub, chinquapin, , chinquapin oak, , chinquapin oak, dwarf, choice of drying method, circassian walnut, circulation, air, clammy locust, classes of trees, cliff elm, coast redwood, coffee nut, coffee tree, color and odor of wood, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, composition of sap, conditions and species, temperature depends on, conditions favorable for insect injury, conditions governing the drying of wood, conditions of success in kiln-drying, coniferous trees, coniferous trees, wood of, coniferous woods, list of important, containing alcoholic liquids, staves and heads of barrels, cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, dry, cork elm, cotton gum, cottonwood, , , cottonwood, black, cottonwood, swamp, cow oak, crab apple, crab, fragrant, crack willow, crude products, cuban pine, cucumber tree, , cup oak, mossy, cup oak, over-, , custard apple, cypress, cypress, alaska, cypress, bald, cypress, black, cypress, lawson's, cypress, pecky, cypress, red, cypress, white, d'arc, bois, , deal, yellow, demands upon soil and moisture of red gum, depends on conditions and species, temperature, description of the forest service kiln, theory and, diagram, the uses of the humidity, difference between seasoned and unseasoned wood, different grains of wood, different kiln-drying according to species, different species, weight of kiln-dried wood of, different types, kilns of, different types of dry kilns, different types of kiln doors, difficult, changes rendering drying, difficulties of drying wood, distribution of water in wood, distribution of water in wood, local, distribution of water in wood seasonal, dogwood, doors, different types of kiln, douglas spruce, downy linden, downy poplar, dry cooperage stock and wooden truss hoops, drying according to species, different kiln, drying, advantages of kiln-drying over air, drying at atmospheric pressure, drying by superheated steam, drying, conditions of success in kiln, drying difficult, changes rendering, drying gum, kiln, drying, helpful appliances in kiln, drying, kiln, , drying, losses due to improper kiln, drying method, choice of, drying, methods of kiln, drying, objects of kiln, drying of green red gum, kiln, drying of wood, kiln, drying of wood, physical conditions governing the, drying, physical properties that influence, drying, properties of wood that effect, drying, theory of kiln, drying, underlying principles of kiln, drying under pressure and vacuum, drying, unsolved problems in kiln, drying wood, difficulties of, drying lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost, dry kiln, apartment, dry kiln, box, dry kiln, operation of the blower, dry kiln, operation of the moist-air, dry kiln, moist-air or pipe, dry kiln, pocket, dry kiln, progressive, dry kiln, requirements in a satisfactory, dry kilns, different types of, dry kiln specialties, dry kilns, types of, dry kiln, tower, dry wood, absorption of water by, duck oak, due to improper kiln-drying, losses, dwarf chinquapin oak, effects of moisture on wood, elder, box, electric heater, the, elimination of stain and mildew, elm, elm, american, elm, cedar, elm, cliff, elm, cork, elm, hickory, elm, moose, elm, red, elm, rock, elm, slippery, elm, water, elm, winged, elm, white, enemies of wood, evaporation of water, manner of, evaporation, rapidity of, expansion of wood, factories, scalometer in, false acacia, favorable for insect injury, conditions, fetid buckeye, fibre saturation point in wood, field birch, old, field pine, old, , figure in wood, figure in wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and, final steaming of gum, fir, fir, balm of gilead, fir balsam, fir, noble, fir, red, , fir tree, fir, white, , fir, yellow, flat-headed borers, forest service kiln, theory and description of, form of the red gum, fragrant crab, gauge, the recording steam, georgia pine, gilead, balm of, gilead fir, balm of, ginger pine, glaucous willow, governing the drying of wood, physical conditions, grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in wood, grains of wood, different, gray birch, gray pine, green ash, green red gum, kiln-drying, green wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying lbs., ground ash, ground cedar, growth red gum, second, gum, gum, black, gum, cotton, gum, demands upon soil and moisture of red, gum, final steaming of, gum, form of red, gum, kiln-drying, gum, kiln-drying of green red, gum, method of piling, gum, preliminary steaming of, gum, range of red, gum, range of tupelo, gum, red, , gum, reproduction of red, gum, second-growth red, gum, sour, , gum, sweet, , gum, tolerance of the red, gum, tupelo, gum, uses of tupelo, hackberry, hacmatac, hard maple, hard pine, hard pines, hard pine, southern, hardwoods, hazel pine, , headed borers, flat, headed borers, round, heading, stave and shingle bolts, heads and staves of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, heart hickory, white, heartwood, sap and, heater, the electric, helpful appliances in kiln-drying, hemlock, hemlock spruce, hickory, hickory, big bud, hickory, bitternut, hickory, black, hickory, black nut, hickory, brown, hickory, bull nut, hickory elm, hickory, mockernut, hickory, pignut, hickory, poplar, hickory, scalybark, hickory, shagbark, hickory, shellbark, hickory, swamp, hickory, switchbud, hickory, white heart, holly, , holly, mountain, honey locust, honey shucks, hoop ash, hoops, dry cooperage stock and wooden truss, hop hornbeam, hornbeam, hornbeam, hop, horse chestnut, , hot blast or blower kiln, humidity, humidity diagram, uses of the, how to prevent insect injury, how wood is seasoned, hygrodeik, the, hygrometer, the recording, hygrometer, the registering, illinois nut, important broad-leaved trees, list of most, important coniferous woods, list of, impregnation methods, improper kiln-drying, losses due to, incense cedar, indian bean, indian cherry, influence drying, physical properties that, injury, conditions favorable for insect, injury from insects, how to prevent, insect injury, conditions favorable for, insects, how to prevent injury from, iron oak, ironwood, , jack, black, jack oak, jack pine, jersey pine, juniper, juniper bush, juniper, red, juniper, savin, keep records of the moisture content, kiln, apartment dry, kiln, blower or hot blast, kiln, box dry, kiln cars and method of loading, kiln doors, different types, kiln-dried wood of different species, weight of, kiln-drying, , kiln-drying according to species, different, kiln-drying, conditions of success in, kiln-drying gum, kiln-drying, helpful appliances in, kiln-drying, losses due to improper, kiln-drying, objects of, kiln-drying of green red gum, kiln-drying of wood, kiln-drying of wood, kiln-drying over air-drying, advantages of, kiln-drying, theory of, kiln-drying, underlying principles of, kiln-drying, unsolved problems in, kiln, operation of the blower dry, kiln, operation of the moist-air dry, kiln, pipe or moist-air dry, kiln, pocket dry, kiln, progressive dry, kiln, requirements in a satisfactory dry, kilns, different types of dry, kilns of different types, kiln specialties, dry, kiln, theory and description of the forest service, kilns, types of dry, kiln, tower dry, land spruce, tide, larch, larch, american, larch, black, larch, western, large-toothed aspen, laurel, laurel oak, lawson's cypress, leaf pine, long-, leaf pine, short-, leaf willow, long, leaved basswood, small, leaved birch, aspen, leaved maple, ash, leaved maple, broad, leaved maple, silver, leaved trees, broad, leaved trees, list of most important broad, leaved trees, wood of broad, leverwood, life, tree of, lime tree, lin, linden, linden, american, linden, downy, liquidamber, liquids, staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic, list of important coniferous trees, list of most important broad-leaved trees, live oak, , loading, kiln cars and method of, loblolly pine, local distribution of water in wood, locust, locust, black, locust, brown, locust, clammy, locust, honey, locust, sweet, locust, yellow, lodge-pole pine, lombardy poplar, long-leaf pine, long-leaf willow, long-straw pine, losses due to improper kiln-drying, lost in kiln-drying lb. green wood in the kiln, pounds of water, magnolia, magnolia, small, magnolia, swamp, mahogany, birch, mahogany, white, manner of evaporation of water, maple, maple, ash-leaved, maple, broad-leaved, maple, hard, maple, mountain, maple, oregon, maple, red, maple, rock, maple, silver, maple, silver-leaved, maple, soft, maple, striped, maple, sugar, maple, swamp, maple, water, maple, white, maul oak, , meadow pine, method, choice of drying, method of loading kiln cars, method of piling gum, methods, impregnation, methods of drying, mildew, elimination of stain and, minute structure, mockernut hickory, moist-air dry kiln, operation of, moist-air or pipe kiln, the, moisture content, keep records of the, moisture, demands upon soil and, moisture on wood, effects of, moose elm, moose-wood, mossy-cup oak, most important broad-leaved trees list of, mountain holly, mountain maple, mulberry, mulberry, red, myrtle, , nettle tree, noble fir, norway pine, nut, coffee, nut hickory, black, nut hickory, bull, nut, illinois, nyssa, oak, oak, american, oak, barren, oak, basket, oak, bear, oak, black, oak, bur, oak, chestnut, oak, chinquapin, , oak, cow, oak, duck, oak, dwarf chinquapin, oak, iron, oak, jack, oak, laurel, oak, live, , oak, maul, , oak, mossy-cup, oak, over-cup, , oak, peach, oak, pin, oak, possum, oak, post, oak, punk, oak, red, , oak, rock, oak, rock chestnut, oak, scarlet, oak, scrub, oak, scrub chestnut, oak, shingle, oak, spanish, oak, swamp post, oak, swamp spanish, oak, swamp white, , oak, water, oak, western white, oak, white, , oak, willow, oak, yellow, , oak, valparaiso, objects of kiln-drying, odor and color of wood, odor, weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, ohio buckeye, old field birch, old field pine, , operation of the blower kiln, operation of the moist-air kiln, orange, osage, oregon ash, oregon cedar, oregon maple, oregon pine, orford cedar, port, osage orange, out-of-door seasoning, over-cup oak, , papaw, paper birch, peach oak, pecan, pecky cypress, pencil cedar, pepperidge, perch willow, persimmon, peruche, physical conditions governing the drying of wood, physical properties that influence drying, pignut hickory, piling gum, methods of, pine, american red, pine, bastard, pine, black, , pine, bull, pine, california white, pine, canadian, pine, carolina, pine, cuban, pine, georgia, pine, ginger, pine, gray, pine, hard, pine, hazel, , pine, jack, pine, jersey, pine, loblolly, pine, lodge-pole, pine, long-leaf, pine, long-straw, pine, meadow, pine, norway, pine, old field, , pine, oregon, pine, pitch, pine, puget sound, pine, pumpkin, , pine, red, pine, rosemary, pine, sap, pine, scrub, pines, hard, pine, short-leaf, pine, short-straw, pine, slash, , pine, soft, , pine, southern, pine, southern hard, pine, spruce, pine, sugar, pine, swamp, pine, torch, pine, weymouth, pine, western, pine, western white, pine, western yellow, pine, white, , pine, yellow, , , pin oak, pipe or moist-air kiln, pitch pine, pith and bark, plane tree, pocket dry kiln, the, point in wood, the fibre saturation, pole pine, lodge, poplar, , , , poplar, bay, poplar, blue, poplar, carolina, poplar, downy, poplar, hickory, poplar, lombardy, poplar, swamp, poplar, white, , poplar, yellow, port orford cedar, possum oak, post borers, powder, post oak, post oak, swamp, pounds of water lost in drying lb. green wood in the kiln, powder post borers, preliminary steaming of gum, preliminary treatments, pressure and vacuum, drying under, pressure, drying at atmospheric, prevent injury from insects, how to, prevention of checking and splitting, principles of kiln-drying, underlying, problems in kiln-drying, unsolved, products, crude, products in the rough, seasoned, products in the rough, unseasoned, progressive dry kiln, the, properties, characteristics and, properties of wood, properties of wood that affect drying, properties that influence drying, physical, puget sound pine, pumpkin pine, , punk oak, pussy willow, quaking aspen, range of red gum, range of tupelo gum, rapidity of evaporation, recording hygrometer, the, recording steam gauge, the, recording thermometer, the, records of the moisture content, keep, red ash, red beech, red birch, red cedar, , red cedar of the west, red cherry, red cherry, wild, red cypress, red elm, red fir, , red gum, , red gum, demands upon soil and moisture of, red gum, form of the, red gum, kiln-drying of green, red gum, range of, red gum, reproduction of, red gum, second-growth, red gum, tolerance of, red juniper, red maple, red mulberry, red oak, , red pine, red pine, american, red spruce, redwood, , redwood, california, redwood, coast, registering hygrometer, the, registering thermometer, the, rendering drying difficult, changes, reproduction of red gum, requirements in a satisfactory dry kiln, ring, the annual or yearly, river birch, rock chestnut oak, rock elm, rock maple, rock oak, rosemary pine, rough, seasoned products in the, rough, unseasoned products in the, round-headed borers, round timber with bark on, rum cherry, samples for scalometer test, sand bar willow, sap and heartwood, sap, composition of, saplings, sap pine, sassafras, satin walnut, satisfactory dry kiln, requirements in a, saturation point in wood, fibre, sawmills, scalometer in, savin juniper, scalometer in factories, scalometer in sawmills, scalometer, test samples for, scalometer, the troemroid, scalometer, weighing with, scalybark hickory, scarlet oak, scrub chestnut oak, scrub oak, scrub pine, seasonal distribution of water in wood, seasoned and unseasoned wood, difference between, seasoned, how wood is, seasoned products in the rough, seasoning, advantages in, seasoning is, what, seasoning, out-of-door, second-growth red gum, sequoia, service kiln, theory and description of forest, shagbark hickory, shellbark hickory, shingle, heading and stave bolts, shingle oak, shining willow, short-leaf pine, short-straw pine, shrinkage of wood, shucks, honey, sitka spruce, silver birch, silver-leaved maple, silver maple, slash pine, , slippery elm, small-leaved basswood, small magnolia, soft maple, soft pine, , soil and moisture, demands upon, sorrel-tree, sound pine, puget, sour gum, , sourwood, southern hard pine, southern pine, spanish oak, spanish oak, swamp, specialties, dry-kiln, species, different kiln-drying according to, species, temperature depends upon condition and, species, weight of kiln-dried wood of different, spindle tree, splitting, prevention of checking and, spring and summer-wood, spruce, spruce, bastard, spruce, black, spruce, douglas, spruce, hemlock, spruce pine, spruce, red, spruce, sitka, spruce, tide-land, spruce, white, stain and mildew, elimination of, stave, heading and shingle bolts, staves and heads of barrels containing alcoholic liquids, steam, drying by superheated, steam gauge, the recording, steaming of gum, preliminary, steaming of gum, final, stock and wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, straw pine, long, straw pine, short, striped maple, structure, anatomical, structure, minute, structure of wood, stump tree, success in kiln-drying, conditions of, sugar berry, sugar maple, sugar pine, summerwood, spring and, superheated steam, drying by, swamp cottonwood, swamp hickory, swamp magnolia, swamp maple, swamp pine, swamp poplar, swamp post oak, swamp spanish oak, swamp white oak, , sweet bay, sweet buckeye, sweet birch, sweet gum, , sweet locust, switchbud hickory, sycamore, , tacmahac, tamarack, , , temperature depends upon conditions and species, test samples for scalometer, theory and description of the forest service kiln, theory of kiln-drying, thermometer, the recording, thermometer, the registering, thorned acacia, three, three-thorned acacia, tide-land spruce, timber, timber beetles, ambrosia or, timber with bark on, round, timber worms, tolerance of red gum, toothed aspen, large-, torch pine, tower dry kiln, the, treatments, preliminary, tree, abele, tree, bee, tree, button ball, tree, coffee, tree, cucumber, , tree, fir, tree, lime, tree, nettle, tree of life, tree, plane, trees, broad-leaved, trees, classes of, trees, coniferous, trees, list of important coniferous, trees, list of most important broad-leaved, tree, sorrel, tree, spindle, tree, stump, trees, wood of broad-leaved, trees, wood of the coniferous, tree, tulip, tree, umbrella, troemroid scalometer, the, truss hoops, dry cooperage stock and, tulip tree, tulip wood, , tupelo, tupelo gum, tupelo gum, range of, tupelo gum, uses of, types of dry kilns, different, types of kiln doors, different, types, kilns of different, umbrella tree, underlying principles of kiln-drying, unseasoned products in the rough, unseasoned wood, difference between seasoned and, unsolved problems in kiln-drying, uses of the humidity diagram, uses of tupelo gum, vacuum, drying under pressure and, valparaiso oak, virgilia, wahoo, , walnut, , walnut, black, , walnut, circassian, walnut, satin, walnut, white, , water beech, , water by dry wood, absorption of, water elm, water in wood, water in wood, distribution of, water in wood, local distribution of, water in wood, seasonal distribution of, water lost in drying lb. of green wood in the kiln, pounds of, water, manner of evaporation of, water maple, water oak, weeping willow, weighing with scalometer, weight, and figure in wood, grain, color, odor, weight of kiln-dried wood of different species, weight of wood, western larch, western pine, western white oak, western white pine, western yellow pine, west, red cedar of the, weymouth pine, what seasoning is, white ash, white basswood, white beech, white birch, , white cedar, , white cypress, white elm, white fir, , white heart hickory, white mahogany, white maple, white oak, , white oak, swamp, , white oak, western, white pine, , white pine, california, white pine, western, white poplar, , white spruce, white walnut, , white willow, whitewood, , , wild apple, wild cherry, wild red cherry, willow, willow, almond-leaf, willow, bebb, willow, black, willow, blue, willow, crack, willow, glaucous, willow, long-leaf, willow, oak, willow, perch, willow, pussy, willow, sand bar, willow, shining, willow, weeping, willow, white, willow, yellow, winged elm, wintergreen birch, wood, absorption of water by dry, wood, beaver, wood, canary, wood, characteristics and properties of, wood, color and odor of, wood, different grains of, wood, difference between seasoned and unseasoned, wood, difficulties of drying, wood, distribution of water in, wood, effects of moisture on, wood, enemies of, wood, expansion of, wood, figure in, wood, grain, color, odor, weight, and figure in, wood, how seasoned, wood in the kiln, pounds of water lost in drying lb. of green, wood, iron, wood, kiln-drying of, wood, lever, wood, local distribution of water in, wood, moose, wood, of broad-leaves trees, wood of different species, weight of kiln-dried, wood of coniferous trees, wood, physical conditions governing the drying of, wood, properties of, wood, seasonal distribution of water in, wood, shrinkage of, woods, list of important coniferous, wood, spring and summer, wood, structure of, wood that effect drying, properties of, wood, the fibre saturation point in, wood, tulip, , wood, water in, wood, weight of, wood, white, , wood, yellow, wooden truss hoops, dry cooperage, stock and, worms, timber, yearly ring, the annual of, yellow birch, yellow cedar, yellow deal, yellow fir, yellow locust, yellow oak, , yellow pine, , , yellow pine, western, yellow poplar, yellow willow, yellow wood, yew, , d. van nostrand company park place new york short-title catalog of publications and importations of scientific and engineering books [illustration] this list includes the technical publications of the following english publishers: scott, greenwood & co. james munro & co., ltd. constable & company, ltd. technical publishing co. electrician printing & publishing co. for whom d. van nostrand company are american agents. july, short-title catalog of the publications and importations of d. van nostrand company park place, n. y. _prices marked with an asterisk (*) are net._ _all bindings are in cloth unless otherwise noted._ abbott, a. v. the electrical transmission of energy vo, *$ ---- a treatise on fuel. (science series no. ) mo, ---- testing machines. (science series no. .) mo, adam, p. practical bookbinding. trans. by t. e. maw mo, * adams, h. theory and practice in designing vo, * adams, h. c. sewage of sea coast towns vo, * adams, j. w. sewers and drains for populous districts vo, adler, a. a. theory of engineering drawing vo, * ---- principles of parallel projecting-line drawing vo, * aikman, c. m. manures and the principles of manuring vo, aitken, w. manual of the telephone vo, * d'albe, e. e. f., contemporary chemistry mo, * alexander, j. h. elementary electrical engineering mo, allan, w. strength of beams under transverse loads. (science series no. .) mo, ---- theory of arches. (science series no. ) mo, allen, h. modern power gas producer practice and applications. mo, * anderson, j. w. prospector's handbook mo, andés, l. vegetable fats and oils vo, * ---- animal fats and oils. trans. by c. salter vo, * ---- drying oils, boiled oil, and solid and liquid driers vo, * ---- iron corrosion, anti-fouling and anti-corrosive paints. trans. by c. salter vo, * ---- oil colors, and printers' ink. trans. by a. morris and h. robson vo, * ---- treatment of paper for special purposes. trans. by c. salter mo, * andrews, e. s. reinforced concrete construction mo, * ---- theory and design of structures vo, * ---- further problems in the theory and design of structures vo, * ---- the strength of materials vo, * andrews, e. s., and heywood, h. b. the calculus for engineers. mo, * annual reports on the progress of chemistry. twelve volumes now ready. vol. i., , vol. xii., vo, each, * argand, m. imaginary quantities. translated from the french by a. s. hardy. (science series no. .) mo, armstrong, r., and idell, f. e. chimneys for furnaces and steam boilers. (science series no. .) mo, arnold, e. armature windings of direct-current dynamos. trans. by f. b. degress vo, * asch, w., and asch, d. the silicates in chemistry and commerce vo, * ashe, s. w., and kelley, j. d. electric railways. theoretically and practically treated. vol. i. rolling stock mo, * ashe, s. w. electric railways. vol. ii. engineering preliminaries and direct current sub-stations mo, * ---- electricity: experimentally and practically applied mo, * ashley, r. h. chemical calculations mo, * atkins, w. common battery telephony simplified mo, * atkinson, a. a. electrical and magnetic calculations vo, * atkinson, j. j. friction of air in mines. (science series no. .) mo, atkinson, j. j., and williams, jr., e. h. gases met with in coal mines. (science series no. .) mo, atkinson, p. the elements of electric lighting mo, ---- the elements of dynamic electricity and magnetism mo, ---- power transmitted by electricity mo, auchincloss, w. s. link and valve motions simplified vo, * austin, e. single phase electric railways to, * austin and cohn. pocketbook of radiotelegraphy (_in press._) ayrton, h. the electric arc vo, * bacon, f. w. treatise on the richards steam-engine indicator mo, bailey, r. d. the brewers' analyst vo, * baker, a. l. quaternions vo, * ---- thick-lens optics mo, * baker, benj. pressure of earthwork. (science series no. .) mo, baker, g. s. ship form, resistance and screw propulsion vo, * baker, i. o. levelling. (science series no. .) mo, baker, m. n. potable water. (science series no. .) mo, ---- sewerage and sewage purification. (science series no. .) mo, baker, t. t. telegraphic transmission of photographs mo, * bale, g. r. modern iron foundry practice. two volumes. mo. vol. i. foundry equipment, materials used * vol. ii. machine moulding and moulding machines * ball, j. w. concrete structures in railways vo, * ball, r. s. popular guide to the heavens vo, * ---- natural sources of power. (westminster series.) vo, * ball, w. v. law affecting engineers vo, * bankson, lloyd. slide valve diagrams. (science series no. .). mo, barham, g. b. development of the incandescent electric lamp vo, * barker, a. f. textiles and their manufacture. (westminster series.) vo, barker, a. f., and midgley, e. analysis of textile fabrics vo, barker, a. h. graphic methods of engine design mo, * ---- heating and ventilation to, * barnard, j. h. the naval militiaman's guide mo, leather, barnard, major j. g. rotary motion. (science series no. .) mo, barnes, j. b. elements of military sketching mo, * barrus, g. h. engine tests vo, * barwise, s. the purification of sewage mo, baterden, j. r. timber. (westminster series.) vo, * bates, e. l., and charlesworth, f. practical mathematics and geometry mo, part i. preliminary and elementary course * part ii. advanced course * ---- practical mathematics mo, * ---- practical geometry and graphics mo, * batey, j. the science of works management mo, * ---- steam boilers and combustion mo, * bayonet training manual mo, beadle, c. chapters on papermaking. five volumes mo, each, * beaumont, r. color in woven design vo, * ---- finishing of textile fabrics vo, * ---- standard cloths vo, * beaumont, w. w. the steam-engine indicator vo, bechhold, h. colloids in biology and medicine. trans. by j. g. bullowa (_in press._) beckwith, a. pottery vo, paper, bedell, f., and pierce, c. a. direct and alternating current manual vo, beech, f. dyeing of cotton fabrics vo, ---- dyeing of woolen fabrics vo, * begtrup, j. the slide valve vo, * beggs, g. e. stresses in railway girders and bridges (_in press._) bender, c. e. continuous bridges. (science series no. .) mo, ---- proportions of pins used in bridges. (science series no. .) mo, bengough, g. d. brass. (metallurgy series.) (_in press._) bennett, h. g. the manufacture of leather vo, * bernthsen, a. a text book of organic chemistry. trans. by g. m'gowan mo, * bersch. j. manufacture of mineral and lake pigments. trans. by a. c. wright vo, * bertin, l. e. marine boilers. trans. by l. s. robertson vo, beveridge, j. papermaker's pocket book mo, * binnie, sir a. rainfall reservoirs and water supply vo, binns, c. f. manual of practical potting vo, * ---- the potter's craft mo, * birchmore, w. h. interpretation of gas analysis mo, * blaine, r. g. the calculus and its applications mo, * blake, w. h. brewers' vade mecum vo, * blasdale, w. c. quantitative chemical analysis. (van nostrand's textbooks.) mo, * bligh, w. g. the practical design of irrigation works vo, * bloch, l. science of illumination. trans. by w. c. clinton vo, * blok, a. illumination and artificial lighting mo, blücher, h. modern industrial chemistry. trans. by j. p. millington. vo, * blyth, a. w. foods: their composition and analysis vo, ---- poisons: their effects and detection vo, böckmann, f. celluloid mo, * bodmer, g. r. hydraulic motors and turbines mo, boileau, j. t. traverse tables vo, bonney, g. e. the electro-platers' handbook mo, booth, n. guide to the ring-spinning frame mo, * booth, w. h. water softening and treatment vo, * ---- superheaters and superheating and their control vo, * bottcher, a. cranes: their construction, mechanical equipment and working. trans. by a. tolhausen to, * bottler, m. modern bleaching agents. trans. by c. salter mo, * bottone, s. r. magnetos for automobilists mo, * boulton, s. b. preservation of timber. (science series no. .). mo, bourcart, e. insecticides, fungicides and weedkillers vo, * bourgougnon, a. physical problems. (science series no. .) mo, bourry, e. treatise on ceramic industries. trans. by a. b. searle. vo, * bowie, a. j., jr. a practical treatise on hydraulic mining vo, bowles, o. tables of common rocks. (science series no. .). mo, bowser, e. a. elementary treatise on analytic geometry mo, ---- elementary treatise on the differential and integral calculus. mo, ---- elementary treatise on analytic mechanics mo, ---- elementary treatise on hydro-mechanics mo, ---- a treatise on roofs and bridges mo, * boycott, g. w. m. compressed air work and diving vo, * bragg, e. m. marine engine design mo, * ---- design of marine engines and auxiliaries vo, * brainard, f. r. the sextant. (science series no. .) mo, brassey's naval annual for . war edition vo, briggs, r., and wolff, a. r. steam-heating. (science series no. .) mo, bright, c. the life story of sir charles tilson bright vo, * brislee, t. j. introduction to the study of fuel. (outlines of industrial chemistry.) vo, * broadfoot, s. k. motors, secondary batteries. (installation manuals series.) mo, * broughton, h. h. electric cranes and hoists * brown, g. healthy foundations. (science series no. .) mo, brown, h. irrigation vo, * brown, h. rubber vo, * ---- w. a. portland cement industry vo, brown, wm. n. dipping, burnishing, lacquering and bronzing brass ware mo, * ---- handbook on japanning mo, * brown, wm. n. the art of enamelling on metal mo, * ---- house decorating and painting mo, * ---- history of decorative art mo, * ---- workshop wrinkles vo, * browne, c. l. fitting and erecting of engines vo, * browne, r. e. water meters. (science series no. .) mo, bruce, e. m. pure food tests mo, * brunner, r. manufacture of lubricants, shoe polishes and leather dressings. trans. by c. salt vo, * buel, r. h. safety valves. (science series no. .) mo, burley, g. w. lathes, their construction and operation mo, burnside, w. bridge foundations mo, * burstall, f. w. energy diagram for gas. with text vo, ---- diagram. sold separately * burt, w. a. key to the solar compass mo, leather, buskett, e. w. fire assaying mo, * butler, h. j. motor bodies and chassis vo, * byers, h. g., and knight, h. g. notes on qualitative analysis vo, * cain, w. brief course in the calculus mo, * ---- elastic arches. (science series no. .) mo, ---- maximum stresses. (science series no. .) mo, ---- practical designing retaining of walls. (science series no. .) mo, ---- theory of steel-concrete arches and of vaulted structures. (science series no. .) mo, ---- theory of voussoir arches. (science series no. .) mo, ---- symbolic algebra. (science series no. .) mo, carpenter, f. d. geographical surveying. (science series no. .) mo, carpenter, r. c., and diederichs, h. internal combustion engines vo, * carter, h. a. ramie (rhea), china grass mo, * carter, h. r. modern flax, hemp, and jute spinning vo, * ---- bleaching, dyeing and finishing of fabrics vo, * cary, e. r. solution of railroad problems with the slide rule mo, * casler, m. d. simplified reinforced concrete mathematics mo, * cathcart, w. l. machine design. part i. fastenings vo, * cathcart, w. l., and chaffee, j. i. elements of graphic statics vo, * ---- short course in graphics mo, caven, r. m., and lander, g. d. systematic inorganic chemistry mo, * chalkley, a. p. diesel engines vo, * chambers' mathematical tables vo, chambers, g. f. astronomy mo, * chappel, e. five figure mathematical tables vo, * charnock, mechanical technology vo, * charpentier, p. timber vo, * chatley, h. principles and designs of aeroplanes. (science series no. ) mo, ---- how to use water power mo, * ---- gyrostatic balancing vo, * child, c. d. electric arc vo, * christian, m. disinfection and disinfectants. trans. by chas. salter mo, christie, w. w. boiler-waters, scale, corrosion, foaming vo, * ---- chimney design and theory vo, * ---- furnace draft. (science series no. .) mo, ---- water: its purification and use in the industries vo, * church's laboratory guide. rewritten by edward kinch vo, * clapham, j. h. woolen and worsted industries vo, clapperton, g. practical papermaking vo, clark, a. g. motor car engineering. vol. i. construction * vol. ii. design vo, * clark, c. h. marine gas engines mo, * clark, j. m. new system of laying out railway turnouts mo, clarke, j. w., and scott, w. plumbing practice. vol. i. lead working and plumbers' materials vo, * vol. ii. sanitary plumbing and fittings (_in press._) vol. iii. practical lead working on roofs (_in press._) clarkson, r. b. elementary electrical engineering (_in press._) clausen-thue, w. a b c universal commercial telegraphic code. sixth edition (_in press._) clerk, d., and idell, f. e. theory of the gas engine. (science series no. .) mo, clevenger, s. r. treatise on the method of government surveying. mo, morocco, clouth, f. rubber, gutta-percha, and balata vo, * cochran, j. concrete and reinforced concrete specifications vo, * ---- inspection of concrete construction vo, * ---- treatise on cement specifications vo, * cocking, w. c. calculations for steel-frame structures mo, * coffin, j. h. c. navigation and nautical astronomy mo, * colburn, z., and thurston, r. h. steam boiler explosions. (science series no. .) mo, cole, r. s. treatise on photographic optics mo, coles-finch, w. water, its origin and use vo, * collins, j. e. useful alloys and memoranda for goldsmiths, jewelers. mo, collis, a. g. high and low tension switch-gear design vo, * ---- switchgear. (installation manuals series.) mo, * comstock, d. f., and troland, l. t. the nature of electricity and matter vo, * coombs, h. a. gear teeth. (science series no. .) mo, cooper, w. r. primary batteries vo, * copperthwaite, w. c. tunnel shields to, * corfield, w. h. dwelling houses. (science series no. .) mo, ---- water and water-supply. (science series no. .) mo, cornwall, h. b. manual of blow-pipe analysis vo, * cowee, g. a. practical safety methods and devices vo, * cowell, w. b. pure air, ozone, and water mo, * craig, j. w., and woodward, w. p. questions and answers about electrical apparatus mo, leather, craig, t. motion of a solid in a fuel. (science series no. .) mo, ---- wave and vortex motion. (science series no. .) mo, cramp, w. continuous current machine design vo, * crehore, a. c. mystery of matter and energy vo, creedy, f. single phase commutator motors vo, * crocker, f. b. electric lighting. two volumes. vo, vol. i. the generating plant vol. ii. distributing systems and lamps crocker, f. b., and arendt, m. electric motors vo, * crocker, f. b., and wheeler, s. s. the management of electrical machinery mo, * cross, c. f., bevan, e. j., and sindall, r. w. wood pulp and its applications. (westminster series.) vo, * crosskey, l. r. elementary perspective vo, crosskey, l. r., and thaw, j. advanced perspective vo, culley, j. l. theory of arches. (science series no. .) mo, cushing, h. c., jr., and harrison, n. central station management * dadourian, h. m. analytical mechanics mo, * dana, r. t. handbook of construction plant mo, leather, * danby, a. natural rock asphalts and bitumens vo, * davenport, c. the book. (westminster series.) vo, * davey, n. the gas turbine vo, * davies, f. h. electric power and traction vo, * ---- foundations and machinery fixing. (installation manual series.) mo, * deerr, n. sugar cane vo, deite, c. manual of soapmaking. trans. by s. t. king to, * de la coux, h. the industrial uses of water. trans. by a. morris. vo, * del mar, w. a. electric power conductors vo, * denny, g. a. deep-level mines of the rand to, * ---- diamond drilling for gold * de roos, j. d. c. linkages. (science series no. .) mo, derr, w. l. block signal operation oblong mo, * ---- maintenance-of-way engineering (_in preparation._) desaint, a. three hundred shades and how to mix them vo, * de varona, a. sewer gases. (science series no. .) mo, devey, r. g. mill and factory wiring. (installation manuals series.) mo, * dibdin, w. j. purification of sewage and water vo, dichmann, carl. basic open-hearth steel process mo, * dieterich, k. analysis of resins, balsams, and gum resins vo, * dilworth, e. c. steel railway bridges to, * dinger, lieut. h. c. care and operation of naval machinery mo, * dixon, d. b. machinist's and steam engineer's practical calculator. mo, morocco, dodge, g. f. diagrams for designing reinforced concrete structures, folio, * dommett, w. e. motor car mechanism mo, * dorr, b. f. the surveyor's guide and pocket table-book. mo, morocco, draper, c. h. elementary text-book of light, heat and sound mo, ---- heat and the principles of thermo-dynamics mo, * dron, r. w. mining formulas mo, dubbel, h. high power gas engines vo, * dumesny, p., and noyer, j. wood products, distillates, and extracts. vo, * duncan, w. g., and penman, d. the electrical equipment of collieries. vo, * dunkley, w. g. design of machine elements vo, dunstan, a. e., and thole, f. b. t. textbook of practical chemistry. mo, * durham, h. w. saws vo, duthie, a. l. decorative glass processes. (westminster series.). vo, * dwight, h. b. transmission line formulas vo, * dyson, s. s. practical testing of raw materials vo, * dyson, s. s., and clarkson, s. s. chemical works vo, * eccles, w. h. wireless telegraphy and telephony mo, * eck, j. light, radiation and illumination. trans. by paul hogner, vo, * eddy, h. t. maximum stresses under concentrated loads vo, eddy, l. c. laboratory manual of alternating currents mo, edelman, p. inventions and patents mo, * edgcumbe, k. industrial electrical measuring instruments vo, (_in press._) edler, r. switches and switchgear. trans. by ph. laubach vo, * eissler, m. the metallurgy of gold vo, ---- the metallurgy of silver vo, ---- the metallurgy of argentiferous lead vo, ---- a handbook on modern explosives vo, ekin, t. c. water pipe and sewage discharge diagrams folio, * electric light carbons, manufacture of vo, eliot, c. w., and storer, f. h. compendious manual of qualitative chemical analysis mo, * ellis, c. hydrogenation of oils vo, (_in press._) ellis, g. modern technical drawing vo, * ennis, wm. d. linseed oil and other seed oils vo, * ---- applied thermodynamics vo, * ---- flying machines to-day mo, * ---- vapors for heat engines mo, * ermen, w. f. a. materials used in sizing vo, * erwin, m. the universe and the atom mo, * evans, c. a. macadamized roads (_in press._) ewing, a. j. magnetic induction in iron vo, * fairie, j. notes on lead ores mo, * ---- notes on pottery clays mo, * fairley, w., and andre, geo. j. ventilation of coal mines. (science series no. .) mo, fairweather, w. c. foreign and colonial patent laws vo, * falk, m. s. cement mortars and concretes vo, * fanning, j. t. hydraulic and water-supply engineering vo, * fay, i. w. the coal-tar colors vo, * fernbach, r. l. glue and gelatine vo, * firth, j. b. practical physical chemistry mo, * fischer, e. the preparation of organic compounds. trans. by r. v. stanford mo, * fish, j. c. l. lettering of working drawings oblong vo, ---- mathematics of the paper location of a railroad paper mo, * fisher, h. k. c., and darby, w. c. submarine cable testing vo, * fleischmann, w. the book of the dairy. trans. by c. m. aikman vo, fleming, j. a. the alternate-current transformer. two volumes. vo. vol. i. the induction of electric currents * vol. ii. the utilization of induced currents * ---- propagation of electric currents vo, * ---- a handbook for the electrical laboratory and testing room. two volumes vo, each, * fleury, p. preparation and uses of white zinc paints vo, * flynn, p. j. flow of water. (science series no. .) mo, ---- hydraulic tables. (science series no. .) mo, forgie, j. shield tunneling vo. (_in press._) foster, h. a. electrical engineers' pocket-book. (_seventh edition._) mo, leather, ---- engineering valuation of public utilities and factories vo, * ---- handbook of electrical cost data vo (_in press._) fowle, f. f. overhead transmission line crossings mo, * ---- the solution of alternating current problems vo (_in press._) fox, w. g. transition curves. (science series no. .) mo, fox, w., and thomas, c. w. practical course in mechanical drawing mo, foye, j. c. chemical problems. (science series no. .) mo, ---- handbook of mineralogy. (science series no. .) mo, francis, j. b. lowell hydraulic experiments to, franzen, h. exercises in gas analysis mo, * freudemacher, p. w. electrical mining installations. (installation manuals series.) mo, * frith, j. alternating current design vo, * fritsch, j. manufacture of chemical manures. trans. by d. grant. vo, * frye, a. i. civil engineers' pocket-book mo, leather, * fuller, g. w. investigations into the purification of the ohio river to, * furnell, j. paints, colors, oils, and varnishes vo, * gairdner, j. w. i. earthwork vo (_in press._) gant, l. w. elements of electric traction vo, * garcia, a. j. r. v. spanish-english railway terms vo, * gardner, h. a. paint researches, and their practical applications vo, * garforth, w. e. rules for recovering coal mines after explosions and fires mo, leather, garrard, c. c. electric switch and controlling gear vo, * gaudard, j. foundations. (science series no. .) mo, gear, h. b., and williams, p. f. electric central station distribution systems vo, * geerligs, h. c. p. cane sugar and its manufacture vo, * geikie, j. structural and field geology vo, * ---- mountains. their growth, origin and decay vo, * ---- the antiquity of man in europe vo, * georgi, f., and schubert, a. sheet metal working. trans. by c. salter vo, gerhard, w. p. sanitation, watersupply and sewage disposal of country houses mo, * ---- gas lighting (science series no. .) mo, ---- household wastes. (science series no. .) mo, ---- house drainage. (science series no. .) mo, ---- sanitary drainage of buildings. (science series no. .) mo, gerhardi, c. w. h. electricity meters vo, * geschwind, l. manufacture of alum and sulphates. trans. by c. salter vo, * gibbings, a. h. oil fuel equipment for locomotives vo, * gibbs, w. e. lighting by acetylene mo, * gibson, a. h. hydraulics and its application vo, * ---- water hammer in hydraulic pipe lines mo, * gibson, a. h., and ritchie, e. g. circular arc bow girder to, * gilbreth, f. b. motion study mo, * ---- bricklaying system vo, * ---- field system mo, leather, * ---- primer of scientific management mo, * gillette, h. p. handbook of cost data mo, leather, * ---- rock excavation methods and cost mo, * ---- and dana, r. t. cost keeping and management engineering vo, * ---- and hill, c. s. concrete construction, methods and cost vo, * gillmore, gen. q. a. roads, streets, and pavements mo, godfrey, e. tables for structural engineers mo, leather, * golding, h. a. the theta-phi diagram mo, * goldschmidt, r. alternating current commutator motor vo, * goodchild, w. precious stones. (westminster series.) vo, * goodeve, t. m. textbook on the steam-engine mo, gore, g. electrolytic separation of metals vo, * gould, e. s. arithmetic of the steam-engine mo, ---- calculus. (science series no. .) mo, ---- high masonry dams. (science series no. .) mo, gould, e. s. practical hydrostatics and hydrostatic formulas. (science series no. .) mo, gratacap, l. p. a popular guide to minerals vo, * gray, j. electrical influence machines mo, ---- marine boiler design mo, * greenhill, g. dynamics of mechanical flight vo, * gregorius, r. mineral waxes. trans. by c. salter mo, * grierson, r. some modern methods of ventilation vo, * griffiths, a. b. a treatise on manures mo, ---- dental metallurgy vo, * gross, e. hops vo, * grossman, j. ammonia and its compounds mo, * groth, l. a. welding and cutting metals by gases or electricity. (westminster series) vo, * grover, f. modern gas and oil engines vo, * gruner, a. power-loom weaving vo, * güldner, hugo. internal combustion engines. trans. by h. diederichs to, * gunther, c. o. integration vo, * gurden, r. l. traverse tables folio, half morocco, * guy, a. e. experiments on the flexure of beams vo, * haenig, a. emery and emery industry vo, * hainbach, r. pottery decoration. trans. by c. salter mo, * hale, w. j. calculations of general chemistry mo, * hall, c. h. chemistry of paints and paint vehicles mo, * hall, g. l. elementary theory of alternate current working vo, * hall, r. h. governors and governing mechanism mo, * hall, w. s. elements of the differential and integral calculus vo, * ---- descriptive geometry vo volume and a to atlas, * haller, g. f., and cunningham, e. t. the tesla coil mo, * halsey, f. a. slide valve gears mo, ---- the use of the slide rule. (science series no. .) mo, ---- worm and spiral gearing. (science series no. .) mo, hancock, h. textbook of mechanics and hydrostatics vo, hancock, w. c. refractory materials. (metallurgy series.) (_in press._) hardy, e. elementary principles of graphic statics mo, * haring, h. engineering law vol. i. law of contract vo, * harper, j. h. hydraulic tables on the flow of water mo, * harris, s. m. practical topographical surveying (_in press._) harrison, w. b. the mechanics' tool-book mo, hart, j. w. external plumbing work vo, * ---- hints to plumbers on joint wiping vo, * ---- principles of hot water supply vo, * ---- sanitary plumbing and drainage vo, * haskins, c. h. the galvanometer and its uses mo, hatt, j. a. h. the colorist square mo, * hausbrand, e. drying by means of air and steam. trans. by a. c. wright mo, * ---- evaporating, condensing and cooling apparatus. trans. by a. c. wright vo, * hausmann, e. telegraph engineering vo, * hausner, a. manufacture of preserved foods and sweetmeats. trans. by a. morris and h. robson vo, * hawkesworth, j. graphical handbook for reinforced concrete design. to, * hay, a. continuous current engineering vo, * hayes, h. v. public utilities, their cost new and depreciation vo, * ---- public utilities, their fair present value and return vo, * heath, f. h. chemistry of photography vo. (_in press._) heather, h. j. s. electrical engineering vo, * heaviside, o. electromagnetic theory. vols. i and ii vo, each, * vol. iii vo, * heck, r. c. h. the steam engine and turbine vo, * ---- steam-engine and other steam motors. two volumes. vol. i. thermodynamics and the mechanics vo, * vol. ii. form, construction, and working vo, * ---- notes on elementary kinematics vo, boards, * ---- graphics of machine forces vo, boards, * heermann, p. dyers' materials. trans. by a. c. wright mo, * heidenreich, e. l. engineers' pocketbook of reinforced concrete mo, leather, * hellot, macquer and d'apligny. art of dyeing wool, silk and cotton vo, * henrici, o. skeleton structures vo, hering, c., and getman, f. h. standard tables of electro-chemical equivalents mo, * hering, d. w. essentials of physics for college students vo, * hering-shaw, a. domestic sanitation and plumbing. two vols. vo, * hering-shaw, a. elementary science vo, * herington, c. f. powdered coal and fuel (_in press._) herrmann, g. the graphical statics of mechanism. trans. by a. p. smith mo, herzfeld, j. testing of yarns and textile fabrics vo, * hildebrandt, a. airships, past and present vo, * hildenbrand, b. w. cable-making. (science series no. .) mo, hilditch, t. p. a concise history of chemistry mo, * hill, c. s. concrete inspection mo, * hill, j. w. the purification of public water supplies. new edition (_in press._) ---- interpretation of water analysis (_in press._) hill, m. j. m. the theory of proportion vo, * hiroi, i. plate girder construction. (science series no. .) mo, ---- statically-indeterminate stresses mo, * hirshfeld, c. f. engineering thermodynamics. (science series no. .) mo, hoar, a. the submarine torpedo boat mo, * hobart, h. m. heavy electrical engineering vo, * ---- design of static transformers mo, * ---- electricity vo, * ---- electric trains vo, * ---- electric propulsion of ships vo, * hobart, j. f. hard soldering, soft soldering and brazing. mo, * hobbs, w. r. p. the arithmetic of electrical measurements. mo, hoff, j. n. paint and varnish facts and formulas. mo, * hole, w. the distribution of gas. vo, * holley, a. l. railway practice. folio, hopkins, n. m. model engines and small boats. mo, hopkinson, j., shoolbred, j. n., and day, r. e. dynamic electricity. (science series no. .) mo, horner, j. practical ironfounding. vo, * ---- gear cutting, in theory and practice. vo, * houghton, c. e. the elements of mechanics of materials. mo, * houstoun, r. a. studies in light production. mo, hovenden, f. practical mathematics for young engineers. mo, * howe, g. mathematics for the practical man. mo, * howorth, j. repairing and riveting glass, china and earthenware. vo, paper, * hoyt, w. e. chemistry by experimentation. vo, * hubbard, e. the utilization of wood-waste. vo, * hübner, j. bleaching and dyeing of vegetable and fibrous materials. (outlines of industrial chemistry.) vo, * hudson, o. f. iron and steel. (outlines of industrial chemistry.) vo, * humphrey, j. c. w. metallography of strain. (metallurgy series.) (_in press._) humphreys, a. c. the business features of engineering practice. vo, * hunter, a. bridge work. vo. (_in press._) hurst. g. h. handbook of the theory of color. vo, * ---- dictionary of chemicals and raw products. vo, * ---- lubricating oils, fats and greases. vo, * ---- soaps. vo, * hurst, g. h., and simmons, w. h. textile soaps and oils. vo, hurst, h. e., and lattey, r. t. text-book of physics. vo, * ---- also published in three parts. part i. dynamics and heat. * part ii. sound and light. * part iii. magnetism and electricity. * hutchinson, r. w., jr. long distance electric power transmission. mo, * hutchinson, r. w., jr., and thomas, w. a. electricity in mining. mo, (_in press._) hutchinson, w. b. patents and how to make money out of them. mo, hutton, w. s. the works' manager's handbook. vo, hyde, e. w. skew arches. (science series no. .) mo, hyde, f. s. solvents, oils, gums, waxes. vo, * induction coils. (science series no. .) mo, ingham, a. e. gearing. a practical treatise. vo, * ingle, h. manual of agricultural chemistry. vo, * inness, c. h. problems in machine design. mo, * ---- air compressors and blowing engines. mo, * ---- centrifugal pumps. mo, * ---- the fan. mo, * jacob, a., and gould, e. s. on the designing and construction of storage reservoirs. (science series no. ) mo, jannettaz, e. guide to the determination of rocks. trans. by g. w. plympton. mo, jehl, f. manufacture of carbons. vo, * jennings, a. s. commercial paints and paintings. (westminster series.) vo, * jennison, f. h. the manufacture of lake pigments. vo, * jepson, g. cams and the principles of their construction. vo, * ---- mechanical drawing. vo. (_in preparation._) jervis-smith, f. j. dynamometers. vo, * jockin, w. arithmetic of the gold and silversmith. mo, * johnson, j. h. arc lamps and accessory apparatus. (installation manuals series.) mo, * johnson, t. m. ship wiring and fitting. (installation manuals series.) mo, * johnson, w. mca. the metallurgy of nickel. (_in preparation._) johnston, j. f. w., and cameron, c. elements of agricultural chemistry and geology. mo, joly, j. radioactivity and geology. mo, * jones, h. c. electrical nature of matter and radioactivity. mo, * ---- nature of solution. vo, * ---- new era in chemistry. mo, * jones, j. h. tinplate industry. vo, * jones, m. w. testing raw materials used in paint. mo, * jordan, l. c. practical railway spiral. mo, leather, * joynson, f. h. designing and construction of machine gearing. vo, jüptner, h. f. v. siderology: the science of iron. vo, * kapp, g. alternate current machinery. (science series no. .) mo, kapper, f. overhead transmission lines. to, * keim, a. w. prevention of dampness in buildings. vo, * keller, s. s. mathematics for engineering students. mo, half leather. ---- and knox, w. e. analytical geometry and calculus. * kelsey, w. r. continuous-current dynamos and motors. vo, * kemble, w. t., and underhill, c. r. the periodic law and the hydrogen spectrum. vo, paper, * kennedy, a. b. w., and thurston, r. h. kinematics of machinery. (science series no. .) mo, kennedy, a. b. w., unwin, w. c., and idell, f. e. compressed air. (science series no. .) mo, kennedy, r. electrical installations. five volumes. to, single volumes. each, ---- flying machines; practice and design. mo, * ---- principles of aeroplane construction. vo, * kennelly, a. e. electro-dynamic machinery. vo, kent, w. strength of materials. (science series no. .) mo, kershaw, j. b. c. fuel, water and gas analysis. vo, * ---- electrometallurgy. (westminster series.) vo, * ---- the electric furnace in iron and steel production. mo, * ---- electro-thermal methods of iron and steel production. vo, * kindelan, j. trackman's helper. mo, kinzbrunner, c. alternate current windings. vo, * ---- continuous current armatures. vo, * ---- testing of alternating current machines. vo, * kirkaldy, a. w., and evans, a. d. history and economics of transport. vo, * kirkaldy, w. g. david kirkaldy's system of mechanical testing. to, kirkbride, j. engraving for illustration. vo, * kirkham, j. e. structural engineering. vo, * kirkwood, j. p. filtration of river waters. to, kirschke, a. gas and oil engines. mo, * klein, j. f. design of a high-speed steam-engine. vo, * ---- physical significance of entropy. vo, * klingenberg, g. large electric power stations. to, * knight, r.-adm. a. m. modern seamanship. vo, * knott, c. g., and mackay, j. s. practical mathematics. vo, knox, g. d. spirit of the soil. mo, * knox, j. physico-chemical calculations. mo, * ---- fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. (chemical monographs.) mo, * koester, f. steam-electric power plants. to, * ---- hydroelectric developments and engineering. to, * koller, t. the utilization of waste products. vo, * ---- cosmetics. vo, * koppe, s. w. glycerine. mo, * kozmin, p. a. flour milling. trans. by m. falkner. vo. (_in press._) kremann, r. application of the physico-chemical theory to technical processes and manufacturing methods. trans. by h. e. potts. vo, * kretchmar, k. yarn and warp sizing. vo, * lallier, e. v. elementary manual of the steam engine. mo, * lambert, t. lead and its compounds. vo, * ---- bone products and manures. vo, * lamborn, l. l. cottonseed products. vo, * ---- modern soaps, candles, and glycerin. vo, * lamprecht, r. recovery work after pit fires. trans. by c. salter. vo, * lancaster, m. electric cooking, heating and cleaning. vo, * lanchester, f. w. aerial flight. two volumes. vo. vol. i. aerodynamics. * vol. ii. aerodonetics. * lanchester, f. w. the flying machine. vo, * lange, k. r. by-products of coal-gas manufacture. mo, larner, e. t. principles of alternating currents. mo, * la rue, b. f. swing bridges. (science series no. .) mo, lassar-cohn. dr. modern scientific chemistry. trans. by m. m. pattison muir mo, * latimer, l. h., field, c. j., and howell, j. w. incandescent electric lighting. (science series no. .) mo, latta, m. n. handbook of american gas-engineering practice. vo, * ---- american producer gas practice. to, * laws, b. c. stability and equilibrium of floating bodies. vo, * lawson, w. r. british railways. a financial and commercial survey. vo, leask, a. r. breakdowns at sea. mo, ---- refrigerating machinery. mo, lecky, s. t. s. "wrinkles" in practical navigation. vo, le doux, m. ice-making machines. (science series no. .) mo, leeds, c. c. mechanical drawing for trade schools. oblong to, * ---- mechanical drawing for high and vocational schools. to, * lefévre, l. architectural pottery. trans. by h. k. bird and w. m. binns. to, * lehner, s. ink manufacture. trans. by a. morris and h. robson. vo, * lemstrom, s. electricity in agriculture and horticulture. vo, * letts, e. a. fundamental problems in chemistry. vo, * le van, w. b. steam-engine indicator. (science series no. .) mo, lewes, v. b. liquid and gaseous fuels. (westminster series.) vo, * ---- carbonization of coal. vo, * lewis, l. p. railway signal engineering. vo, * lewis automatic machine rifle; operation of. mo, * licks, h. e. recreations in mathematics. mo, * lieber, b. f. lieber's five letter standard telegraphic code. vo, * ---- code. german edition. vo, * ---- ---- spanish edition. vo, * ---- ---- french edition. vo, * ---- terminal index. vo, * ---- lieber's appendix. folio, * ---- ---- handy tables. to, * ---- bankers and stockbrokers' code and merchants and shippers' blank tables. vo, * ---- , , combination code. vo, * ---- engineering code. vo, * livermore, v. p., and williams, j. how to become a competent motorman mo, * livingstone, r. design and construction of commutators. vo, * ---- mechanical design and construction of generators. vo, * lloyd, s. l. fertilizer materials. (_in press._) lobben, p. machinists' and draftsmen's handbook. vo, lockwood, t. d. electricity, magnetism, and electro-telegraph. vo, ---- electrical measurement and the galvanometer. mo, lodge, o. j. elementary mechanics. mo, ---- signalling across space without wires. vo, * loewenstein, l. c., and crissey, c. p. centrifugal pumps. * lomax, j. w. cotton spinning. mo, lord, r. t. decorative and fancy fabrics. vo, * loring, a. e. a handbook of the electromagnetic telegraph. mo, ---- handbook. (science series no. .) mo, lovell, d. h. practical switchwork. mo, * low, d. a. applied mechanics (elementary). mo, lubschez, b. j. perspective. mo, * lucke, c. e. gas engine design. vo, * ---- power plants: design, efficiency, and power costs. vols. (_in preparation._) luckiesh, m. color and its application. vo, * ---- light and shade and their applications. vo, * lunge, g. coal-tar and ammonia. three volumes. vo, * ---- technical gas analysis. vo, * ---- manufacture of sulphuric acid and alkali. four volumes. vo, vol. i. sulphuric acid. in three parts. ---- vol. i. supplement. vo, vol. ii. salt cake, hydrochloric acid and leblanc soda. in two parts. * vol. iii. ammonia soda. * vol. iv. electrolytic methods. (_in press._) ---- technical chemists' handbook. mo, leather, * ---- technical methods of chemical analysis. trans. by c. a. keane in collaboration with the corps of specialists. vol. i. in two parts. vo, * vol. ii. in two parts. vo, * vol. iii. in two parts. vo, * the set ( vols.) complete. * luquer, l. m. minerals in rock sections. vo, * macewen, h. a. food inspection. vo, * mackenzie, n. f. notes on irrigation works. vo, * mackie, j. how to make a woolen mill pay. vo, * maguire, wm. r. domestic sanitary drainage and plumbing. vo, malcolm, c. w. textbook on graphic statics. vo, * malcolm, h. w. submarine telegraph cable. (_in press._) mallet, a. compound engines. trans. by r. r. buel. (science series no. .) mo, mansfield, a. n. electro-magnets. (science series no. .) mo, marks, e. c. r. construction of cranes and lifting machinery. mo, * ---- construction and working of pumps. mo, * ---- manufacture of iron and steel tubes. mo, * ---- mechanical engineering materials. mo, * marks, g. c. hydraulic power engineering. vo, ---- inventions, patents and designs. mo, * marlow, t. g. drying machinery and practice. vo, * marsh, c. f. concise treatise on reinforced concrete. vo, * ---- reinforced concrete compression member diagram. mounted on cloth boards. * marsh, c. f., and dunn, w. manual of reinforced concrete and concrete block construction. mo, morocco, * marshall, w. j., and sankey, h. r. gas engines. (westminster series.) vo, * martin, g. triumphs and wonders of modern chemistry. vo, * ---- modern chemistry and its wonders. vo, * martin, n. properties and design of reinforced concrete. mo, * martin, w. d. hints to engineers. mo, * massie, w. w., and underhill, c. r. wireless telegraphy and telephony. mo, * mathot, r. e. internal combustion engines. vo, * maurice, w. electric blasting apparatus and explosives. vo, * ---- shot firer's guide. vo, * maxwell, j. c. matter and motion. (science series no. .) mo, maxwell, w. h., and brown, j. t. encyclopedia of municipal and sanitary engineering. to, * mayer, a. m. lecture notes on physics. vo, mayer, c., and slippy, j. c. telephone line construction. vo, * mccullough, e. practical surveying. mo, * ---- engineering work in cities and towns. vo, * ---- reinforced concrete. mo, * mccullough, r. s. mechanical theory of heat. vo, mcgibbon, w. c. indicator diagrams for marine engineers. vo, * ---- marine engineers' drawing book. oblong to, * mcintosh, j. g. technology of sugar. vo, * ---- industrial alcohol. vo, * ---- manufacture of varnishes and kindred industries. three volumes. vo. vol. i. oil crushing, refining and boiling. * vol. ii. varnish materials and oil varnish making. * vol. iii. spirit varnishes and materials. * mcknight, j. d., and brown, a. w. marine multitubular boilers. * mcmaster, j. b. bridge and tunnel centres. (science series no. .) mo, mcmechen, f. l. tests for ores, minerals and metals. mo, * mcpherson, j. a. water-works distribution. vo, meade, a. modern gas works practice. vo, * mcgibbon, w. c. marine engineers pocketbook. mo, * meade, r. k. design and equipment of small chemical laboratories, vo, melick, c. w. dairy laboratory guide. mo, * mensch, l. j. reinforced concrete pocket book. mo, leather, * merck, e. chemical reagents; their purity and tests. trans. by h. e. schenck. vo, merivale, j. h. notes and formulae for mining students. mo, merritt, wm. h. field testing for gold and silver. mo, leather, mierzinski, s. waterproofing of fabrics. trans. by a. morris and h. robson. vo, * miessner, b. f. radio dynamics. mo, * miller, g. a. determinants. (science series no. .) mo, miller, w. j. introduction to historical geology. mo, * milroy, m. e. w. home lace-making. mo, * mills, c. n. elementary mechanics for engineers. vo, * mitchell, c. a. mineral and aerated waters. vo, * mitchell, c. a., and prideaux, r. m. fibres used in textile and allied industries. vo, * mitchell, c. f., and g. a. building construction and drawing. mo. elementary course. * advanced course. * monckton, c. c. f. radiotelegraphy. (westminster series.) vo, * monteverde, r. d. vest pocket glossary of english-spanish, spanish-english technical terms. mo, leather, * montgomery, j. h. electric wiring specifications. mo, * moore, e. c. s. new tables for the complete solution of ganguillet and kutter's formula. vo, * morecroft, j. h., and hehre, f. w. short course in electrical testing. vo, * morgan, a. p. wireless telegraph apparatus for amateurs. mo, * moses, a. j. the characters of crystals. vo, * ---- and parsons, c. l. elements of mineralogy. vo, * moss, s. a. elements of gas engine design. (science series no. .) mo, ---- the lay-out of corliss valve gears. (science series no. .) mo, mulford, a. c. boundaries and landmarks. mo, * mullin, j. p. modern moulding and pattern-making. mo, munby, a. e. chemistry and physics of building materials. (westminster series.) vo, * murphy, j. g. practical mining. mo, murray, j. a. soils and manures. (westminster series.) vo, * nasmith, j. the student's cotton spinning. vo, ---- recent cotton mill construction. mo, neave, g. b., and heilbron, i. m. identification of organic compounds. mo, * neilson, r. m. aeroplane patents. vo, * nerz, f. searchlights. trans. by c. rodgers. vo, * neuberger, h., and noalhat, h. technology of petroleum. trans. by j. g. mcintosh. vo, * newall, j. w. drawing, sizing and cutting bevel-gears. vo, newell, f. h., and drayer, c. e. engineering as a career mo, cloth, * paper, newbeging, t. handbook for gas engineers and managers. vo, * nicol, g. ship construction and calculations. vo, * nipher, f. e. theory of magnetic measurements. mo, nisbet, h. grammar of textile design vo, * nolan, h. the telescope. (science series no. .) mo, north, h. b. laboratory experiments in general chemistry mo, * nugent, e. treatise on optics mo, o'connor, h. the gas engineer's pocketbook mo, leather, ohm, g. s., and lockwood, t. d. galvanic circuit. translated by william francis. (science series no. .) mo, olsen, j. c. text-book of quantitative chemical analysis vo, olsson, a. motor control, in turret turning and gun elevating. (u. s. navy electrical series, no. .) mo, paper, * ormsby, m. t. m. surveying mo, oudin, m. a. standard polyphase apparatus and systems vo, * owen, d. recent physical research vo, * pakes, w. c. c., and nankivell, a. t. the science of hygiene vo, * palaz, a. industrial photometry. trans. by g. w. patterson, jr. vo, * pamely, c. colliery manager's handbook vo, * parker, p. a. m. the control of water vo, * parr, g. d. a. electrical engineering measuring instruments vo, * parry, e. j. chemistry of essential oils and artificial perfumes, (_in press._) ---- foods and drugs. two volumes. vol. i. chemical and microscopical analysis of foods and drugs * vol. ii. sale of food and drugs act * ---- and coste, j. h. chemistry of pigments vo, * parry, l. notes on alloys vo, * ---- metalliferous wastes vo, * ---- analysis of ashes and alloys vo, * parry, l. a. risk and dangers of various occupations vo, * parshall, h. f., and hobart, h. m. armature windings to, * ---- electric railway engineering to, * parsons, j. l. land drainage vo, * parsons, s. j. malleable cast iron vo, * partington, j. r. higher mathematics for chemical students mo, * ---- textbook of thermodynamics vo, * passmore, a. c. technical terms used in architecture vo, * patchell, w. h. electric power in mines vo, * paterson, g. w. l. wiring calculations mo, * ---- electric mine signalling installations mo, * patterson, d. the color printing of carpet yarns vo, * ---- color matching on textiles vo, * ---- textile color mixing vo, * paulding, c. p. condensation of steam in covered and bare pipes vo, * ---- transmission of heat through cold-storage insulation mo, * payne, d. w. iron founders' handbook vo, * peckham, s. f. solid bitumens vo, * peddie, r. a. engineering and metallurgical books mo, * peirce, b. system of analytic mechanics to, ---- linnear associative algebra to, pendred, v. the railway locomotive. (westminster series.) vo, * perkin, f. m. practical methods of inorganic chemistry mo, * perrin, j. atoms vo, * ---- and jaggers, e. m. elementary chemistry mo, * perrine, f. a. c. conductors for electrical distribution vo, * petit, g. white lead and zinc white paints vo, * petit, r. how to build an aeroplane. trans. by t. o'b. hubbard, and j. h. ledeboer vo, * pettit, lieut. j. s. graphic processes. (science series no. .) mo, philbrick, p. h. beams and girders. (science series no. .) mo, phillips, j. gold assaying vo, * ---- dangerous goods vo, phin, j. seven follies of science mo, * pickworth, c. n. the indicator handbook. two volumes mo, each, ---- logarithms for beginners mo, boards, ---- the slide rule mo, plattner's manual of blow-pipe analysis. eighth edition, revised. trans. by h. b. cornwall vo, * plympton, g. w. the aneroid barometer. (science series no. .) mo, ---- how to become an engineer. (science series no. .) mo, ---- van nostrand's table book, (science series no. .) mo, pochet, m. l. steam injectors. translated from the french. (science series no. .) mo, pocket logarithms to four places. (science series no. .) mo, leather, polleyn, f. dressings and finishings for textile fabrics vo, * pope, f. g. organic chemistry mo, * pope, f. l. modern practice of the electric telegraph vo, popplewell, w. c. prevention of smoke vo, * ---- strength of materials vo, * porritt, b. d. the chemistry of rubber. (chemical monographs, no. .) mo, * porter, j. r. helicopter flying machine mo, * potts, h. e. chemistry of the rubber industry. (outlines of industrial chemistry) vo, * practical compounding of oils, tallow and grease vo, * pratt, k. boiler draught mo, * ---- high speed steam engines vo, * pray, t., jr. twenty years with the indicator vo, ---- steam tables and engine constant vo, prelini, c. earth and rock excavation vo, * ---- graphical determination of earth slopes vo, * ---- tunneling. new edition vo, * ---- dredging. a practical treatise vo, * prescott, a. b. organic analysis vo, prescott, a. b., and johnson, o. c. qualitative chemical analysis vo, * prescott, a. b., and sullivan, e. c. first book in qualitative chemistry mo, * prideaux, e. b. r. problems in physical chemistry vo, * primrose, g. s. c. zinc. (metallurgy series.) (_in press._) prince, g. t. flow of water mo, * pullen, w. w. f. application of graphic methods to the design of structures mo, * ---- injectors: theory, construction and working mo, * ---- indicator diagrams vo, * ---- engine testing vo, * putsch, a. gas and coal-dust firing vo, * pynchon, t. r. introduction to chemical physics vo, rafter g. w. mechanics of ventilation. (science series no. .) mo, ---- potable water. (science series no. .) mo, ---- treatment of septic sewage. (science series no. .) mo, rafter, g. w., and baker, m. n. sewage disposal in the united states. to, * raikes, h. p. sewage disposal works vo, * randau, p. enamels and enamelling vo, * rankine, w. j. m. applied mechanics vo, ---- civil engineering vo, ---- machinery and millwork vo, ---- the steam-engine and other prime movers vo, rankine, w. j. m., and bamber, e. f. a mechanical text-book vo, ransome, w. r. freshman mathematics mo, * raphael, f. c. localization of faults in electric light and power mains vo, rasch, e. electric arc phenomena. trans. by k. tornberg vo, * rateau, a. flow of steam through nozzles and orifices. trans. by h. b. brydon vo, * rathbone, r. l. b. simple jewellery vo, * rausenberger, f. the theory of the recoil of guns vo, * rautenstrauch, w. notes on the elements of machine design vo, boards, * rautenstrauch, w., and williams, j. t. machine drafting and empirical design. part i. machine drafting vo, * part ii. empirical design (_in preparation._) raymond, e. b. alternating current engineering mo, * rayner, h. silk throwing and waste silk spinning vo, * recipes for the color, paint, varnish, oil, soap and drysaltery trades vo, * recipes for flint glass making mo, * redfern, j. b., and savin, j. bells, telephones (installation manuals series.) mo, * redgrove, h. s. experimental mensuration mo, * redwood, b. petroleum. (science series no. .) mo, reed, s. turbines applied to marine propulsion * reed's engineers' handbook vo, * ---- key to the nineteenth edition of reed's engineers' handbook vo, * ---- useful hints to sea-going engineers mo, reid, e. e. introduction to research in organic chemistry (_in press._) reid, h. a. concrete and reinforced concrete construction vo, * reinhardt, c. w. lettering for draftsmen, engineers, and students oblong to, boards, reinhardt, c. w. the technic of mechanical drafting, oblong, to, boards, * reiser, f. hardening and tempering of steel. trans. by a. morris and h. robson mo, * reiser, n. faults in the manufacture of woolen goods. trans. by a. morris and h. robson vo, * ---- spinning and weaving calculations vo, * renwick, w. g. marble and marble working vo, reuleaux, f. the constructor. trans. by h. h. suplee to, * reuterdahl, a. theory and design of reinforced concrete arches. vo, * rey, jean. the range of electric searchlight projectors vo, * reynolds, o., and idell, f. e. triple expansion engines. (science series no. .) mo, rhead, g. f. simple structural woodwork mo, * rhodes, h. j. art of lithography vo, rice, j. m., and johnson, w. w. a new method of obtaining the differential of functions mo, richards, w. a. forging of iron and steel mo, richards, w. a., and north, h. b. manual of cement testing mo, * richardson, j. the modern steam engine vo, * richardson, s. s. magnetism and electricity mo, * rideal, s. glue and glue testing vo, * rimmer, e. j. boiler explosions, collapses and mishaps vo, * rings, f. concrete in theory and practice mo, * ---- reinforced concrete bridges to, * ripper, w. course of instruction in machine drawing folio, * roberts, f. c. figure of the earth. (science series no. .) mo, roberts, j., jr. laboratory work in electrical engineering vo, * robertson, l. s. water-tube boilers vo, robinson, j. b. architectural composition vo, * robinson, s. w. practical treatise on the teeth of wheels. (science series no. .) mo, ---- railroad economics. (science series no. .) mo, ---- wrought iron bridge members. (science series no. .) mo, robson, j. h. machine drawing and sketching vo, * roebling, j. a. long and short span railway bridges folio, rogers, a. a laboratory guide of industrial chemistry (_in press._) ---- elements of industrial chemistry mo, * ---- manual of industrial chemistry vo, * rogers, f. magnetism of iron vessels. (science series no. .). mo, rohland, p. colloidal and crystalloidal state of matter. trans. by w. j. britland and h. e. potts mo, * rollinson, c. alphabets oblong, mo, * rose, j. the pattern-makers' assistant vo, ---- key to engines and engine-running mo, rose, t. k. the precious metals. (westminster series.) vo, * rosenhain, w. glass manufacture. (westminster series.) vo, * ---- physical metallurgy, an introduction to. (metallurgy series.) vo, * roth, w. a. physical chemistry vo, * rowan, f. j. practical physics of the modern steam-boiler vo, * ---- and idell, f. e. boiler incrustation and corrosion. (science series no. .) mo, roxburgh, w. general foundry practice. (westminster series.). vo, * ruhmer, e. wireless telephony. trans. by j. erskine-murray. vo, * russell, a. theory of electric cables and networks vo, * rutley, f. elements of mineralogy mo, * sanford, p. g. nitro-explosives vo, * saunders, c. h. handbook of practical mechanics mo, leather, sayers, h. m. brakes for tram cars vo, * scheele, c. w. chemical essays vo, * scheithauer, w. shale oils and tars vo, * scherer, r. casein. trans. by c. salter vo, * schidrowitz, p. rubber, its production and industrial uses vo, * schindler, k. iron and steel construction works mo, * schmall, c. n. first course in analytic geometry, plane and solid. mo, half leather, * schmeer, l. flow of water vo, * schumann, f. a manual of heating and ventilation mo, leather, schwarz, e. h. l. causal geology vo, * schweizer, v. distillation of resins vo, * scott, w. w. qualitative analysis. a laboratory manual vo, * ---- standard methods of chemical analysis vo, * scribner, j. m. engineers' and mechanics' companion mo, leather, scudder, h. electrical conductivity and ionization constants of organic compounds vo, * searle, a. b. modern brickmaking vo, * ---- cement, concrete and bricks vo, * searle, g. m. "sumners' method." condensed and improved. (science series no. .) mo, seaton, a. e. manual of marine engineering vo, seaton, a. e., and rounthwaite, h. m. pocket-book of marine engineering mo, leather, seeligmann, t., torrilhon, g. l., and falconnet, h. india rubber and gutta percha. trans. by j. g. mcintosh vo, * seidell, a. solubilities of inorganic and organic substances vo, seligman, b. aluminum. (metallurgy series.) (_in press._) sellew, w. h. steel rails to, * ---- railway maintenance engineering mo, * senter, g. outlines of physical chemistry mo, * ---- text-book of inorganic chemistry mo, * sever, g. f. electric engineering experiments vo, boards, * sever, g. f., and townsend, f. laboratory and factory tests in electrical engineering vo, * sewall, c. h. wireless telegraphy vo, * ---- lessons in telegraphy mo, * sewell, t. the construction of dynamos vo, * sexton, a. h. fuel and refractory materials mo, * ---- chemistry of the materials of engineering mo, * ---- alloys (non-ferrous) vo, * sexton, a. h., and primrose, j. s. g. the metallurgy of iron and steel. vo, * seymour, a. modern printing inks vo, * shaw, henry s. h. mechanical integrators. (science series no. .) mo, shaw, s. history of the staffordshire potteries vo, ---- chemistry of compounds used in porcelain manufacture vo, * shaw, t. r. driving of machine tools mo, * shaw, w. n. forecasting weather vo, * sheldon, s., and hausmann, e. direct current machines mo, * ---- alternating current machines mo, * sheldon, s., and hausmann, e. electric traction and transmission engineering mo, * ---- physical laboratory experiments, for engineering students vo, * shields, j. e. notes on engineering construction mo, shreve, s. h. strength of bridges and roofs vo, shunk, w. f. the field engineer mo, morocco, simmons, w. h., and appleton, h. a. handbook of soap manufacture, vo, * simmons, w. h., and mitchell, c. a. edible fats and oils vo, * simpson, g. the naval constructor mo, morocco, * simpson, w. foundations vo. (_in press._) sinclair, a. development of the locomotive engine vo, half leather, sindall, r. w. manufacture of paper. (westminster series.) vo, * sindall, r. w., and bacon, w. n. the testing of wood pulp vo, * sloane, t. o'c. elementary electrical calculations mo, * smallwood, j. c. mechanical laboratory methods. (van nostrand's textbooks) mo, leather, * smith, c. a. m. handbook of testing, materials vo, * smith, c. a. m., and warren, a. g. new steam tables vo, * smith, c. f. practical alternating currents and testing vo, * ---- practical testing of dynamos and motors vo, * smith, f. a. railway curves mo, * ---- standard turnouts on american railroads mo, * ---- maintenance of way standards mo, * smith, f. e. handbook of general instruction for mechanics mo, smith, h. g. minerals and the microscope mo, * smith, j. c. manufacture of paint vo, * smith, r. h. principles of machine work mo, ---- advanced machine work mo, * smith, w. chemistry of hat manufacturing mo, * snell, a. t. electric motive power vo, * snow, w. g. pocketbook of steam heating and ventilation. (_in press._) snow, w. g., and nolan, t. ventilation of buildings. (science series no. .) mo, soddy, f. radioactivity vo, * solomon, m. electric lamps. (westminster series.) vo, * somerscales, a. n. mechanics for marine engineers mo, * ---- mechanical and marine engineering science vo, * sothern, j. w. the marine steam turbine vo, * ---- verbal notes and sketches for marine engineers vo, * sothern, j. w., and sothern, r. m. elementary mathematics for marine engineers mo, * ---- simple problems in marine engineering design mo, * southcombe, j. e. chemistry of the oil industries. (outlines of industrial chemistry.) vo, * soxhlet, d. h. dyeing and staining marble. trans. by a. morris and h. robson vo, * spangenburg, l. fatigue of metals. translated by s. h. shreve. (science series no. .) mo, specht, g. j., hardy, a. s., mcmaster, j. b., and walling. topographical surveying. (science series no. .) mo, spencer, a. s. design of steel-framed sheds vo, * speyers, c. l. text-book of physical chemistry vo, * spiegel, l. chemical constitution and physiological action. (trans. by c. luedeking and a. c. boylston.) mo, * sprague, e. h. hydraulics mo, ---- elements of graphic statics vo, ---- stability of masonry mo, ---- elementary mathematics for engineers mo, * stahl, a. w. transmission of power. (science series no. .) mo, stahl, a. w., and woods, a. t. elementary mechanism mo, * staley, c., and pierson, g. s. the separate system of sewerage vo, * standage, h. c. leatherworkers' manual vo, * ---- sealing waxes, wafers, and other adhesives vo, * ---- agglutinants of all kinds for all purposes mo, * stanley, h. practical applied physics (_in press._) stansbie, j. h. iron and steel. (westminster series.) vo, * steadman, f. m. unit photography mo, * stecher, g. e. cork. its origin and industrial uses mo, steinman, d. b. suspension bridges and cantilevers. (science series no. .) ---- melan's steel arches and suspension bridges vo, * stevens, h. p. paper mill chemist mo, * stevens, j. s. theory of measurements mo, * stevenson, j. l. blast-furnace calculations mo, leather, * stewart, g. modern steam traps mo, * stiles, a. tables for field engineers mo, stodola, a. steam turbines. trans. by l. c. loewenstein vo, * stone, h. the timbers of commerce vo, stopes, m. ancient plants vo, * ---- the study of plant life vo, * sudborough, j. j., and james, t. c. practical organic chemistry mo, * suffling, e. r. treatise on the art of glass painting vo, * sullivan, t. v., and underwood, n. testing and valuation of building and engineering materials (_in press._) sur, f. j. s. oil prospecting and extracting vo, * svenson, c. l. handbook on piping (_in press._) swan, k. patents, designs and trade marks. (westminster series.) vo, * swinburne, j., wordingham, c. h., and martin, t. c. electric currents. (science series no. .) mo, swoope, c. w. lessons in practical electricity mo, * tailfer, l. bleaching linen and cotton yarn and fabrics vo, tate, j. s. surcharged and different forms of retaining-walls. (science series no. .) mo, taylor, f. n. small water supplies mo, * ---- masonry in civil engineering vo, * taylor, t. u. surveyor's handbook mo, leather, * ---- backbone of perspective mo, * taylor, w. p. practical cement testing vo, * templeton, w. practical mechanic's workshop companion mo, morocco, tenney, e. h. test methods for steam power plants. (van nostrand's textbooks.) mo, * terry, h. l. india rubber and its manufacture. (westminster series.) vo, * thayer, h. r. structural design. vo. vol. i. elements of structural design * vol. ii. design of simple structures * vol. iii. design of advanced structures (_in preparation._) ---- foundations and masonry (_in preparation._) thiess, j. b., and joy, g. a. toll telephone practice vo, * thom, c., and jones, w. h. telegraphic connections oblong, mo, thomas, c. w. paper-makers' handbook (_in press._) thompson, a. b. oil fields of russia to, * ---- oil field development thompson, s. p. dynamo electric machines. (science series no. .) mo, thompson, w. p. handbook of patent law of all countries mo, thomson, g. modern sanitary engineering mo, * thomson, g. s. milk and cream testing mo, * ---- modern sanitary engineering, house drainage, etc. vo, * thornley, t. cotton combing machines vo, * ---- cotton waste vo, * ---- cotton spinning. vo. first year * second year * third year * thurso, j. w. modern turbine practice vo, * tidy, c. meymott. treatment of sewage. (science series no. .) mo, tillmans, j. water purification and sewage disposal. trans. by hugh s. taylor vo, * tinney, w. h. gold-mining machinery vo, * titherley, a. w. laboratory course of organic chemistry vo, * tizard, h. t. indicators (_in press._) toch, m. chemistry and technology of paints vo, * ---- materials for permanent painting mo, * tod, j., and mcgibbon, w. c. marine engineers' board of trade examinations vo, * todd, j., and whall, w. b. practical seamanship vo, tonge, j. coal. (westminster series.) vo, * townsend, f. alternating current engineering vo, boards, * townsend, j. s. ionization of gases by collision vo, * transactions of the american institute of chemical engineers, vo. eight volumes now ready. vol. i. to ix., - vo, each, traverse tables. (science series no. .) mo, morocco, treiber, e. foundry machinery. trans. by c. salter mo, trinks, w., and housum, c. shaft governors. (science series no. .) mo, trowbridge, w. p. turbine wheels. (science series no. .) mo, tucker, j. h. a manual of sugar analysis vo, tunner, p. a. treatise on roll-turning. trans. by j. b. pearse. vo, text and folio atlas, turnbull, jr., j., and robinson, s. w. a treatise on the compound steam-engine. (science series no. .) mo, turner, h. worsted spinners' handbook mo, * turrill, s. m. elementary course in perspective mo, * twyford, h. b. purchasing vo, * tyrrell, h. g. design and construction of mill buildings vo, * ---- concrete bridges and culverts mo, leather, * ---- artistic bridge design vo, * underhill, c. r. solenoids, electromagnets and electromagnetic windings mo, * underwood, n., and sullivan, t. v. chemistry and technology of printing inks vo, * urquhart, j. w. electro-plating mo, ---- electrotyping mo, usborne, p. o. g. design of simple steel bridges vo, * vacher, f. food inspector's handbook mo, van nostrand's chemical annual. third issue leather, mo, * ---- year book of mechanical engineering data (_in press._) van wagenen, t. f. manual of hydraulic mining mo, vega, baron von. logarithmic tables vo, cloth, half morocco, vincent, c. ammonia and its compounds. trans. by m. j. salter vo, * volk, c. haulage and winding appliances vo, * von georgievics, g. chemical technology of textile fibres. trans. by c. salter vo, * ---- chemistry of dyestuffs. trans. by c. salter vo, * vose, g. l. graphic method for solving certain questions in arithmetic and algebra (science series no. .) mo, vosmaer, a. ozone vo, * wabner, r. ventilation in mines. trans. by c. salter vo, * wade, e. j. secondary batteries vo, * wadmore, t. m. elementary chemical theory mo, * wadsworth, c. primary battery ignition mo, * wagner, e. preserving fruits, vegetables, and meat mo, * wagner, j. b. a treatise on the natural and artificial processes of wood seasoning vo, (_in press._) waldram, p. j. principles of structural mechanics mo, * walker, f. aerial navigation vo, ---- dynamo building. (science series no. .) mo, walker, j. organic chemistry for students of medicine vo, * walker, s. f. steam boilers, engines and turbines vo, ---- refrigeration, heating and ventilation on shipboard mo, * ---- electricity in mining vo, * wallis-tayler, a. j. bearings and lubrication vo, * ---- aerial or wire ropeways vo, * ---- sugar machinery mo, * walsh, j. j. chemistry and physics of mining and mine ventilation, mo, * wanklyn, j. a. water analysis mo, wansbrough, w. d. the a b c of the differential calculus mo, * ---- slide valves mo, * waring, jr., g. e. sanitary conditions. (science series no. .) mo, ---- sewerage and land drainage * ---- modern methods of sewage disposal mo, ---- how to drain a house mo, warnes, a. r. coal tar distillation vo, * warren, f. d. handbook on reinforced concrete mo, * watkins, a. photography. (westminster series.) vo, * watson, e. p. small engines and boilers mo, watt, a. electro-plating and electro-refining of metals vo, * ---- electro-metallurgy mo, ---- the art of soap making vo, ---- leather manufacture vo, * ---- paper-making vo, webb, h. l. guide to the testing of insulated wires and cables mo, webber, w. h. y. town gas. (westminster series.) vo, * weisbach, j. a manual of theoretical mechanics vo, * sheep, * weisbach, j., and herrmann, g. mechanics of air machinery vo, * wells, m. b. steel bridge designing vo, * weston, e. b. loss of head due to friction of water in pipes mo, * wheatley, o. ornamental cement work vo, * whipple, s. an elementary and practical treatise on bridge building vo, white, c. h. methods of metallurgical analysis. (van nostrand's textbooks.) mo, white, g. f. qualitative chemical analysis mo, * white, g. t. toothed gearing mo, * wilcox, r. m. cantilever bridges. (science series no. .) mo, wilda, h. steam turbines. trans. by c. salter mo, ---- cranes and hoists. trans. by c. salter mo, wilkinson, h. d. submarine cable laying and repairing vo, * williamson, j. surveying vo, * williamson, r. s. on the use of the barometer to, ---- practical tables in meteorology and hypsometry to, wilson, f. j., and heilbron, i. m. chemical theory and calculations mo, * wilson, j. f. essentials of electrical engineering vo, wimperis, h. e. internal combustion engine vo, * ---- application of power to road transport mo, * ---- primer of internal combustion engine mo, * winchell, n. h., and a. n. elements of optical mineralogy vo, * winslow, a. stadia surveying. (science series no. .) mo, wisser, lieut. j. p. explosive materials. (science series no. .) mo, wisser, lieut. j. p. modern gun cotton. (science series no. .) mo, wolff, c. e. modern locomotive practice vo, * wood, de v. luminiferous aether. (science series no. ) mo, wood, j. k. chemistry of dyeing. (chemical monographs no. .) mo, * worden, e. c. the nitrocellulose industry. two volumes vo, * ---- technology of cellulose esters. in volumes. vo. vol. viii. cellulose acetate * wren, h. organometallic compounds of zinc and magnesium. (chemical monographs no. .) mo, * wright, a. c. analysis of oils and allied substances vo, * ---- simple method for testing painters' materials vo, * wright, f. w. design of a condensing plant mo, * wright, h. e. handy book for brewers vo, * wright, j. testing, fault finding, etc., for wiremen. (installation manuals series.) mo, * wright, t. w. elements of mechanics vo, * wright, t. w., and hayford, j. f. adjustment of observations vo, * wynne, w. e., and sparagen, w. handbook of engineering mathematics vo, * yoder, j. h., and wharen, g. b. locomotive valves and valve gears vo, * young, j. e. electrical testing for telegraph engineers vo, * zahner, r. transmission of power. (science series no. .) mo, zeidler, j., and lustgarten, j. electric arc lamps vo, * zeuner, a. technical thermodynamics. trans. by j. f. klein. two volumes vo, * zimmer, g. f. mechanical handling and storing of materials to, * zipser, j. textile raw materials. trans. by c. salter vo, * zur nedden, f. engineering workshop machines and processes. trans. by j. a. davenport vo, * d. van nostrand company are prepared to supply, either from their complete stock or at short notice, any technical or scientific book in addition to publishing a very large and varied number of scientific and engineering books, d. van nostrand company have on hand the largest assortment in the united states of such books issued by american and foreign publishers. all inquiries are cheerfully and carefully answered and complete catalogs sent free on request. park place new york transcriber's note obvious typographical errors have been corrected. see the detailed list below. page --typo fixed: changed 'oregan' to 'oregon' page --fixed: changed 'michigian' to 'michigan' page --typo fixed: changed 'resistence' to 'resistance' page --typo fixed: changed 'homus' to 'humus' page --typo fixed: changed 'resistence' to 'resistance' page --typo fixed: changed 'ilicijolia' to 'ilicifolia' page --typo fixed: changed 'novia scota' to 'nova scotia' page --typo fixed: changed 'visable' to 'visible' page --typo fixed: changed 'energed' to 'emerged' page --typo fixed: changed 'absolutley' to 'absolutely' page --typo fixed: changed 'has' to 'had' page --typo fixed: changed 'accomodate' to 'accommodate' page --typo fixed: changed 'hydrodeik' to 'hygrodeik' page --typo fixed: changed 'longitutudinal' to 'longitudinal' page --typo fixed: changed 'accomodate' to 'accommodate' page --typo fixed: changed 'ecomony' to 'economy' page --typo fixed: changed 'minumim' to 'minimum' page --typo fixed: changed 'horizonal' to 'horizontal' page --typo fixed: changed 'arrangment' to 'arrangement' page --typo fixed: changed 'applicances' to 'appliances' page --typo fixed: changed 'specialities' to 'specialties' page --typo fixed: changed 'theary' to 'theory' page --typo fixed: changed 'annual of' to 'annual or' united states department of agriculture =bulletin no. = contribution from the bureau of plant industry wm. a. taylor, chief [illustration: usda crests flanking bulletin banner] washington, d.c. professional paper october , hemp hurds as paper-making material. by lyster h. dewey, _botanist in charge of fiber-plant investigations_, and jason l. merrill, _paper-plant chemist, paper-plant investigations_. =contents.= page. the production and handling of hemp hurds, by lyster h. dewey: what hemp hurds are pith, wood, and fiber character of hurds affected by retting proportion of hurds to fiber and yield per acre hurds available from machine-broken hemp present uses of hemp hurds present supplies of hurds available baling for shipment cost of baling summary the manufacture of paper from hemp hurds, by jason l. merrill: introduction factors justifying an investigation of hemp hurds character of the material character of the tests operations involved in a test description of tests comparison of the tests and commercial practice physical tests of the papers produced conclusions in preparing the report on the manufacture of paper from hemp hurds it became evident that a short discussion of the agricultural aspects of this material should be included in the publication. such an article was prepared, therefore, and the two reports are here presented together. [note.--this bulletin should be useful to all persons who are interested in the economic phases of paper making, especially to print and book paper manufacturers. it also should be of interest to scientific investigators and chemists.] =the production and handling of hemp hurds.= by lyster h. dewey, _botanist in charge of fiber-plant investigations_. =what hemp hurds are.= the woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken into pieces and separated from the fiber in the processes of breaking and scutching, is called hemp hurds. these hurds correspond to shives in flax, but are much coarser and are usually softer in texture. the hemp stalk grown in a broadcast crop for fiber production is from one-eighth to three-eighths of an inch in diameter and from to feet tall. the stalk is hollow, with a cylindrical woody shell, thick near the base, where the stalk is nearly solid, and thinner above, where the hollow is relatively wider. in the process of breaking, the woody cylinder inside of the fiber-bearing bark is broken into pieces one-half of an inch to inches long and usually split into numerous segments. the thicker lower sections are split less than the thin-shelled upper ones, and they are often left quite solid. =pith, wood, and fiber.= the inner surface of the hurds usually bears a layer of pith, consisting of thin-walled cells nearly spherical or angular, but not elongated. they are more or less crushed and torn. they are probably of little value for paper, but they constitute less than per cent of the weight of the hurds. the principal weight and bulk consist of slender elongated woody cells. the outer surface is covered with fine secondary fibers composed of slender elongated cells, tougher than those of the wood but finer and shorter than those of the hemp fiber of commerce. no method has been devised thus far which completely separates from the hurds all of the long fiber. from to per cent of the weight of the hurds consists of hemp fiber, in strands from inches to feet in length. some fragments of the bark, made up of short cubical cells, usually dark in color, cling to the strands of fiber. =character of hurds affected by retting.= nearly all of the hemp in the united states is dew retted. the stalks are spread on the ground in swaths as grain is laid by the cradle. the action of the weather, dew, and rain, aided by bacteria, dissolves and washes out the green coloring matter (chlorophyll) and most of the gums, leaving only the fibrous bark and the wood. the plants in this process lose about per cent of their green weight, or about per cent of their air-dry weight. the stalks are sometimes set up in shocks to cure before retting, and after retting they are set up in shocks to dry. each time the stalks are handled they are chucked down on the ground to keep the butts even. in these operations sand and clay are often driven up into the hollow at the base of the stalks, and this dirt, which often clings tenaciously, may constitute all objectionable feature in the use of hemp hurds for paper stock. in italy and in most localities in russia and austria-hungary where hemp is extensively cultivated, it is retted in water, but water retting has never been practiced in the united states except to a limited extent before the middle of the last century. hurds from water-retted hemp are cleaner and softer than those from dew-retted hemp. the fiber is sometimes broken from dry hemp stalks without retting. the hurds thus produced contain a small percentage of soluble gums, chiefly of the pectose series. comparatively little hemp is prepared in this manner in america. process retting by means of weak solutions of chemicals or oils in hot water is practiced to a limited extent. the hurds from these processes may contain traces of the chemicals or oils and also soluble gums in greater degree than those of the dew-retted or water-retted hemp. =proportion of hurds to fiber and yield per acre.= [illustration: fig. .--hemp-breaking machine. the stalks are fed sidewise in a continuous layer to inches thick, turning out about , pounds of clean fiber per day and five times as much hurds.] the yield of hemp fiber varies from to , pounds per acre, averaging , pounds under favorable conditions. the weight of hurds is about five times that of the fiber, or somewhat greater from hemp grown on peaty soils. a yield of - / tons of hurds per acre may be taken as a fair average. =hurds available from machine-broken hemp.= hemp hurds are available only from hemp which is broken by machines, when the hurds may be collected in quantity in one place (figs. and ). most of the hemp in kentucky is still broken by hand brakes. these small brakes are moved from shock to shock, so that the hurds are scattered all over the field in small piles of less than pounds each, and it is the common practice to set fire to them as soon as the brake is moved. it would be difficult to collect them at a cost which would permit their use for paper stock. where machine brakes are used, the hemp stalks are brought to the machine as grain is brought to a thrashing machine, and the hurds accumulate in large piles, being blown from the machine by wind stackers. machine brakes are used in wisconsin, indiana, ohio, and california, but to only a limited extent in kentucky. five different kinds of machine brakes are now in actual use in this country, and still others are used in europe. all of the best hemp in italy, commanding the highest market price paid for any hemp, is broken by machines. the better machine brakes now in use in this country prepare the fiber better and much more rapidly than the hand brakes, and they will undoubtedly be used in all localities where hemp raising is introduced as a new industry. they may also be used in kentucky when their cost is reduced to more reasonable rates, so that they may compete with the hand brake. hemp-breaking machines are being improved and their use is increasing. the hemp-growing industry can increase in this country only as machine brakes are developed to prepare the fiber. a profitable use for the hurds will add an incentive to the use of the machine brake. [illustration: fig. .--machine brake and hemp hurds. hemp hurds from machine brakes quickly accumulate in large piles.] =present uses of hemp hurds.= hemp hurds are used to a limited extent for barnyard litter and stable bedding, as a substitute for sawdust in packing ice, and, in rare instances, for fuel. they are not regarded as having a commercial value for any of these uses, though they are doubtless worth at least $ per ton on the farm when used for stable bedding. they are a waste product, without value for other purposes which might compete with their use for paper stock. =present supplies of hurds available.= during the last season, , about , acres of hemp have been harvested outside of kentucky and in regions where machine brakes are used. estimating the yield of hurds at - / tons per acre, this should give a total quantity of about , tons. large quantities of hemp from the crop of , which are still unbroken in these areas, and large piles of hurds undisturbed where the machines have been used during the last two or three years, increase the total to more than , tons. hemp is now grown outside of kentucky in the vicinity of mcguffey, east of lima, ohio; around nappanee, elkhart county, and near pierceton, in kosciusko county, ind.; about waupun and brandon, wis.; and at rio vista and stockton, cal. in kentucky, hemp is grown in most of the counties within a radius of miles of lexington. no accurate statistics of the acreage are collected, but the crop harvested in is estimated at , acres. a machine brake will probably be used in bourbon county and also in clark county, but most of the hemp in kentucky will be broken on hand brakes. =baling for shipment.= the hurds will have to be baled to facilitate handling in transportation and to economize storage space at the paper mills. the bales will need to be covered with burlap or some material to keep them from shaking out. they may be baled in the same presses that are used for baling hemp fiber, but care must be exercised to avoid breaking the press, for the hurds are more resistant than hemp fiber. a bale of hemp by by feet weighs about pounds. a bale of hurds of the same size will weigh about one-third less, or approximately six bales per ton. rough hemp fiber as it is shipped from the farm is not covered; therefore, the covering material must be purchased especially for the hurds. a piece of burlap about by inches placed on either side of the bale will be sufficient, but these pieces, weighing about pounds each, cost about cents a pair. baling rope, in addition to jute covering, will cost at least cents per bale, making the total cost of covering and ties $ . or more per ton. possibly chip-board, costing about $ per ton, or not more than cents for the two pieces for each bale, may be used in place of burlap. chip-board, burlap, and also rope ties may all be used for paper stock. burlap covers might be returned, to be used repeatedly until worn out, but chip-board could not be used more than once. =cost of baling.= if burlap covers are used the cost of baling, including covering, ties, use of baling press, power, and labor will amount to at least cents per bale, or about $ . per ton. if chip-board can be used the cost may be reduced to about $ per ton. the cost of hauling and loading on the cars will vary from $ to $ per ton, depending upon the distance and the roads. the farmer must therefore receive from $ to $ per ton for the hurds, baled, on board cars at his home station. =summary.= hemp hurds are the woody inner portion of the hemp stalk, broken into pieces in removing the fiber. they are not used at present for any purpose that would compete with their use for paper. hurds are available only from machine-broken hemp, for the cost of collecting them from the hand brakes would be too great. about , tons are now available in restricted localities in ohio, indiana, wisconsin, and california. the quantity is likely to increase as the use of machine brakes increases. the hurds may be baled in hemp-fiber presses, with partial burlap covers like those on cotton bales, or possibly chip-board covers. it is estimated that the farmers may deliver the bales on board cars profitably at $ to $ per ton. the manufacture of paper from hemp hurds. by jason l. merrill, _paper-plant chemist, paper-plant investigations_. =introduction.= the purpose of this paper is to report upon preliminary tests which were conducted to determine the paper-making value of hemp hurds, a crop waste of the hemp-fiber industry. the search for plant materials capable of being utilized in paper manufacture is a comparatively recent but world-wide activity which has for its object the husbanding of present sources of paper-stock supply by the substitution of new materials for some of those which are rapidly becoming less plentiful and more costly. the abstract idea of utilizing that which is at present a waste can play no important rôle in such activities, the successful commercial outcome of which must be based on the three fundamental factors--market or demand for product, satisfactory raw material, and cost. since hemp hurds are to be treated in this report as a raw material for the manufacture of book and printing papers, the qualities, supply, probable future, and cost of the material will be considered in comparison with wood, with which it must compete. there seems to be little doubt that the present wood supply can not withstand indefinitely the demands placed upon it, and with increased scarcity economy in the use of wood will become imperative. this effect is already apparent in many wood-using industries, and although the paper industry consumes only about per cent of the total forest cut, it is probable that it will be affected through this economy. our forests are being cut three times as fast as they grow, and as wood becomes more expensive proper growing and reforesting will receive more attention. thus, naturally, a balance will be established between production and consumption, but as this condition approaches its limiting values the price of wood may rise to such levels that there will be a demand for other raw materials. the use of waste paper in conjunction with chemical wood pulp has increased to enormous proportions, and it is probable that the increase will continue. although it is a cheaper raw material than wood, it is reasonable to suppose that as the wood supply decreases and the price of wood pulp advances, the price of waste paper will advance somewhat proportionately. in view of these conditions it is advisable to investigate the paper-making value of the more promising plant materials before a critical situation arises. to be of substantial value the investigations should include not only a determination of the quality and quantity of pulp and paper which the material is capable of producing, but should embrace a consideration of such relevant factors as agricultural conditions, farm practice, assembling conditions, transportation, and probable future supply. certain cultivated plants seem particularly promising, because in the harvesting of the regular crop that portion which might be utilized for paper manufacture necessarily is either wholly or partially assembled. to this class of plants belong corn, broom corn, sorghum, sugar cane, bagasse, flax, hemp, and the cereal straws.[ ] [footnote : for descriptions of investigations of some of these crops, see the list of publications at the end of this bulletin.] it is generally conceded that the employment of different raw materials would probably yield products of a somewhat different quality than those now prevailing in the markets, but the qualities of papers and the public demands are so diversified and numerous that this possible objection should not be serious. ten years ago sulphite manufacturers would not accept consignments of spruce logs if they contained over per cent of fir, while to-day many manufacturers tolerate per cent. rope papers are found to contain not only jute, but when this raw material is not plentiful, chemical pulp of various kinds. "linen paper" is often no more than a trade term. not long ago printing papers were made entirely from chemical wood pulp, but to-day if it is desired to secure paper which is free from ground wood the specifications must so stipulate. writing papers, formerly made entirely from rags, now are likely to contain either chemical or even ground-wood pulp unless the specifications prohibit it. without doubt, many paper manufacturers have maintained certain papers up to a fixed standard for a long series of years, but it is equally true that competition has lowered the standard of a great many papers, some of which had acquired a distinctive recognition. the employment of plant fibers will not necessarily lower the present quality of papers, but if their employment does result in products whose qualities are somewhat different from our so-called standard papers it does not necessarily follow that such papers will not find a ready market. =factors justifying an investigation of hemp hurds.= hemp hurds form a crop waste, in that they necessarily are produced in the raising and preparation of hemp fiber, and their present use and value are comparatively insignificant. the assembling of the hurds may be effected with economy, since the area in which hemp is handled with the use of machine brakes is restricted. although it must be stated that the present annual supply would not be sufficient to justify the installation of a pulp mill nor would its transportation to existing mills appear feasible, it is expected that the available annual tonnage, especially in certain general sections, will increase, due to the increased use of the machine brake. the present tonnage per annum is approximately as follows: in the region of ohio and indiana, , tons; in the wisconsin section, , tons; in the california region, , tons. in years of adverse weather conditions there are often large areas of hemp which are not harvested on account of its poor quality; there are also large areas of cut hemp which become overretted, due to inclement weather. it has been suggested by some of the hemp raisers that this large amount of material might be utilized as a paper stock. in these cases the cost of the whole material would probably be somewhat higher than that of the hurds, because either all or part of the cost of harvesting and the total cost of breaking would have to be borne by the paper maker. moreover, the quality of this material would be so very irregular and the supply so uncertain that it probably would not appeal to the paper manufacturer. without doubt, hemp will continue to be one of the staple agricultural crops of the united states. the wholesale destruction of the supply by fire, as frequently happens in the case of wood, is precluded by the very nature of the hemp-raising industry. since only one year's growth can be harvested annually the supply is not endangered by the pernicious practice of overcropping, which has contributed so much to the present high and increasing cost of pulp wood. the permanency of the supply of hemp hurds thus seems assured. the favorable location geographically of the hemp regions in relation to the pulp and paper industry is a factor of considerable importance. the kentucky region is not at present in a position to supply hurds, as machine methods have not been adopted there to any appreciable degree. the ohio and indiana region, which at present has the greatest annual tonnage, with the prospect of an increase, is situated south of the wisconsin and michigan wood-pulp producing region and at a distance from the eastern wood-pulp producing regions; therefore, it is in a favorable position to compete in the large ohio and indiana markets. since, as will be shown, the hurd pulp acts far more like soda poplar stock than sulphite stock, competition would be strongest from the eastern mills; in fact, the hurd stock might very possibly meet with favor as a book-stock furnish in the michigan and wisconsin paper mills, which are within the sulphite fiber-producing region. because of its very close proximity to paper mills, this latter possibility applies with far greater force to the wisconsin hemp region, where a considerable extension of the hemp industry is anticipated. [illustration: fig. .--a representative sample of hemp hurds, natural size, showing hemp fiber and pieces of wood tissue.] =character of the material.= as received from pierceton, ind., the hurds consisted of a mixture of tangled hemp bast fibers and pieces of broken wood of the hemp stalk. (fig. .) no reliable data were secured as to the proportion of bast fiber in the total shipment of tons, although two hand separations of small representative samples gave results averaging per cent. the chemical character of the material was such and the quantity was so small that any appreciable variation of the proportion should not affect materially the treating processes finally adopted, yet its presence in varying proportions undoubtedly would modify to some extent the quality of the resulting paper product. since the length of the ultimate bast fiber averages about mm. and the length of the ultimate hemp wood fiber averages . mm., it is natural to assume that the bast fiber would tend to increase the strength of paper produced from the hurds. (fig. .) [illustration: fig. .--fiber derived from the woody portion of the hurds. × . from a microphotograph.] the broken pieces of wood contained in the hurds varied in length from mere particles which were somewhat finer than sawdust to pieces about - / inches long, exceptional pieces being found which measured inches in length. the majority of the long pieces were between and inches in length. in thickness the pieces ranged from one-eighth of an inch, in case they were derived from the base of the hemp stalks, to about one sixty-fourth of an inch in those pieces which were derived from the top and branches of the stalks. in cross section the pieces often were found to be a quarter or half of the rounded rectangular woody shell of the stalk, although there appeared to be no regularity in this respect. from the pulp-maker's standpoint the great irregularity in thickness, length, and mass of the woody pieces militates decidedly against economy in pulp production. the smaller pieces reduce by chemical treatment sooner than the larger fragments and are thereby overtreated, which results in a lower yield of cellulose fiber and a product composed of undertreated and overtreated fibers, the production and use of which are not satisfactory or economical. it probably would be found more satisfactory, therefore, to screen or sort the hurds and treat the various sizes separately and differently. associated with the hurds was a small quantity of chaff and dirt, composed chiefly of sand, soil, particles of hemp leaves and flowers, and other extraneous matter. the sand and soil were present because of the practice of placing the stalks in shocks in the field, the butts of the stalks being in contact with the soil. it is a simple matter, however, to remove the chaff and dirt by sieving, and this practice was followed in most of the paper tests conducted with this material. =character of the tests.= because of the similarity of hemp hurds to other materials which have been tested by the office of paper-plant investigations, semicommercial tests were conducted in cooperation with a paper manufacturer without preliminary laboratory tests. laboratory pulp and paper tests are regarded only as a preliminary to semicommercial tests and therefore are not employed unless the material in question presents new features which should receive investigation before larger sized tests are undertaken. the advantages of cooperative mill tests are many, among which may be mentioned the counsel and advice of the mill management and employees, the services of specialized and skilled labor, facilities for comparing the processes and the results of tests with commercial processes and results, and the use of commercial or semicommercial types and sizes of machinery. tests conducted in this manner and on this scale are of a different quality than is possible in those conducted in a laboratory, and the results are susceptible of commercial interpretation with a fair degree of reliability. it is found, in general, that the cost of securing such equipment and service for a complete and comprehensive test does not exceed $ , while the installation of an equally satisfactory equipment alone would cost at least $ , and in many cases very much more. tests conducted in this manner constitute a direct demonstration to the manufacturer, and the results obtained are found to carry more weight when presented to other manufacturers for consideration. it is well known that the method of conducting tests necessarily varies with the size of the test. in the matter of yield determination, for example, laboratory tests may be on such a small scale that the weighing and sampling of the resulting cellulose fibers may be conducted by means of chemical laboratory apparatus and analytical balance, while in tests involving a matter of to pounds of material larger and different types of equipment are necessary. when the tests are so increased in size as to employ or pounds, still other types of equipment are necessary for the treatment of the material and for a determination of the yield of fiber. in tests involving tons of material the equipment involves the use of machines. accuracy in degree of control and in results will vary materially with the size of the test. as the size of the test increases, certain factors will vary in a beneficial manner, while others will vary in a detrimental manner, so it is a question for each investigator to decide, after taking all factors into consideration, as to the size of test which will give the most satisfactory results. in work of this nature it is found, on the whole, that better results are obtained in large tests, although the control of the factors and the determination of the yield of fiber are more difficult than in smaller tests. in the tests described in this bulletin, the department of agriculture employed a rotary digester of its own design,[ ] comprising a shell feet inches in length by feet in diameter, capable of holding about pounds of air-dry hurds. it is believed that a test of this size is large enough to give satisfactory results and that the results are susceptible of commercial interpretation, while at the same time they are sufficiently small for complete control and to afford fiber-yield figures which are both accurate and reliable. two such rotary charges gave enough fiber for one complete paper-making test. [footnote : for a description of this rotary digester, see brand, c. j., and merrill, j. l., zacaton as a paper-making material, u. s. dept. agr. bul. , p. , .] =operations involved in a test.= a complete test on hurds comprises seven distinct operations, and the method will be described, operation by operation, in the order in which they were conducted. _sieving._--the hurds for the first test were not sieved to remove sand and dirt, but the resulting paper was so dirty that sieving was practiced in all subsequent tests. the hurds were raked along a horizontal galvanized-iron screen, feet long and feet wide, with - / meshes per linear inch, the screen being agitated by hand from below. various amounts of dirt and chaff could be removed, depending on the degree of action, but it was found that if much more than per cent of the material was removed it consisted chiefly of fine pieces of wood with practically no additional sand or dirt; in most of the tests, therefore, the material was screened so as to remove approximately per cent. it became apparent that a finer screen would probably serve as well and effect a saving of small but good hurds. _cooking._--cooking is the technical term for the operation by which fibrous raw materials are reduced to a residue of cellulose pulp by means of chemical treatment. in these tests about pounds of hurds were charged into the rotary with the addition of a caustic-soda solution, such as is regularly employed in pulp mills and which tested an average of . grams of caustic soda per liter, or . pound per gallon, and averaged per cent causticity. sufficient caustic solution was added to furnish or per cent of actual caustic soda, calculated on the bone-dry weight of hurds in the charge. after closing the rotary head, it was started rotating at the rate of one-half revolution per minute, and in about five minutes steam at pounds per square inch was admitted at such a rate that the charge was heated in one hour to ° c., which is the theoretical equivalent of pounds of steam pressure per square inch. it was found, however, that when the temperature reached ° c. the pressure was usually or pounds instead of pounds, due to air and gases inclosed in the rotary. at this point the rotary was stopped and steam and air relieved until the pressure dropped to pounds, or a solid steam pressure. the temperature was maintained at this point for the number of hours required to reduce the hurds, which was found to be about five, after which the rotary was stopped and steam relieved until the pressure was reduced to zero, when the head was removed and the stock was emptied into a tank underneath, measuring - / by by feet deep, where it was drained and washed. samples of waste soda solution or "black liquor," which were taken from some of the "cooks" for analysis, were drawn while the stock was being thus emptied into the drainer. _determination of yield._--for determining the yield of cellulose fiber the stock in the drain tank was washed with water until free from waste soda solution, when, by means of a vacuum pump communicating with the space between the bottom and the false perforated bottom, the water was sucked from the stock, leaving the fiber with a very uniform moisture content throughout its entire mass and in a condition suitable for removing, sampling, and weighing for a yield determination. tests have shown that it is possible to sample and calculate the yield of bone-dry fiber within . per cent of the actual amount. it has been found that stocks from different materials vary greatly in their ability to mat in the drain tank, thereby enabling a good vacuum to be obtained, some stocks permitting a -inch vacuum to be obtained, while others will not permit more than inches. for this reason the moisture content of the stock will vary from to per cent. _washing and bleaching._--washing and bleaching were performed for the purpose of bleaching the brown-colored cooked stock to a white product, since it was regarded as highly probable that the fiber would be suitable for book-paper manufacture. the colored stock was charged into a -pound beating and washing engine of regular construction and washed about one hour, the cylinder washer being covered with -mesh wire cloth in order to remove fine loose dirt and chemical residues. the washer was then raised, the stock heated by steam to about ° c., and a solution of commercial bleaching powder was added in the quantity judged to be necessary, after which the stock was pumped to a large wooden tank, to remain and bleach over night. if the stock was bleached sufficiently white it was drained and washed from bleach residues, and if not more bleach was added until a good color was obtained. the bleaching powder used was estimated to contain per cent of available chlorin, as this is the commercial practice, and the amount required was calculated to the bone-dry weight of the unbleached stock. more bleach is required for undercooked stock than for stock which is properly cooked or overcooked; therefore, the percentage of bleach required is an indication of the quality of the cooked stock. since bleaching is usually more expensive than cooking, it is desirable to cook to such a degree that the consumption of bleach will be held within certain limits, depending on the raw materials used and the quality of paper to be produced. in these tests it was desirable so to cook the hurds that the consumption of bleach would not be over about per cent of the fiber. _furnishing._--furnishing is the operation of charging the beating engine with the desired kind or kinds of fiber in the proper proportion and amount and the adding of such loading and sizing agents as may be necessary. as shown in the record of results, the furnish in these tests consisted of hurd stock alone and of various proportions of hurds, sulphite fiber, and soda fiber. the percentages to be given in the record of the furnishes refer to the percentage of the total fiber furnish, and this likewise applies to the loading and sizing agents. in case sulphite or soda fiber was used, the commercial product in the dry state was charged into the beating engine and disintegrated, after which the hurd stock was added in the wet condition. _beating._--beating is that operation concerning which the paper makers often say "there is where the paper is really made," and although the statement may not be literally true it contains a great deal of truth. it is the operation whereby the fibers are separated from each other, reduced to the proper lengths, and put in such a physical or chemical condition that they felt properly and form into a satisfactory sheet. it is probable that the quality of the sheet depends more upon the proper beater action than upon any other single operation. the action consists in drawing a water suspension of the fiber between two sets of rather blunt knives, one set being located in the bottom of a circulating trough and the other set on the periphery of a roll revolving just above the former set of knives. it is during this operation that the loading and sizing agents are incorporated and the whole furnish is tinted either to produce a satisfactory white or the desired color. the term "paper making," as used in this publication, means the operation of forming the finished sheet of paper from stock which has been furnished and prepared in the beater. in these tests a -inch fourdrinier machine of regular construction was used, a machine which often is used for the production of paper for filling regular commercial orders. the machine is designed to cause the water suspension of fibers to flow on to a traveling wire cloth, whereby the water drains away. more water is removed by passing the wet sheet through a series of press rolls, after which the sheet is dried on steam-heated drums and passed through polished iron rolls, which impart a finish to the sheet. a jordan refining machine was employed in conjunction with the machine to improve further the quality of the fiber, and a pulp screen was used in order to remove coarse and extraneous materials from the fiber. =description of tests.= the nature of each complete paper test and the dependence of each operation on the others were such that it does not seem advisable to submit the results of the seven tests in tabular form. the numerous cooks, however, which furnished the pulp for the paper tests are presented in table i in all essential detail. table i.--data on cooking hemp hurds. ------+-----------+------------+----------+--------------------+----------- | | | | | | | | | cooking | yield of | caustic |strength of | | | bone-dry | soda used |caustic soda|causticity+--------+-----------+ fiber cook |(percentage| (grams per | of soda | | |(percentage no. |of bone-dry| liter). | solution.| time |temperature|of bone-dry | hurds). | | |(hours).| (°c.) | unsieved | | | | | | hurds). ------+-----------+------------+----------+--------+-----------+----------- | . | | . | | | | | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | [ ] | . | | . | | | | . | | . | | | . | | | . | | | . | | | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | | . | | | . | | | . | | |\_ . | . | | . | | |/ | . | | . | | | . | . | | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | |\_ . | . | | . | | |/ | . | | . | | | . | | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | | . | | | . | . | . | . | | |\_ . | . | . | . | | |/ ------+-----------+------------+----------+--------+-----------+----------- [footnote : stock not used; dirty.] discussion of the various cooks will be given in connection with the descriptions of those paper tests in which the stocks from the cooks were used, since a stock and its cooking condition can be judged adequately only after it has been put through the various processes and into the finished sheet of paper. the first test consisted in making four separate cooks, nos. , , , and , of approximately pounds each, dividing the total stock into two parts and making two separate paper tests. the first test was made primarily in order to learn some of the qualities and characteristics of the stock and to get the machinery equipment adjusted properly. the yield of fiber was not determined in this preliminary test, since the knowledge of it was not essential at this stage of the work. the cooked stock which was emptied into the drainer to be washed free from black liquor was composed largely of whole pieces of hurds, but only slight pressure between the fingers was required to crush the pieces. in the case of wood, this condition ordinarily would indicate undercooking, but might not in the case of hurds. further observation on the action of the cooked stock during subsequent processes was necessary in order to judge of its quality or the suitability of the cooking conditions. the total cooked stock, about pounds, was divided into two portions of and pounds, respectively, and work was continued on them separately. the -pound test, designated as run no. , was put into a -pound washing engine, washed one hour, and given a total light brush of - / hours. the washing removed a great amount of dirt, but the engine did not reduce the hurd stock as much as was desired. after heating the stock in the beater to ° c., it was bleached with bleaching-powder solution, gallons at . pound bleach per gallon, equivalent to . per cent of the fiber. this percentage of bleach is regarded as too high for stock intended for book-paper manufacture, and subsequent cooks therefore were given harder treatment in order to reduce this figure. after draining and washing free from bleach residues, the stock was furnished in the beater with per cent of clay, per cent of resin size, and . per cent of alum, was tinted blue, given one hour's light brush, and pumped to the stock chest. when running it on the paper machine, the jordan refiner seemed to have little effect in reducing shives of undertreated wood, which indicated further the necessity of harder cooking. the furnish acted well on the paper machine at feet per minute, but appeared somewhat too "free" on the wire. the paper produced from this test is of very low quality, due to the improper preparation of the stock, lack of sufficient bleach, the use of too small an amount of blue tinting, and the presence of an excessive amount of dirt, sand, and shives. the excessive amount of dirt and sand suggested the sieving of the hurds before cooking, and this was performed in all subsequent cooks. the finish of the sheet is very poor, due to the fact that the calender stack was composed of very light rolls which did not have a satisfactory surface, yet the stack is known to be able to produce better finishes if the proper stock is employed. run no. was made on the -pound portion of stock from cooks nos. , , , and , and in essentially the same manner as run no. . the stock was washed one hour, but given a brush of three hours, and this brush was harder than in run no. . bleach to the extent of . per cent of the fiber was used, assisted by pint of oil of vitriol, and the resulting color was an improvement over that of run no. . after adding . per cent of clay and sizing with . per cent of resin size, the furnish was given one-half hour's light brush, tinted, and run on the machine, which was set at feet per minute. this stock acted better on the wire and gave no trouble on the machine, but it still seemed to be impossible to reduce the wood shives by manipulation of the jordan refiner. the resulting sheet is an improvement over that produced by no. , but is far from satisfactory. run no. was made from hurds which, as in all subsequent tests, were sieved on a - / -mesh wire screen until practically all the loose dirt and sand was removed, which operation caused a loss averaging per cent of the hurds. stock from cooks nos. and was used for this run and the increased amount of caustic soda and the increase in the time of cooking gave a stock of better appearance than those of preceding tests. the stock, amounting to pounds dry weight, was washed and at the same time given a light brush for one hour only, after which it was bleached with per cent of bleach without the addition of acid. since the preceding paper appeared somewhat weak and had a low tearing quality, it was decided to use a furnish of . per cent bleached sulphite and . per cent bleached hemp-hurd stock. after loading with . per cent of clay and sizing with . per cent of resin size, the furnish was given a medium brush for one hour, tinted, and run on to the machine at feet per minute. the stock gave no trouble on the machine, but it was impossible to judge the effect of the jordan refiner, because through an oversight the machine chest had not been cleaned since previous use on an unbleached yucca material. it is believed, however, that sheet no. shows improvement in the preparation of the hurd pulp. run no. was made from stock of cooks nos. and , in which still more caustic soda was employed and the time and temperature of cooking were increased, giving a yield of total fiber of . per cent of the sieved or . per cent of the unsieved hurds. the cooked stock still seemed to be undertreated, but it must be remembered that in working with any new raw material it is impossible to know in advance how the properly treated material should appear. a washing of one hour was given while the roll was lowered from a light to a medium brush, after which the stock was bleached with . per cent of bleach without the aid of acid. since sulphite stock improved the previous paper, this bleached stock was used in a furnish of . per cent sulphite and . per cent hurds, loaded with . per cent clay, sized with . per cent resin size, given a medium brush of two hours, tinted, and run on to the machine at feet per minute. the jordan refiner seemed to have little effect in reducing shives and was therefore left "just off." no trouble was experienced with the stock on the machine, and the sheet is an improvement over previous samples. run no. was made from cooks nos. and , in which more caustic soda was employed than in any previous cooks and at a higher concentration, the fiber yields of which averaged . per cent of the unsieved hurds. not much improvement was apparent in the cooked stock, in spite of the increased severity of cooking. the stock was washed and given a medium brush for one hour, bleached with . per cent of bleach, assisted with one-half pint of oil of vitriol, and made into a furnish of . per cent sulphite and . per cent of the hurd stock. after loading with . per cent of clay and sizing with . per cent of resin size, the furnish was given two hours' medium brush, tinted, and run on to the paper machine at feet per minute. again the jordan refiner did not seem to reduce the wood shives sufficiently, and it was left "just off." no trouble which could be attributed to the stock was experienced on the paper machine. the color of the resulting paper is due to the use of too little blue in tinting and probably in some measure to the use of too low a percentage of bleach. run no. was made from the stock of cooks nos. and in practically the same manner as run no. . the stock was washed and brushed one hour, bleached (the record of the amount of bleach was lost), made into a furnish of . per cent of sulphite and . per cent of hurd stock, loaded with . per cent of clay, sized with . per cent of resin size, given one hour at a medium brush, tinted, and run on to the machine. the jordan refiner was able to reduce the wood shives to a somewhat greater degree than in previous runs and was held at a medium brush. the stock acted well on the machine and produced a sheet of better quality than any preceding, with the exception of the color, which was due to using too small a quantity of blue. among the cooks made for run no. are nos. and , in which the concentration of the caustic soda was raised to and grams per liter and the percentage employed was also increased. in spite of these increases the stock from these two cooks did not show any appreciable improvement when dumped from the rotary. stock from cooks nos. , , and was given a medium brush and washing of one hour, bleached with . per cent of bleach, made into a furnish consisting of . per cent of sulphite and . per cent of hurd stock, loaded with . per cent of clay, sized with . per cent of resin size, given a medium brush for one hour, tinted, and pumped to the stock chest. stock from cooks nos. and was treated in exactly the same manner, except that . per cent of bleach was used. it was pumped to the stock chest and mixed with the furnished stock from cooks nos. , , and . a medium jordan brush was given the stock and it acted well on the paper machine, which was speeded to feet per minute. there seems to be a tendency in the hurd stock to crush a little at the "dandy roll," and although the marks are not removed by the calender stack which was employed in those tests it was found that one "nip" on the supercalenders renders them practically imperceptible and it is believed that the proper size and weight of calender stack would entirely remove these marks. all of the papers produced up to this point are somewhat lacking in the bulk desired in a book paper; therefore, in the two following runs soda-poplar stock was included in the furnishes. in run no. stock from cooks nos. and was given a medium brush and washing for one hour and was medium brushed for one hour more, bleached with . per cent of bleach assisted with one-half pint of oil of vitriol, made into a furnish of . per cent of sulphite, . per cent of soda poplar, and . per cent of hurd stock, loaded with per cent of clay, sized with . per cent of resin size, given a hard brush for one hour, tinted very strongly, and pumped to the stock chest. this stock was beaten to a greater extent than in previous runs. the stock was run on the paper machine at a speed of feet per minute, using a medium jordan brush, and no trouble whatsoever was experienced. not over pounds of "broke" was produced during the whole run, and that was in the "threading" of the machine. the color of the sheet is entirely satisfactory for many uses. the wood shives apparently were reduced to a satisfactory degree. experienced paper makers commented very favorably on the running of this furnish and the quality of the paper produced. run no. was intended as a duplicate of run no. . stock from cooks nos. and was given a medium brush and washing for one hour and a further medium brush of one hour, bleached with . per cent of bleach, and made into a furnish composed of . per cent of sulphite, . per cent of soda poplar, and per cent of hurd stock, loaded with . per cent of clay, sized with . per cent of resin size, hard brushed for one hour, tinted by the expert colorer of the company, and pumped to the stock chest. stock from cooks nos. and was treated in exactly the same manner except that the stock was bleached with . per cent of bleach and pumped to the stock chest to mix with the former furnish. the stock acted very well on the machine, which was speeded to feet per minute, with the jordan refiner set at a medium brush. the sheet is as good, if not better, than that of run no. , and it is also a good illustration of the extent to which proper tinting will enhance the general appearance of a paper. the poor appearance of the samples of previous runs is due largely to lack of proper tinting. various degrees of whiteness, however, are demanded by the trade. =comparison of the tests and commercial practice.= in work of this nature and on this scale it is practically impossible to arrive at a cost figure which would be susceptible of commercial interpretation, and in this preliminary publication nothing will be attempted beyond a comparison of the process used with the hurds with that process commercially applied to poplar wood. the process last used with the hurds should not be regarded as final, satisfactory, or most suitable, as it has been shown that progress was being made up to the conclusion of the work. in comparing the method of using hurds with the method of handling poplar wood, a difference is apparent on the delivery of raw material at the mill. ordinarily, poplar is received at the mill in the form of logs about feet in length, which may be stored in piles in the open. hurds very likely would be received baled, and it would seem advisable to store them under cover for the following reasons: (_a_) baled hurds would probably absorb and retain more water during wet weather than logs of wood, thereby causing excessive dilution of the caustic liquor; (_b_) prolonged excessive dampness might create heating and deterioration unless the hemp were properly retted; (_c_) wet hurds could not be sieved free from sand and chaff. should further work show that the first two reasons need not be taken into consideration, the third objection might be overcome by sieving the hurds before baling. even then, it is probable that baled hurds stored in the open would accumulate and retain considerable dirt from factory chimneys, locomotives, and wind. checked pulp wood exposed in the open invariably suffers from these causes. in the preparation of the raw material for the digesters there is likewise considerable difference between hurds and poplar wood. the former apparently requires only a moderate sieving to remove sand and chaff, which operation doubtless would require only a small amount of labor and the installation of some simple machinery of low power consumption. in preparing poplar for digestion, the -foot logs are chipped by a heavy, comparatively expensive chipper of high power consumption, after which the chips are sorted by sieving, the large pieces being rechipped. there would be a noteworthy difference in the installation, operating, and depreciation costs of the two equipments, and this difference would counterbalance to a considerable extent the difference in cost of raw material storage. it is possible that in the use of the chip loft more care would have to be exercised in using hurds because of the tendency of the bast fiber to cause lodgments, but this should not be considered a serious difficulty. the weight of hurds which are capable of being charged into a rotary is a decidedly unfavorable factor. the weight of a cubic foot of hurds varies somewhat with the proportion of bast fiber, but averages about . pounds, which, compared with a cubic foot of poplar chips at . pounds, represents a digester charge of . per cent of the weight of a poplar-wood charge, or, in terms of fiber capacity, the hurds charge would yield . per cent as much fiber as the wood charge. the hurds upon being baled for transportation may be broken and crushed to such a degree that the weight of the charge may be increased, and it might be found possible to increase the charge weight by steaming or by the employment of tamping devices. this small weight of charge constitutes one of the most serious objections to the use of hurds in paper manufacture. in those tests in which the most satisfactory results were obtained, the cooking conditions were . per cent of caustic soda at a concentration of grams per liter and a causticity of . per cent acting at a temperature of ° c. for five hours, or a total time of seven hours. the steam condensation in the rotary used for these tests was abnormally high, due to the fact that the steam supply pipe was uncovered for a considerable distance and the rotary was entirely uncovered. it is believed, therefore, that a larger amount of caustic was necessary than would otherwise have been the case. this belief is strengthened by the quality of the waste liquor from one of the later cooks, which gave on analysis . grams per liter of free caustic soda and showed a causticity of . per cent. these data show that only . per cent of the total caustic employed was actually consumed in the cooking operation, which percentage is lower than obtains in practice. the stock from this cook was bleached with . per cent of bleach. but even as the figures stand, the comparison with poplar cooking practice is as follows: . per cent caustic soda used as against to per cent; grams per liter as against to ; per cent causticity is little different than obtains in practice; ° c. is about commercial practice; five hours at pressure as against four to six hours; seven hours' total time as against possibly six to eight hours; . per cent bleach as against to per cent. thus, it is evident that the cooking conditions employed were slightly more severe and expensive than those in commercial use with poplar wood. the yield of total fiber obtained from the hurds may be placed at per cent of bone-dry fiber calculated on the bone-dry weight of hurds used, or . per cent of air-dry fiber calculated on air-dry hurds. the yield of bleached fiber was not determined in this preliminary work, but may be safely estimated as per cent, which is low when compared with a yield of about per cent of bone-dry bleached fiber from bone-dry poplar wood. it is believed quite possible that satisfactory cooking conditions may be found which will give a higher yield than was obtained during these tests. the stock should be classed as easy bleaching, and . per cent of bleach is a satisfactory figure, although a little high. as to beating cost, in the last two and most satisfactory tests the total washing and beating time was three hours, which may be about an hour more than ordinarily is used in making papers of this grade, although the practice varies to a considerable extent. in regard to furnish, there is such a diversity of practice that it is difficult to make a comparison, but if the hurd stock can be produced as cheaply as soda-poplar stock, the furnish used in these last two tests should be regarded as satisfactory to the book and printing paper manufacturer. the finish of the paper was not all that might be desired, but that was due almost entirely to the calender stack available for the work, which was composed of nine light rolls, many of which were about inches in diameter and which had not been reground for some time. from a small test on a large calender stack it was readily shown that the paper produced is capable of taking a satisfactory finish. this comparison, satisfactory in many respects, develops two factors which are decidedly unfavorable to hemp hurds, namely, raw-material storage and digester capacity, and they must be taken into full account in considering the paper-making value of this material, although it should be recognized that investigation may result in the material improvement of these conditions. moreover, it is not at all improbable that further investigation would develop more satisfactory treating conditions and more suitable furnish compositions, and the belief in this possibility is strengthened by the fact that material progress was being made at the conclusion of this preliminary work. calculations on the raw material and acreage for a permanent supply for a pulp mill producing tons of fiber a day for days per annum, or , tons per annum, give the comparison between hurds and wood shown in table ii. table ii.--_comparison between wood and hemp hurds._ -----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+-------------------- | | | | acres required for | | | | sustained supply. | | | |---------+---------- | | raw material | annual | | material. | pulp yield. | required per | growth | for | for ton | | year. | per acre. | -ton | of fiber | | | | mill. | per year. -----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+---------+---------- wood | two cords | , cords | . cord | , | . | yield ton | | (about | | | of fiber. | | . ton).| | | | | | | hemp hurds | one ton | , tons | . tons | , | . | yields | | | | | pounds | | | | | of fiber. | | | | -----------+-------------+--------------+-----------+---------+---------- the most important point derived from this calculation is in regard to areas required for a sustained supply, which are in the ratio of to . every tract of , acres which is devoted to hemp raising year by year is equivalent to a sustained pulp-producing capacity of , acres of average pulp-wood lands. in other words, in order to secure additional raw material for the production of tons of fiber per day there exists the possibility of utilizing the agricultural waste already produced on , acres of hemp lands instead of securing, holding, reforesting, and protecting , acres of pulp-wood land. the annual growth per acre, although decidedly in favor of hurds, has little bearing on the project, because the utilization of the hurds is subordinate to the raising of hemp, and the paper manufacturer probably could afford to use only hurds resulting from the hemp industry. =physical tests of the papers produced.= samples of paper produced in the seven tests were submitted to the leather and paper laboratory of the bureau of chemistry. the report of that bureau on its tests is given in table iii. table iii.--_report of the leather and paper laboratory of the bureau of chemistry on papers manufactured from hemp hurds._ -----------+-----+------+-------------------+----------+ | | | weight of | | laboratory | run | | sheets. |thickness,| no. | no. | ash. +---------+---------+ / . | | | | | | | | | | by .| by .| | | | | | | | -----------+-----+------+---------+---------+----------+ | |_per | | | | | | ct._ |_pounds._|_pounds._| | | | . | | - / | | | | . | | - / | | | | . | - / | | | | | . | | - / | | | | . | | | |[transcriber's | | . | | | | note: table iii | | . | | | | continues below] -----------+-----+------+---------+---------+----------+ -----------+--------------------------+----------+------------------------- | strength (mullen). | | folding endurance. laboratory | | strength | no. +--------+--------+--------+ factor +-------------+----------- | | | |( by ,| | |average.|maximum.|minimum.| ). |longitudinal.|transverse. | | | | | | -----------+--------+--------+--------+----------+-------------+----------- | | | | | | | | | | | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | | . | . | . | . | | -----------+--------+--------+--------+----------+-------------+----------- there is no system of numerically recording the general appearance and "look through" of a paper, but it can be stated that only papers nos. and are satisfactory in these respects, the other samples being more or less thickly specked with shives. the general character and tests of these papers correspond very closely with no. machine-finish printing paper, according to the specifications of the united states government printing office, which call for a sheet not exceeding . inch in thickness, strength not less than points, free from unbleached or ground wood pulp, and ash not over per cent. the strength factor of such papers is about . . the ash should not be over per cent for this grade of paper, but in spite of the larger amount used the physical tests are sufficiently high. it is to be noted that the physical tests of samples nos. to , inclusive, are higher than in nos. and , in which per cent of soda poplar was used, which shows clearly that hemp-hurd stock imparts strength and folding endurance to a greater extent than does soda-poplar stock. from these preliminary tests it would be concluded, therefore, that hemp-hurd stock acts similarly to soda-poplar stock, but will produce a somewhat harsher and stronger sheet and one of higher folding endurance. undoubtedly, there is more dirt in the samples than would be tolerated by the trade, but this was to be expected, since in this preliminary work the raw material was sieved by hand screens instead of by automatic machines which would sieve more thoroughly. =conclusions.= there appears to be little doubt that under the present system of forest use and consumption the present supply can not withstand the demands placed upon it. by the time improved methods of forestry have established an equilibrium between production and consumption, the price of pulp wood may be such that a knowledge of other available raw materials may be imperative. semicommercial paper-making tests were conducted, therefore, on hemp hurds, in cooperation with a paper manufacturer. after several trials, under conditions of treatment and manufacture which are regarded as favorable in comparison with those used with pulp wood, paper was produced which received very favorable comment both from investigators and from the trade and which according to official tests would be classed as a no. machine-finish printing paper. british manufacturing industries. edited by g. phillips bevan, f.g.s. pottery, by l. arnoux, art director and superintendent of minton's factory. glass and silicates, by professor barff, m.a. furniture and woodwork, by j. h. pollen, m.a., south kensington museum. _second edition._ london: edward stanford, , charing cross. . transcriber's note: printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation and hyphenation have been retained. in the text mn.o_ , the underline (_) is used to indicate that the is printed as subscript. preface. the object of this series is to bring into one focus the leading features and present position of the most important industries of the kingdom, so as to enable the general reader to comprehend the enormous development that has taken place within the last twenty or thirty years. it is evident that the great increase in education throughout the country has tended largely to foster a simultaneous interest in technical knowledge, as evinced by the spread of art and science schools, trade museums, international exhibitions, &c.; and this fact is borne out by a perusal of the daily papers, in which the prominence given to every improvement in trade or machinery attests the desire of the reading public to know more about these matters. here, however, the difficulty commences, for the only means of acquiring this information are from handbooks to the various manufactures (which are usually too minute in detail for general instruction), from trade journals and the reports of scientific societies; and to obtain and systematize these scattered details is a labour and a tax upon time and patience which comparatively few persons care to surmount. in these volumes all these facts are gathered together and presented in as readable a form as is compatible with accuracy and a freedom from superficiality; and though they do not lay claim to being a technical guide to each industry, the names of the contributors are a sufficient guarantee that they are a reliable and standard work of reference. great stress is laid on the progressive developments of the manufactures, and the various applications to them of the collateral arts and sciences; the history of each is truly given, while present processes and recent inventions are succinctly described. british manufacturing industries. pottery. by l. arnoux, art director and superintendent of minton's factory. without entering into an elaborate dissertation on the antiquity of the art of pottery, which would be out of place in so short an article as this, i will briefly state that the practice of making vessels from plastic clays, for holding liquids and provisions, first resulted from the exertions made by man to emerge from his primary condition. it is a well known fact that vessels of clay, only partially baked, have been found, together with stone implements belonging to prehistoric times, and that those vessels, unfinished as they were, had peculiar characteristics. but supposing that this was not so, it must strike everybody that, after providing himself with those rude instruments wherewith to obtain his food and protect his life, man must have taken advantage of his power of observation to notice the property of plastic clay to retain water, and to find out to what useful purpose it might be brought for making vessels better suited to his wants, than the skins of animals or pieces of wood roughly hollowed out. if not probable, it is however not impossible, that the first man, taking in his hand a lump of soft clay, should have tried to give it a defined shape, in which case the art of pottery would be as ancient as the human race. it may have been anterior to the use of fire, for a sound and useful pottery may be made with clay hardened in the sun, as still practised in egypt and india. at all events, it existed previous to the working of the first metal, as one can hardly understand how bronze could have been melted, without the assistance of vessels made of fired clay carefully selected. consequently it is admitted by everybody, that this is one of the earliest of human inventions, and that the material has proved most durable. this durability, secured by the application of heat, is a very remarkable phenomenon; for while many other materials, apparently very hard, have been found unable to stand the atmospheric changes or the continuous contact with a damp soil, it was sufficient to submit this one to a very moderate heat, to be enabled to resist these various agencies for several thousands of years. this is particularly noticeable in the black greek pottery, which, while possessing all its former appearance, can, however, be scratched by the nail or broken by a gentle pressure between the fingers. it is thus that we are indebted to the art of pottery for innumerable works of art, many of which have proved most useful in elucidating historical facts, and making us acquainted with the habits, dresses, and ceremonies of ancient peoples. one can understand how difficult it is to decide who were the earliest potters. it is a question that archæologists have often tried to answer, but which is not likely to be ever solved. pottery was created to meet a special want of the human race, and we find early pottery existing in almost every part of the world, in unknown america, as well as in europe or asia. it is, however, easier to decide which people first excelled in it, and in this respect we must give equal credit to the egyptians and the chinese. it is mentioned in sacred history that more than years b.c. the egyptian potters were celebrated for their skill, and if we can believe chinese tradition, the manufacturers in china were at this same time under the control of a superintendent appointed by the government. unfortunately, we have very little information respecting the history of the art in china, previous to the sixteenth century; and although we have a notion of what they did and how they did it, it is wiser, with our imperfect knowledge, to abstain from speculating as to when the different sorts of chinese ware were produced. but as regards the egyptians, there is no uncertainty; some of their ceramic relics bear their own inscriptions, and others have been found associated with objects or monuments whose dates have been carefully ascertained. we may well believe in their skill, when we know that they were acquainted with the most difficult processes for making the bodies and glazes, and that they used the same metallic oxides for colouring their ornaments that we are now using, though often, let us acknowledge, with less success. during a period of at least eleven hundred years, from the eighteenth to the twenty-fourth dynasty, they displayed considerable ingenuity in the production of small figures, jewellery ornaments, and hieroglyphic tablets, in which several sorts of pottery mixtures and differently coloured glazes were most cleverly associated. it is from egypt that sound principles of pottery making seem to have spread to the different nations; first to the phoenicians, who in their turn became famous for their knowledge in the art of vitrifying mineral substances; and then to the assyrians, who seem to have applied pottery more specially to the ornamentation of their buildings. greece, who shortly after received her first notions of art from the two former nations, did not devote her energies so much to improvement of material and richness of colour, as to the refined beauty of the shape and the excellence of the painting. in pottery, the material is of little value, and it is only by the art displayed in shaping and decorating it, that its price can be increased. in this respect the greeks proved to what enormous value it could be raised, by making it the groundwork of their art, since sums equivalent to several thousand pounds of our money were readily paid by roman patricians for a single corinthian vase. in this, as in the other branches of art, the recognized taste of the greeks will never be surpassed; and if at the present time little attention is paid by collectors to their ceramic productions, it is probably owing as much to the versatility of our tastes and fancies, as to our inability of showing the articles to their advantage. the greeks seem to have monopolized the ceramic production of these fine works for seven or eight centuries at the least; for although vessels of the same description were largely produced in italy, it was invariably by the greeks, following closely the traditions and mode of decorations of their own country. it was only about a century b.c. that the romans began to create a pottery on which they impressed their stamp, a pottery really their own; i mean that which is so improperly called samian, and so easily known by its reddish colour and the embossed ornaments by which it is profusely covered. it is, however, genuine and characteristic, neatly executed, and possessing some standing qualities which did not belong to the greek. on the other hand, the refinement is deficient; the forms are derived from the circle instead of the ellipse; the plain surfaces are replaced by embossments, and the painting is absent. for four centuries, the romans seem to have made this class of pottery in several of their european settlements, chiefly in italy and in the provinces adjoining the rhine. in the operation they seem to have required some special material, which imparted to its bright red surface a semi-shining lustre or glaze, and which has proved remarkably durable. after this, the art of pottery experienced a time of darkness, when all the refined processes seem to have been neglected, and primitive vessels, like those produced by the saxons, gauls, and celts, ranked amongst the best examples. the decorations, if any, are rudimentary; not only is the painting reduced in a few instances to some lines or spots made of a different clay, but even the embossed ornaments are replaced by lumps of clay or impressed lines in a kind of geometrical disposition. art was not quite dead, but it scarcely breathed. however, these specimens are not altogether uninteresting, for they were the first efforts of our forefathers, and there is always a certain pleasure in witnessing the feeblest attempts made in the research of art. but the time came when pottery was to accomplish another revolution, no less remarkable than the first. strangely enough, it was again from the east, in nearly the same province in which it originally took its rise, that it was revived, and it is not unlikely that some faint tradition of the old processes was the source whence sprung the new ceramic era, which was to extend to our own time. the precise date of this revival is not positively ascertained; but it was probably contemporary with the establishment of islamism amongst the arabs. the energy displayed by this people in improving and adapting the different fabrics to the requirements of their new religion, was no doubt beneficial to the art of pottery, and with their fanaticism and spirit of proselytism, they carried their new ideas to every country which they conquered. syria became a great industrial centre, and some of its towns, such as damascus, were soon famous for the perfection of their wares. to reach europe, however, this new movement did not take its course through greece and italy, as in the first instance; it was through egypt and the north of africa that, at the beginning of the eighth century, it made its way to spain, where it became firmly established. as regards pottery, nowhere were better specimens produced than in the towns of malaga, grenada, cordova, and others, going northwards as far as valencia and toledo. the newest feature of the arabian or saracenic pottery (called hispano-moresco ware, when made in spain) was the introduction of the oxide of tin in the glaze, to render it opaque. previous to this innovation, when white was required for a design executed on a clay which did not take that colour in firing, these parts had to be covered with a silicious mixture, and subsequently coated over with a transparent glaze. this was the assyrian and persian process. to find a white opaque enamel, which could be applied direct on a coloured clay and adhere firmly to it, was a great discovery. everyone now knows how successfully these people used pottery for the ornamentation of their buildings, and how ingeniously they mixed transparent and opaque enamels to obtain an unprecedented harmony of effect. not only did they use this tin enamel in parts, but also all over the ware, making it more or less opaque as they wished; and this was the origin of the pottery called _majolica_, which, according to tradition, was imported from majorca to italy, at the beginning of the fifteenth century, and for the introduction of which credit is given to lucca della robia. _terra in-vitriata_ was the first name given by this sculptor to his works, when they were coated with this opaque mixture. there was at that time such an earnest desire to find suitable materials for art decorations, that the new enamels soon ceased to be exclusively applied to architectural purposes. under the beneficial influence of the revival of taste for ancient art, and the encouragements with which it met from the princes at that time ruling the italian republics, majolica attained its beauty, though its external appearance reminded us but little of its spanish or oriental origin. during the course of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the most famous in the history of modern art, the influence of the great painters of that period was soon felt by those whom we may call the artists of pottery, for the name of potters could hardly do them justice; and several of them applied their talents to the reproduction, on that ware, of their most celebrated paintings. it was reported that perugino, michael angelo, raphael, and many others painted majolica ware, probably on account of their cartoons being often reproduced; and it is sufficient to say that such talented men as francisco xanto da rovigo, orazia fontana, and georgio andreoli, devoted their energies to the improvement of this branch of art. most of the italian towns had their manufactory, each of them possessing a style of its own. beginning at caffagiolo and deruta, they extended rapidly to gubbio, ferrara, and ravenna, to be continued to casteldurante, rimini, urbino, florence, venice, and many other places. after the sixteenth century, majolica soon degenerated in appearance and quality, the producers being more anxious to supply the market, than to devote to their ware the care and attention bestowed on it by their predecessors. in increasing the quantity of tin in their enamel, to make it look more like porcelain, they impoverished their colours, and this alteration, however prejudicial to majolica, assisted greatly in the new transformation which it was subsequently to undergo. it was under the name of faïence that it continued to be known, and france and holland became the principal centres of its manufacture. at nevers, it still resembled slightly the italian ware, though at delft, in holland, it was principally made to imitate the blue and white ware of the chinese, in which attempt the makers were often remarkably successful. at rouen, the blue ornamentation was relieved with touches of red, green, and yellow; at moustiers, the monochrome designs were light and uncommonly elegant; at paris, marseilles, and many other places, the flower decoration of the old sèvres and dresden ware was imitated with a freedom of touch and a freshness of colour which is really charming. this pottery, which was a great favourite in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, declined rapidly soon after our present earthenware made its appearance; the chief inducement for the change, on the part of the manufacturers, being the excessive price of tin, which is the principal ingredient of enamel. except in the provinces contiguous to france, germany was never a producer of majolica. it created, however, a pottery entirely of its own, full of originality in its general appearance, and which, by the peculiarity of the process, was really a very distinct type. i am alluding to the flemish and german stoneware. there is a tradition, that the first pieces were made in holland at the very beginning of the fifteenth century. the principal centre of its production was, however, in germany, at nuremberg, ratisbon, bayreuth, mansfeld, and other places; but the best were made in the neighbourhood of the lower rhine, where the clays most fitted for that class of pottery were easily to be found. here we find, for the first time in europe, the body of the ware partly vitrified by the high temperature to which it was submitted, and also the remarkable peculiarity, that it was glazed by the volatilization of common salt, thrown into the oven when the temperature had reached its climax. the combination of these two processes had never been effected before, and it would be difficult on that account to find any connection between stoneware and some of the egyptian potteries. this stoneware varied in colour: some were almost white, some brown, others of a light grey, the last being the most valuable when the effect was increased by blue or purple grounds, harmonizing admirably with the foundation colour of the ware. the shapes are generally elaborate, with a great many mouldings, enriched with embossed ornaments in good taste, some of which were designed by no less an artist than t. hopfer. the decline of this stoneware began with the seventeenth century, and from that time to the present, this material was only used for wares of the commonest kind. it is only very lately, that it was revived successfully by messrs. doulton and co., of lambeth. france, which had not as yet any ideas about the process for imitating the italian majolica, created towards the same time two new sorts of pottery, one of which is the palissy ware, the other the faïence d'oiron. palissy, a very inquisitive and intelligent man, is said to have been possessed by a strong desire to reproduce some italian ware, which he had the opportunity of seeing; whether it was a piece of majolica or of graffito, is not known. left to his own resources--for there was nobody to instruct him--he succeeded by perseverance and industry in finding out the process for making the different coloured glazes that the moors had used long before him. there was no discovery in this, but the talent which he displayed in the mixing and blending of these vitreous colours, combined with the incontestable originality of his compositions, have made this ware very difficult to imitate. the time of its production was limited to the life of palissy, for there is not really a single good piece which can be traced to his successors. in the faïence d'oiron, incorrectly called henri deux ware, we find a real cream-coloured earthenware taking precedence of two hundred years over our own. it was made between the years and , and we have now every proof that three persons co-operated in this invention: heléne de hangest, who had been formerly entrusted by françois i. with the education of his son, afterwards henry ii.; her potter at oiron, named françois charpentier; and her secretary jehan bernart. the charming pieces resulting from the combination of these three intellects were few, and only intended to be offered as presents to the friends of the noble lady at court. this sufficiently explains the monograms and devices, which are found associated with the elaborate ornaments profusely spread over their surface. no ware was ever made before or after this, which required more care and delicate manipulation, and this explains why the highest prices paid in our generation for an article of pottery have been freely given for several of these curiosities. their principal feature consists in inlaying differently coloured clays one into the other, a process not quite new, as it had been extensively used in mediæval times for making encaustic tiles for the flooring of our churches, but they were so minutely and neatly executed, and the designs so well distributed, that they are justly considered as marvels of workmanship. in speaking of these faïences d'oiron, we can hardly admire sufficiently the variety in the productions of this period of the renaissance; and if we select four of these specimens, such as a piece of faenza ware, one of stoneware, one of palissy, and another of oiron, they may fairly stand as good illustrations of the ingenuity of man. the progress realized in these times seems to have undergone a sort of lull, and if we accept the french and delft faïences, which were a transformation of majolica, we find that the greatest portion of the seventeenth century was not marked by any new discovery or decided improvement. towards its close, however, we begin to notice in germany and the western countries of europe several attempts at making a ware, possessing the three standard qualities of whiteness, hardness, and transparency of the chinese, and these were the precursors of the great movement which occupied the whole of the eighteenth century. as might be expected, inquiries made in different countries by persons unacquainted with each other, brought different results; and if they failed in so much, that a porcelain identical to the oriental was not reproduced, all of them succeeded in making a white ware of their own, adapted to the materials which they had at their disposal. and thus arose in each country the source of a prosperous trade. it is only at that period, that england began to take her position amongst the producers of pottery, at least in a manner deserving of that name. up to that time, if we were to judge by the quality of her work, she did not seem fitted for it, no more than for any sort of manufacture which required taste or a certain knowledge of the arts of design. in fact, it is easy to notice in looking at our collections of art manufactures, that the english samples are deficient in many respects; they may be gaudy without harmony of colour, or elaborate without refinement, exhibiting a certain amount of roughness in execution, when placed side by side with italian, french, or german specimens of the same class. it is likely, with certain exceptions, that the anglo-saxon race did not feel much the want of all those niceties, and did not make great exertion to excel in the practice of those arts, for the appreciation of which its mind was not yet sufficiently cultivated. it has been remarked, that as the progress of art was constantly from east to west, the geographical position of england might account in some respects for her backwardness. however, like children of slow growth whose understanding does not seem quick or acute, but who afterwards derive the benefit of their reserved strength, england, coming almost the last in the production of pottery, seems as though she did so for maturing her capabilities. in this, as in the practice of other arts, she is slow, and her first steps are clumsy. experimenting for some time, with mixed or indifferent success, she seems to hesitate, till she begins to feel that she holds the thing in her grasp, and then the day soon comes when she teaches the world what she can make of it. we can scarcely give her credit in the preceding review for some staffordshire pottery made with the yellow or red marl, thickly glazed with the galena extracted from the derbyshire mines, the decoration of these pieces being effected by pouring the light clay on the dark one in a symmetrical manner. this pottery was in use from the time of queen elizabeth down to the year , the date of the latest specimen that i have seen. some pieces preserved in the british museum, in the museum of geology, and in m. solon's collection, are to be noticed for their quaintness. up to the eighteenth century, no other clays than those extracted from the coal measures seem to have been used in staffordshire; and the advantages derived from an abundant supply of both clay and fuel must have powerfully contributed to the settlement of this industry in that county. in shaw's 'history of the staffordshire potteries,' which with plot's 'history of staffordshire,' are the only books to afford information on the then state of this trade, and whose most interesting extracts have been given by sir henry de la beche in his excellent catalogue of the pottery exhibited in the museum of practical geology, we gather this fact, that so far back as , an act of parliament regulated the dimensions and quality of earthen vessels manufactured at burslem, for holding the butter brought to the markets. towards , a radical change seems to have taken place in the way of making the ware, by substituting common salt for the galena in the glazing process. this new production was called _crouch ware_, and there is every probability that the substitution was first made by a person acquainted with the manufacture of the german and flemish stoneware, which at a former period had been tried in england. at that time burslem possessed twenty-two ovens, and shaw says, that when these were at work, the vapours emanating from the salt were such as to produce a dense fog in the town. these assertions leave no doubt as to the date of the commencement of this manufacture in staffordshire, and that burslem was its first seat. two german brothers, of the name of elers, who settled near this town in , seem to have been the first to try to produce pottery of a better class than the crouch ware. their first attempt resulted in the production of a well finished red stoneware, which probably resembled the red ware made in saxony by bottger at the same time. those who have left any written information about it, say that for general appearance and careful execution, it was quite equal to any similar article made by the chinese; but i must confess, that the specimens that i had the opportunity of seeing are rather porous and far from being highly baked. these foreigners paid also great attention to the improvement of the white ware, and they were the first to employ the plastic clay from dorsetshire for the purpose of whitening the cane marl of the locality. their ware was generally light and well-shaped, and though the plaster moulds were wholly unknown at the time, and were only introduced fifty years later, the impressions taken from metal moulds are neat, and show the ornaments standing sharply out from the surface. this, combined with the peculiar appearance given to the surface by the sublimation of the salt, and its light colour, are the principal feature of the burslem ware, which continued in existence till , although before that date more perfected articles had found their way to the market. the brothers elers used to make a great secret of their mixtures, and left the district as soon as the other manufacturers became acquainted with them. astbury, who had been instrumental in robbing them of their processes, was one of the most intelligent amongst these potters, and it was he who, in , introduced the flint, calcined and ground, for whitening the body of the ware, one of the greatest improvements in the making of earthenware. he seems to have been a thoughtful and persevering man, and it is said that the idea of this new material was suggested to him, by seeing a shoeing smith calcining a flint, for the purpose of blowing the dust into the eyes of his horse, suddenly afflicted with a kind of blindness. this is probably only a fiction, as the idea must have originated from witnessing the change undergone by flint when brought to a red heat. as the pottery trade was taking root in the district, it is no wonder that we find many intelligent manufacturers doing their best to improve it and make it profitable. eminent amongst them was josiah wedgwood, whose name as a potter is never likely to perish. for particulars concerning his private life, trade, and manufacture, there are two excellent books, by miss meteyard and mr. llewellyn jewitt, in which every matter of interest about him has been carefully entered. born at burslem, in , of a family of potters, he began by serving his apprenticeship as a thrower under his brother, and must have settled in business very early, as he had had already two partners when he set up on his own account, in , being then only twenty-nine years of age. his first attempts seem to have been directed to making a green ware, that is, a white ware covered with a glaze of that colour, which he succeeded in getting particularly bright; and also to the tortoiseshell, which had its surface mottled with glazes differently stained, and which, by their blending when they are fused in the oven, present some analogy with the works of palissy. one of wedgwood's decided successes was, perfecting the white cream-colour ware, which was so superior to anything done before, that it commanded at once a great sale at home and abroad. queen charlotte admired it much, and, in consequence of her patronage, it took the name of queen's ware, under which it was known for a long time. it is light, of a pleasing colour, elegantly shaped, and in the hands of artists has proved an admirable material to paint upon. it would take too long to enumerate all the improvements which wedgwood effected in his trade in the second half of the last century, but i must mention as prominent amongst his works, the black egyptian and jasper wares, in making which he had no assistance whatever, and which constitute two new and perfect types in pottery. from wedgwood's origin and early labours, it is easy to guess that his instruction must have been limited; but he was a clear-minded and inquiring man, possessing that sort of intuition by which he could easily understand things, which in other people would have required preliminary studies; besides, he had a natural taste for art and a systematic way of going through his experiments, which were sure to bring them to a successful issue. it was his good fortune to be assisted by two men of superior intelligence, viz. flaxman, the sculptor, who designed many of his shapes, and modelled for him an almost innumerable number of subjects for slabs and cameos; and thomas bentley, a distinguished scholar, with whom he was commercially connected, and whose knowledge of art he found of great utility. when wedgwood died, in , the ceramic manufacture had extensively developed, and had extended from burslem to the small towns in the neighbourhood. from all this it must appear that, although wedgwood was the most brilliant type amongst the english potters of that period, the trade was already well established when he entered the business, and there was every probability, that it would become one of the staple industries of this country. to give all the credit to him would be an injustice to several men, who, like the two josiah spodes, effected great improvements, or brought into play new and useful materials. when i speak of the china manufacture, it will be seen that, besides the staffordshire potters, several very clever men at bow, chelsea, plymouth, worcester, derby, and other places, were at work to establish the manufacture of the soft and hard porcelain, proving beyond a doubt, that most energetic efforts were being made to raise the pottery trade of england to the same level as that of france or germany. if we did not then succeed in making soft china like that of sèvres, or hard porcelain as good as the dresden, we soon became the masters of the market as regards earthenware--a position that we are not likely to lose for many years to come. amongst the circumstances which combine to make our position particularly strong, it is enough to mention our independence as regards the supply of the raw materials, and the abundance of our clays and fuel, of a better quality than those at the disposal of our competitors. besides, the localization of this manufacture in staffordshire has caused the concentration in this spot of an intelligent population, acquainted with the traditions, from which the different branches of the trade can be easily fed. the soil of staffordshire produces a variety of clays which are used for common ware; but the most important is the one called _marl_, which is fire-clay from the beds of the coal measures, used for making the "saggers," or clay boxes, in which the ware is placed before it is sent to the ovens. the quantity required for this purpose is very large, and it was of the utmost importance that such material should be good, cheap, and easily procured. at present, however, the clays necessary to make china or earthenware are not found in staffordshire, but are sent from the counties of dorset, devon, and the duchy of cornwall, where they constitute an important branch of commerce. it is a common occurrence to hear people, visiting staffordshire for the first time, wonder at the apparently abnormal fact of an industry settling in a district where none of the requisite materials are to be found. i have mentioned in the preceding pages how it happened that the trade first settled in burslem; and a short explanation will show that, although more perfect clays from distant counties had to be used, there was no need to change. for baking pottery, the quantity of fuel required is comparatively large. when, independently of the ovens and kilns, we take into account what is absorbed by the steam-engines, preparation of materials, and warming of the shops, we find that for every ton of manufactured goods, at least three tons of coals are wanted, and that for decorated goods, it will take twice that quantity, and even more. as the districts from which the clays are sent have no coals, the advantage of paying the carriage on the smallest number of tons to be brought to the works becomes evident. the potter's clay derives its origin from several felspathic rocks, which under various influences have been decomposed, and the finest portion washed away, to be collected in natural depressions of the soil, where it has formed beds of various thickness. chemically speaking, it is a silicate of alumina in combination with water, with the addition, in small quantities, of different materials, such as potash, soda, lime, or iron, acting as fluxes on the silicate, which otherwise would give no signs of vitrification. the iron, which may exist in different states, has a colouring effect injurious to the clay, which, to be useful, must be almost free from it. when this condition occurs, the excellence of the clay is determined by the quantity of alumina that it contains. pure silica, in the form of quartz, flint, or sand, is a very easy material to procure when wanted, but as no geological formation yields alumina in the pure state, no other can be got, besides that which already exists in the clays. it is a common error to say, that it is the silica which renders them refractory. it is true that pure silica can stand any amount of heat without fusing, but its readiness to combine with alkaline matter, and to form vitreous compounds, renders its use objectionable when heated with metallic oxides. an excess makes the wares brittle and unable to resist sudden changes of temperature, while alumina, on the contrary, gives these qualities, and with them the plasticity required for the working of the ware. from it the clays derive the property of absorbing and retaining a large quantity of water, and such is its affinity for it, that sometimes a red heat will hardly suffice to expel it completely. alumina is a light material--silica a heavy one; and a potter ought to know approximatively in testing the density of a sample, whether it is rich or poor in either of the two. the reason why the clay deposits are richer in alumina than the rocks from which they originated, is explained by the lightness of this element, which, being kept in suspension in water for a longer time, was consequently carried farther, leaving the silicious refuse to settle on its way. for earthenware or china, the english potters use only two sorts of clays: the ball clay, also called blue clay, and the kaolin. for porcelain the last only is used; for earthenware, both. the ball clay, exported from teignmouth and poole, comes from the lower tertiary clays of devon and dorset, and is remarkably good and plastic, the quantity of iron being comparatively very small. the ball clay from poole is dug in the neighbourhood of wareham, by mr. pike. it is of a very superior kind, and more than , tons are sent from that harbour alone to the potteries, besides smaller quantities to the continent. as it possesses a little more alumina than those from teignmouth, which are dug at teigngrace and whiteway, near bovey heathfield, they ought to have a little superiority over these, although in practice the difference is not always perceptible. kaolin is the chinese word given to the clay from which hard porcelain is made, though here it is generally called china or cornish clay. this material is found in some granitic rocks in an advanced state of decomposition; the felspar, their most important element, having under external influence lost the greatest portion of its alkali, and become converted into a kind of earth. by agitation in a large quantity of water it dissolves readily; the refuse, composed of quartz, mica, schorl, and undecomposed felspar, sinks by its own weight to the bottom of the tank where the liquid mixture is to run; and the finest part, which is the kaolin, is carried farther to large receptacles, where it accumulates. when these are full, the clay is removed and dried for export. in that state it is very white, and although not so plastic as the ball clay, contains a little more alumina and less iron, which accounts for its resisting much better the action of fire. it is principally obtained at st. stephens and st. austell, in cornwall; lee moor, near dartmoor, in devon, and a few other places; the whole of them sending to the potteries about , tons annually. from the same districts comes another granite, in a less advanced state of decomposition, called cornish stone, which is used fresh from the mine without further preparation. in it the felspar retains its alkaline element, so that it can be easily melted, and is found a useful and cheap flux for the vitrification of the different mixtures. the composition of these rocks varies considerably, so that it requires constant experiments to determine in what proportion the quartz and the fusible parts stand to each other. flints are also largely used in the manufacture of earthenware. they are found abundantly in the chalk districts, the brown sort being considered the best. under a moderate red heat they become white and opaque, and may be easily crushed between iron rollers. in that state they are placed in pans of water and ground by large stones of chert, till they become sufficiently divided to remain in suspension in the liquid without sinking and hardening at the bottom of the tanks, which, by the way, are called "arks." flints are comparatively a cheap material, and their carriage to staffordshire represents a large portion of their cost. such are the four materials essential for making earthenware. the respective quantities in which they are used vary in each manufactory, but the principle is always the same: the ball clay being the foundation, and flint the whitening material; but as an excess of this would make the body difficult to work, cornish clay assists in making it whiter and less liable to break under a heavy weight or sudden changes of temperature. the cornish stone is used in a small quantity as a flux, to render the ware more compact and of a closer texture. when the mixture of these materials is completed, the colour taken by earthenware when fired would not be a perfect white; the quantity of oxide of iron existing in the clays, however small, would be still sufficient to impart a yellowish tint, particularly after the glazing of the ware. this is counteracted by the addition of a small quantity of oxide of cobalt, the power of which over the iron, as a staining material, is such as to neutralize it completely; the result, in fact, being the same as that obtained by washerwomen, who use blue to the linen with the object of making it look white. from the moment that the materials are extracted, to the time when the goods are perfected, the number of distinct operations to perform is so great, that i can only give a summary description of the most important. the grinding of those materials which are not already in a fine state of division is one of the most essential, for upon it depends the soundness of the ware, and without it the difficulties of workmanship would be greatly increased. it must be so perfect, that when the different components are put together in the slip state, they should mix readily and form a homogeneous compound. the grinding for the use of potters is a trade of itself; but good quality is of such importance, that the manufacturers who can afford it prefer having mills of their own. in these, the different materials are ground in water in separate pans, till they can pass freely through fine silk lawn, and are afterwards stored in distinct reservoirs, and the excess of water removed, so that a quart measure of each should weigh a determined number of ounces. as the potter knows beforehand the proportion of solid matter contained in each liquid measure, it only remains for him to count the number of quarts or gallons which must be introduced into the body of the ware. this being done, the liquid mass must be deprived of its superabundance of water. till lately it was the custom to effect this by running the slip or inches thick over the surface of long kilns, paved with bricks and provided with flues underneath. the heat which was maintained in these, assisted by the porous nature of the bricks, was sufficient to bring it to the proper state of toughness; but the kilns could not be filled more than once a day, and required besides a large quantity of fuel, much of which was wasted in the form of dense smoke. now, thanks to the new apparatus of messrs. needham and kyte, the same result is obtained with great saving in space, time, and fuel. the process is simple, and easy to manage. as soon as the final mixture is sifted, the slip is directed to a well, whence it is raised by an hydraulic pump and sent to the presses, which are composed of a variable number of large wooden frames. these are closely ribbed on both faces, and, when placed side by side in a vertical position, they leave in the middle an interval of about three-quarters of an inch in thickness. each of these hollow compartments is lined with a sheet of strong cotton stuff, folded in such a way as to form a bag, in the middle of which a small metal fitting passes through the upper part of the frames, and forms the spring by which the slip can be admitted into the interior. when the bags are tied together, the slip is admitted into their interior and submitted to such pressure from the pump, that the water filters through the interstices of the stuff, and escapes by the small intervals left between the ribs of the frames. after allowing a sufficient time for the action of the pump, the presses are dismounted, and the solid clay is found in the middle of the bags, ready for use in the various departments. the processes for shaping the different articles are many. for the more expeditious preparation of the wares, it was necessary that each workman should devote the whole of his time to a special branch of his art. for this reason we have several classes of potters, called according to their avocation: throwers, turners, handlers, hollow and flat ware pressers, figure and ornament makers, tile makers, modellers, mould and sagger makers, besides those who are employed in the decoration of the goods. of all these various branches, the most attractive for those who are witnessing it for the first time, is the throwing; and it is a source of amazement for them to see how quickly, in the hands of the potter, the same lump of clay can be transformed in a variety of ways. the potter's wheel is of great antiquity. in some egyptian hieroglyphics from the tombs of beni-hassan, known to have been made during the twelfth dynasty, the different occupations of the potter are painted with great distinctness. in one of these, two potters are using the wheel for making their vessels--implying that this contrivance has been in use for something like four thousand years. the forms and proportions of the wheels may be varied without altering the principle. a spindle, finished at its lower end in the form of a pointed pivot, is placed on a hard substance on which it can easily revolve. the upper end is furnished with a wooden head or small platform, on which the lump of clay is to be placed, and between this head and pivot is fixed an horizontal wooden disc of large diameter, which acts as a fly-wheel and keeps the spindle in motion for a certain length of time. the motion may be given by the hand, the foot, or mechanical power, which causes the spindle to revolve with great velocity. a good thrower requires a great deal of practice, as he is expected to throw several hundred pieces a day, although the art is far from being what it was in the olden times. in consequence of the new plan of pressing all large pieces in plaster moulds, the thrower has but small or moderate size pieces to work, and these he finishes only in the inside, leaving the outside to be done by the turner, when the pieces are in a more advanced state of dryness. this division of work, brought about by the exigencies of the trade, is very much to be regretted, for the old thrower was really an artist, who could impress his feeling on the work which was entrusted to him from beginning to end. he has not now the same opportunity of showing his skill, and cannot take in his work the pride and interest which he would have felt, if circumstances had not been altered. the same may be said of the turner, who finishes the outside on a lathe like that used for turning wood. the thrower prepares the pieces of a thicker bulk than is required, and it is the turner's business to bring them to a proper thickness, by removing the excess of material and giving to the exterior a smooth and highly finished surface. if the handles are ornamented, they are pressed in plaster moulds; if plain, they are squeezed from a brass cylinder, filled with clay, with a small aperture at the bottom, from which it escapes under the pressure in long ribbons. these are placed side by side on a board, cut across at the required length, and bent in the form of handles when they get sufficiently hard. they are afterwards fitted, and made to adhere to the pieces by means of a little water or slip dropped from the point of a brush. flat pieces, such as plates, dishes, saucers, and the like, are made in plaster moulds, on which a bat of soft clay is tightly compressed by a hand tool, called a polisher. the process is very expeditious, although the presser is obliged to repeat the operation, to give more pressure and finish. for this kind of ware, the potter's wheel called a jigger, is simplified so far, that the iron spindle resting on its point and fixed to a bench, is provided only with a round plaster head on which the moulds are placed. the presser keeps this in motion with his left hand, whilst with the right he guides the polisher. in those manufactories which have adopted the latest improvements, the jiggers are worked by steam power, and the stoves in which the pieces are sent to dry are heated by steam pipes. these are constructed on a new principle, consisting of a number of shelves which revolve round a central spindle, so that by a gentle push of the hand, each section is successively brought in front of the door, giving the opportunity of removing or putting in the moulds. this simple contrivance does away with the necessity for the assistant boy entering the stove, and feeling the bad effects of the heat. when the pieces are not exactly round, and cannot be thrown or pressed on jiggers, it is the custom to have them made in plaster moulds, which have been cast on models prepared for the purpose. as long as the clay keeps soft, it takes the shape of any hard substance against which it is pressed, and for that reason, plaster, which has the property of absorbing moisture readily, is preferred. the use of plaster for moulds is comparatively recent, and although its properties were known in early times, there is no evidence that it was ever employed for that object. greeks, etruscans, and romans, had their moulds made of fired clay; the chinese, in raw clay thoroughly dried. in staffordshire, before the use of plaster, they were made of fired clay or metal; but plaster is more economical than any of these, although moulds made of this material do not last long, and require constant renewing. the making of moulds, well adapted for pressing the various shapes, is a very important part of the potter's business. they must allow of a certain amount of contraction, and, at the same time, must easily dislocate without pulling away any part of the piece, which is still sufficiently soft to be distorted by careless handling. some pieces will require moulds made in one or two parts; others, a large quantity of them, the various fragments being in that case pressed separately, and carefully put together afterwards. the pressing is done in this way: the potter begins to flatten a lump of clay in the form of a bat, and transfers it to the inside of the mould; then, by the repeated blows of a sponge in his right hand, he compels the soft material to take the exact form of the mould, and, of course, of any ornamentation which may be on its inner surface. a good presser ought to be systematic in his work, and not to apply more pressure to one part than to another, otherwise the different portions of the pieces would not contract alike, and would be liable to show an irregular surface, or even crack in the drying or firing processes. for several reasons, there are pieces which cannot be pressed: they may be required very thin, or their shape is such, that the potter cannot reach all the parts to take the impression conveniently. in this case he must adopt the following plan. the mould is tied up, and filled with liquid clay through an opening left in the top. the plaster rapidly absorbs the water, and a deposit of solid clay adheres to the surface. this soon increases in thickness; and when the potter thinks it is sufficient, he pours out the slip which is in excess. the piece soon hardens, and when it begins to contract, it is then time to remove it from the mould. this process has the advantage of giving a uniform thickness, and as there is no other pressure than that caused by the absorption of the plaster surface, there is a better chance for the piece to contract equally, and on this account this method (called _casting_) is preferred for articles which require a neat execution. in some cases it is cheaper than ordinary pressing; but the drawback is, the excessive contraction or diminution of bulk to which the ware thus made is subjected. an irregular contraction is the source of most of the defects attending the ceramic manufacture, and it is worth explaining the causes, of which there are three. i have already mentioned that natural clays, which have remained in a damp soil for ages, contain materials in a hydrous state, i.e. combined with water, which sometimes increases their bulk considerably. these are unstable compounds, and may be destroyed by thoroughly drying them. some other materials used in pottery may be artificially combined with water, as would be the case, if ground in it for an unnecessary length of time. the second reason is, the interposition of the uncombined water between the solid particles of the clay, and as this cannot be worked without it, this cause of shrinking cannot be avoided. it will be easily understood, that when the water in the mixture evaporates, the solid particles, under atmospheric pressure, will move to take its place, and this effect will continue as long as they find enough moisture to assist in their free motion. the consequence is, that the mass shrinks more and more, till the contraction is stopped by the inability of the particles to move farther; and this happens before the pieces are completely dry. from that state to complete dryness, the evaporation of the remaining water will leave small holes, which will make the texture of the ware porous, and prone to absorb any liquid with which it may come in contact. the shrinkage in the raw state then is mechanical, and distinct from that which takes place in the oven under the influence of heat. under this agency the particles enter into combination, and if the process is carried far enough, the ware may become partially vitrified and acquire a certain amount of transparency. the more perfect the vitrification, the closer will be the contact of the particles, and consequently the greater the diminution of bulk. from these causes, the total contraction may vary from one-sixteenth to one-fifth of the original model. the least will belong to ware pressed with stiff clay gently fired; the greatest, to that cast with liquid slip and brought to the vitrified state. in these last, the shrinkage is greater in height than in width, a fact explained by the weight of the upper portions acting vertically to assist the closer contact of the particles in the under-structure, when the same opposes their free action in an horizontal direction. in making the models, care should be taken to bring the contraction to a common centre, or if there are several, to strengthen sufficiently the connecting parts. after the drying of the ware, the next operation consists in placing it in saggers, which, as i have said, are made of common fire-clay, and of a form and size to suit the different articles which they are intended to hold. a certain thickness of flint or sand is placed at their bottom for the purpose of giving them a firm bed, and as it is the interest of the manufacturer to make the same firing answer for the greatest quantity of goods, care is taken to fill the saggers as far as is safe. the placing of the ware is done at the outside of the ovens, and when these are to be filled, the saggers are quickly arranged one over the other in columns, called "bungs," each sagger forming the cover for the one immediately underneath. a small roll of soft clay placed between makes them stand better, and at the same time prevents the ashes carried by the draught from finding their way into the interior, and damaging the contents. in ancient times, the ovens, intended to hold few pieces, were very small; but as the potters became more experienced, the sizes were gradually increased, and now-a-days some of them are not less than feet in diameter. the quality of fuel had, of course, a great deal to do with their mode of construction. now, however, that coals are acknowledged to contain more heat, and to be cheaper than wood, the ovens are generally built in a cylindrical form, with several mouths or feeders disposed at equal distances on the outer circumference, the upper part being covered by a semi-spherical dome or vault, to keep the heat inside and reverberate it downwards. this construction is very simple, the only complication being in the arrangement of flues under the bottom of the oven, so as to throw into that part a portion of the heat, which otherwise would be liable to accumulate towards the top. the firing must be conducted very slowly at first, to prevent a too sudden evaporation of the damp, which would cause the splitting of the goods. this being done, the heat is raised gradually, care being taken to feed the mouths with fuel as quickly as it is consumed. it requires an experienced fireman, to see that one part of the oven does not get in advance of the other. he manages this by throwing in a certain quantity of air through small openings in the brick-work, which are shut or left open according to circumstances. whatever may be the construction of the oven, the quantity of air mixed with the gas produced by the combustion of fuel causes the atmosphere to be reductive of oxidizing; which means that the different materials submitted to the heat would, in consequence of an abundance of carbon, have a tendency to be deprived of their oxygen and return to a metallic state, or that by firing in presence of an excess of air or carbonic acid, they would be kept in a high state of oxidation. it is fortunate that all classes of english pottery, without exception, require, or are not injured by, an oxidizing fire, which is the most economical way of firing, since by it all the gases are completely burnt inside the oven without any waste of fuel. by a better application of this principle, messrs. minton have introduced a new oven, in which the fuel is so completely utilized, that it requires only one half of the usual quantity of coals, besides doing away with the dense smoke, which is the annoyance of the district. by the first fire to which it is exposed, the ware is converted into what is termed, from the french, _biscuit_--an incorrect name, as it seems to imply that it has already been fired twice, when, in fact, it has been only fired once. some classes of pottery do not require more than a single firing, as, for instance, the common terra cotta and stoneware. however, for all our english ware it is necessary to have two fires, for the following reasons: first, the necessity for getting a denser texture of the ware by submitting it to a strong heat, lest the glazes which are to be melted on their surface, and which thereby become very dense and most contractible, should not agree with the more open texture of the body, and should crack or craze when exposed to changes of temperature. secondly, that for coating the ware with the glaze, it is necessary to dip the article in the vitreous mixture finely ground, and kept in suspension in water; consequently, if it were in the raw state when this was done, the adhesion of the particles would be so small, that they would readily dissolve in the liquid. it is customary, therefore, to expose the goods first to a hard fire, which, according to the size of the ovens and the quality of the ware, may last from forty to fifty hours. from the biscuit oven, the goods, if they are to be left white, may be sent to be glazed; but if they are to be decorated with a printed pattern, they must be forwarded to the printing department. printing on pottery is comparatively a modern invention, its chief advantage being the cheap rate of production. up to the last century, the goods were always painted by hand: a slow, but it must be confessed, a more artistic process, as the work executed in this way, even of an inferior kind, will exhibit a freedom of touch and facility of execution, which will make it attractive and preferable to the formality of a printed pattern, however rich or complicated it may be. this superiority is sufficiently illustrated by comparing monochrome patterns of italian majolica, delft, and chinese, with the modern printed ware of the same colour. public taste has so wonderfully improved lately, that, for my part, i have no doubt that we shall soon have a special class of artists trained to execute, by hand, cheap and simple decorations for those purchasers who are not satisfied with printed decoration. to what extent the introduction of printing on pottery has hindered the progress of art education in staffordshire, is a question on which people may entertain different opinions; but we might ask, what amount of artistic work we might not do, if at the present time we had some hundreds of artisans trained from their early years to that style of painting? however that may be, the process of transferring printed patterns to biscuit ware was considered a great step, and one which contributed largely to the extension of the earthenware trade. liverpool and worcester claim the priority for this invention, towards the year . it is a fact that shortly after that date, staffordshire potters used to send their wares to messrs. sadler and guy-green, of liverpool, to be printed; and there is also every reason to believe that about the same time it was introduced at the worcester works, then under the management of dr. wall, by an engraver named hancock. the process of printing on pottery does not differ very materially from that used for transferring to paper a design from an ordinary copper-plate. there are, however, these differences, that a metallic colour is used instead of lampblack, and that a fine tissue paper is specially made for that purpose. when that paper, with the pattern printed upon it, is laid on the ware, face downwards, the colours adhere strongly to the biscuit, which, being porous and aluminous, has a great affinity for the oil with which they have been mixed. after rubbing the back of the print with a roll of flannel, to secure the adhesion of every portion of the pattern, the biscuit piece is plunged in water, and the paper comes off quite freely, the whole of the colour sticking fast to the ware. previous to glazing, the printed ware must be brought to a red heat, for the sole object of burning the oil mixed with the colour. this is done in kilns, called _hardening-on kilns_. the colours in use for printing under the glaze are not many; as few only of the preparations made with metallic oxides can, when brought to a red heat, stand the action of the glazes under which they are laid. most of them in this case will be dissolved and considerably weakened, if they do not even completely disappear. cobalt, and the preparations made from chromates, are the most resisting, and, when well prepared, the glaze in melting over them will bring out the colour with increased beauty. the necessity for covering the biscuit with glaze to stop the absorption of liquids or greasy substances, which would find their way into its interior and would stain it, is so obvious, that i do not think it necessary to dwell on the importance of this operation. i have stated already that it was used by the egyptians and assyrians, who knew most of the saline mixtures by which white and coloured glazes could be obtained; but these, which for the greatest part were alkaline silicates, could not have resisted the action of time as they have done, if a certain amount of silicate of lead had not made them permanent. they found this material in the sulphide of lead, which by the silica it contains, or that which it meets on the body of the ware, gives a glaze, which stands exposure to damp better than any other. that this mineral was used in remote antiquity, proofs are numerous. i recollect, amongst others, some small shalti, or sepulchral figures, made in egypt more than two thousand years ago, of which the red parts, such as the faces and hands, have been glazed in this way. my opinion is, that it was used by the greeks, in connection with the black oxide of iron, to produce the black colour used in the decoration of their vases, and it might some day prove that it was an indispensable material in the preparation of the red smear, which is the characteristic feature of the samian ware. at all events it is with this single material, stained with metallic oxides, that the arabs glazed their rich-looking pottery, and the same was used afterwards for our encaustic tiles and our common pottery, from the time of elizabeth down to the middle of the last century. lately, however, the science of making glazes has considerably improved, and a variety of new substances have been introduced. to prepare a glaze is one of the most delicate operations possible, and failures are attended with most serious consequences. the conditions to be fulfilled are many. it must not be too fusible nor too hard, either of which conditions would make it dull or apt to craze; and it must be transparent, otherwise the colours underneath would not be clear. it may happen that a glaze which apparently seems good when it comes out from the oven, will craze when a few months, or perhaps years, have elapsed. generally, the less alumina that there is in the biscuit, the easier is the adaptation of the glaze, and this accounts for the soft porcelains being easier to manage in this respect than ordinary earthenwares. the materials used for the _foundation_ of glazes are in principle the same as those for the body, viz. silica, in the form of flint, or sand and felspar, pure or mixed with other components in the granitic rocks, called cornish stone. these are the hard materials to be vitrified by the fluxes, which are carbonate or oxide of lead, boracic acid or borax, potash or soda, carbonate of lime or barytes. there is no definite receipt for mixing, and they may be combined in a variety of ways. every manufacturer has receipts of his own, and i must say that some make their glazes a great deal better than others. they are rather expensive, chiefly owing to the increased price of borax, a material of comparatively modern use, which, being apt to promote the brilliancy of the wares and the beauty of the various colours, is now extensively used. when the components of the glazes are not soluble in water, it may be sufficient to have them finely ground in water. but if any soluble salt, such as borax, nitre, or soda, is employed, it is necessary to render them insoluble, by vitrifying them together with other substances. this may be effected in crucibles, or, still better, in reverberatory furnaces, where a large quantity may be melted more conveniently. in this case, when the mass is well liquefied by the intensity of the heat, it is run into cold water, which, cooling it suddenly, causes it to break into small fragments. this is called a _fritt_; and when it is sent to the mill, any other insoluble material may be added to it if necessary. to lay a thin coat of glaze on the surface of earthenware, is a most expeditious process. advantage is taken of the porous nature of the biscuit, which, being dipped in the liquid slip, rapidly absorbs the water, while the solid particles of the glaze, which, however fine, could not follow the water to its interior, are found coating the surface. as the pieces are removed from this bath before the pores of the clay are saturated with water, they are seen to dry almost directly. after this, the last operation consists in firing the pieces a second time, to give them that neat and finished look which belongs to glazed substances. the saggers, ovens, and the mode of conducting the fire do not differ in this case from those used for making biscuit. the ovens are, however, smaller, and the saggers cannot be packed so closely with the different articles, as every piece has to be isolated, otherwise the glaze in melting would cause them to stick together. to provide against this, small implements made of clay cut in different forms are used, and, not to disfigure the ware, are contrived in such a way that the points of contact between them and the pieces should be as small as possible. this second firing does not take more than fifteen or eighteen hours, and this completes the series of operations, by which ordinary earthenware sold in the white or printed state may be produced. the reader must understand that the majority of these processes are also applicable to the manufacture of china, or any other glazed pottery, with some modifications which i shall take the opportunity of noticing, when speaking of these varieties. pottery may be decorated in a great number of ways, and the operations are so varied that i cannot describe them all intelligibly, should i attempt to do so in my limited space. i shall consequently speak only of the paintings executed on the surface. this necessitates the use of colours specially prepared and made from two distinct materials; the bases and the fluxes. the bases are generally metallic oxides or highly oxidized compounds; the fluxes are vitreous substances, similar to the glazes, but softer, whose function is, to fix the colours permanently on the ware. when both, after being intimately ground together, are fired at a moderate heat on the article, the fluxes will cause the colour of the bases to look more vigorous and brighter, the effect being rather similar to that of an oil or transparent varnish on ordinary body colour. for this object, they must have very little chemical action, and be sufficiently soft to act in a moderate quantity. if, by carelessness or accident, the temperature is raised to a degree higher than the one exactly required, new compounds are formed, and the alteration of the colour is the consequence. there are some instances in which no fluxes are required; this is the case, when the ware has been coated with a glaze sufficiently fusible to allow the bases to sink in it, as soon as it begins to soften under the influence of heat. by this process more force and effect are obtained. it is, however, seldom used, for this reason, that from the care and attention which it requires in the superintendence of the firing, the manufacturer would run greater risks, and, being unable to use large ovens, would not turn out the same quantity of ware. altogether it is a very expensive process. modern chemistry has placed at the disposal of colour makers new compounds which have made the preparation of fluxes comparatively easy. at the present time two classes are required: those in which the oxides of lead predominate, and those chiefly made with borax, which on account of its great purity is used in almost every flux, and is of great service for those colours which, like the pinks and purples, would suffer from the presence of lead. the preparation of painting colours is a little more complicated, and each requires a different treatment. the number of those found in the trade is rather large, and each artist has his favourite maker. in this, as in any other kind of painting, beginners are apt to think that they will be assisted by the use of a great variety of tints, when they will learn by more experience, that a very limited number is sufficient. i cannot undertake to give any receipts for those who might wish to prepare these themselves; i only mention the name of the substances necessary to secure each of the essential colours. white is not a colour, but when wanted on a coloured body, it is procured by an enamel prepared with the oxide of tin. light yellow requires the oxides of lead and antimony. orange will require the same, with an addition of deutoxide of iron. the hydrate of peroxide of the same metal will give a golden buff. the subchromate of lead gives a very bright red, but it is very unsafe and mixes badly; the reds made by calcining the common sulphate of iron are preferred. from this, according to the degree of fire, all shades of red may be got, from an orange red to a deep purple brown. the pinks, purples, and crimsons are made from the precipitate of cassius; this is obtained by pouring a weak solution of tin in the chloride of gold. the dark blue is a triple silicate of cobalt, which, by the admixture of the white oxide of zinc, may be converted into a brighter blue. the green oxide of chrome is the base of all greens, the tint of which is modified by cobalt for the blue greens, and antimony for the yellow greens. the chromate of iron, a mineral coming in large quantities from south america, is the base of all browns. the black may be got from the mixture of various oxides, but the best is that made from the oxide of iridium. besides the above, there is another class of colours in which the oxides are thoroughly combined with the fluxes, such as the greens made from copper and the transparent blues, which are ground colours, and must be classified with the glazes. when painting colours are fired with their respective fluxes, they are very permanent, and will not only resist ordinary atmospheric influences, but also the action of every gas or mineral acid (the fluoric excepted). this seems an advantage in favour of painting on pottery, and one which ought to give them an additional value; in reality, however, artistic merit ranks above all other considerations, and unless the work is original, connoisseurs in pottery will hardly take this into account. several oils possessing drying properties, such as those of lavender, aniseed, or turpentine, are mixed with the colours, which, from the fact of containing vitreous substances, would work badly; even with their assistance, it requires a certain amount of skill to master the process. we must not make too much, however, of this difficulty, generally exaggerated by the ignorance of apprentices in what constitutes the very principles of their profession. when parents, in perfect ignorance of the abilities of their son, have decided, after putting their heads together, that he shall be a painter, sometimes for no other consideration than that they can get him admission into a porcelain manufactory, or that this is the nearest to their home, the boy has not the least notion of what is before him, and hardly knows that he will have to learn that very difficult thing, drawing. no wonder then, if his deficiency in this will not allow him to produce, we will not say good, but saleable paintings, unless he has spent a dozen years on his trial. on the contrary, to one well prepared by the study of art--one who, before he sets to his work, has a clear conception of the effect which he wishes to produce--the process will not stand in the way, and he will master it in the course of a few weeks. to induce talented men to devote their time to the decoration of pottery, is perhaps the greatest difficulty met with by our leading manufacturers. as long as the making of the ware only was concerned, they had to call for the assistance of practical men, such as potters, chemists, or engineers, the number of whom is fortunately great in england, and whose services can be secured by money. the same thing is not so easy in the matter of art. up to a recent date, painting on pottery was not considered as the high road to fortune, and artists preferred to try their chance in oil or water-colour painting, fully aware that they would have to fight against an army of competitors, and to be satisfied with very small incomes, unless, by their, then problematic, genius, they could cut their way to the front. since, however, the rage (there is no other word for it) for well decorated pottery has spread in almost every class of society, the prices paid for good work are more remunerative, and artists like solon, mussill, and coleman, can make artistic pottery their special business. royal academicians like poynter and marks have thought it not beneath them to prepare cartoons for minton, and it is probable that others would follow in the same path if, with the assistance of our chief potters, they could be initiated into some of the mysteries of the craft. no doubt they would find the study attractive, and there is no fear that, having once begun, they would not keep faithfully to it. for myself, i know of no such example. in addition to the painting colours, there are a few metals which are used to enrich pottery; unfortunately, the number of those which can undergo exposure to a red heat without oxidizing is very limited. there are only three, viz. gold, silver, and platinum, which can stand it, and, among these, silver is of little use, on account of its proneness to tarnish under the action of sulphurous gases. gold, on the contrary, affords to the decorator one of his greatest resources. we cannot say when the chinese began to use it; we only know that in europe it was thought a great discovery, when, in the sixteenth century, it was used in the italian majolica. from that time to the introduction of hard and soft porcelain in europe, it was rarely and sparingly used; and it was at meyssen, soon followed by the other continental and english manufactories, that they began to use it extensively. at the present time, its annual consumption by our staffordshire potters alone represents a very large sum of money. there are several ways of preparing gold for pottery purposes; the oldest consists in grinding gold leaves on a slab, adding to it gum water, honey, or any other mucilaginous liquid. this laborious process surpasses all others; it has a very artistic effect when used thin, in the chinese fashion, and, when laid thick, as we find it in the old sèvres ware, it answers beautifully for chasing; the only drawback is the expense. the most usual way is to have it amalgamated with mercury, and afterwards ground in turpentine; it has then the appearance of a blackish substance, which will regain its colour, as soon as the mercury is volatilized by the application of a gentle heat. when it comes out of the kiln, the gold is dull, and requires to be burnished with agate and bloodstone tools, to be in possession of all its brightness. there is another decorated pottery, called lustre ware, now out of fashion, but most successfully executed at one time by the moors, the persians, and the italians on their respective majolicas; the glaze of this ware being more favourable than any other for the display of the process. it simply consisted in painting over the fired ware with the protoxide of some metal, such as that of copper, taking care that from the moment the kiln began to get to the red heat, a constant supply of thick smoke should be kept up. the partial reduction of the metal which adheres to the surface has a very pleasing effect, as may be noticed in the large hispano-moresco dishes, considered the finest specimens of this class. those produced in italy by georgio andreoli fetch, however, a higher price, on account of the redness of their colour; the process is fully described in the celebrated manuscript of piccolo passo, now in the library of the south kensington museum. lessore, the french painter, lately dead, and m. de morgan, in london, have succeeded in producing very fair specimens of that kind. some of our staffordshire potters can make another lustre by mixing chloride of gold with lavender oil, sulphur, resin, and other carburated ingredients, and laying this mixture very thinly on the surface of the glazed ware; the iridescent pinkish colour which it takes when it is fired in an ordinary kiln is rather peculiar. this has no connection with the old process, and is only used for the commonest kind of goods. the kilns in use for firing the painted or gilt ware, are called muffles or enamelling kilns; they are in the form of a d, laid on its straight side, and of a length proportionate to the size and number of pieces which they are to hold. the fireplaces are arranged on one of the sides, and the flues contrived in such a manner, that the flame should travel round the whole of the outer surface, great care being taken that it should not have access to the interior through any cracks or joints which might exist in the brick-work. for ordinary goods one firing may suffice; for those highly decorated, as many as five or six may be necessary. let me now say a few words respecting the various wares produced by our english potters. the first earthenware made after the time of wedgwood and josiah spode was far from being so good as that made at present, and several attempts were made to bring out a pottery which should be intermediate between earthenware and porcelain. the most successful was that made by mr. mason, of fenton, who, in , took out a patent for an ironstone china, the body of which was fluxed by the scoriæ of ironstone and the ordinary cornish stone. but eventually this last was found sufficient for that purpose. the name of ironstone remained to that class of pottery which is strong and resistive. since then, however, earthenware has so much improved, that ironstone has gone out of fashion; the nearest to it is the ware called _white granite_, made for the american market, which is richly glazed, and made thick to compete with the french hard porcelain, which is also exported to the united states for the same class of customers. about fifty manufactories are specially engaged in producing this ware; and those in the occupation of messrs. meakin, shaw, bishop and powell, and g. jones, may be considered the largest. the best earthenware is made for the home market, some of which is so perfect that, if it were not opaque, it might be mistaken for porcelain. when it is richly decorated and gilt, like that made by messrs. minton, wedgwood, furnival, copeland, brown-westhead, brownfields, and several other leaders of the trade, very high prices are obtained for it. some of these makers do not devote all their attention to earthenware, but produce other classes of pottery. amongst the sorts which are most connected with earthenware are majolica, palissy, persian ware, and flooring and wall tiles. i have given the name of majolica to that class of ornament, whose surface is covered with opaque enamels of a great variety of colours. it is only connected with the italian or moorish in this respect, that the opacity of the enamels is produced by the oxide of tin; but as we have not in england the calcareous clay for making the real article, we have been obliged to adapt, as well as we could, the old processes to the materials at our disposal. at present, english majolica is very popular, and without a rival for garden decoration, as it stands exposure to the weather better than ordinary earthenware, besides the impossibility of the latter receiving the opaque enamels without crazing or chipping. majolica was produced for the first time by messrs. minton, in , and they have been for many years the only producers of this article. it is only five or six years ago that messrs. maw, of broseley, in shropshire (and very lately the worcester manufactory), have made a pottery of the same kind. the name of majolica is now applied indiscriminately to all fancy articles of coloured pottery. when, however, it is decorated by means of coloured glazes, if these are transparent, it ought to be called palissy ware, from the name of the great artist who used these for his beautiful works. messrs. wedgwood, george jones, and a few other makers of less importance, are reproducing it more or less successfully. to messrs. minton, however, we owe the revival of the ware, which, in connection with their majolica, created such a sensation in the french international exhibition of ; and credit must be given to those gentlemen, for being on that occasion the promoters of that demand for artistic pottery, which has so largely developed of late. it is to satisfy this craving for novelties, that they have undertaken the imitation of the faïence d'oiron, better known by the name of henri deux ware, a rare and costly one, which can only be produced in small quantities; and also their most recent improvement, the reproduction of the persian wares. in the old persian pottery we find a real earthenware taking a precedence of several centuries over our own. there is little doubt that it can be connected with the early arabian, assyrian, and egyptian, by the similitude of the processes common to all. i have no room to explain how it is that, being an earthenware, it is so much richer in colour than the modern ware made on this side of europe. i can only mention that the body of the persian ware may be converted into a transparent porcelain by firing it hard, which shows that the sandy clays from which these are made are sufficiently saline to become vitreous. to this they owe the property of receiving, without crazing, glazes of the softest kind, and consequently of exhibiting those colours which can only stand at a low temperature, such as the persian red, the turquoise, and that purple or violet which makes so valuable the specimens on which it is laid. if we had in england sandy clays like those which abound in persia, the reproduction of persian ware would have been an easy undertaking; but in trying to reconstitute it by synthesis, there were several obstacles. within the last three years, however, messrs. minton have sold a great many specimens of the ware, some of them of very large size. they may be recognized by the depth of the turquoise, which is sometimes as rich as sèvres pieces of the best period. their only competitors for this class of pottery are the manufactories of worcester and of messrs. maw and co. i cannot leave earthenware without mentioning the plain and encaustic tiles, articles of comparatively recent manufacture in england, but whose consumption is increasing so fast, that it may be expected in time to afford a most valuable compensation, should circumstances restrict the production of some other branch of the trade. there is no need to dwell on the advantages offered by the use of tiles. they are clean, invaluable in a sanitary point of view, free from further deterioration and expense for maintenance, and susceptible of a variety of treatment which makes them admirably fitted for decorative purposes. to the eastern nations we owe the idea of using ornamental tiles, and it is likely that it is from the numerous buildings existing in western asia and the north of africa, at the time of the crusades, that our forefathers took the notion of introducing in europe the encaustic tiles; their ceramic knowledge being too limited to undertake the making of painted or enamelled tiles, an essentially saracenic and moorish production, whose specimens nearest to us are those to be seen in the alhambra, or in the alcazar at seville. an inspection of those made afterwards in spain, in the time of charles v., or in italy for the vatican, and some of the palaces in genoa, would prove that they were made exactly in the same way. from the contrast between the opaque and transparent enamels, these tiles have a very forcible and harmonious effect, not to be met in others (the persian excepted, though these, exclusively decorated on a cool scale of colours, cannot answer so well the requirements of modern architecture). the majolica and delft tiles, chiefly the last, have been almost exclusively used during the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and it is only within the last forty years, that we began to make them in earthenware. with the revival of this manufacture, and of almost any other sort of tiles, the name of herbert minton is closely associated. it was during his time, and with the assistance of mr. michael daintry hollins, that this great undertaking was carried out with such success, that hardly a new church or public building is erected where these tiles are not introduced. the making of plain tiles is new and peculiar. they are made from dry clay reduced to dust, which, being submitted in metallic moulds to a pressure of several hundred pounds to the inch, becomes so compact, that further contraction is almost suppressed, and they can be handled without risk of breaking. encaustic tiles are made from plastic clay, in which the different portions of the design are sunk below the surface, so as to form recesses, in which slips of different colours are poured according to a set pattern. when these become as hard as the body of the tiles, the surface is made smooth and level with a steel scraper, which removes all the superfluous material, till the colours are shown standing neatly side by side with the greatest precision. it is a pretty process and interesting to witness. besides the flooring tiles, there are many other sorts made for lining walls and fireplaces, varying considerably in style and material. there are two very extensive and perfected tile works at stoke, viz. those belonging to mr. hollins and the campbell brick and tile company, in both of which all sorts of flooring and wall tiles are made. in the second, recently built, mr. colin minton campbell, the proprietor, has introduced new arrangements and contrivances in almost every department; all operations being performed on the ground floor, and in such manner that the goods shall travel the shortest possible distance from the moment they are begun to that of their completion. he has been the first to use maw's patent steam presses for plain tiles, each of which can make twelve thousand tiles weekly, requiring only the assistance of a single person, to remove the tiles as they come out from the mould. it is by the intelligent use of these mechanical processes, that we may expect a reduction in the price of such a useful article. the firm of mintons still continue to make their plain white printed and artistic tiles, along with their patent process for painting on mosaics. the broseley works, in shropshire, belonging to messrs. maw and co., have also a great name, and carry on an extensive business in tile making. next are those of messrs. edge and malkin, of burslem. messrs. simpson, of london, are well known for their wall decorations in tiles painted by hand, and messrs. copeland, of stoke, for their painted slabs. the various porcelain biscuits known under the name of parian or statuary biscuits, are specially used for statuettes, busts, and other articles for which it is desirable to get the appearance of white marble. this is a kind of hard porcelain made from a mixture of kaolin and felspar, in which the degree of hardness or fusibility is regulated by the proportion of one material towards the other. of course, similar biscuits may be made by more complicated receipts, but the principle is always the same, viz. the taking advantage of the fusibility of felspar or cornish stone, to secure the required amount of transparency. the light being allowed to penetrate to some depth below the surface, imparts to these biscuits a softness which is wanting in the similar productions of sèvres, germany, and denmark. in noticing the bluish-white colour of the foreign article as compared with the cream tint of our own, i must explain that this difference lies in the management of the fire, since in none of them is stain or colour introduced to procure any such result. as my readers must now understand, there is in all clays, pure as they may be, a certain amount of oxide of iron, which, during the firing process, forms silicate of protoxide or peroxide, according to the chemical composition of the atmosphere of the oven in which they stand. on the continent, to make hard porcelain successfully, the fire must be reductive; while here, on the contrary, it is oxidizing; and it is to the formation of a small quantity of silicate of peroxide of iron disseminated in the mass, that the creamy colour of our parian is due. since this new material was introduced by messrs. copeland and messrs. minton, about twenty-eight years ago, a large quantity of figures, busts, and groups have been sold, and the talent of our most eminent sculptors has been put to contribution to get models adapted for this kind of ware. parian is generally cast, which accounts for the great contraction it undergoes when fired, and much care is required for propping or supporting the various articles, as neglect or miscalculation in this respect would inevitably ruin them. otherwise, as this biscuit is made from few materials and takes but one single firing, the simplicity of the manufacture has induced many small makers to undertake it--a fact that we should regret, if we were to take a purely artistic view of this subject. parian, which was originally sold in biscuit state, has since been glazed, for the purpose of making pieces of decoration. the manufactory at worcester, several years ago, made a great many coloured and gilt ornaments in the cinque-cento style, to which it has lately added a highly artistic imitation of the japanese lacquered ivories, for which great credit is due to the present director, mr. binns. the belleek manufactory, in ireland, has obtained a name for coating its glazed parian with an iridescent lustre, in imitation of a similar article invented by a frenchman, m. bianchon. for richly decorated ornaments, the body of the parian has been stained with success in many rich colours by messrs. minton, their last production in this class being a parian combining the red colour of the terra cotta, with the advantages of a vitrified porcelain. their most artistic ware is, however, their _pâte sur pâte_, in the production of which they have been assisted by m. solon, an eminent artist, who left the sèvres works to establish this branch of fine art in their manufactory. to carry on this process, advantage is taken of the transparency of the parian body with which the figures or ornaments introduced in the composition are painted, or rather modelled. as they are laid on a ground of a dark colour, the softness of the shades in the thinner parts gives to the finished pieces a particularly beautiful cameo appearance. the effect may be compared to that of the limoges enamels, when confined to the white colour. this process has a certain connection with that of wedgwood for making his jasper ware; but there is this difference, that in the jasper, the figures and ornaments are taken from clay moulds, and may be repeated to any extent, the talent of the artisan consisting in pressing neatly and transferring on the vases the various fragments of decoration, without destroying the sharpness of the impression, while in the _pâte sur pâte_ original works can only be produced by the artist, who must combine the qualifications of designer and modeller. what i say here is not in disparagement of jasper, which, considering the time of its introduction, was far in advance of anything that could be expected. in its production the wedgwoods never had a rival, and the models of the celebrated josiah wedgwood are still worked at their manufactory at etruria, with the same success. the sulphate and carbonate of barytes were the fluxes originally used to vitrify the body of the jasper ware, and on this account it ought to be classified with the stoneware. parian, which may be made from purely granitic materials, has a nearer connection with porcelain. there are three different sorts of porcelain: . the chinese and japanese, with which may be assimilated the german and french, all of them made of kaolin and felspar, sometimes with an addition of quartz. the principal seat of this manufacture is now in france, with limoges for its centre. . the soft porcelain, of which the most perfect type is the old sèvres, includes those of chelsea, bow, worcester, and derby. in all these the transparency, which is the distinctive feature of porcelain, is secured by the introduction of _fritt_, a mixture of sand and alkaline materials thoroughly vitrified, ground and made workable by an addition of plastic clay. the calcareous marl used at sèvres gave to the french works a superiority over the english, who could only use the clays from our southern counties. the manufacture of the soft porcelain, on account of its difficulties, is almost abandoned. . the english porcelain, the body of which is made, like the hard, from kaolin and cornish stone, but differing from it by the addition of a large proportion of calcined bones. this kind is exclusively english. for the hard porcelain, the glaze is made from felspar containing a variable quantity of quartz, or, as in germany, from quartz vitrified by an addition of gypsum, the melting of which in both cases requires a very high temperature. for the glazing of the two other classes of porcelain, a soft, vitreous mixture containing silicate of lead and borates is used, the temperature necessary to melt these being much inferior to that required for firing the biscuit. the most ancient porcelain is, as everyone knows, the chinese, which, relying on the few authorities that have written on this subject, may have been in existence for two thousand years, and is said to have reached its greatest perfection towards the eleventh century of our era. the portuguese have the credit of having been the first to introduce it in europe, in ; but it is not improbable that, before they doubled the cape of good hope, some specimens were brought to europe through india and persia. this may be inferred from the mention by ancient historians of some extraordinary white vessels, which could hardly correspond to any other kind of ware. the portuguese and the dutch, who were the first to explore the chinese seas, seem to have derived a good trade from the importation of the porcelain into europe, and, since then, the reproduction of that refined pottery was the ambition of many alchemists, who pursued their experiments in that direction with an eagerness almost equal to that wasted in the search for the philosopher's stone. for a long time, in consequence of the imperfection of their chemical knowledge, their efforts ended in failure. the only successful attempt was that of francis ii., one of the medicis, who produced a few pieces of soft porcelain recognizable by their mark, representing the dome of florence. at the death of this prince, his secret was lost, and it was a long time afterwards, at the end of the seventeenth century, that john dwight, a potter, of fulham, in middlesex, took a patent for what is curiously reported by dr. plot as "_the mystery of transparent earthenware commonly knowne by the name of porcelaine and persian ware_." made from english materials, it is probable that this was nothing better than a kind of white stoneware, possessing little of those qualities which would entitle it to the name of porcelain. next to that in date would be the soft porcelain made at the manufactory of st. cloud, which was said to produce, in , pieces of ware considered very good imitations of the oriental. this was the origin of the french soft porcelain, which was carried on afterwards with varied success at chantilly, vincennes, and other places, till it was definitely settled, in , by king louis xv. in the royal establishment of sèvres. at a corresponding period, on this side of the channel, the efforts of our potters were varied and numerous. if we are to believe dr. martyn lister, a manufactory of porcelain existed at chelsea as far back as , a fact which would establish for england a claim equal to that of france for the discovery of the soft porcelain. this is not altogether improbable, considering that there was a glass manufactory in that locality before that, and that many people had a notion that porcelain was nothing else than a glass hardened and made opaque. the managers of these glass-works may have experimented on that supposition, and the conjecture is strengthened by the fact, that pounded glass was always used at chelsea to give the desired transparency. good specimens are not, however, recorded before , and it is probable that many of the improvements at chelsea were realized by the staffordshire potters, who, two years later, went there to apply their industry. the priority in making practically good ware belongs to the works established in at stratford-le-bow, from which the bow porcelain took its name. it was not perfected there, however, before , when a china, softer than that made at chelsea, and nearer to that made at vincennes, was manufactured by a potter named frye, originally a painter, who seems to have been the promoter and manager of these works, which at one time did not employ less than three hundred people. bow was celebrated for its statuettes, and it is said that several of them were modelled by bacon, the sculptor. the successes of bow and chelsea were great but of short duration, for both had ceased to exist in , when their utensils and moulds were sold to mr. william dwesbury, and carried to derby, where this enterprising gentleman had started a manufactory as far back as . three generations of dwesbury continued here the traditions of chelsea, after which time the works became the property of robert bloor, the last owner of repute. i am happy to say that after ceasing to exist for a great many years, this celebrated manufactory is going to be revived under the leadership of mr. e. phillips, formerly one of the directors of the worcester works. in that same year ( ), a man--who for his inquiring turn of mind and artistic knowledge seems to have a great likeness to josiah wedgwood--johu wall, a doctor and a chemist, began also to make porcelain at worcester; and if mr. binns' assertions are correct as regards the preparation of the fritt used in it, he must have had some knowledge of the vincennes receipts. the worcester works have now been celebrated for more than a century, and with them must be associated the names of the various owners, flight, barr, and chamberlain. at caughley, in shropshire, a manufactory of soft porcelain was in existence in , and it was employed at one time by the proprietors of the worcester works to assist in making ware, which was sent back to them to be decorated. the caughley works were bought by john rose, a pupil of turner, the first director, and transferred to coalport, with which the works of nantgarw, in south wales, were also amalgamated. these works have been in the family of john rose until lately, when they came into the possession of m. pew, the present owner. for softness and resistance of body, brightness of glaze, and clearness of colour, the coalport ware is held in great esteem by those who know anything about china. at swinton, in yorkshire, soft porcelain was manufactured on the property of the marquis of rockingham. manufactories also existed at other places, so that the reader may here remark, that all exertions to establish the manufacture of china were made outside staffordshire; and if he has noticed the dates, he will also perceive that all these works were founded, when wedgwood was too young to render any assistance. this we must say in justice to dr. wall, frye, dwesbury, and cookworthy--whose name must not be forgotten as the discoverer of the cornish clay, which so greatly promoted the ceramic trade of this country. william cookworthy was a chemist and druggist, at plymouth, a member of the society of friends, and a man of great respectability. having had the opportunity of seeing some kaolin and felspar from virginia, that an american friend had shown to him as the very material from which the chinese porcelain was made, he recognized, several years afterwards, the same in cornwall, and setting resolutely to work, he began to make his first trials at st. stephens, on the property of lord camelford, and afterwards at plymouth, where he remained till , when champion, a merchant of bristol, bought his patent, and removed the works to the latter place. i must here explain that cookworthy's ideas of the making of porcelain were correct, inasmuch as he wished to closely imitate the chinese; consequently he had to work on different principles from those then in favour at chelsea and other places. he wanted to produce a porcelain without fritt and with a felspathic glaze, and, in succeeding in his attempt, this energetic man is entitled to a great deal of credit, when we consider that, although the processes discovered by bottger, in , at meyssen, for making hard porcelain, were also put in practice at vienna, st. petersburg, and berlin, they were kept very secret, and it is most probable that he had no information whatever from those quarters. it would be to rob cookworthy to admit that the hard porcelain pieces, known by the name of lowestoft, were made in that locality. i am indeed sorry to differ in this from an eminent critic, who has taken great trouble to collect documents in support of this opinion; but those who are in favour of it know very little about the difficulties attending the organization of such manufacture, and the quality of the materials that it requires. besides the absence of any information respecting the place whence these materials were taken, the vast quantity of pieces which are met with is such, that it precludes the idea that they have been made in the precincts of such a small establishment. they have every feature of chinese porcelain, and of one made in large quantities. it is most probable that, after making, or trying to make, soft porcelain for a time, the proprietors of the lowestoft works found it more profitable to paint and decorate the foreign article, which they could easily get from holland in the white state. most pieces of cookworthy manufacture were copied from the chinese, and are still well known by the name of plymouth porcelain. at bristol, champion used the same clay to produce a softer kind of ware, and his materials began to be employed at bow and other places. the staffordshire potters soon became anxious to take advantage of the discovery, and in a company was formed by jacob warburton to obtain a licence for their use. this was granted by champion, but with this singular restriction--that, although they were allowed to use a certain quantity of china clay and china stone, they were not to make porcelain. this restriction, however, did not last long, and champion himself came for a short time to shelton to superintend some works. amongst the names of warburton's associates, we notice some well known in staffordshire, such as s. hollins, of shelton; antony keeling, of tunstall; turner, of lane end, and a few others. to these gentlemen we must give credit for the earliest attempts to introduce the manufacture of china into the potteries. however, their porcelain was inferior to that made at worcester and derby, and it is doubtful whether they would have persisted, if the matter had not been settled by josiah spode, the second of that name, who, by adding calcined bones to the body of the ware, made a new kind of porcelain, distinct from the hard or the soft previously made. on that account spode deserves to be considered as the creator of the english porcelain. there is this peculiarity in the use of bones, that the phosphate of lime which enters into their composition is not decomposed by the silicates with which it is mixed, and, as it is infusible, its admixture in the body allows the ware to stand without injury the temperature at which the felspar is vitrified. this hardening of the bones does not exclude a certain amount of transparency, and they possess, besides, a very great advantage in preventing the oxides of iron which exist in the clays, producing that brownish or imperfect transparency, noticeable in the old derby or worcester ware. i have already said that the adaptation of the glaze for each kind of pottery is one of the greatest difficulties that the maker has to overcome; in this case, however, there was very little, and the glazing of english porcelain may be considered as exceptionally easy. most of the glazes which had been used for the soft porcelain could be adapted to this one, a property which was of great service when the pieces had to be decorated. i have already explained, that when paintings executed on the surface of the ware are submitted to a moderate red heat, if the glaze is soft enough to undergo an incipient fusion, the vitreous colours with which they are executed will sink into it and attain, by their incorporation, an amount of glossiness and brilliancy which cannot be got on the surface of hard glazes. this is particularly illustrated by the old sèvres ware, which possesses this quality in the highest degree. english porcelain, well-made, has almost all the advantages of the old soft, and its making is not attended with the difficulties experienced in working a body made from fritted substances. for regular use, it is not much inferior to the hard porcelain. when this last began to be made on the continent, people were so much prejudiced in its favour, on account of the capability of its glaze to resist the scratching of the knife, that this was thought to more than compensate for its inability to combine with the colours. the advantage was, in fact, more apparent than real, for when hard porcelain has been long in use, it becomes as badly scratched as the english. some people question whether it would not be desirable to revive in england the manufacture of the hard. there are many reasons against this, the principal being, that in case we succeeded, we should have to compete with the french and germans, who get their labour cheaper, and have a long experience of processes altogether different from ours; and by the change we should lose the advantage of our traditions, and depend, at least for a time, on foreign labour to give a new training to our workmen. out of the trade, few people seem to know that the price of hard porcelain is generally lower than that given for the english; and, if the experiment were made, it would be soon found that with greater risks we should produce an article of less value, and consequently less remunerative. it is true that the exports of our best china are very small, on account of its price; but with the improvement going on in the public taste, it is likely to increase, and there are signs that eventually our richest articles may find purchasers on the other side of the atlantic. in europe, where the value of the various ceramic productions has been more investigated than in the other parts of the world, there is hardly an amateur who does not recognize the superiority of a soft porcelain for decorated articles, and if the english china is not, properly speaking, as soft as the old sèvres, it is certainly nearer to it than any other porcelain. this superiority is proved by the test that the various porcelains are undergoing at the present time, and which is rather decisive. we understand by this, the manner in which they have stood the dangerous competition arising from the introduction of artistic faiences or painted majolica. while, in consequence of this, the french manufacturers have seen the production of ornamental articles in hard porcelain collapse to an incredible extent, the quantity of those made in england for similar purposes is fast increasing. messrs. copeland, whose father, the late alderman, was for some time in partnership with spode, occupy, in stoke-upon-trent, the same establishment in which that great potter carried out his improvements. since then, these makers have kept their rank among the principal leaders of the trade, and maintain their reputation for the excellence of their decoration and the beauty of their gilding. it was so far fortunate for stoke that, although one of the smallest towns in the potteries, it became the seat of the most important manufactories of china. it was in that thomas minton, who had been brought up as an engraver at the caughley works, in shropshire, and who in that capacity had been several years in the employment of spode, founded in that town the establishment which subsequently became the property of his son, herbert minton. the father does not seem to have possessed these qualities which, as potter, should entitle him to a special notice; but the same cannot be said of the son, who soon after his father's death began to work in earnest to raise his manufactory to its present degree of eminence. the unceasing activity of his mind in carrying out improvements in all the branches of his trade, may be attested by one who for many years had the honour of working with him. on every matter connected with art his ideas were sound, and his natural tact rarely failed in finding out that which was most suited to the taste of his customers. his reputation, as the most advanced potter of his time, is so well established, that i am not astonished to find others claiming a share in it, asserting that it was at their suggestion, or with their assistance, that he left the old path to open the way to progress. suggestions and advices are always freely given to a man of sociable disposition as was herbert minton, but he used his own judgment and discretion to test their practicability. in applying higher class of art to his productions, he had only to follow his own inclinations, guided by that care and prudence which are inseparable from good administration. he knew how to select his assistants, and was particularly fortunate in his partners, his two nephews: michael hollins, who, since he left the firm of minton, is the owner of a large tile manufactory at stoke; and colin minton campbell, his pupil and heir, who, after taking an active part in all his labours, has so successfully followed the example set by his uncle, that minton's manufactory is now the largest in existence, and turns out the greatest variety of ware. with minton and copeland must be associated the names of messrs. brown-westhead, of caulden place; and outside staffordshire, the coalport works and the royal manufactory at worcester. these are the principal producers of richly decorated china, for which the demand has greatly increased during the last few years. the greatest bulk of that ware is, however, made at longton, one of the pottery towns which has a reputation for the cheapness of its goods; but of late a decided tendency to improve their quality and prices must be noticed among the generality of its manufacturers. several of them, like messrs. ainsley, moore, barlow, and others, are trying to raise their goods to the same level as those of stoke. there are about thirty-five firms in the potteries making china, most of them for the home trade, and over five times that number making earthenware. these two hundred and thirty manufactories are spread over an area of ten square miles, comprising the towns of hanley, burslem, tunstall, longton, fenton, shelton, and stoke-upon-trent, from which the electoral borough takes its name. these, which in a few years are likely to be amalgamated in a single town, form the district called the potteries, containing already a population of , inhabitants engaged in the ceramic and iron trade. it has been remarked that since the foundation of burslem, the mother town of the potteries, the population of the district has doubled every twenty-five years, and it is easy to foresee the time when stoke-upon-trent will rank in importance with our largest commercial cities. the export of porcelain is not large; but that of earthenware reaches one and a half million of pounds. this does not appear large compared with the enormous amount exported by the iron or the cotton trades, but it is satisfactory, if taken in combination with the quantity absorbed by the home trade, which represents quite as much. our colonial trade with australia, india, and british america is decidedly on the increase, and the same may be said as regards south america. on the contrary, our transactions with the continent of europe have a tendency to decrease, and to fluctuate in the case of the united states, a very important market, which, in time of prosperity, would take as much as , _l._ of granite ware. to meet the competition of france and germany, on one side, and the americans on the other, great changes have taken place in the management of our works. several processes have been improved or simplified, and large manufactories have been built on better principles. these steps were not taken too soon; for if competition scarcely existed for our goods twenty years ago, that state of things has been much altered, and it will require a great deal of application and energy on our part, if we intend to maintain our position as the largest and best producers of pottery in the world. it is a fact that america, which had not a single manufactory worth the name at the time of the new york exhibition, produces now, with the assistance of british workmen, granite ware of tolerably good quality; and i have been told by an eye-witness, that no less than seventy ovens are now at work at trenton, in new jersey. the clays and coals used by these potters are good, and if the salaries are higher than they are in england, they find a compensation in the heavy duties which, since the war of secession, are levied on our wares. our commercial intercourse with france has not much altered, and the quantity of our goods sent across the channel may be considered small compared with the importance of this market. the french are the largest producers of hard porcelain, and they make their common earthenware quite as cheap, if not cheaper, than ours. however, if they are strong at home, they have never affected our trade abroad, except in the united states, where they send their porcelain in competition with english granite. at the present time, the rivalry from which we have suffered most in germany, the north of europe, and as far as italy, comes from a group of establishments situated in the rhenish provinces and that neighbourhood: at sarreguemines, sarrelouis, vaudrevange, mettlach, maestricht, and a few other places. built in the centre of a populous district, where labour is still very cheap, their intelligent and wealthy proprietors share in each other's business, and consequently have no inducement for lowering their prices. they seem to have given a considerable portion of their time to the study of the various processes, and they have so far succeeded, that they are a great deal more independent with regard to their men than we are. possessing these advantages, we cannot wonder, if we have not been able to keep our hold on those markets which were the nearest to them. besides, it is plain, that the important rise which has taken place in the price of wages and fuel, and the consequent increase in the price of our wares, has acted as an encouragement to foreign production; and perhaps it may be good policy, in future, to resist any further opportunity which might offer to increase the price of our goods. it would, however, be singular if, in the course of time, england did not derive some benefit from this competition; she is used to close contest, and, everything considered, her position is an enviable one. our home trade is excellent; and if the amount of our exports does not progress so fast as we could desire, we know that we have in our commercial fleet more facilities that any other nation for sending our goods to those numerous countries where the trade of pottery is hardly established, and we rely on our honest and straightforward way of dealing, for securing new customers for english manufacture. glass and silicates. by professor fredk. s. barff, m.a. the very brilliant and useful substance, which forms the subject of this article, is said to have been discovered by the phoenicians. the story goes that some phoenician merchants, while cooking their food on the sands near the seashore, noticed that the ashes of the plant, with which they made their fire, caused some of the sand to melt and form a vitreous substance; but whether this tale be true or not, it is well known that for a long time these people made glass from the materials which were abundant on their sea and river coasts. glass, however, was produced long before this by the egyptians for the beads and ornaments used in adorning their mummies, and many specimens of these are in the british museum. it is certain also that they well knew how to make certain substances impart colour to glass for the manufacture of most of these beads. the romans made rich goblets of ruby glass, some of which are to be seen in collections in this country, as well as urns to receive the ashes of their dead, four of which, of a green colour, are also in the british museum. the manufacture of these vessels proves that this nation was well skilled in the arts of blowing and modelling glass; and their designs, which we are now reproducing, show that they were at least not inferior in artistic skill to those who have formed their taste in this highly civilized age. we have no record of glass being used for glazing purposes in ancient times. the venerable bede introduced it into this country about a.d., and employed it in the adornment of church windows. ordinary window glass was made at the works in crutched friars in , and plate glass at the large works of the ravenhead plate glass company, near st. helen's in lancashire. about , flint glass vessels were blown at the establishment in the savoy house; and the second duke of buckingham brought over venetian artists, at that time the most skilled, to make glass for mirrors, carriage windows, and other useful purposes. their workshop was in lambeth, and the date of their arrival in this country was . the french were before us in the art of casting glass plates; and in , stewart commenced this branch of manufacture, which led to the establishment of the very famous works of st. gobain. england has now large plate glass factories in different parts of the country, and these together yield as their weekly production at least , superficial feet of the best polished plate, or seven and a quarter millions of feet yearly. the value of plate glass made in england annually, including the rough kinds used for glazing roofs, &c., is estimated at , , _l._ france still stands very high, and her plates are extremely perfect in manufacture. st. marie d'oignies, in belgium, also sends a considerable quantity of plate glass into the market. this branch of manufacture has not yet extended to america, which therefore is a large customer of europe. formerly, glass making was very heavily taxed in this country, and in an additional duty was placed on the manufacture of the raw material, which so greatly depressed it, that the income which the state received fell from , _l._ to , _l._ per annum. moreover, large quantities of foreign glass were imported, and this too hindered the development of the industry amongst us. on the repeal of the duty, however, the trade began to increase, and has now reached very large dimensions. glass appears to be a mixture of silicates, the nature and chemical composition of which will be explained in a later part of this article. the materials used are principally sand, with an alkaline substance, either a salt of soda or potash and lime, though in some kinds of glass, oxide of lead takes the place of lime. other materials are generally employed to correct impurities which may occur in the sand, and which, if present, always impart an objectionable colour to the glass. there are two kinds of glass in ordinary use: common window glass, which may be divided into sheet, crown, and plate; and flint glass, which is used for decanters, wine-glasses, and tumblers; and, in some special forms, for ornamental stones in imitation of jewels, and also for lenses of telescopes and microscopes. the materials for making these different kinds vary somewhat, although the principal constituents are the same, viz. sand with some salt of soda or potash. the scientific name for sand, or more properly for its principal constituent, is silica. this compound silica, or oxide of silicon, also called silicic acid, possesses properties similar to those which belong to other acids, namely, it is able, when brought into contact with bodies of an opposite character under suitable conditions, to unite with them and to form salts. everybody knows, that if tartaric acid be added to carbonate of soda, an effervescence takes place; carbonic acid passes off in the gaseous state, and the residue is composed of a portion of the tartaric acid, which unites with the soda, a double decomposition taking place. if silicic acid be mixed with carbonate of soda, and if the mixture be heated to a high temperature, that is, to a white heat, for some length of time, the same kind of action occurs: carbonic acid goes off, the silica or silicic acid uniting with the soda; and inasmuch as the soda salt was originally called _carbonate_ of soda, after this action, in which carbonic acid is replaced by silicic acid, it is called _silicate_ of soda. silicic acid at the ordinary temperature of the air and in the dry state, has no action whatever upon carbonate of soda, but when heated sufficiently, the action becomes vigorous. a very interesting experiment may be performed in illustration of this fact in the following manner: if a mixture of carbonate of soda and carbonate of potash be heated in an ordinary fire-clay crucible, and if, when the mixture is melted, some perfectly dry sand be poured into it, effervescence will take place, owing to the expulsion of carbonic acid from the carbonate of soda and potash by means of the silicic acid. if the operation be performed in such a vessel that the carbonic acid can be collected, its presence is readily indicated by the usual tests. this experiment can be easily made by anyone who has ordinary chemical apparatus at his command. if the mixture of carbonate of potash and carbonate of soda be melted in a small platinum crucible; and if, when melted, it be removed quickly while very hot into a tall beaker-glass, and sand be then poured into it, the escaping carbonic acid will, on account of its being heavier than air, be retained in the glass, and its presence can be recognized by its turning lime-water milky (which is, in fact, a solution of lime in water), owing to the formation of carbonate of lime produced by the carbonic acid evolved uniting with the lime dissolved in the water. a mixture of carbonate of soda and carbonate of potash is here used, because either of these salts requires a very high temperature to melt it; but when the two are heated together, the fusibility of both is increased. when sand is heated with oxide of lead (common litharge) they unite, forming a compound similar to that produced by the silica uniting with the soda, as described in the last paragraph. in the first case, a _soda_ glass is formed; in the second, a _lead_ glass is the result. if these two glasses be mixed together and melted in a crucible, and if the proportions in which they are mixed be properly adjusted, and the materials used be pure, a colourless and transparent glass will be formed, similar in appearance to that which is employed in the manufacture of decanters and tumblers. the same kind of glass may be produced by mixing all the materials in due proportions and heating them together. if, instead of oxide of lead, lime be mixed with carbonate of soda and sand, and the mixture be heated to a high temperature, a glass will be formed, in many respects similar to that of which oxide of lead is a constituent, but differing from it in several important particulars. first of all, the lead glass is highly lustrous, and has a great power of refracting light, so that, when it is cut, it presents a brilliant appearance, and by refraction readily produces the prismatic colours. this property does not belong to the glass containing lime, to anything like the same extent. lead glass, too, is much heavier than lime glass, and is therefore unsuited to many of the purposes for which the latter is generally used, the principal of which is for the glazing of windows. if, instead of oxide of lead, which is a chemical compound of lead and oxygen gas, or lime, which likewise is one of the metal calcium with oxygen, _carbonate_ of lead or of lime be used, the silicic acid will expel the carbonic acid from these substances at a high temperature, just as it does the carbonic acid from the carbonate of soda and carbonate of potash. it is necessary, for a proper understanding of the scientific part of our subject, that this fact should be borne in mind, and that the acid properties of silica should be thoroughly recognized. formerly, carbonate of soda was used in the manufacture of ordinary window glass, but now it is found more economical to employ _sulphate_ of soda, which is a much earlier product in the manufacture of soda from common salt than the carbonate, and is therefore less expensive. carbonic acid is what chemists call a _weak_ acid, by which is meant, that its compounds are not so firm and stable, as those which are formed by other acids with the same substances. sulphuric acid is a strong and powerful acid, uniting very readily with the oxides of certain metals to form very stable compounds. but although this acid is chemically so powerful in its compounds, yet at a high temperature it is expelled by silicic acid, showing that this substance, so inert in its natural state and at the ordinary temperature of the air, becomes exceedingly active in expelling other acids and in forming compounds, when put under favourable conditions. if a mixture of common sand and carbonate of soda, the carbonate of soda being in excess, be heated, a glass will be obtained which is slowly soluble in cold, readily soluble in hot water. to these compounds the name of silicate is given, so that we speak of the soda compound as silicate of soda, of the lead compound as silicate of lead, and the lime compound as silicate of lime. silicate of soda and silicate of potash, when the alkali, that is to say, the soda or potash, is in excess, are both soluble. if a solution of one of these silicates be taken, and if carbonic acid be passed slowly through it, after a time a gelatinous, white, flocculent substance will be formed in the liquid, and eventually precipitated. this white flocculent substance is silicic acid combined with the elements of water, and is therefore called by chemists hydrate of silica. now this hydrate of silica is soluble in water and in hydrochloric acid; and the method by which it can be brought into solution in water will be explained, when treating fully of what are called soluble silicates and their applications. soluble silicates are mentioned here, in order that a more perfect understanding of the nature of silicious compounds may be obtained, by those who do not possess a scientific knowledge of chemistry. the silicic acid in the silicate of soda is precipitated or separated out by carbonic acid, and hence it appears, that an action, exactly the reverse of that which takes place at a high temperature, occurs, when the silicic acid is removed from those conditions in which it has been seen to be (chemically) so active. suppose that to a solution of silicate of soda or of potash a soluble salt of calcium be added--the chloride, for example, which is a compound of the metal calcium with chlorine--a double decomposition will take place; the calcium will unite with oxygen in the silicate of soda, forming lime; and this will again unite with the silicic acid, forming silicate of lime; while the chlorine will unite with the sodium, forming chloride of sodium, or common salt. here then, silicate of lime is obtained by a process very different from that which has already been described, namely, by the heating of lime with silica at a high temperature. the body formed in the latter case is chemically the same as that produced in the former, there being present the same weight of calcium, the same weight of oxygen, and the same weight of silicic acid in each. again, if to a solution of silicate of soda, one containing a soluble lead salt, such as the nitrate, be added, the silicic acid will unite with the oxide of lead in the nitrate of lead, and the acid constituent of that body will unite with the oxide of sodium or soda, forming nitrate of soda. it is apparent, therefore, from these remarks, that in whatever way the substances be made to unite, the effects produced as regards chemical composition are the same. if some of the silicate of lime or silicate of lead made by precipitation be dried and heated to a high temperature in a crucible, it will melt or fuse, and form a vitreous substance. in these last cases, as in many others which will have to be alluded to, the silicates formed are not soluble in water, although silicate of lime may be partially dissolved when heated in water under extreme pressure, by which the temperature is considerably increased, and even slightly in cold water. to ensure the production of definite silicates by the agency of heat, the materials must be mixed together in proper combining proportions; for if more of the metallic oxide is introduced than can combine chemically with the sand, it will be melted in the mass, but the excess will not form a definite compound; whereas by precipitation, the silicates formed always have, when thoroughly washed, a definite composition. this subject will be again referred to, when the manufacture of commercial glass is described. it has been noticed that the glass found in the windows of old churches and in other places where it has been exposed to the prolonged action of the air and of moisture, has gradually become rough on its surface, and has lost to a considerable extent its transparency. this, which would be a defect in glass for the glazing of ordinary windows, where transparency is desired, is rightly regarded as a beauty in glass which is to be used for the ornamentation of windows. many reasons have been offered in explanation of this apparently peculiar property of ancient glass; and that which appears to be correct is, that glass is a mechanical mixture of different silicates, some of which may be soluble in water, and others insoluble. the old window glass, whose manufacture will be more fully described by-and-by, was made in a less perfect manner than modern appliances enable glass manufacturers now to produce the same article, so that the silicates composing the old glass were not as intimately mixed as those used in modern glass. by the slow action of air and moisture, portions of the soluble silicates have been dissolved out, and hence we frequently find a sort of honeycomb appearance on the surface of ancient glass, as well as a thin film, which, by refraction of light, causes an opalescence when viewed by reflected light. efforts have of late been made to produce a similar effect by employing different methods in the process of manufacture, but without complete success. the fact, however, that such changes have taken place in this less perfectly fused glass, tends to show, that if one silicate can be dissolved out, there cannot be _chemical_ union between all the silicates. if a piece of modern window glass be heated in water under pressure in a closed vessel, it will present somewhat the appearance of ancient glass, for a considerable quantity of soluble silicate will be dissolved out from it. the object in dwelling on this matter here, is to induce makers to attend more to the chemical composition of their glass, for, doubtless, much more satisfactory results would be obtained both as to the quality of the material and the cost of its production, if thoroughly scientific investigations were conducted by a competent chemist. manufacture of glass. the first object in glass making is to obtain suitable materials. the sand which is employed for window glass differs from that which is required for flint glass, in that the latter should be as pure as possible. the maker can correct the impurities in the window glass sand, provided they be not present in too great quantities; but it is far more difficult, in the case of flint glass, to chemically counteract the influence of those substances which might impair its tint. so that the manufacturer would rather pay large prices for his sand, than trust to expedients which in their application might fail, and thus cause a greater loss. one of the principal and most troublesome impurities met with in sand, is iron in the form of oxide. there are two oxides of iron: one, the protoxide, which imparts a green colour to glass; and the other the peroxide, whose staining property is yellow. a very small quantity of the former will give an appreciably green tint, whereas it requires a large quantity of the peroxide to produce even a delicate yellow. in all glass making, it is found necessary to use something which will counteract the colouring properties of these two oxides. the material employed was black oxide of manganese. this is still used in certain glass-works, but from its injurious action on the fire-clay pots, arsenious acid or common white arsenic is employed to effect the same object. the chemical action in the two cases is different: the black oxide of manganese is what is termed an oxidizing agent, and gives up, at a high temperature, a portion of its oxygen to the protoxide of iron, thereby converting it into the peroxide. it thus becomes comparatively harmless, by converting a quantity of that oxide, which gives a green colour, into the other oxide, which has little or no power of colouring, except it be present in large quantities. the difficulty in using black oxide of manganese is, the exact proportioning of it to the quantity of iron present in the sand, a quantity which cannot be easily determined. if the black oxide of manganese be used in excess, some of the oxide of manganese remains unreduced, and, when this is the case, it gives a purple colour to glass. if used in exact proportions, it is reduced to an oxide which does not impart colour to glass. this may be seen in many of the old plate glass windows which were employed for glazing purposes some sixty or seventy years ago, the colour of the panes being generally purple. since this article was written, i have been consulted by a glass firm of eminence, as to the use of pure black oxide of manganese in the manufacture of flint glass, instead of that ordinarily supplied in commerce. the black oxide of manganese usually sold contains many other constituents besides black oxide of manganese; amongst these are iron, copper, cobalt, and alumina. the iron, as will be seen from what has before been stated, is a decidedly objectionable ingredient to use along with the manganese. copper and cobalt both stain glass, the former of a bluish-green colour, while the latter makes it blue; and a small quantity of the latter has great staining power. i have thought it advisable to give analyses of the black oxides of manganese, and they are as follows: binoxide of manganese (molecule, mn.o_ ), is found native as pyrolusite or polyanite. appended are two analyses of pyrolusite containing sesquioxide of iron. red oxide of manganese · · oxygen · · sesquioxide of iron · · alumina · baryta · lime · silica · · water · · ----- ---- · · the native binoxide often contains both copper and cobalt in addition to iron; frequently to the amount of as much as per cent. of copper and about · per cent. of cobalt. wad, a native binoxide of manganese, sometimes contains · per cent. of iron, while nearly all the manganese ores contain more or less alumina, varying from · per cent. to as much as per cent. from the composition of ordinary commercial black oxide of manganese, as shown by these analyses, it is evident that it is better to use the pure article, and this has been found to be the case by the firm who have adopted it in lieu of commercial black oxide of manganese. i therefore strongly recommend all glass makers to try and experiment with it, for the results obtained will largely counterbalance the extra cost of the pure material; and i also much doubt whether the same injurious effects will be produced on the pots, as is the case where commercial manganese is employed. arsenious acid also acts as an oxidizing agent, in that it gives up its oxygen to the protoxide of iron, converting it into the peroxide; but the arsenic itself, which has lost its oxygen, is reduced to the metallic state, and being volatile, does not remain with the glass, but passes off by the flues of the furnace. if too much arsenic is used, it sometimes renders the glass milky or cloudy. before describing in detail the method of mixing and founding glass, it will be necessary to mention the composition of the vessels in which the glass is made. they are called glass-pots, and differ in shape according to the different kinds of glass to be made in them. glass-pots are made of fire-clay (generally the best stourbridge), which is a silicate of alumina, and here great care is taken to select that which contains least lime or iron. it is ground, then moistened and well kneaded together, and left to ripen, while a certain quantity of old glass-pot is ground fine and mixed with the fresh fire-clay. masses about the size of two hands are kneaded separately, the object being to exclude all air bubbles, and to obtain a perfectly homogeneous lump. the bottom of the glass-pot is then laid, the masses of fire-clay being pressed in with the greatest care, so as to avoid all cracks or places where air might enter during the slow process of drying. the modern shape is round; though formerly certain glass-pots, called _cuvettes_, used in the purifying of plate glass, were square. pots used in the manufacture of common crown and sheet window glass, generally speaking, are larger at the top than at the bottom; but whatever may be the shape of the pot, the method of its building is the same. the sides are carefully made of fire-clay, each piece being laid on by itself and kneaded like the bottom of the pot, so that it is slowly built up until it reaches the desired height. it is then dried very gradually, and the process is finished in artificially warmed chambers. before putting it in its place in the glass-furnace, it is allowed to remain for some time in what is called a pot-arch, that is, an archway built of fire-clay bricks, along the side of which is a fireplace, by means of which the arch is brought up to a red heat; and after it has been heated sufficiently, is removed while red-hot and put into the furnace. glass-pots are never allowed to cool, and with care they may last for several months. from this description of their manufacture, it will be clear that it is attended with considerable cost, varying from _l._ to _l._ there are three different kinds of ordinary pots for crown, plate, and flint glass; and of these the last is decidedly the most expensive, as its top is covered over, and presents the appearance of a dome with an opening in front, through which the materials can be introduced when the pot is charged, and from which, when made, the glass may be drawn, in order to be blown into shape by the workman. in glass-furnaces the pots are sometimes arranged in a circle, with their mouths opening into the glass-house; but now a different construction is sometimes employed, since other methods of heating the furnaces have been introduced. it is hardly within the scope of this article to enter into a description of glass-furnaces; suffice it to state, that they should be of such a construction as to yield the greatest amount of well-regulated heat for the smallest consumption of fuel, and this object seems to be best effected by the adoption of mr. siemens' excellent principle of heating furnaces. for some years his process has been in use at the thames plate glass company's works, where the saving of fuel has been very considerable, and the glass greatly improved, owing to the fact that impurities from the fuel employed cannot possibly find such easy entrance into the glass-pot. in any case, the construction of the furnace is such, as to be best adapted to the convenience of the workmen, according to the kinds of glass which they have to make. differently arranged furnaces are used for bottles from those employed for crown and sheet glass. it has lately come to my knowledge that flint glass, that is to say, the glass used for tumblers, decanters, and such like, is occasionally injured by the appearance in it of little opaque white spots. some portions of glass of this character have been analyzed by me, when i found that these white spots were owing to the presence of a glass containing alumina. now alumina raises the melting point of any glass of which it is a constituent. so, then, these white spots were due to the presence in the flint glass, which was perfectly clear, of a much less fusible glass which was only partly made when the flint glass was ready for working. on investigating the matter, it was found that the alumina came from the glass-pots, for when by my advice the faulty pot was withdrawn from the furnace and carefully examined, although it had been in work only six weeks, the bottom was honey-combed to a very considerable extent, showing that portions of the pot had been dissolved; and inasmuch as the fire-clay, of which the pots are made, contains a large quantity of alumina, it was not difficult to trace the source of these white spots which had rendered useless much very valuable glass. on inquiry it was found that the pots had been made entirely of new clay, and on reference to the book of workings, which was kept in the glass-house, it was also found that for some time, the glass-pots used in that establishment had been made of new clay, and that on a previous occasion a similar calamity had before happened. in the records kept where pots were made, as has already been described, with a portion of old pot as well as new clay, no white spots had ever appeared in the glass. it is therefore manifest, that it is much safer to use a portion of old pot than to trust to pots made entirely of new clay. having considered briefly the manufacture of glass-pots, i shall proceed to the treatment of the materials to be employed. in making common window glass, ordinary sand, which does not contain any very large quantity of iron, may be used, the alkali employed being sulphate of soda, while the purifying material is either arsenic or black oxide of manganese. a small quantity of anthracite coal is added to the mixture, in order to assist in the reduction of the sulphate of soda, together with some lime. the materials are carefully mixed and placed in the furnace, where they are heated for some time, a process which is called "fritting." its object is to perfectly dry the materials, so as to expel carbonic acid gas, which would otherwise cause swelling in the glass; but no combination must take place, to allow of silicates being formed, otherwise the alkali would melt first and attack the substance of the glass-pots, and part of it would be volatilized and lost. when this operation is completed, the fritt is put into the hot glass-pot, and submitted to the action of the heat of the furnace, until the glass is made, or "founded," as it is technically termed. in the case of sheet and crown glass, this process lasts from sixteen to seventeen hours, for it will be remembered that the top of the pot is open to the furnace, so that the flames pass over the surface of its contents. in this way the materials get heated more rapidly than when a covered glass-pot is used. m. gehlen gives as a good mixture for window glass: sand parts. dry sulphate of soda " quicklime " carbon, as charcoal " different makers have different mixtures. this by m. gehlen is given as _about_ the proportions of the several constituents employed. the charging of the pots is conducted in this manner: they are filled with lumps of fritt, and the heat of the furnace is raised as rapidly as possible, until, in about eight or nine hours the fritt has run down or melted into glass. more fritt is then added, which also melts, and from time to time this is repeated, till the pot contains a sufficient quantity. after about sixteen hours the whole has become converted into glass, and the surface of the molten mass is covered with liquid salt and sulphate of soda. this scum is called glass-gall or sandiver, and is carefully removed with iron ladles. some broken glass, or cullet, is now thrown into the glass-pot, a little at a time, the object being to cause any salt which may remain in the pot to rise to the surface, which is then removed, and so the glass is in this manner purified, after it has been further heated for some hours, to expel gases. when the glass is made, and its temperature so reduced that it is in a doughy or pasty state, it is then worked off by the blowers into either sheets or tables, as is desired. the blowing of sheet and crown glass is a work of considerable difficulty and labour, and one which cannot be successfully performed, except by a workman who has been brought up from boyhood in a glass-house. a quantity of the soft glass is collected or gathered on the end of a blowpipe, and the workman then blows into it, and distends it into a globular form. now it is necessary, in making sheet glass, that that globular form should be elongated; the workman therefore holds his blowpipe, which is about five feet long, in a vertical direction, and the softened globe becomes pear-shaped. by dexterously swinging the blowpipe from side to side, which he does while standing on a plank placed over a sort of pit, and by causing it to rise on either side, he converts the pear-shape into a true cylinder, having rounded ends. when the cylinder has assumed the exact shape desired, he places his thumb on the end of the blowpipe, and holds the opposite end of the cylinder in the mouth of the furnace. the glass softens at the heated end, and the expanding air causes it to burst the opening. it is then shaped with a suitable tool, so that it is of the diameter of the cylinder. when the latter is cooled, a piece of hot glass is applied to its shoulder with a pontee, and is drawn out into a thread around it. this makes the glass hot. the thread of glass is removed, a cold instrument is applied rapidly, and the shoulder of the blowing is cut off. the glass is next detached from the blowpipe, and its ends removed, and it is then annealed for a short time, and cut down lengthways internally by a diamond. it is afterwards placed, with the long cut uppermost, in what is called a flattening kiln, that is, in a sort of oven or furnace heated to a high temperature and having a perfectly smooth stone floor; after a short exposure the glass softens, and a workman, with suitable wooden tools, opens it out where it was cut by the diamond, and causes it to lie flat upon the stone. it is then rubbed by a wooden tool, and in this way is flattened, removed from the flattening stone kiln, and placed in a hot chamber, in which it is allowed to cool slowly, for the purpose of "annealing." sheet glass, formerly called broad glass, was originally made on the continent; but its manufacture, first established in this country by the introduction of foreign workmen, has extended to very large dimensions, and the quality of english sheet is now quite equal, if not superior, to anything that is produced abroad. the advantage which it possesses over crown glass is, that much larger sheets can be made, and this is very easily noticed if we examine the larger dimensions of common window panes compared with those which were formerly made. even now the workmen employed in this class of manufacture are generally belgians. a sheet glass blower must be very strong, and have great skill in handling his blowpipe, for the cylinders which he blows are frequently sixty inches long, and their weight is very considerable. glass shades are blown by sheet blowers. these sometimes are very large, and require great skill. when their shape is to be that of a cylinder with a dome top, they are made as in the ordinary course of blowing a cylinder of sheet glass, but instead of one end being burst as described, they are simply detached from the blowpipe. when they have to be oval or square at their bases, they are blown into wooden moulds of the required form, which have their insides charred. the gathered mass of glass is placed inside such a mould, and is then blown into until it touches the sides. this is an operation requiring great strength and delicacy; strength to blow with sufficient force to bring the softened glass to touch the mould in all its parts, and delicacy to prevent the pressure from being so great as to cause the outside of the glass shade to receive marks on its surface from the mould. the shaping of the molten glass into tables of _crown_ is different in detail. the globular mass formed by the first blowings is held by a workman vertically over his head. an assistant gathers a small quantity of soft glass from the furnace on the end of a pointed iron rod, and causes it to adhere to the flattened surface, at a point opposite to that to which the blowpipe is attached. the glass near the blowpipe, while hot, is touched with a cold instrument, and immediately cracks around its neck, detaching the blowpipe from the mass. the pointel is taken by the blower, and the opening formed by the removal of the blowpipe is placed opposite to what is called a "flashing" furnace, that is, a furnace with a large circular opening in its front, and which is heated to such an intense degree, that it is impossible for a person unaccustomed to it to approach within several feet of the furnace-mouth. the workman generally wears a shield or screen to protect the upper part of his body and face. the glass becomes softened by the heat, and the workman gives his pointel a rotary motion, somewhat similar to that which a housemaid gives to a mop when she trundles it; and as the glass softens, the opening gets larger and larger, until at last the softened mass instantaneously flashes out into a circular sheet, an operation which produces a very startling effect upon the eyes of anyone beholding it for the first time. the circular crown table thus made is detached from the pointel, and the mass of glass which caused it to adhere forms what is known by the name of the bull's eye. the table thus made is, like the sheet, placed in an annealing furnace, and there left for a proper length of time. the manufacture of _plate_ glass is altogether different from that of crown and sheet. first of all, much greater care is taken in the selection of the materials, the sand used being of a purer kind than that employed in the manufacture of common window glass; the alkali is of a better quality; and more caution is taken in all the manipulative processes prior to the melting of the mixture. arsenious acid is more frequently used than manganese for the correction of the iron impurity. it has been noticed that in the plate glass-pots, there are grooves placed around their sides, and these are intended to receive metal claspers, by means of which the pot can be removed bodily from the furnace. in former times the glass was made in large pots, and then ladled out into smaller ones, of a square form called _cuvettes_, and in these it was left exposed to the heat of the furnace for a length of time, in order that it might be refined, by the rising of impurities to the surface and by the escape of air bubbles. the use of these cuvettes is now discontinued, and the pot in which the glass is founded is removed from the furnace and its contents poured upon the tables on which the plate is formed, by the action of rollers. a plate glass table is made of iron; its surface is smooth and of the size required to make a large plate, and it is placed upon wheels and run upon a tramway from one part of the glass-house to another, so as to be opposite to the mouth of the furnace from which the glass-pot has to be removed. along the sides of this table, taken lengthways, moveable strips of iron are placed, rising above it to a sufficient height to secure the desired thickness for the glass plate, and on these strips runs a roller, so adapted that it can be made to pass pretty readily from one end of the table to the other. the contents of the glass-pot, when placed over the table by means of a crane and tilted up, fall out somewhat as a lump of dough would fall from a kneading trough if it were inverted, for it must be borne in mind that the glass in this process is not in a very fluid state. the roller is made to pass rapidly over the softened glass, and in this way spreads it over the table, until it comes in contact with the strips placed along the edge, which serve as gauges for determining the thickness of the plate. after the plate is formed, it immediately sets, and is removed while hot into an annealing furnace, which is always so placed that the glass can be transferred to it from the table with the least possible delay. in this furnace several plates of fresh-made glass are deposited, and are allowed to cool extremely slowly, in order that the glass may be properly annealed. when this process is completed, the plates are removed, the edges are trimmed off with a diamond, and one plate, bedded in plaster of paris, is placed upon a flat stone receptacle; another plate, also coated on one of its sides with plaster of paris, is made to adhere to a piece of machinery placed directly above the other plate, and is so situated, with respect to this latter, that the two surfaces are perfectly parallel one to the other. it should be here mentioned, that the side of the plate which touches the table is always rough, and has no polish, while that over which the roller is passed is slightly undulating, and has a bright polish similar to that of a sheet of blown glass, and which is technically known as "fire" polish. the machine to which the upper plate is attached is so arranged that, when set in motion, it causes it to move in just the same direction that a plate would do if moved by the human arm; this is therefore called an elbow motion. boys stand by the sides of the two plates, and throw fine sand and water on the lower one, so that the opposed surfaces mutually grind one another, and when this process is completed on one side, they are reversed, and the same operation is performed on the other side. the plates have now the appearance of ground glass, and the surfaces are further ground by fine emery powder, which causes them to be much smoother and more ready for the final polishing. formerly this was entirely done by hand, women generally being the operators, and oxide of iron, called crocus, mixed with water, the material employed for polishing. now, however, a more rapid and perfect method is adopted by the use of machinery. a table is prepared which moves from side to side, giving to the plate a lateral motion; and above is a beam, in which holes are drilled at intervals, through which short iron rods, nearly an inch in diameter, pass. on these are padded iron buffers, covered on their under surface with leather; while, pressing down these rods, and therefore the buffers, are springs, which act with considerable force, but which are able to yield to pressure caused by any inequality over which the buffers may pass. the glass plate is fixed upon this table, and its upper surface is exposed to the action of the buffers, while oxide of iron, in a very fine state of division and mixed with water, is allowed to come upon its surface. the glass travelling from side to side is rubbed by the buffers in a lateral direction, and has also a longitudinal motion, so that every portion of it is rubbed equally. if any inequalities occur on the glass, the springs which press down the buffers give way and allow them to rise over it, and this process is continued for some time, until at last the plate receives the polish so characteristic of plate glass. it is then removed from the table and examined by skilled persons, and whatever defects can be removed by hand, are remedied. another kind of plate glass, called "patent rolled plate," is made by ladling out from a pot molten glass in the proper state of consistence. the ladle is brought over a small glass table, and a similar operation is performed to that already described. this patent rolled plate is sometimes made with grooves on one of its surfaces, or with patterns in imitation of diamond quarry glazing, and, in fact, with any designs, according to the taste of the manufacturer. these designs are all engraved upon the table, and communicate their patterns to the soft glass; but the smooth surface of such glass which comes in contact with the roller is slightly undulating, though polished. this method of glass making was invented and patented by mr. hartley, the noted manufacturer, of sunderland. a lighter kind of plate glass, which is principally used for glazing the better class of pictures and engravings, and called "patent" plate, is simply sheet glass polished after the manner of plate glass. crown glass, which only admits of being cut into small squares, is also used for picture glazing, but is more carefully prepared, and is called by the name of "flatted crown." _looking glasses._--plate glass is employed for making looking glasses, and two processes are now in use for silvering them, the first of which consists in applying a sheet of tinfoil saturated with quicksilver to one side of the glass. the operation is conducted as follows: on a perfectly smooth table a sheet of stout tinfoil is laid, and on it is poured quicksilver, which is distributed evenly over the surface with a hare's foot. when the whole sheet is amalgamated with the quicksilver, more of that substance is poured over it, until it flows quite freely. the glass plate to be silvered, having been made perfectly clean, is floated upon the surface of the quicksilver, an operation requiring care, and is then covered all over with weights, by which means the excess of quicksilver is pressed out, and the glass comes in contact with the amalgamated sheet of tinfoil, to which it adheres entirely. this ancient method of silvering glass has some advantages over the one next to be described. the colour of the plate is, according to artistic taste, better, and with care the plate will not lose its brilliancy for years. i have in my possession some old glasses, the silvering of which is very beautiful, except where it has suffered from mechanical injuries. silver can be precipitated from a solution of nitrate of silver in several ways, and in some of these specimens was like a bright film. if a crystal of nitrate of silver be put into a test-tube with some bitartrate of lime, and the mixture be rendered ammoniacal and gently warmed (it being kept in motion during the experiment), its sides will be covered with a very brilliant deposit of metallic silver. oil of cloves and grape sugar have also the power of reducing metallic silver from ammoniacal solutions of the nitrate, when gently warmed; but the mixtures must not be made too hot. in silvering plates of glass, they are first well cleaned, then placed in a perfectly level position, and the silvering liquid is poured over the surface, the room in which the operation is performed being kept sufficiently warm to assist the deposition. when enough silver has been deposited on the glass, the liquid is poured off and the plate dried, while the silver film is protected by being coated with a suitable hard varnish. the composition of the mixtures used by different persons is generally kept secret, though the chemical principle of the reduction of the silver salt is the same. glasses silvered by this process sometimes lose their brilliancy, by becoming covered on their silvered side with small spots. it is however stated that this results either from a bad system of deposition, or from the film of silver not being sufficiently thick and solid. _flint glass_, although called by this name, is not made from flint, but from the best sand, of pure and dazzling whiteness, obtained from alum bay, in the isle of wight, and from fontainebleau, in france. the cost per ton is from _l._ to _l._ _s._, whereas the price of the sand used for making plate glass is about one-eighth of that amount. the alkali employed is generally extremely good carbonate of potash, whereas soda is used in the manufacture of the other kinds of glass which have been described. the addition of a small quantity of black oxide of manganese is sometimes necessary to correct the slight tint imparted by iron, which seems to be always present in minute quantities, even in the purest samples of sand. oxide of lead in the form of red lead, in this sort of glass, takes the place of lime. the advantages derived from using the oxide are, that it makes the mixture more fusible, and also imparts that particular brilliancy and lustre so peculiarly characteristic of well-made flint glass. in different works, various mixtures are made for the composition of the glass; but to give an idea of the proportions in which the materials are mixed, it will be well to quote the statement of m. payen, who says that of the finest crystal flint glass, the following is the composition: sand, ; red lead to - / ; carbonate of potash, - / to - / . a little nitre or saltpetre is used as an oxidizing agent. the glass-pots employed in this branch of the manufacture are covered, so that the flames of the furnace do not come in contact with the materials, the object in thus isolating them from direct contact with the flame being to prevent the entrance of impurities, by which the colour might be injured. on account of the pots being covered, the materials take a much longer time to get hot, and require quite double the time in founding that sheet or plate glass does; the presence of oxide of lead materially assisting the rapidity of the fusion. when flint glass is ready for working, the time required to work off a pot of it is much longer than that which is required for a pot of crown or sheet; and it is a matter of considerable importance, that the furnace-man should so manage his fires as to keep the glass in a proper working condition, that is, he should not let it get too cold (therefore too solid) nor too fluid. flint glass is worked off by the blower into wine-glasses, tumblers, decanters, and other suitable vessels. let us take a wine-glass as an illustration of the method of working. a small quantity of glass is gathered on the blowpipe, which is much smaller than that used in making sheet, and is blown into a bulb, which may be slightly elongated or globular, the forms being given to it by the motion which the workman imparts to his blowpipe while he is blowing, or after he has blown, into the mass. in the case of a wine-glass, an assistant boy gathers a small quantity of glass on the end of a small pointel, or solid iron rod. this is placed on the side of the globe opposite that which is in connection with the blowpipe, which is then detached by touching the glass nearest it with a piece of iron, wetted with cold water: this causes a crack, and a gentle tap causes separation. the workman then moulds the opening made by detaching the blowpipe, in order to do which, he has to apply the glass often to the mouth of the furnace, to soften it. he then opens out the globe into the shape of a cup with a pair of small iron tongs, with legs uniform in shape, slightly tapering and smooth, and he uses a peculiar kind of scissors for trimming the edges. the other parts of the glass are moulded with the tongs, accuracy of size being obtained by means of measuring compasses and a scale. the workman sits during this operation in a seat with arms, laying the pontee on them, and turning it, so as to make it move backwards and forwards with his left hand, while with the tongs in his right he gives the glass the desired form. before passing on to a description of the manufacture and composition of coloured glasses, it is necessary that i should make a few remarks on the difficulties under which our english glass makers labour, owing to not paying sufficient attention to the scientific treatment of their mixtures. it has already been stated that glass is composed of a mixture of silicates, which are definite chemical compounds. some are much more dense than others, and are therefore liable to sink, so that the glass taken from one part of the pot will be very different in composition from that taken from another part; besides this, it is found on examination, that other portions of the materials employed are present in such proportions, that they cannot possibly exist in the form of true silicates. m. dumas, the distinguished french chemist, asserts, and with truth, that glass ought to be a true chemical compound. this, however, does not seem to be the opinion here; and sufficient attention is not paid by english manufacturers to mixing their materials, so as to form definite silicates, the result being that glass is produced with a striated effect. this is easy to be seen in the common kinds, as in bottle glass; but owing to the more careful and prolonged fusion of the finer varieties, such as plate glass, this defect is to a considerable extent remedied, though not altogether overcome. in the french manufacture of plate glass, more attention has been paid to the chemical composition of the various silicates which enter into it. at st. gobain, a plate glass, is produced which, on analysis, is found to contain definite silicates, and without any excess of material which does not enter into chemical combination; and the consequence is, that this glass is more perfect and homogeneous than that made in this country. no doubt this superior quality is owing to the fact, that the famous chemist, gay-lussac, devoted much of his time to assisting in the manufacture carried on at these works. we cannot over-estimate the importance of a scientific superintendence, not only of glass-works, but of all other manufactures in which chemical reactions take place; for although experience may lead a cautious observer to produce substances of nearly correct composition, yet the assistance of a scientific observer is of the greatest importance, because, what under other circumstances must be simply empirical, is under his guidance carried on according to definite and fixed laws. mention has already been made of how, in the case of mixing carbonates of soda and potash, the one assists the fusibility of the other, and this is more particularly true in the mixture of silicates in the composition of the ordinary glass. silicates of soda and potash are separately much more infusible than a mixture of the two, and the addition of other silicates to them renders them more fusible still; silicate of lead, as has already been mentioned, causing the glass into whose composition it enters to fuse at a much lower temperature than it would do if that silicate were absent. again, if the silicate of lead be present in too large proportions, and if great care be not taken in the manufacture of lead glass, the silicate of lead, from its greater density, will sink lower among the molten silicates, and will therefore cause a larger proportion of lead to be in the glass at the bottom of the pot than there is at the top. we often notice in tumblers and decanters of the cheaper kind, that there are very distinct striæ running through the whole substance in some particular portion of the glass. now this is owing to the greater density of the lead silicate, which sinks lower down in the collected mass of glass, and therefore imparts to it this peculiar effect. when a pot of flint glass is worked off, that which remains at the bottom usually contains more lead than that which is worked off in the earlier part of the day. _coloured glasses._--it has been before shown that silica unites with metallic oxides; in fact, glass is nothing but a compound brought about by the union. with certain metallic oxides, silica forms coloured silicates or glasses; and these, when fused with colourless glasses, impart to them the colour of the silicate. oxide of iron colours glass either green or yellow, according to the nature of the oxide; the silicate of the protoxide of iron being green, and that of the peroxide, yellow of a slightly brownish tint. copper forms two oxides, the suboxide and the protoxide; the suboxide colours glass red, while the protoxide renders it green. black oxide of manganese colours glass purple; but if large quantities be used, it makes it perfectly black. sesquioxide of chromium imparts a beautiful green colour to glass, while oxide of uranium produces an opalescent effect of yellow with a tinge of green. this latter, by the way, has the power of reducing the ultra-violet rays of the spectrum to luminous rays, and, when held in the rays of a spectrum obtained by the electric light, produces an extremely beautiful effect, which is called fluorescence. a small quantity of the oxide of gold tints glass pink, but the colour becomes extremely rich and ruby-like, when a larger quantity of the oxide is employed. oxide of cobalt in very small quantities yields, with silicic acid, an intensely blue silicate. this substance, carefully prepared in a special manner and ground to a fine powder, forms the well known water-colour pigment called smalt. oxide of silver stains glass from a delicate lemon tint to a deep orange, in proportion to the quantity of the oxide employed. with the exception of the last-named colouring material, the above mentioned are mixed together with the substances which form the glass, and are melted in the usual way in glass-pots, except that they are treated with considerably more care, in order that their tints may be true. oxide of silver, however, is never mixed with the materials of which the glass is made, but is applied to the surface in the following manner: a solution of nitrate of silver mixed with some substance, such, for instance, as chalk, may be painted upon the parts of the glass which it is desired to stain, and these are heated to a dull red heat, in what is called a "muffle." wherever the oxide of silver, which is reduced from the nitrate by heat, comes in contact with the glass, the latter is stained more or less intensely, according to the quantity of silver present. pure metallic silver may be melted with metallic antimony, and the mass ground to a fine powder in water. this powder, after being mixed with some venetian red and gum water, is applied to the surface of the glass, which is, when dry, heated to a dull red heat in a muffle, producing the yellow stain, which can be seen after the venetian red and the excess of silver have been scraped off. the reason why silver, or oxide of silver, is not mixed with the glass materials and fused with them, is because it does not readily unite with oxygen, and, when it has done so, it loses its oxygen again at a high temperature, and becomes reduced to the metallic state; and inasmuch as metals have no effect whatever in staining silicates, glass made in this way would not have the yellow colour which it has, when the silver is heated upon its surface to a much lower temperature in a muffle; for the temperature to which the constituents of the glass must be heated, so as to cause them to burn it in, would be so high, that the oxide of silver first formed at a lower temperature would be reduced to the reguline or metallic state. gold also, like silver, does not unite with oxygen readily, or remain in union with it at high temperature; therefore great care is required in the preparation of glass to be coloured by oxide of gold; the form in which it is used being generally that of the purple of cassius, made by precipitating a salt of tin with a salt of gold. this substance is mixed with the glass to be coloured, and heated in a suitable glass-pot. portions of it are gathered and allowed to cool, these being generally of a yellowish, brownish, and sometimes reddish tint, though they have not in any case the same beautiful red colour which they produce when applied, as will be immediately described, to the surface of white glass. a certain quantity of white glass is gathered from the glass-pot in the soft state with one of these pieces of gold glass; the whole mass is heated until both become soft, and is then blown and formed into sheet, which, on examination, will be found to consist mainly of white glass, with its surface thinly covered with the glass stained with oxide of gold, while the beautiful ruby colour, which the gold imparts to the glass, appears pure and distinct. if such glass as this be heated to too high a temperature, as when it is used in the manufacture of stained glass windows, the ruby colour is in part, and sometimes altogether, destroyed, for the oxide of gold loses its oxygen, and metallic gold is left behind, which does not yield a colour to the silicate. i have in my possession a piece of french glass of a pale sapphire tint, which, when heated in the oxidizing flame of the blowpipe, assumes a brilliant and intense ruby colour, showing that in the first condition, the gold is not in a state of oxidation sufficient to impart colour to the glass. when the suboxide of copper is mixed and fused with the glass which it is intended to colour, the result is an opaque substance, almost like red bottle-sealing-wax, which is treated in a manner exactly similar to the gold glass; viz. it is coated with white glass, and blown and shaped into sheets, which owe their intense ruby colour to a thin film of the coloured glass closely adhering to the mass of the white upon which it is placed. glass made in this way is called "coated," and sometimes "flashed" glass, and is extremely useful for ornamental purposes, for by the action upon the coloured surface of hydrofluoric acid, the ruby coating can be eaten away, and the white glass beneath left entire. if the backgrounds of the patterns be painted upon the ruby side with a material like brunswick black, which is able to resist the action of hydrofluoric acid, and if the plate of glass, on its ruby side, be exposed to the action of the vapour of this acid, or to the action of the acid in solution in water, in a short space of time the pattern will be eaten away; and if the brunswick black coating be removed with turpentine, a sheet of ruby glass will be obtained with a white pattern etched upon it. owing to the powerful colouring properties which oxide of cobalt exerts, a very deep-coloured blue glass can be made, which can be treated like the red copper glass, and may be made to coat and cover in the same way the surface of plates of white glass. purple glass, coloured with oxide of manganese, and green glass are also sometimes used as coating materials for white glass, but other colours are never employed in this way. it is manifest that if different metallic oxides be used with the same glass, mixed tints will be produced, so that by mingling small quantities of oxide of cobalt and protoxide of copper, a blue glass having a greenish hue may be obtained. the revival of glass painting has caused manufacturers to turn their attention to these mixtures, in order to produce tints resembling those of ancient stained glass. messrs. powell and son, of whitefriars, were the first to perform experiments on these mixtures, and after much laborious attention and patience their efforts have been crowned with great success, for they have been enabled to produce glass as beautiful in tint and in texture as the best specimens of ancient manufacture. their example has been followed by others, such as messrs. hartley of sunderland, and messrs. chance and co. of birmingham. while treating of the effect produced by different metallic oxides upon colour, it may be well to mention that the opaque glasses used for such purposes, as the enamelling of watch-faces, are made by mixing with the materials a certain quantity of arsenious acid (or white arsenic), in much larger quantities than when it is employed simply to correct the tint imparted to glass by the iron impurities in the sand. oxide of tin also renders glass white and opaque, and a certain quantity of bone ash will produce a similar effect, though not in so satisfactory a manner. _glass painting_ first became general in this country at the time when the early english style of architecture prevailed, and some of the best specimens were executed during that period. by the best specimens is not meant, that the figures painted upon those windows were artistically as correct as similar works of a later date, but that they were designed and executed in accordance with those principles, which should always govern the adaptation of a substance like glass to ornamental purposes. the earlier mediæval artists depended for effect more upon the boldness of their outline, than upon the intensity of their shading or the delicacy of their manipulation. the form of a thirteenth-century figure is merely indicated by a few bold and well drawn outlines, the features being formed by lines, the pupils of the eyes by simple well-shaped masses of opaque pigment; and such a treatment as this was quite sufficient to convey what was, to the observer, more or less a symbolical, than a truthful representation of the scripture history which they were intended to illustrate. these artists remembered that windows are openings in a building, through which light has to pass, and they did not, therefore, like many of the later imitators, render them opaque by masses of intense shadow, which perfectly obscure the colour of the glass upon which the picture is painted, and render the passage of light through it simply impossible. the thirteenth-century glass painters, too, in the treatment of their shadows, bore this great principle in mind, and instead of daubing and stippling them on, usually indicated them with a thin wash of enamel colour, intensified in parts by lines crossing one another, and therefore called cross-hatching, through the interstices of which the light, although subdued, was able, in a measure, to pass. but as the object of this article is not to discuss the merits of the various styles of glass painting, however much i might desire to enlarge upon it, i pass on to a description of the methods employed in the manufacture of stained glass windows. in the first place, after a design has been drawn, in which the effect of the window as a whole can be carefully considered, cartoons of the figures and ornament are made of the exact size of the intended painting. and here it should be noted, that all the lines should be extremely clear, precise, and well drawn, because it is from these that the workman, who is not usually himself an artist, has to convey on the glass the feeling of the artist. the cartoon, when completed, is laid down in pieces for convenience-sake on a table, and fastened with small nails. the glass-cutter then selects the various coloured glasses which are required to be inserted in their proper places, so as to carry out the design of the artist. for instance, a piece of white or yellow-tinted glass is cut to the shape of the face. if the figure be a small one, the hair also is included in this; and probably in the figure of a saint, the nimbus which surrounds the head may be included; while in larger figures, particularly in the earliest styles, the face was of glass of one tint, the hair of another, and the nimbus of one or more tints, different from either of these. sometimes, in the later styles, the hair, after the face was painted and burnt in, was stained with the silver stain already described, so that when the glass was cleaned, it was of a yellow colour. however, not to enlarge more upon these points, which really belong more to the artistic than to the industrial part of window painting, let us proceed to the consideration of manipulative details. the outlines of the figures and ornament are painted with a substance called "tracing brown," made by mixing with a flux some oxide of iron, heating them together in a crucible and grinding the product to a fine powder, which is mixed with certain vehicles adapted to the particular use to which it is to be applied. different fluxes are employed by different glass painters; some contain borax, because such fluxes fuse more easily, and therefore cause the glass which is painted to be exposed for a less time, and to a lower temperature, than when less fusible fluxes are used. it is always satisfactory to an author, to feel that his articles have been of some use to those whom he hoped to benefit. since this article was written a letter appeared in one of the architectural journals, complaining that the glass furnished by manufacturers to glass painters was of inferior composition to that which was used by the manufacturers of ancient stained glass windows. in fact, it was asserted that modern glass was not made with due care, and that to this was owing the unfortunate disappearance of some of the painting and tracing of modern stained glass windows; but that this is not the case, is manifest to all who understand the manufacture of glass. the real reason why the colouring matter with which glass painters outline and shade their designs, has in many instances gradually come off from the surface of the glass, is, because the fluxes used for making it adhere to the glass are of such a composition, that they themselves have by the action of time become disintegrated. some time ago, a person engaged in the manufacture of the enamel plates used for railway lamps, on which are written the names of the stations, called upon me, and told me, that the enamel which he employed had become dark, spotty, and in many cases had peeled off from the glass. the reason of this is identical with that which occurs in stained glass windows, viz. that the fluxes that he used were not suitable for the purpose, considering that they had to withstand the action of the weather. from an analysis made of these fluxes (not of those last alluded to, but of those which have been employed in stained glass windows), it appears that large quantities of borax have been introduced; and, wherever this is the case, no reliance whatever can be placed on the permanency of pictures painted with such fluxes. i have appended a few receipts for fluxes, which can be used with safety by any glass painter who will take the trouble to try them. but i must strongly advise that all those who are connected with the making of fluxes in any glass painting establishment, should master sufficient chemical knowledge to enable them to ascertain the behaviour of the materials, with respect to one another, as well as of the nature of the glass upon which they are employed; for very much indeed depends upon a correct knowledge of the character of the glass as to whether it be hard or soft, what it contains, and of the temperature at which the glass becomes sufficiently soft to form a firm and enduring union with the colours fluxed upon it. receipts for fluxes. . flint glass (powdered) parts. } moderately white arsenic " } hard. nitre " } . red lead " } soft. flint glass (powdered) " } . flint glass " red lead " (mixed with four parts of the first flux, soft.) the use of very soft fluxes is attended with this inconvenience, that the boracic acid contained in them is generally acted upon by moisture and becomes hydrated, and in this condition often causes the painting to peel away. harder fluxes, although they have the disadvantage of necessitating the glass to be submitted to a much higher temperature for a longer time in the kiln or muffle, are the best, and, with judicious management, can be used without any injurious consequences to the work on which they are employed. lead fluxes, containing oxide of lead, are sufficiently fusible for all ordinary purposes, and are not liable to the same objection as fluxes containing borax. suppose, then, it is desired to paint the outlines of a face, the glass is cut to the shape of the face in the cartoon; it is then laid upon it, and the painter, seeing the lines through the glass, is able to trace them with his brown paint upon its surface. he generally uses gum water as his vehicle, and puts on the shading also with the same mixture, though sometimes it is found necessary to use a substance which is not affected by moisture, as for instance, tar-oil. it is impossible, in the short space of this article, to indicate those occasions on which one should be used in place of the other; a knowledge of this can only be obtained by consulting authorities in which details are more minutely given, or by watching the operations of the glass painter in his workshop. when the face is finished, it is removed, and another portion of the figure, say a piece of the drapery, is proceeded with in exactly the same way; and so, by a repetition of this process in all parts of the figure, it is completed, and looks very much like a puzzle, the parts being put together on the cartoon before the work is finished, in order to see that the whole is harmoniously treated. in shading the face, hands, and those parts of the drapery which require it, a glass easel is used, on which the figure is put together, and the parts made to adhere by wax, so that the artist is able, while painting, to form an idea by transmitted light of the effect which will be produced when the window is finished. the ornament is painted in a similar manner, but usually not with the same care in the details of its execution. when all the glass is painted, it is fired in a muffle, upon the proper construction of which a great deal depends. it is usually made of iron, and should not be more than inches from its bottom to the top, though its width may vary. it is never well to have muffles for firing glass for painted windows larger than about feet wide, by feet inches deep. the top of the muffle is usually slightly arched from side to side, and it is placed in the furnace on a tolerably thick stone floor, so that the bottom may not get too hot. the fire, which is lighted below, is allowed to play up its sides and over its top, the flue being so built as to draw the flames in that direction, for a top heat is the best heat for firing glass regularly. the muffle is arranged with ridges in its sides, passing from front to back parallel to one another on one side, and exactly opposite to corresponding ridges parallel to one another on the opposite side. these metal ridges are intended to receive iron plates, and there is generally about an inch or rather less between the top of one plate and the bottom of another, when the muffle is perfectly filled. the plates are covered over with perfectly dry powdered chalk or whiting, and the pieces of glass are laid upon them with their painted sides uppermost. when the plates are charged, they are put into a muffle with an iron door, in the centre of which is a hole, and a conical tube with the base attached round it. it is larger than the opening at the other end, which projects some or inches from the surface of the muffle-door at right angles to it. a second door is then placed at a short distance from the first, the tube passing through a hole made for the purpose in it. the orifice is usually stopped by a piece of fire-clay, which can be removed at pleasure. the use of the tube is, to enable the manager of the kiln to look into the muffle, from time to time, to see that the glass does not get too much heated. when the firing is completed, the fire is raked out and the muffle is allowed to cool very slowly, and by this process the glass becomes annealed. when it is desired to apply to any portion of white glass some yellow silver stain, this can be done either in the first firing, by floating it on to the places to be stained, and allowing it to run in a sort of stream from the brush, so that it will evenly cover the surface and cause the heavier portions of the stain, namely, the mixed metallic silver and antimony, to sink regularly to the bottom, and come fairly in contact with the glass. not very long ago, it was mentioned to me by a glass painter of note, that the workmen much prefer using the old stain made with silver and antimony, to that which is produced by using nitrate of silver. this really is a mistake on their part, for, when properly managed (and the knowledge of how to manage this stain can be acquired with very little trouble), the nitrate of silver stain is by far the best, and produces much better tints, with less chance of what the men call sulphuring when the glass is fired. this sulphuring is simply the result of opacity, obtained by heating the glass to too high a temperature. if the staining is to be performed in the same firing as that by which the painting is to be fixed, it is quite clear that the outlines of the part to be stained must be painted in, with tar-oil, or with some such substance which is not affected by the moisture of the stain. however, in general, the staining operation is performed after the first firing, that is to say, those pieces of glass to which the silver is to be applied are stained in the method above described after the first firing, and are then fired again, because the heat required to produce a good stain from silver is of a somewhat different character from that which is required simply to fuse the flux that binds the pigment to the glass. a longer and less intense heat, technically called a "soaking," is the best for producing an even and pure yellow tint. if the temperature be allowed to rise too high, the oxide of silver, which alone can stain the glass, gets reduced wholly or in part, and when this happens to only a slight extent, it destroys the transparency of the stain; and when it happens to a great extent, it destroys its colour altogether, making the glass opaque. it is a matter of astonishment to me that glass painters do not use a ruby stain, which, with a little practice, can be managed quite as successfully as the yellow silver one. it is true that it would be impossible to fire the ruby and the silver stains together, and it would not be at all convenient to fire the ruby stain at the first firing of the painted glass. the method of staining ruby is as follows: grind up carefully some black oxide of copper, mix it with water (or with a small quantity of gum added), float it on the parts to be coloured, place it in a kiln and heat it. black oxide of copper, when mixed with glass and melted in a glass-pot, makes the glass green; suboxide of copper, which contains less oxygen than the black oxide, when treated in the same way, makes it red. now, if it can be reduced to the lower oxide of copper, while the black oxide of copper on the surface of the glass is heated, it will then colour the glass red. the best way of reducing the black oxide, is to connect the muffle with a gas-supply pipe, and allow coal gas to pass during the whole time that the heating process goes on. the action of the gas, which contains hydrogen and carbon, is to take away oxygen from the black oxide of copper, when it is at a high temperature; and, as soon as sufficient is taken away by the hydrogen to reduce the black oxide to the state of suboxide, it stains the glass red. it does not matter if the reducing action be continued longer, so that the oxide of copper be reduced to the metallic state; for at that temperature, the stain produced by the red oxide of copper is not removed by the continued action of hydrogen gas. the employment of this process would certainly enable artists who paint in the later styles of glass painting, to very much enrich their draperies, and to produce, more easily, effects which now can only be obtained by a complicated system of lead-work. when the pieces of glass which have been fired are perfectly cold, the next process is to unite them altogether by peculiarly shaped strips of lead, which are of various kinds, according to the character of the subject required. the lead has a thick part or core, and at right angles to the top and bottom of this are thin plates called the "leaves." the core is milled with little ridges running at right angles to them, so as to enable the workman to bend the lead about with facility. the edges of the piece of glass to be leaded are placed between the leaves and resting upon the core, and the lead is thus arranged all round the glass, and is then laid in its proper situation upon another cartoon, prepared from the one from which the figure was painted, and indicating simply, by lines, where the lead-work is to come. the first piece is fixed by means of nails temporarily placed through the lead. those pieces which touch it in the design are put in their proper positions, so that the edge touching the next piece will be underneath the opposite leaves to those which confine the first. this operation is repeated, till all the parts of the design are surrounded by lead, and by it united to one another; the joints being secured by solder, generally applied by gas. nothing now remains but to fill in the interstices between the lead and the glass, so as to make the window firm, solid, and water-tight; and this is done by rubbing into them with a scrubbing brush a cement, usually made of white lead, oil, and plaster of paris. this composition varies in different stained glass works, nor is it material, provided that the substance hardens, does not crack, and is waterproof. from this description it will be seen, that the various colours in the different parts of the window are put in as pieces, and that no colours, properly so called, are applied by the brush to the surface. there are, however, certain tints of the "tracing brown," which can be obtained by the addition of black oxide of manganese, or by a different method of preparation of the oxide of iron, to give it its body. sulphate of iron, when heated, loses its sulphuric acid, and the oxide, which was, as sulphate, in the state of protoxide, becomes, by heating, the red or peroxide of iron; its tint, when made in this way, being generally lighter than the tint of that form of oxide which is employed as ordinary tracing brown. it is sometimes called flesh tint, though this is decidedly an objectionable name for it. it has been suggested to me, that i should give some receipts for the manufacture of the enamel colours used in mediæval glass painting; i have therefore added a few which are easily prepared. others of a more complicated nature had much better be obtained from the makers of the enamel used in porcelain painting. and here again, let me remark, that in ordering fluxes from these manufacturers, it should be stated especially that a flux is required which does not contain borax, nor should the painters in any establishment be allowed to use these softer fluxes, which they are almost certain to do, unless forbidden; for though they are easier to work with, they will infallibly lead to calamitous results. yellow. oxide of tin parts. oxide of antimony " red lead " orange. red lead " oxide of antimony " persulphate of iron " flint powder " brown. black oxide of manganese · " flint slate (powdered) · " red lead · " brown red. crocus (oxide of iron) " green sulphate of iron (calcined) " mixed with six parts of these no. . light red for flesh tints. carbonate of lead · " persulphate of iron (calcined) " flint glass " the use of enamels--that is, substances which impart various colours to the glass, when placed on its surface by their fusion--is not admissible in windows which pretend to belong to any of the earlier styles of glass painting; though enamel painting is used for the decoration of houses, and sometimes, as i consider very improperly, for the decoration of church windows. one sheet of glass, colourless and transparent, or it may have its surface ground, is usually employed. a subject is painted on it with enamel colours, much as subjects are painted upon porcelain. when the work is completed, the glass plate is fired, and thus the colours become semi-transparent, and perfectly adherent to the plate; but they are not clear and bright, and transparent, as are the colours of glass which is coloured in the pot, and therefore have not the same brilliancy, nor do they allow of the same bold and effective treatment. it is much to be desired that amateurs who can draw, and who have a feeling for this particular style of art, should devote a portion of their time to its execution. they will find it to be extremely agreeable and pleasant, and the few difficulties which they meet with in their first attempts will be readily overcome by perseverance, or by applying for assistance and advice to gentlemen engaged in the pursuit of this interesting profession. _moulded and cut glass._--flint glass is now very commonly blown in moulds, and this art has been brought to such perfection that moulded decanters and tumblers have an appearance very similar to that of cut glass. the moulds are always made of metal, and so constructed, that they open out into two or more pieces, which are generally hinged to the bottom of the mould. the workman places it on the ground, and fixes it by standing on projections from its side. he then gathers a suitable quantity of glass on the end of his blowpipe, which he places in the mould, and the side of the glass touching it will thus have impressed upon it whatever form is engraved on it. after the glass has become hard, the mould is opened, and the glass vessel is removed and annealed. when it is desired to cut a design on the outside of a tumbler or wine-glass, the vessel is, in the first instance, blown of a thicker substance than if it is to be left uncut. the necessary shapes, which are usually in facets, are cut upon it by the action of sand and water, a lathe of a very simple construction being used to give a rotary motion to cutting discs, made of stone and kept continually moist by water dripping on them, so that when the glass is pressed against them, the required portion of its surface is worn away. the usual diameter of these stones is about inches. after the rougher stone has been used, a finer kind of sandstone disc is employed, or a disc of slate, upon which sand and water are allowed to drop, and the already roughly cut surface is, by their action, partly polished. copper discs with flattened circumference are used for polishing the glass, and for this purpose, emery mixed with oil, is applied to the edges of their circumference. _ground glass_ is made by rubbing the surface of glass with sand and water, just as in the first operation of plate glass polishing. but a very ingenious method is now generally adopted for grinding glass, by placing it in a cradle, so that it can swing from side to side; sand and water are placed upon the glass, and it grinds itself, so to speak, by this operation. _annealing and devitrification._--as the word "annealing" has been often used in this article, it will be well to explain what is its action. if a piece of molten glass be dropped into water, it will assume an oblong shape, the lower end of which will be round, while the other will taper off into a fine point. these drops, which have received the name of prince rupert's drops, look like pieces of ordinary glass, and if the small end of one of them be broken off, a sort of explosion takes place, and the whole mass flies into a thousand minute pieces, some of which will be found to have been driven to a considerable distance. here then it appears, that when the skin, which is perfect and entire in the rupert drop, is broken, the bond which held together the constituent particles is broken also, and so they are acted on by a repellent force, and fly away from one another. if hot water be poured into a thick common tumbler, it very generally cracks it: but if the tumbler be thin and of better manufacture, it will bear almost boiling water without cracking. in the first case it has been badly annealed; and besides this, glass being a bad conductor of heat, from its thickness, the heat imparted by the hot water expands the inner surface, while the outer coating, not being warmed, does not expand, and, retaining its original form, is burst. if, however, a tumbler be thick and properly annealed, there is not so much danger of its breaking, when a portion of it is exposed to a considerable rise of temperature. in the case of the rupert drops, they are not annealed at all, and so there is no cohesive bond between the particles, such as there would be if they were properly annealed, that is, if, instead of being cooled suddenly from the molten state, they were allowed to cool in a heated chamber very slowly. after glass has been heated, the particles of which it is composed take a long time to rearrange themselves, so that in the manufacture of thermometers, it is necessary, after sealing up the bulb and tube which contain the mercury, to allow them to remain for a long time; otherwise the pressure of the air on the outside of the bulb, not being supported by any air on the inside, causes the particles of glass to become more compact, and thus renders the capacity of the thermometer bulb and tube smaller than it was, when the thermometer was first sealed. it seems that the process of annealing glass gives time for the particles to arrange themselves in such a way, that when the glass is cold, it will not be so liable to fracture from sudden changes of temperature. considerable curiosity has been excited of late by a new invention, which has resulted from the investigations of a frenchman. we have been told that tumblers and wine-glasses, and other glass utensils, could be so treated that they would never break; and experiments performed upon many samples of these glasses led one to suppose, that the object had been attained. there is no doubt whatever, that some who have had experience of what is termed toughened glass know, that in many cases very uncertain results are obtained in the resisting power of the glass to the action of a violent blow. before, however, entering into some researches which i have made on the subject, it will be well to state what is the nature of the change which the toughening process produces in the glass, and this seems to be a fit place for this consideration, as the method of making, and the behaviour, of prince rupert's drops, have just been discussed. the physical properties of these rupert's drops have been examined with great care by m. victor de luynes, and the results of his experiments have been communicated to the _société de secours des amis des sciences_. for the purposes of this article, many of his experiments have been repeated, confirming in general his observations, and others have also been instituted. the toughness and hardness of these drops are remarkable; the thick pear-shaped portion will bear a sharp stroke with a hammer without breaking; nor can it be scratched with a diamond. to break the tapering thread or tail, as it may be conveniently called, requires considerable force. to find out what weight was required to do this, a series of experiments was performed, the results of which are given in the table following. the tail of a drop was placed over a small hole bored in the top of a table; a hook was then adjusted round a part of the tail which measured on a birmingham wire gauge; below the table and attached to this hook, a scale-pan was hung. this pan was then carefully loaded, all shock being avoided, until the thread was ruptured and the weight required to effect this was then noted: white glass rupert's drops. gauge. strain. lb. oz. - / " " " " (poor) - / " " green glass. gauge. strain. - / " " (poor) " " " " - / " " it will be observed that the drops made from green bottle glass withstood a greater strain than those made from crown glass; the latter, in fact, did not break throughout their mass, but left a portion of the bulb unbroken, showing some fault in the tempering. it was with difficulty that the workmen could be induced to make drops out of this kind of glass, as they knew by experience that they usually failed to break perfectly, and they stated that it was quite impossible to make them with lead glass. to ascertain what force was required to fracture a thread of like dimensions that had not been tempered, one of the drops was heated to redness, and annealed by allowing it to cool very gradually. when subjected to the same trial, it was fractured by a weight of ozs., and the drop did not break into small fragments, but behaved exactly like ordinary glass, thus showing that the glass had been _un_tempered by the heating process. a piece of glass rod, drawn out into a thread in a gas flame, when subjected to the same conditions, bore a strain of oz. a sewing-needle of the same thickness was broken by a weight of lb. oz., thus showing that the tail of the rupert's drop was very much tougher than tempered steel. by suspending a rupert's drop in such a manner as to allow the tail to dip into hydrofluoric acid, it is found, that when the surface or skin is eaten away to a certain depth, rupture takes place exactly in the same manner as when the tail is broken. in whatever way fractured, the particles, when examined by the microscope, show a crystalline structure, and do not at all resemble pieces of ordinary glass; when rubbed between the palms of the hands, they do not cut, nor scratch, nor penetrate the cuticle. if a drop be enclosed in plaster of paris so as to leave a portion of the tail exposed, it may then be broken and all the particles will remain _in situ_. on removing the plaster, it will be found that the drop has been broken up into thousands of minute needle-shaped particles arranged in cones, the apices being in the direction of the tail. it would appear then from these experiments, and from observations with polarized light, that the glass in the interior of a rupert's drop exists under enormous tension, and that it is only prevented from bursting into fragments by the outer skin; on its being broken in any part, the bond which holds together the constituent particles is broken also, and so, being acted upon by a repellent force, they fly away from one another. there is another kind of toy resembling in some respects the rupert's drop, known as the bologna bottle or philosopher's flask. it has the form of a soda-water bottle with the neck cut off, the bottom being rounded off and very much thicker than the walls. these flasks are sometimes formed accidentally in glass-works by the workman, who, in order to examine the quality of the glass, takes out a portion from the pot on the end of his blowpipe, and blows a small quantity of air into the mass, manipulating it in the usual manner. whilst still at a very high temperature, it is detached from the blowpipe, and is probably allowed to fall on the ground in a place where there is a current of cold air, the exterior thus becoming suddenly chilled. when cold, these flasks will bear very rough handling, and will withstand the blow of a hammer on the outside, it being almost impossible to break them by striking the bottom; the interior will also bear the blow of a leaden bullet falling into it from a considerable height, but if a few grains of sand be allowed to fall into it, or if the inside skin be slightly scratched, the mass splits into fragments in the same manner as a rupert's drop. the examination of these curious phenomena leads us to the subject of "toughened glass," as it has been termed. the invention of rendering articles of glass less fragile, which has given rise to so much public attention during the last year, is due to m. alfred de la bastie, a french engineer. his process consists in heating the glass to be toughened to a temperature close upon its softening point, and then plunging it into a bath of oil, or into a mixture of oleaginous substances kept at a much lower temperature. when this operation is successfully performed, the glass acquires properties very similar to those of rupert's drops; it becomes much less fragile than ordinary glass, but when sufficient force is employed to fracture it, the whole flies into small pieces. it cannot be cut with a diamond, but is immediately disintegrated when the outer skin is scratched to a certain depth. it is to be observed, however, that in particular cases it is possible both to saw and pierce the toughened glass. m. de luynes reports, that when a square of st. gobain plate glass that had been submitted to the process of tempering was examined by polarized light, it showed the appearance of a black cross, the arms of which were parallel to the sides of the square. the glass was sawed in two, along the line of the stem of the cross, without causing fracture. on examining the divided glass with polarized light, black bands and fringes of colour were observed, which, by their position, proved that the molecular condition of the glass had changed; on placing one half of the divided glass on the other half, the fringes and black bands disappeared--on folding one half on to the other, the black bands presented the appearance that would have been produced by glass of double the thickness. these facts show, that the molecular forces on the glass were arranged symmetrically in reference to the line of parting: and we may conclude that toughened glass being in a state of tension, similar to that of the rupert drop, may be divided or pierced, provided that the molecules of the pieces produced are able to rearrange themselves into a stable equilibrium. polarized light shows the directions on which the division can be made with safety. m. de luynes, in his communication referred to above, gives an account of some experiments performed on plates of glass of the same quality, tempered by this process, and untempered; one or two examples will suffice. a tempered plate measuring about[ ] - / inches by inches, and / inch thick, was placed between two wooden frames, and a weight of over - / ounces ( grammes[ ]) was allowed to drop upon it from a height of more than feet ( mètres[ ]) without breaking it. it only broke, when double the weight was employed from the same height. a piece of ordinary glass under the same conditions broke, with the weight of - / oz. dropped upon it from a height inches ( · mètre). plates of toughened glass were allowed to fall on the floor from a height, or were thrown to a distance, without breaking. a rectangular piece of ordinary window glass, about / inch in thickness, was bent into the form of a bridge, and then subjected to the tempering process; placed upon the ground; it bore the weight of a man easily without breaking. a commission, instituted by the french naval authorities, to inquire into this process of m. de la bastie, has reported at some length on the subject. the following series of experiments were tried with a view of ascertaining the comparative power of resistance of tempered and ordinary glass. the plates experimented upon were placed loosely in wooden frames constructed for the purpose. [ ] these numbers are approximate translations of the numbers given in the communication: no object could be gained in giving complex fractions. [ ] ounce avoirdupois weighs · grammes. [ ] mètre equals · english inches. _rectangular plates about inches_ ( · m.) _by inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. the frame with the glass inserted was laid on the ground, and in the middle of the plate a weight of more than lbs. ( kilogrammes[ ]) was placed, and upon it as a base, other weights were placed, care being taken to avoid all shock. [ ] kilogramme = · lbs. avoirdupois. º _ordinary glass_, broke with a weight of about lb. ( kilos.) having resisted weights of from to lb. º _toughened glass_ resisted fracture until a weight of more than lb. ( kilos.) had been added, and then was not broken. the experiment was not carried to its limit for want of weights. _rectangular plates, about inches_ ( · m.) _by inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. these plates were allowed to fall flat on to a floor of wood or thrown to a distance and allowed to fall. º _ordinary glass_ allowed to fall flat from a height of - / inch ( · m.) was broken at the first trial. º _toughened glass._ thrown to a height feet inches ( mètres) and to a distance of feet ( mètres) was also broken at the first trial. the piece, however, which had sustained the weight of lb. did not break till the fourth trial. _rectangular plates, about inches_ ( · m.) _by inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. these plates were subjected to the same kind of tests as the foregoing. after raising them to a given height they were allowed to fall flat upon a wooden floor. º _ordinary glass_ raised to a height of inches ( · m.) was broken on falling. º _toughened glass_ resisted successive falls of from inches ( · m.), inches ( · m.), feet ( · m.), and feet inches ( · m.), but was broken when dropped from a height of feet inches ( · m.). _rectangular plates about inches_ ( · m.) _by inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. placed in the frames, they were held in position in the rabbets by laths nailed to the sides so as to prevent any play. the frames were raised to different heights and allowed to fall in such a manner as to cause as much vibration as possible. º _ordinary glass_ was broken with a fall of about feet ( · m.). º _toughened glass_ resisted falls from heights of feet inches ( mètre), feet inches ( mètres), feet ( · m.), feet inches ( mètres), and feet inches ( · m.). it was only broken by a fall of feet inches ( mètres). _rectangular plates inches_ ( · m.) _by - / inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. these plates were placed in the frame on the ground, as has been previously explained. known weights falling from known heights were made to strike the plates exactly in the centre. the weights consisted of bronze spheres, one weighing - / oz. ( grammes) and another of twice that weight. st. _ordinary glass_ resisted the weight of - / oz., falling from heights of inches ( · m.), inches ( · m.), inches ( · m.), but was broken by a fall of inches ( · m.). nd. _toughened glass_ resisted the blow of the - / oz. weight falling from heights of inches ( · m.), inches ( mètre), inches ( · m.), and feet inches ( mètres). the oz. weight ( grammes) being substituted, the plate was broken by it, falling from a height of inches ( · m.). _rectangular plates, inches_ ( · m.) _by - / inches_ ( · m.) _and / inch_ ( · m.) _thick_. the same conditions were maintained as in the previous trial. st. _ordinary glass._ the - / oz. weight was allowed to fall from heights of foot ( · ), and inches ( · m). it was broken by the second blow. nd. _toughened glass._ this resisted the oz. weight falling from heights of feet inches ( · m.), and feet inches ( · m.), but broke when the weight fell from inches ( mètre). it appears then from these experiments, that toughened glass will resist a blow five times as great as ordinary glass, and will bear seven times as great a weight. i have now detailed most of the useful experiments which have been made by competent observers upon toughened glass, as well as some which have been conducted in my own laboratory. the result of my own personal investigations i will now lay before the reader. i was consulted some time ago by a gentleman interested in the introduction of toughened glass into this country, as to whether this kind would become untoughened in time. i feel no hesitation in stating that when the process has been perfectly done, the glass will remain in the same state for any length of time, provided it be not treated in any way which is calculated to rupture the external hard bond that holds together the inner particles of the glass. i feel quite sure, that no fear of this kind need interfere with the benefits, whatever they may be, which are to be derived from submitting glass articles to the toughening process. a tumbler which had been toughened in monsieur de la bastie's works, was, in my presence, thrown upon the ground, yet it did not break. it was a large soda water glass. i kept it for some time, and after considering the matter carefully, i felt, that if it were thrown down in such a way that the whole of its side, from base to rim, came in contact with the ground at once, and it then stood this test, it would prove that the whole of the glass was in the condition of the rupert's drops, and would therefore bear the concussion without fracture. i held the glass and let it fall, so that it actually reached the hard floor on its side. it immediately broke all to pieces. now on the first occasion when this glass was thrown down, it was tossed somewhat upwards into the air, and the bottom being heavier reached the ground first, and it did not break. i have also seen in glass-houses, where the tempering process is carried on, tumblers thrown down in a similar manner, and i noticed, that whenever they fell upon their bottoms, they were uninjured, as also in cases where they fell upon their rims in such a manner, that the curve of the rim acted as an arch, as in the old trick of turning a wine-glass off the table so as not to break; but in other cases where the tumblers fell flat upon their sides, fracture followed. i carefully gathered together the pieces of the large tumbler which i broke myself in this manner, and examined them, and found that the solid bottom was broken in the same manner as the prince rupert's drops break, viz., into a large number of small pieces, having in all respects similar properties. the glass for an inch or two above the bottom broke into small pieces, but larger than those into which the bottom itself broke, and the upper portion of the tumbler was fractured just as an ordinary tumbler would be. on careful examination, microscopic and otherwise, the small pieces were found to have the character of prince rupert's, whereas the larger from the upper part of the glass had none of these characteristics in the slightest degree. these observations led me to perform an experiment. a toughened tumbler was filled with plaster of paris, which was allowed to set. its outside was then encased in plaster of paris, and when the whole was hardened, a pair of pincers were applied to a portion of the tumbler's rim, and with a violent wrench the tumbler was broken. a rather smart shock was communicated to the arm of the operator, very much resembling, as he said, the shock of an electrifying machine. on removing the plaster of paris, it was found that the whole of the tumbler was fractured, and, as will be seen by the accompanying illustration, in a manner similar to that which has already been described. from this and other similar experiments, i was led to the conclusion that none of the toughened articles which have cavities in them, have thoroughly undergone the toughening process. having been requested to attend a series of experiments performed by a glass manufacturer in london, which consisted in the manufacture of a number of toughened glass tumblers, i noticed certain facts which led me to form conclusions as to how it was that the tumblers, the fracture of which i already explained, break in this peculiar manner. i will first describe the way in which these tumblers were made and toughened. by the side of the glass blower there stood a metal vessel, about three feet six inches high, and, perhaps, from two to two feet six inches in diameter. this was filled with melted fat or oil of some kind at a temperature of about ° fahr. inside this vessel, which was open at the top, there was a wire cage, with a trap door at the bottom about one foot in diameter, and of about the same depth. the glass blower, after finishing his tumbler on the pontil, held the pontil in a horizontal position over this metal vessel, struck it a smart tap, and the glass tumbled off into the wire cage. the glass was at a very high temperature. in almost every instance the glass fell into the melted fat, as a glass thrown in a similar manner will fall into water. it sank gradually bottom downwards, and the liquid guggled into it as it sank. here, then, it is clear that every portion of the hot tumbler did not come in contact with the oil at the same moment, in fact there was an appreciable lapse of time before the tumbler disappeared beneath the surface of the liquid. now there must be a limit as to the temperature of the article to be tempered and of the liquid by which it is to be tempered, that is to say, if at a certain temperature glass can be tempered by being plunged into the liquid of a certain temperature, if these temperatures are varied similar results will not follow. the upper portions of the glass coming in contact with the tempering liquid at a lower temperature, as they must have done, were not properly tempered, and this i have clearly proved by the facts i have already stated. from these remarks it seems tolerably clear that, until some method is devised of bringing all the parts of the heated glass in contact with the cooling liquid simultaneously, the tempering of the article cannot be perfect throughout its whole surface. as i desire, and very sincerely, that these processes should be brought to perfection so as to render them useful, i willingly give this result of somewhat lengthened investigations to those whom it may commercially concern, and i hope that they will find, on investigating the matter, that my observations have been tolerably correct, and that they will be able to devise a method which will remedy in many cases manifest imperfections of their present system. all the accidents which have happened to tempered glass, which have been recorded in the newspapers, can be accounted for on the principle which i have just endeavoured to explain, for there must be instability, where the bonding material of the internal particles of the glass is in different states of hardness; so that there is no difficulty in conceiving how a gas globe could break apparently spontaneously, for a portion of it which was not fairly toughened might be exposed to a somewhat sudden rise of temperature, produced, it may be, from a draught blowing the flame upon that particular spot. articles such as saucers, made of glass, which, being flat, or nearly so, can be plunged into the tempering liquid with great rapidity, are usually tempered all over, and these, when toughened, can be thrown about and allowed to fall on hard floors with impunity, thus proving the facts which i have endeavoured to establish. i hope to be able to continue my investigations, and should they be worth anything, will give the results of them to the public. before quitting this subject, i shall make a few remarks upon the process for toughening glass, which is said to have been purchased by the prussian government. this process is described as consisting in the application of superheated steam to the glass, brought up to a temperature near to its melting point. having facilities for making experiments of this kind, i have had them tried with great care, but in no case have i met with a satisfactory result. this probably is owing to the fact, that i did not comply strictly with the condition of the experiments performed by the german chemist who is said to have made the invention, nor do i see from analogy how this process is likely to effect a change in the glass similar to that arising from m. de la bastie's dipping process. if glass, instead of being taken from the annealing kiln at the proper time, be left exposed in the hot part of it, at a temperature just below that at which it softens, it will be found to become gradually opaque on its surface. some experiments were performed many years ago by réaumur, who exposed pieces of glass, packed in plaster of paris, to a red heat, which became gradually opaque, and lost altogether the character of glass, the texture of their material becoming crystalline, and also effected by sudden changes of temperature. glass treated in this way was called réaumur's porcelain. all glasses do not undergo this change with equal rapidity, and some do not experience it at all; but the commoner kinds, such as bottle glass, are the best to experiment upon, for the more alumina that it contains--and it is known that bottle glass contains a considerable quantity--the more readily does it undergo this change, which is called _devitrification_. in what it consists, is not at present well understood, but it offers a field for investigation, which may produce results of very considerable benefit to manufacturers of glass. _soluble silicates._--an article on glass in a modern scientific work like the present would not be complete without a notice of the manufacture of soluble glass and the uses to which it has been and may be applied. it has already been mentioned that when silica or sand is fused with an excess of alkali, the resulting glass is soluble in water. soluble glass is made on a large scale in three different ways. first of all, if flints, that is, black flints, which are found in chalk, be heated to a white heat, they lose their black colour and their hardness, and are easily crushed to small pieces; and if flint in this condition be placed in a wire cage and put into a jacketed iron digester, that is, an iron digester which has an inner and an outer skin, with a free space between the two, so that steam may be forced into it from a boiler under pressure; and if the digester be screwed down tightly with an iron cover, and steam then be allowed to pass into the space between the two, the temperature can be raised at pleasure, according to the pressure under which the steam is introduced. if the valve of the boiler be loaded with a -lb. weight, the temperature of the water warmed by the steam will rise considerably higher than that of ordinary boiling water; and if this water be saturated with caustic soda, it will dissolve the flints slowly, forming silicate of soda, that is to say, the silicic acid of the flint will unite directly with the soda of the solution, and silicate of soda will thus be obtained. for certain applications, the silicate so formed is not sufficiently pure, because the soda used often contains a certain amount of sulphate, which will remain with it in the solution of silicate that is drawn off from the digester. this sulphate is very objectionable for certain applications of silicates, because it crystallizes out, and so destroys the substance, which the silicate is intended to preserve. another and a much better method is to heat together the silica in the form of sand with alkali, either potash or soda, in a reverberatory furnace, and as the glass becomes formed, to rake it out into water, and then gradually to dissolve it by boiling in suitable vessels. here the sulphate, if it existed in the alkali, is decomposed by the silicic acid, and the sulphuric acid passes off through the flues of the reverberatory furnace. there is also a very ingenious way of making silicate of soda, discovered by mr. gossage, and performed as follows: common salt is heated to a high temperature and volatilized, and in this condition is brought into contact with steam also at a high temperature, when a double decomposition takes place. steam is composed of oxygen and hydrogen; common salt, of sodium and chlorine. the chlorine of the common salt unites with the hydrogen of the steam, and the oxygen of the steam with the sodium, so that hydrochloric acid and oxide of sodium are formed. now, if these two substances at this high temperature were allowed to cool together, the action would be reversed, and the re-formation of steam and chloride of sodium would be the result; but in the strong chamber lined with fire-clay, in which these vapours are brought into contact, silica is placed in the form of sand made up into masses, and when the oxide of sodium is formed, it unites with the sand to make silicate of soda, and thus is removed from the action of the hydrochloric acid, not entirely, but sufficiently to produce a large yield of silicate of soda. the properties of silicate of soda, as applied to the arts, are somewhat different from those of silicate of potash, so that one cannot always be substituted for the other. both these substances are, when in solution and concentrated, thick and viscid, and have the property of causing paper, wood, &c., to adhere when applied as a gum or glue, and hence have been called "mineral glue." in a dilute state they can be used for coating stone, brick, or cement, and have the power of rendering them for a time waterproof, or nearly so, and of preventing the action of atmospheric influences, which too often produce the decay of some of the softer stones used for building as well as for cement. it has already been stated, that when carbonic acid is passed through a solution of silicate of soda, silica will be precipitated. now, inasmuch as there is carbonic acid in atmospheric air, when these solutions are applied to the surfaces of a building, they will be acted upon slowly by the acid, and silica will be precipitated in the pores of the material to which the silicates are applied. but this operation is extremely slow, and, before it can be thoroughly completed, the silicates, being soluble, will get in part dissolved out by rain and moisture, and it is therefore advisable to use with them some material which will, by a double decomposition, form a silicate insoluble in water. the silicate, however, which is formed, should have cohesion amongst its particles, so that it will not only adhere to the stone itself, but its own particles will adhere to one another when it gets dry. various methods have been tried to cause this insoluble substance to be formed upon the surface of stones, so as to fill up its pores and to make a protecting cover for it; but most of them have signally failed, because the new silicate produced by double decomposition has not had the necessary coherence amongst its particles. if a solution of chloride of calcium be added to one of silicate of soda, a silicate of calcium will be precipitated, and it was therefore thought, that by applying to a stone successive washes of silicate of soda and chloride of calcium, an insoluble silicate of calcium would be produced in the pores and on its surface. it is true that such a silicate is precipitated, and that, if the silicate employed be in excess of the chloride of calcium, the particles will be glued together by the adhesive powers of this silicate when it dries; but then the action of moisture upon it is to cause it to run down the surface of the building, and set free the particles of silicate of calcium which it held in combination. other processes of the same kind have been tried, and with similar results; one great difficulty in the way of the success of this method of applying silicates being that, from the peculiar colloidal or gluey nature of the silicate, it does not penetrate to any considerable depth into the stone, and, if laid on first, prevents the penetration, as far even as it has itself gone, of the solution of chloride of calcium. if the chloride of calcium be used before the silicate, it will penetrate farther than the solution of silicate is able to reach, so that it is impossible to obtain, even supposing the substance to be used in equivalent proportions, a complete decomposition of the one by the other. the great object to be attained in the preservation of stone by any silicious process, is to use _one_ solution possessing the substances which, when the water has evaporated, will form a perfectly coherent mass for the protection of the stone surface. the depth of penetration, if it is sufficient to protect the outside of the stone from the disintegrating action of the atmosphere, need not be carried much more than one-sixteenth of an inch below the surface, for when old stones which have long been in positions in buildings, and which have not decayed at all, are examined, it will be found that they are covered with an extremely thin film of a hard substance, not thicker than a sheet of writing paper, which has for ages protected and preserved them from decay. this film is produced by a determination from the inside to the outside of the stone of a silicious water, which existed in it in the quarry, and which, when the stone was placed in the building, gradually came to the surface, the water evaporating and leaving behind it a thin film of silica, or of a nitrate--most likely the latter. if alumina be fused with potash, aluminate of potash, soluble in water, is made; if, however the solution is too concentrated, a certain quantity of the alumina will be precipitated; but if it be dilute, the whole of the alumina will remain in solution. when aluminate of potash of specific gravity · is mixed with a solution of silicate of potash of specific gravity · , no precipitate or gelatinization will take place for some hours; the more dilute the solution, the longer will it remain without gelatinization, and of course the thinner it will be, and the greater power of penetration it will have when applied to a porous surface. when solutions of aluminate of potash and of silicate of potash of greater density are mixed together, a jelly-like substance is almost immediately formed, and sometimes even the whole mass gelatinizes. if this jelly be allowed to dry slowly, it will contract, and at last a substance will be left behind sufficiently hard to mark glass, though the time for this hardening may be from one to two years; and on examination it is found that this substance has very nearly the same chemical composition as felspar, and is perfectly insoluble in ordinary mineral acids. now, suppose a dilute solution of this mixture to be applied to the surface of stone, the silicate and aluminate of potash will gradually harden and fill up the interstices of the stone; and as both the substances entering into combination are contained in the same solution, they will both penetrate to the same depth. inasmuch as the artificial felspar is not acted upon by destructive agents which would disintegrate the stone, it becomes a bonding material for its loosened particles, and at the same time gives a case-hardening to the stone, which no doubt will as effectually protect it against atmospheric influences as in the case of the hardening of the natural one. we have a tolerable guarantee that this will be so, if we consider the number of enduring minerals into the composition of which silica, alumina, and potash enter, and also of the almost imperishable character of granite, which is so largely composed of felspar. many experiments have been performed on an exhaustive scale with these materials, and in every case it has been found that they have answered the expectation of those who have thus tested them. it is, however, necessary to state, that in making these experiments, great care must be used to employ the mixed substance in solution before gelatinization has set in, for if this has occurred, even to the slightest extent, a surface coating is formed on the stone, which, not having formed a bond with it, easily rubs off. another application of soluble silicates in this or other forms is to render walls of buildings which are porous, waterproof. a colourless, transparent material which can effect this object is doubtless desirable, as anything like an opaque wash, if applied to brick-work, would destroy the colour of the bricks, and therefore the character of the building constructed with them. the silico-aluminate of potash may be used for this purpose, as above directed; and even silicate of potash alone, provided it be in sufficient quantities, will answer well, if from year to year, for two or three years, the application be renewed, so as to fill in spaces, wherever the silicate may have been in part dissolved out. when the silicate of potash alone is used, the action of the carbonic acid of the air in precipitating the silica is depended on, and while this action is going on, portions of the silicate not acted on will be dissolved out. many years ago, an effort was made in germany to revive the ancient art of fresco painting, and with very considerable success. it was found, however, that our climate is not suited to the permanence of this method of decoration, nor indeed is any climate absolutely suitable, because in fresco painting, the surface only of the lime is coloured with pigments laid on, so that any influence which would destroy the lime surface would cause the removal of the pigments; and from the porous nature of the surface of the work after it is completed, absorption of moisture will from time to time take place, causing the adhesion of dirt and other foreign substances which may fall upon it, and which it is almost impossible to remove without detriment to the picture. dr. fuchs, of munich, discovered a method of painting with soluble silicates, which has been tried with considerable success in berlin by the late professor kaulbach. on a properly prepared ground, the painting was executed in colours mixed with water, which, when dry and the painting finished, were fixed to the wall by the application of soluble silicates. for the preservation of the work, dr. fuchs mainly relied upon the action of atmospheric carbonic acid. now, when carbonic acid acts upon silicate of soda or silicate of potash, we have already seen that the silicic acid is precipitated in the hydrated form, and that the carbonic acid has united with the soda or potash to form carbonate of soda or carbonate of potash. these substances being left in the painting and penetrating to a certain depth beneath its surface, must find their way out, and in almost every instance have done so in the form of an efflorescent substance, which has caused the picture to have the appearance of being mildewed over its surface. sometimes, however, sulphates occur in the ground, and then sulphates of soda and of potash have been formed, injurious to the permanence of the surface of the picture, because they crystallize and force off portions of the lime and sand of which the surface is composed. the effect of the efflorescence of the carbonates on the surface of a silicious painting may be seen in the famous picture of the meeting of wellington and blucher, in the house of lords, painted by the late mr. maclise, r.a. when, however, the solution of aluminate and silicate of potash is used with the pigments on a properly prepared ground, there is no fear of this efflorescence taking place, and paintings executed with it have stood for many years, without giving any signs whatever of decay. to those interested in this subject, it is desirable that they should perform a series of experiments themselves, and ascertain the best methods of practically applying this vehicle in the execution of large mural paintings. they will find that, although at first they may meet with some difficulties, yet after a while these difficulties will vanish, and they will have a material to work with, which will meet all their requirements. in an article so brief as the present, it is impossible to enter fully into all the details of the manipulation of this particular process of painting; it is, however, most desirable to give a short account of the method of preparing the ground and of applying the colours, leaving the rest to be learned from practical experience. angular fresh-water river sand, well washed, should be mixed with sufficient lime to cause it to adhere to the wall on which it is placed, and this in all cases should be freshly plastered in the ordinary way. no plaster of paris (which is sulphate of lime) should be used in the preparation of the groundwork. the coating of fine sand and lime is laid on to a depth of about an eighth of an inch, and when dry, an application of dilute silicate of potash should be made, in order to bond together the particles of sand which, owing to the employment of so small a quantity of lime, can be readily brushed off. as soon as these particles are well fixed together and do not come off when the hand is passed over the surface of the wall, the ground is in a fit state for the commencement of the painting. the colour should be used with zinc white, and not with lead white, and, of course, they must be in the state of fine powder, and not ground up with oil or any such material. the artist can use his mixture of silicate of alumina and aluminate of potash of the strength already described; he may, when desirable, dilute it to a certain extent with water, but he should not do so too much. he can then paint with it just as he would with water in water-colour painting; and if he finds that any portion of his colours, after they are dry, are not sufficiently fixed upon the wall, he can then with a brush pass over them a coating of the clear liquid, used a little stronger. when the whole work is finished, it will perhaps be desirable to give it one or two coats of a very dilute solution of silicate of alumina and aluminate of potash. after a time, owing to the contraction in drying of this material, it would be advisable--say, after the lapse of two or three months--to again apply a coat of it somewhat stronger; and again, if after a year, or more than a year, it should appear that any portions of the surface were becoming loose, another application of the mixed silicate of alumina and aluminate of potash to these loosened parts alone will be desirable. this repetition may appear to some to be an objection to the process, but it is not so, however; for in the formation of those natural substances, such as flints, which we find so hard, no doubt a very great lapse of time occurred in the induration of the gelatinous silica which formed them. neither do we object from time to time, at intervals of years to renew the coats of varnish on oil paintings, in order to preserve them or to bring out afresh the brilliancy of their colours. the soluble silicates are frequently used as bonding materials in the manufacture of artificial stone and cement, very good results having been attained. the objection, however, to their employment for these purposes is the expense of the material of which they form a constituent part, and it seems almost impossible ever to bring it into competition with dressed natural stone. but for ornamental purposes, from the plastic nature of the substance when in the wet state, it can be pressed into moulds, and wherever plaster mouldings are admissible, no doubt this material would be useful for certain kinds of ornamentation. some years ago, mr. ransome, of ipswich, after having made his artificial stone with sand and silicate of soda, heated it in ovens, so as to produce a hard and semi-vitrified mass. a church, the mouldings of which are made of this stone, may be seen at the bottom of pentonville hill, london; and certainly as to durability, there is no doubt that the substance has answered very well. but from difficulties in manipulation and other reasons, that gentleman gave up this method of making artificial stone, and is now working another process which yields far better results. silicate of soda is mixed with sand (generally aylesford sand), and after the mixture is moulded and dried, it is exposed to the action _in vacuo_ of chloride of calcium in solution. whether the whole mass is placed in a vacuum chamber and then charged with chloride of calcium; or whether a vacuum is formed on the under side of the substance, and the chloride of calcium solution caused by suction to filter through it, is uncertain. however, whatever be the manipulative processes, the result is the same, and appears to be extremely satisfactory. soluble silicates produce very remarkable results when mixed with certain substances. if silicate of soda or potash be mixed with white lead, in a very short time it sets into a hard substance, just as does plaster of paris when mixed with water. if powdered pumice-stone or sand, in the proportion of eight parts to one of carbonate of lead, be mixed together with soluble silicate, a very hard and coherent mass is obtained, and there seems no reason why a mixture of this kind, in which pumice-stone is used, should not be employed for the purpose to which pumice-stone is usually applied. it would have the advantage of being easily moulded into forms, so as to suit mouldings, which might by it be much more accurately and expeditiously smoothed down (as in the case especially of picture-frame mouldings), than they can be by the ordinary pumice-stone. another very important application of soluble silicates is the rendering of wood incombustible. many experiments have been performed which show that when wood is thoroughly impregnated to a depth of a quarter of an inch or more with silicate of soda, it will not flame, but will only char. now, supposing that the constructive timbers of a house were worked, and then placed in suitable vessels and saturated with silicate of soda, they would then be rendered practically fireproof, or at least it would take a very prolonged exposure to heat to cause them to smoulder away, while at no period of this time would they burst into flame. from the peculiarly gluey nature of these soluble silicates, they do not penetrate readily into porous substances; it has therefore been suggested that the impregnation of the wood should take place in vacuum chambers, just in the manner that the creosoting process for preserving railway sleepers is at present performed. it is most certainly advisable that the wood should be worked before being exposed to the silicating process, for that would render it so hard, that it would considerably increase the cost of labour in cutting and planing it. at the commencement of this article, it was stated that silicic acid, or silica, could be made soluble in water. some very interesting experiments were performed by the late dr. graham, master of the mint, which gave rise to the discovery of the process of dialysis. if some silicate of soda be mixed with water, so that not more than per cent. of silica be in the solution (rather less is better), and if some hydrochloric acid be then added in sufficient quantity to make the liquid distinctly acid, and the mixture be placed in a dialyzing apparatus, the chloride of sodium formed by the union of the chlorine of the hydrochloric acid with the sodium of the silicate of soda will pass out through this dialyzing membrane, leaving hydrated silica behind, which will remain in solution in the water with which the silicate was mixed. the dialyzing apparatus is constructed in the following manner; a sort of tambourine ring is made with gutta percha, in place of wood, from to inches or even more in diameter, the depth, being about inches. another ring of gutta percha, of about an inch deep or even less, is made so as to fit tightly outside the tambourine; a piece of vegetable parchment is then moistened and placed over the tambourine, and the thinner ring is pressed over it, so as to secure it tightly. this is the dialyzing vessel, and it is into this that the mixture of silicate and hydrochloric acid must be put. the solution should not be more than an inch deep in the dialyzing vessel, which is then made to float upon distilled water in a larger vessel of suitable size. the distilled water should be changed every day, until no precipitate can be obtained in it with nitrate of silver, and when this point is arrived at, all the chloride of sodium will have passed through the vegetable parchment into the larger vessel of water, and nothing but silicic hydrate will remain behind in solution. if this liquid be allowed to stand for some time, it will gelatinize, and later on the jelly will contract, becoming extremely hard, so that lumps of it, when broken, will in their fracture resemble that of flint. no doubt, at some future period, some one will discover a method of rendering this condition of silica useful in the arts. soluble silicates are very useful as detergents. a small quantity of silicate of soda mixed with hard water renders it valuable for washing purposes. silicate of soda is also used in the manufacture of the cheaper kinds of soap. we can hardly speak of it as an adulteration, because it renders the soap with which it is combined much more powerful in its cleansing action. i suggest to those interested in the application of science to the arts, that this subject will no doubt well repay experimental investigations. it is much to be wished that those engaged in this branch of art and manufacture, and who have some knowledge of chemistry, would turn their attention to getting a better and more perfect method of making coloured pot-metal glass. i have been engaged for some time, and still am engaged, in experiments to effect this object. but inasmuch as my engagements are very numerous, and i cannot give the proper time to it i desire, i therefore take the liberty of suggesting to others the ways in which i am working, that they may be able to arrive at good results more speedily probably than i shall be able to do. if sulphate of copper be mixed with silicate of potash, silicate of copper will be precipitated. now, if this be carefully washed and dried, it will be a silicate of a definite composition, and i propose to use such silicates as these with ordinary glass mixtures, in order to impart the particular colour which the oxide employed has been already described as giving to the glass. silicate of manganese is prepared in a similar way to the silicate of copper; silicate of cobalt, and other silicates, can be used as staining materials for colouring glass. these mixed in due proportion would give tints, and would, i do not feel the slightest doubt, produce colours with much greater certainty than they are now produced, and tints hitherto unknown could be made to the great benefit of the glass-painter. furniture and woodwork. by j. h. pollen, m.a., south kensington museum. i propose in the following pages to give some account of the materials used in making furniture, and of the arts applied to its decoration. from the earliest ages of society, when men moved about in tribes, they had in their tents of camels' hair simple necessaries, such as their wants required. before people were gathered into distinct nations, or cities built with walls and gates, there were still certain human wants that must needs be supplied; and the objects that were needed to enable mankind to live with convenience and decency were found in their furniture. to this very day we may see arab tribes wandering over sunny deserts, seeking pasturage, sowing here and there an acre of wheat or barley, or gathering dates. their camels and dromedaries are their waggons, their horses are their friends, their families and those of others that make up their tribe are their only nationality. yet they furnish in some sort the temporary homes which they shift from one spring of water to another, as the patches of grass or grain grow up and ripen. their chief wants are, a cloth strained over three staves to make a house, mats or carpets to lie on, a few bowls to cook in, saddles of wood, and a few baskets or chests, made of light sticks fastened together. in later periods of history and in more conventional states of society, we shall find this primitive type of furnishing carried out with growing splendour. in the west and in the east, in ancient and mediæval times, great rulers, though constantly in the saddle, have been followed by enormous trains of camp followers, by whom costly furniture, hangings, vessels of plate, and other luxuries, have been carried for the convenience of the leaders and warriors of moving hosts; and of course this splendour was the measure of the state and magnificence kept at home. the wealth or feudal state, shown in the furniture of old castles and palaces, extended not only to halls and rooms, but to dresses, and armour, weapons, the furniture of horses, tents, and other objects that could be carried on distant expeditions. ancient nations have been as well, and more splendidly, if less conveniently, provided with furniture for their houses than modern ones. it happens that there are distinct records of many kinds, showing what wealth and elaborate decoration some of the oldest races, such as the assyrians, the egyptians, the persians, and the greeks, bestowed on their thrones, beds, chairs, and chariots. beds of silver and gold are mentioned in esther i., and the curtains of the bed of holofernes were covered with a canopy of purple and gold, with emeralds and precious stones (judith x. ; esther i.). modern princes in india continue to devote their jewels and gold to similar uses. it must be borne in mind also, that this kind of splendour is an investment of property in times and countries in which banks, insurance offices, government funds, and other organized means of investing money are unknown. silver, if not gold, has been used occasionally, not only in the east, but in europe, for seats, tables, even the frames of pictures and mirrors. the royal apartments in whitehall were completely mounted with hammered and filagree silver furniture in the seventeenth century. carlyle records of frederick the great, that silver ornaments were kept in his palace, and turned to account under the exigencies of war. but of furniture generally, wood is the readiest and most proper material. it is handy, easily worked, light to carry about, and may be manufactured with or without decorations of carved work, or of any other kind. hence, in giving an account, whether historical or mechanical, of furniture, i class it under the more general head of woodwork. any other materials, either for the framing or ornamentation of furniture, are exceptional. the remarks now to be submitted to the reader will refer to wood that is manufactured, though i shall not enter on the interesting subject of wood structure, which has been applied to such noble and elaborate uses, and of which such splendid monuments of many periods still remain for us to study. most of the methods used for decorating woodwork made up into furniture are still in regular use, and the processes of putting it together are the same as they have always been. the reader may satisfy himself on this point any day by a walk in the egyptian rooms and in the nineveh galleries of the british museum. in both these sections of that wonderful collection, there are remains of woodwork and of furniture, made of wood three or four thousand years old, such as stools, chairs, tables, head-rests or pillows, workmen's benches of egyptian manufacture, fragments less complete of nineveh make that have been portions of various utensils, and precious articles of sculptured and inlaid ivory that have been inserted into thrones and chariots. these pieces of furniture have been mortised together, or joined by dowels, dovetailed at the angles, glued, nailed, or, in short, made up by the use of several of these methods of junction at the same time. and no great changes have been introduced in the various ways of ornamenting furniture. the egyptian woodwork was painted in tempera, and carefully varnished with resinous gums. it was inlaid with ebony and other woods, carved, gilt and, perhaps, sparingly decorated with metal ornaments. the greeks inlaid chests and tables with carved ivory and gold, sometimes relieved with colour. the romans, who made much furniture of bronze, cast, inlaid, damascened and gilt, made much more in wood, which they stained, polished, carved, and inlaid. mediæval furniture was put together with mortises, tenons and glue, and was gilt and painted; the painting and gilding being laid on a ground prepared with the utmost care, and tooled and ornamented in the same way that bookbinders ornament leather. at a later period, a beautiful manufacture was carried on in various parts of italy; a sort of mosaic in very hard stone, such as agate, lapis lazuli, and other precious materials. the italians also used these beautiful stones inlaid in ebony. but the furniture most valued in modern times has been that which owes its name to boulle, a french artist of the seventeenth century; and the marquetry, or wood mosaic surface decoration, which reached so high a standard of excellence during the last thirty years of the eighteenth century in france. the former of these two classes of manufacture made, if not originated, by boulle (and i am inclined to think that he was not the first maker), was a marquetry, or surface decoration, not composed of various woods, but of tortoiseshell and brass, with the occasional introduction of other metal, and with metal enamelled in blue and other colours. the materials principally in use, however, in boulle marquetry are tortoiseshell and brass. in the older work, viz. that of the seventeenth century, the tortoiseshell is dark, and left in its natural hue. in later boulle, called new boulle, the tortoiseshell is reddened by colour, or by gilding laid under it. there is much grace and variety in the delicate arabesque designs in which one material is inlaid in the other. parts of the surfaces are sometimes diapered, as a contrast to the free lines and curves of other parts. the inlaid surface of boulle work is framed in by borders, cornices, or handles of brass or gilt bronze, giving a massive architectural character to the whole. thus if we look back to the history of furniture, not only will every kind of splendid material be found devoted to the manufacture or decoration of it, but the best art too of many different periods that money could command. it is in the late times of antiquity, and since the period of the renaissance in modern times, that works of art have been kept on shelves or gathered into galleries. many works of great masters, such as the chest of cypselus, and the chairs of the great statues of ivory and gold, were prepared for celebrated shrines and temples in the cities of greece. it was but the excessive wealth of great patricians in rome and constantinople that led to their becoming collectors, whether of sculpture, painting, or sumptuous silver plate. the chief object of rich and accomplished men in most ages of luxury and refinement has been, to make the house, its walls, ceilings, floors, and necessary or useful furniture, costly and beautiful. it was the same in the days of donatello, raphael, cellini, and holbein. chests and trays were painted, together with gems, dies, brooches; table plate was modelled and chiselled; while chairs of wrought steel, or tables, cabinets, and other pieces of rich furniture, were either designed or carried into execution by these masters with their pupils and followers. in some instances, as, e.g., in that of the famous pomeranian cabinet, in the kunst kammer in berlin, a long list has been preserved of artists and craftsmen of note in their day, who combined to produce monumental examples of actual room furniture. it cannot be denied that though great pains are taken and much expense is incurred in modern furnishing, the habits of the day lead rather to the search for comfort than for grace or beauty; and convenience rather than intrinsic value or artistic excellence. nevertheless, a certain amount of decency and splendour is indispensable in both receiving and sleeping rooms; and though a house really well, that is beautifully, furnished is of rare occurrence, this is not for want of serious efforts, nor altogether to be laid to the account of unwillingness to spend money for such a purpose. whether the "art of furnishing" or the desire to have what people require for use in their houses more becoming and beautiful, be a rising influence or not, it is certain that the "fancy" or ornamental furniture trade is of large and increasing importance, corresponding to the increased size and cost of modern london and country houses, compared with those built during the reigns of william iii. and george iv. every tradesman who has the pretension to repair chimney-pots, to whitewash, or paint house-fronts, ceilings, or offices, writes up the word "decorator," on his shop-front. the qualities required in furniture. we may consider furniture under two broad divisions, that which is made to be handled and moved about, and that which is for use but not meant to be handled or moved. we may add a third division in the actual fixtures of the house, made by the joiner and meant to be ornamental fittings or completions to the builder's and carpenter's work. under the first head will be included light tables, chairs, couches, and other movable objects; under the second, cabinets, book-shelves, frames, mirrors, and so on; under the third head come flooring, panelling, window shutters, door-frames, stair-rails, &c. . chairs, tables, etc. the essential points in a well-made chair are comfort, lightness, and strength. of course, as men and women are pretty much of the same proportion all over the world, chairs, of which the seat is about the height of the lower process of the human knee-joints, must be of the same height, or but slightly varied, in every country. from the habit that so many persons have of throwing their whole weight back and, as we are told, in some countries, of balancing their persons on the back legs of their chairs and inclining their legs in the direction of the chimneypiece, there is often an immense strain on the back joints of chairs. whether we lean back or swing on them, the junction of the seats of chairs with the backs is always subject to severe trials; and on no article of furniture in common use is such good joinery required. it is worth while to look at the old wall paintings of the egyptians, as they are given in rossellini and the great french book of the 'description de l'egypte,' to see what capital workmanship those most ancient carpenters bestowed on their chairs. those of the best and oldest periods are without connecting bars to the legs before or behind, all the strength of the construction being centred in the excellence of the joints of the seat with the back and legs; and in modern workshops, the highest skill is applied to ensure strength in these points of junction. if the wood is thoroughly dry, the mortises and tenons fitting perfectly, and the glue good, the different parts are so wedded together that the whole structure becomes one piece, as if nature had made a vegetable growth in that fashion, all the fibres of which have continuous and perfect contact with each other. if, however, there is a deficiency in any of these conditions, these joints fail. if the wood shrinks, or the tenons do not fit the mortises all through, or the glue is deficient, these various portions speedily come to pieces. sofas, couches, and stuffed chairs are so much more massive in construction that there need be no risk of such a kind of disintegration. the members of which a chair is made up may be either turned in the lathe, or left massive enough to allow of carving on the legs, backs, or round the framework of the seat. turned work can be lightly inlaid with ivory, as that of ancient egypt, painted, gilt, or mounted (lightly also) with metal. the subjects of the carving may be either figures of men, horses, lions, or the heads and legs of such animals, acanthus leaves, and arabesques. many of these ornaments have been used from ancient times, and revived at various historical periods. for modern rooms the lightest construction is most in place, and therefore carving should be compact in composition and delicate in execution, without prominences or undercutting that would interfere with comfort or be liable to breakage. a certain architectural character is given to chairs by cutting flutings down the legs, or by borrowing other slight details from architecture. the upholstery of chairs will always be their most noticeable decoration, and this applies still more to lounging chairs and couches of all shapes and sizes, as the framework of them is so much less observable in proportion to their upholstered surfaces. tables, lampstands, &c., being generally, though not always, meant to be moved about, require as light a construction as is consistent with strength. the surface of all but small tables is beyond the dimensions of a single plank of wood. the outer and inner portions of a log or plank are of different fineness of grain, contain varying proportions of sap, and shrink in different degrees. single planks of wood, therefore, can only be exceptionally used for table tops. generally, they are made up of portions of planks selected with great care, grooved on the edges, with a tongue or slice of wood cut the cross way of the grain, uniting the planks about the middle of their thickness; the edges are then firmly glued together. if the surface is to be of wood which can be procured in large pieces of straight or continuous grain, such as mahogany, the wood is solid throughout; if of some rare wood or rare figured graining, such as the roots or wens of oak, this ornamental surface is laid on in thin slices with glue and heavy pressure. this is known as _veneering_. the surface is sometimes inlaid with ivory, metal, mother-of-pearl, slices of agate and other substances, as in the boulle or marquetry work already alluded to. the frame of the table is either a deep rail not far within the edge, or a thick pillar or leg or several legs collected, mortised into a broad expanding foot and supporting a spreading framework above, to which the top itself can be fastened, and stretching far enough all round in the direction of the edges to give a firm support. the decoration of the top can only be superficial if the table is for use, and any decoration by carving, piercing, and so on, must be confined to the framework and the supports. these parts can be, and have been at all times decorated as the framework of chairs, and by very much the same kinds of ornament. to tables of more modern periods, little galleries of pierced work or of tiny balustrades are sometimes added. they belong to the age of porcelain collectors, hoops, broad coat-skirts, and tea-parties, and are intended to save delicate wares from being swept to the ground. side tables, and such as are made to support heavy objects, can be treated with more massive frame work and supports, and the carving and decorations will be bolder and larger accordingly. . cabinets, etc. i will proceed to the second division of furniture, cabinets, bookcases, and other standing objects, which are more or less immovable. but shelves and china trays must be placed in secure parts of the room, if they are not actually fastened to the wall. the former must be strong to support the great weights laid upon them, and the supports or framework, which is all that would be seen, may be carved or decorated with surface or applied metal ornament. on a large scale, fittings of this kind belong rather to architectural woodwork. china holders, whether placed on the ground or fixed against a wall, are properly treated with shelves quaintly shaped on plain and light, pierced galleries or gilt decorations corresponding with the apparent lightness of pieces of porcelain. the wood and lac work cabinets of the chinese; and the complicated, but not ungraceful, gilt mirror frames and flourishing acanthus work of the italians, french, and germans, of the last century, seem specially suited for showing off this gay and fragile material. the collector proper will probably place his treasures under glass, and with little regard to the framework of his cases. here china and china stands are treated only as decorations. as to cabinets, they are the most precious, if not the most useful of all pieces of furniture. they have generally been intended to hold family treasures, are not required to be moved, and have therefore been the richest and most decorated objects in the room. cabinets are the legitimate descendants of the chests of former days containing bridal outfits and trinkets, or plate, jewellery, and other valuables. they were carried from town to country, from grange to castle. about the beginning of the sixteenth century, the personal habits of great men became less nomad, and their chests were no longer liable to be packed and moved away. these receptacles were mounted on stands at which height the lids could not be lifted, and doors were substituted. drawers took the place of shelves or compartments, and every sort of ingenuity was applied to make these pieces of furniture quaint and splendid inside and out. as to shape, it is contrary to their purpose of convenience and interior capacity, to make cabinets, cupboards, or other receptacles, with showy and spreading architectural details, such as cornices, architraves, columns, pediments, and the like. all these parts, which are laborious and costly in construction, are so many additions to its size, and make no more room inside to compensate for this expenditure. cabinets should, in propriety, be as big and convenient inside as their size would lead us to expect. on the other hand, the many fine examples made in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in this country, holland, germany, france or elsewhere, have been generally intended for rooms larger, higher, and with fewer pieces of furniture in them than those of our modern houses, not to speak of the massiveness of fireplaces and fittings with which they were in character. it is their age, and the connection, which we cannot help tracing, with old houses and bygone generations which give architectural cabinets an interest now. in construction, the skill of the cabinet maker will be shown in the neat and convenient arrangement of drawers of various depths and sizes, shelves or repositories, so contrived as to turn the entire internal space to account. the most curious contrivances are often found in old german, english, and french cabinets, bureaux, secrétaires, and other varieties of this kind of furniture. pediments, capitals of columns, and other parts of architectural fronts are made to open, and secret drawers stowed away with an ingenuity almost humorous. it is upon the fronts and stands that the skill of great masters of the craft has been bestowed. the large wardrobes, or "armoires," of boulle are examples of great inventive and designing power, as well as the marquetry of riesener and david, and the chiselled metal-work of berain, gouthière, and that of many english artists. as in past times, and so in our own, it is on cabinets that the real triumphs of the cabinet maker's art are displayed. . fixed woodwork. thirdly, the joiner's and cabinet maker's art plays an important part in the fixed furniture of the house, and the woodwork, such as flooring, doors and door-frames, panelling, chimneypieces, with the complementary decorations of hangings, whether tapestry, silk, or the more humble material of paper. in this last division of furniture the work is that of joinery. there is no great demand for constructive strength, as the work is fixed to walls; but as doors and shutters are swung to and fro continually, and subject to jars and strains, their stiles and rails, upright and cross-framing members, as well as the panelling that fills them, require well-seasoned timber and the most accurate workmanship: without these conditions the joints open, the panels shrink from the grooves in which the edges are held, and split, while the frame itself, if of unseasoned material, 'buckles' or twists, so that the door or shutter will no longer shut flat in its frame. panelling and fireplaces are, however, opportunities for the display of carving, inlaying, and gilding. the reader has seen carved room panelling, probably, in many old houses. in some of the municipal 'palaces' in flanders, e.g. in bruges, and in the old rooms of the louvre in paris, carved panelling of the utmost grace and perfection, some of it in groups of life-sized portrait figures, may be studied by the tourist. of work so rich and costly as this wood sculpture, it is perhaps hopeless to speak with reference to our modern houses, and in connection with the manufacture of furniture in this country, at least on any large or general scale of application. still as such work, confined to the composition of fireplaces or sideboard backs, is still sculptured by italian and french carvers, and has been sent to universal exhibitions of recent years, it must be considered a possible effort for our great employers of skilled labour. the panelling of wall surfaces will be divided into larger or smaller reticulations or framework, with some reference to the size of the room, that is to say, that very large and lofty rooms will not bear the smaller subdivision of space and delicate moulding lines which are so general in panelling of mediæval or very early tudor houses, and which are in keeping on walls of moderate size. any inlaying or variety of woods should be used on walls with great discretion. so far, then, on the general consideration of the work, which it is the business of the furniture maker to produce. in theory, it is his object to satisfy daily wants and necessities in the most convenient, useful, and agreeable way. the difference between rudeness and refinement in daily habits consists in putting first order and propriety, then comeliness and cheerfulness into our homes and habits. there is so much to be borne and to be done merely that we may live, so many contradictions to natural inclination meet us on all sides, that we look for repose, and some moderate satisfaction to the natural desire of the eye, in that which meets it, and must meet it, so constantly. this satisfaction is beauty, or some measure of it, or what we have grown to take for beauty. as the eye is more exercised, the mind more informed, and becomes a better monitor or corrective to the eye, so we get less satisfied with much that passes for beauty, and so, on the other hand, we find it out in objects in which it is commonly or often passed over. manufacture. a return prepared by the commissioners for the paris exhibition, in , gave the following as the number of manufacturers engaged in london in "the several branches of the fancy furniture trade." cabinet makers upholsterers carvers and gilders french polishers cabinet carvers, inlayers, and liners bedstead-makers chair, sofa, and stool-makers wood and cabinet wares were exported (in ) to the value of , _l._, and imported to the value of , _l._[ ] [ ] cat. brit. section exhibition, , introduction, p. . the highest efforts of the trade are concentrated in a few large establishments in london and the great cities, which have their own cabinet makers, carvers, upholsterers, &c., on their premises. in some instances, one piece of furniture may pass through the hands of several branches of the manufacture. i may choose a few names of makers who presented their works in paris in in alphabetical order, e.g. messrs. collinson and locke, crace, dyer and watts, gillow, herring, holland, howard, hunter, ingledew, jackson and graham, morant, trollope, wertheimer, wright and mansfield. the larger of these establishments are supplied with steam machinery, and all the work that can possibly be executed by mechanical agency is prepared by these engines, leaving only the most costly operations to be executed by hand. it is the province of the carpenter to put together simple woodwork; that which is an actual part of architecture, such as boxes, chests, benches, seats, shelves, and so forth as require only good material and neatness of hand in execution. the joiner and cabinet maker include this amount of skill as a foundation for their accomplishments, as a sculptor can block out a statue and a painter grind his colours, work, however, which in ordinary practice is handed over to assistants or apprentices. before discussing the materials and the methods of execution now in use, it would be well to notice a great change which has taken place both in the status of the workman, the division of labour, and the mechanical appliances now at his command. down to recent times, joinery and cabinet making were in the hands of a number of masters in the trade, far greater in comparison to the pressure of the demand on the part of buyers than is the case at present. we have a larger society of buyers, a greater demand for the execution of large orders at a rapid rate, than was the case in former generations. on the other hand, the trade is gathered up into fewer master hands. the masters then employed a less amount of labour. they took in apprentices, many of whom remained for years with them as assistants, and the establishment was more of a family. it followed, that all members of this smaller society worked together and took part in the particular sets of chairs, the tables, cabinets, and so forth, turned out from their own house. they were, moreover, animated in a closer and truer degree by the spirit, and adopted the ideas, of a master who worked with or overlooked and advised them constantly, than could be the case in our great modern establishments. again, though, as i have already said, the old operations by which boards, bars, and other members of wood construction are joined together, have not substantially varied since the days of egyptians and romans, the methods of execution have undergone a great change, owing to the introduction of machinery. the skill and training of the hand of the workman must necessarily undergo a change as well, whether for the better or the worse. the workman is relieved from the necessity of attaining an absolute accuracy in much of the ordinary but essential work of joints, mortises and other operations which can be produced with an uniform exactness by mechanical means. the fact, also, that different engines or lathes can produce at a prodigious rate certain separate parts of many pieces of furniture, has made skilled mechanics less universal "all round" men than they were. if this combination of qualities is to be met with in provincial towns or villages, there, without doubt, the standard of excellence is a lower one. _materials and execution._--the woods used for making furniture besides pines and deals, are birch and beech (used for stuffed chair-frames, couches, &c.) walnut, letter wood, spanish and honduras mahogany, sycamore, lime, pear, cherry of several kinds, and maple; ash, english, american, and hungarian; oak, english, foreign, and pollard, with pieces cut from wens and sweet cedar. turners use also plane, laburnum, yew, holly, and box. more precious woods are also used in furniture: rose-wood, satin-wood, ebony, and sandal-wood. other rare woods are used in inlaying and marquetry. some of these materials, mahogany and walnut, which are much in use, are imported in vast logs, the former sometimes three feet square; when of very fine grain suited to veneers, worth _l._ or more, per log. the woods are stacked in yards, or, in london, where the space cannot otherwise be had, on platforms resting on the walls of the workshops, and fully exposed to the weather. woods are dried after a year, or two years, according to the size of the log and nature of the wood. oak is sometimes kept for eight or more years. when sawn into the scantlings required, it is further dried by placing the logs and planks in rooms heated by the waste steam from the engine. an american patented method of drying is to place a coil of pipes, through which exceedingly cold water is passed in the drying room, which condenses and carries off the vapours from the wood exposed to this heat. some firms have tried this method, but, i believe, without much success. logs are cut up by the engine with three or more perpendicular saws at once, the teeth being set to the right and left alternately, to open a passage for the blades. more valuable woods, e.g. mahogany, are cut into thin plank by an horizontal saw. in this case the teeth are not bent, but a labourer opens the passage for the blade by lifting the plank with a wedge. as little waste of the material as possible is thus secured. further cutting up of the material is done by means of circular saws. part of the saw rises through a metal table. a moveable bar is firmly screwed at one, two, or more inches from the blade, and the wood is pushed by the workman against the saw, keeping one surface against the fixed bar, so as to secure a straight cut of the thickness required. most modern _planing_ is done by a revolving cutter, brought to bear upon the wood, which is drawn under it on an iron table, with more or less pressure, according to the quantity to be taken off the surface. messrs. howard have contrived a tube with a blast down it, which carries the shavings at once to the furnace, otherwise the dust made by the flying particles of wood would be unendurable. _mouldings_ for panelling, cornices, skirtings, &c., are cut by revolving cutters or chisels, filed to any desired shape and case-hardened. they are set in a perpendicular axle and cut horizontally, the wood being firmly pressed against the tool. the workman can gear the cutter or reverse the action, so as to make a neat finish to his work. formerly all such work was done with a plane, cut to the required figure, and the finishings of lines of moulding had to be carved with the hand. _mortising_ is done by a revolving boring tool, against which the wood to be mortised is moved by a gradual action, from side to side, and backwards and forwards, till the exact depth and width are bored out; tenons fitting these cavities are cut in another lathe, also by mechanical action. _turning lathes._--the legs of chairs and tables are made in lathes, the general outline being obtained by turning in the simple form. portions of the legs are sometimes squared, and the square faces must be evenly graduated. these parts are cut as follows: the lathe and the leg in it are kept at rest, and a revolving tool--in fact, a small lathe with a perpendicular cutter in it, connected by a leather band with a spindle overhead--set in motion by the steam-engine. the workman passes this cutter carefully down the four surfaces of the portions to be squared, cutting to a given depth all down, but never losing the angle outlines originally found by the first turning. when flutings have to be cut down the legs, whether they are round or square, this is done by using a revolving cutter set with horizontal action, which passes carefully along at one level, and is geared by the joiner so as to graduate the width of each fluting, as it descends, if the diminishing size of the support or leg requires it. bars of chairs, edges of shelves, the stretchers (or connecting bars) under some kinds of tables, are cut into carved or other shapes by an endless band saw revolving on two rollers. the workman passes his wood along an iron table against the saw, gearing the former according to the pattern drawn on the surface. _fretwork_ is done with a still finer hair or watch-spring saw, of which one end can be detached from the holder and passed through a small hole in the piece of wood where the piercing is to be cut out by the saw. this could not be done by an endless saw, which can only be used to shape out edges. the best saws of this description are made by perin, in paris. watch-spring saws strained in frames have long been in use. in the steam-engine it is the wood only that is moved, and as it rests on a steady table, it gives the workman a great advantage, and should enable him to shape out his design with a delicacy only attainable with greater difficulty by the old method. the process of _mitreing_ pieces of moulding, where they meet at an angle at a corner, is done by machinery in some houses. in the works of messrs. jackson and graham, this is done by setting the pieces in a metal t square. they are carefully cut by hand, and as each piece is set in a frame geared to the angle required, and under the hand of an experienced workman, no inaccuracies are likely to occur. in cabinet-making and joinery of all kinds, the number of angles round which mouldings have to pass is very great, as anyone will see who is at the pains to notice the construction of furniture of the most ordinary kind. any staring or opening of an oblique joint is destructive of the effect of such workmanship, as it is of the strength of the joint which is glued together, and requires absolute contact of the parts to be joined. much work, such as chair rails, table legs, balusters for little galleries or on a large scale, is turned and cut in the steam lathe by hand, using steam power only to turn it. _joinery._--the pieces of wood thus prepared are made up in many different combinations. this is the work of the joiner. in the joiners' shop of messrs. jackson and graham, for instance, several benches were shown to me occupied by lengths of wall-panelling in ebony, some of the work being intended to cover the wall of a staircase; it was therefore framed in sloping lines. each panel was a rhomboid, and none of the sides or mouldings were at right angles to each other. the mouldings had several fine strings, ovaloes, &c., all specially designed by the architect of the house--as the fittings of well-furnished houses should be. for these, special cutters had been made and fitted to the steam-moulding machine. to show the back of the panelling, the workmen turned it over. instead of each panel being held in a groove provided in the stiles and rails, a rebate only has been cut in the frame, and the panel fits into it from the back (as the stretcher of a picture fits into a picture-frame), while iron buttons screwed into the frame pieces hold the panels firmly in their places. the object of this is to allow for the contraction of the wood with the alterations of temperature. with some woods, however well seasoned, this provision is requisite, and it is the more necessary, when more than one material is employed. in using ebony over large surfaces, it is found that the lengths required for the continuous rails cannot be procured free from knots or faults; and particular kinds of wood (pear and other material) are stained and prepared, to supplement the ebony in these instances. the joiners put together panelling, chairs, couches, frames of tables, shelves, cupboards, and other complex pieces of furniture. _upholstery._--chairs and sofas required to be stuffed are then handed over to the upholsterer, and the seats and backs are stuffed with curled horsehair, carefully arranged so as not to wear into holes. a _french edge_ is given to some stuffed seats by bringing the edges of several ridges of horsehair together, so inclined towards the upper edge, that each roll receives support from the others, which react on the pressure thus brought upon them, like springs. one would suppose that these edges were maintained by whalebone, like the stocks in which a past stiff-necked generation suffered so much. where ribbon scrolls, tiny bunches of flowers, &c., are carved on the frames and top rails of chairs and sofa-frames, if these are to be polished only, the polishing is done before the upholstery. if _parts_ are to be gilt, or the _whole_ gilt, these operations are postponed till the upholstery is completed. so also when panelling, sideboards, bookcases, &c., are to be made up, the moulded lines which can only be conveniently hand-polished while in lengths, are treated thus before making up; and there remain only flat panels and surfaces, that can be evenly rubbed for the final polishing. in upholstered furniture, the coverings would be greased and stained, if polishing were done over or in connection with them; but in the case of gilt work, it must be left in most cases to the last, for fear of dimming or rubbing the gold during the processes of sewing, nailing, stuffing, &c. i may remark here, that though arm-chairs, fauteuils, &c., are made in great london establishments, the manufacture of light chairs on a large scale is a special branch of the trade, and mostly carried on at high wycombe, in the neighbourhood of which town there are extensive woods of beech, and where land and water carriage is at hand to convey these productions to london and elsewhere. _cabinet-making._--it is by no means easy to lay down the exact technical boundary between what i have been describing as _joinery_, and what i am now about to call _cabinet-making_. they are considered, however, as distinct branches or rather, perhaps, different operations of the trade; and in such establishments as we are discussing, the cabinet makers and joiners have their own separate workshops and benches, and corresponding separate repositories for storing and drying their woods. every kind of work is required in making costly cabinets, bookcases, sideboards, commodes, or by whatever name we choose to call the beautiful chests, cupboards, and other artistic receptacles, tables, consoles, brackets, &c., that go to complete the requirements of our modern reception rooms. they are seldom made with the quaint or elaborate interior fittings, such as have been alluded to in older work, but every resource is brought to bear on the external decoration. here we come to the arts brought to bear on the ornamentation of furniture. let us begin with carving. sculpture is the highest or most beautiful kind of decoration that can be applied to furniture. it can only be executed by a trained artist. to go no farther back here than the italian and french renaissance furniture, generally made of walnut-wood, it is the spirited and graceful sculpture that makes its _first_ great attraction. the italian carving of this kind is the most graceful; while that of france by bachelier and others, and much that was executed in england and germany, being, if less graceful, always spirited and thoroughly decorative. as a general rule, sculpture so applied is _conventional_ in design and treatment, that is, we rarely see it, (except, perhaps, occasionally in little ivory statuettes, and in bas-reliefs,) strictly imitative of nature, like perfect greek sculpture. but neither should we find strict studies from nature on greek furniture, if we had it, except with the same limitations. the furniture made by greco-roman artists, and discovered at pompeii,[ ] bears witness to this assertion, such as a head, a bust, the claws of animals, sculptured on furniture generally ending in scrolls or leafwork. if a human figure is complete, it bears no real proportion to objects round it, and so on. [ ] see also q. de quincy, le jupiter olympien. excellent wood sculpture used to be executed in england, from the days of grinling gibbon to those of adam and the chippendales, suited to the furniture then in fashion. i wish i could say that our furniture makers of to-day could easily, or did generally, command such talents. ingeniously carved representations of animals and game on sideboards we sometimes see, but game 'dead' in every sense. if, indeed, messrs. crace, howard, jackson and graham, and other firms could persuade the royal academicians to model for them, those artists would have to give some material amount of time to the study of how they could so effectually modify their skill as to suit the requirements and opportunities of a piece of furniture, these being quite peculiar. the french are easily our masters in this respect, but even they sacrifice good qualities proper to this kind of sculpture, in a morbid search after the softness of nature. a curious piece of mechanism has been invented, and is in use in most large london furniture workshops, for _carving by steam_. besides boring out and cutting away superfluous material, there is an engine for making mechanical sculpture in bas-relief, or the round. the wood is fixed on a metal table, which is moved to and fro and up and down, so as to come in contact with a revolving cutter held above it. the wood is then shaped and cut, according as it is elevated or moved. there are three or four cutters, and one piece of wood may be placed under each. under the middle cutter, replaced by a dummy tool that does not really cut, the workman places his cast or model, and makes the dummy cutter pass over every undulation of its surface. the two or three cutters on either side cut the corresponding blocks exactly to the same depths and undulations as are followed by the blunt tool. it is a _copying machine_. that such copies, though they may pass muster, will ever have the charm of original carving, the reader shall not be asked to believe. certain elaborate methods of decorating and finishing woodwork must now be described, viz. those known as _inlaying_ and _marquetry_. these two processes are distinct, but marquetry furniture has often portions decorated with inlaying, as also carved ornaments and decorations of beaten, cast, or chiselled metal-work. this last addition is not generally of the same importance in our modern english woodwork that it was a century ago, and i will describe the former methods first. _inlaying_ means the insertion of pieces of more costly wood, stone, small discs, or carved pieces of ivory, into a less valuable material. the process is as old as any manufacture in wood working of which we possess records. beautiful plates or blocks of ivory can be seen in the assyrian gallery of the british museum, found at nineveh by mr. layard. they are deeply cut with lotus and other leaf decorations, figures and hieroglyphics, and most of them have an egyptian character. the ivory figures, too, have been inlaid and filled up with vitrified material. remains of these decorations are still discernible, and the thickness of many of these pieces of ivory shows that they have been sunk bodily into woodwork of a solid character. no such work as this can be pointed out in our london workshops, but patterns and arabesques, both of wood and ivory, are occasionally let into solid beds of wood so deeply, as to be actually mortised into the main body of the structure. this is done both by our own makers and by the french cabinet maker, henri fourdinois, a prize piece of whose make was bought for the south kensington museum. it is not uncommon to insert pieces of lapis lazuli, bloodstone, and precious marbles into centres of carved woodwork, and i may call attention to the use of plates, medallions and cameos of wedgwood, or sèvres ware, which were frequently inlaid by chippendale, and by the great french furniture makers, or _ébénistes_, of the last century. these are used in the modern satin-wood furniture of messrs. wright and mansfield, and i have lately seen a coarser material used, viz. bas-reliefs in _stoneware_, imitations of the _gris de flandres_, by messrs. doulton. these last, however, may be said to be rather panels set in frames, than pieces let into cavities in wood. _veneering and marquetry._--an effective method of ornamenting woodwork by the application to the _surface_ of other woods is what is known as _veneering_ and _marquetry_. the surface is in both cases covered with a thin layer of other woods, fastened on with glue and by strong pressure. some of the panelling, table tops, and other joiner's work already described, is clothed with a thin slice of more valuable wood. this is called _veneering_. woods such as ebony, tuya, satin-wood, palm, hare-wood, and a number more, are only to be had in small scantlings, logs a few feet long, and six or seven inches wide. other woods, of which the grain is most beautifully marked, are cut from roots, wens, and other excrescences of the trees, to which they belong, and are only found occasionally, and in lumps of no great size. the contortions of the grain, which make them so valuable and beautiful, are owing to peculiar conditions of growth. in all these cases an inch plank of wood has to be cut into very thin slices, twelve being cut with a saw, or from eighteen to twenty-two if it is cut with a knife, as in that case no material is wasted by the opening made by a saw. these slices are laid on the surface of well-seasoned wood, and in the workshops of our great manufacturers will be seen a metal table or bed, prepared expressly for the process of veneering. supposing the object to be veneered to be a large surface--a number of panels, or the top of a table of ebony, for instance--the substance of the table may be honduras mahogany. the wood has been carefully seasoned, and the top grooved, tongued, and firmly glued up to the required form. the ebony surface is also carefully fitted together and glued on paper, the surface being left rough, so that the glue may have a firm hold on the fibre of the grain. a corresponding roughness is produced on the upper surface of the mahogany, which is then laid on the metal bed. glue, perfectly fluid and hot, is now rapidly brushed over the entire surface, and the thin veneer top is laid upon it, and firmly pressed down by several workmen, who then carefully go over the whole with hammers having broad, flat heads; the object of this being to flatten any apparent thicknesses of glue or bubbles of air which would interfere with the perfect contact of the two surfaces of wood. the whole is then placed under a caul or frame that touches it all over, and a number of strong bars are screwed down till the greater part of the glue has been pressed out. the complete union of the surfaces of the woods is effected not so much by the quantity of glue as by the absolute exclusion of the air, and this can only be done by pressure. the whole metal bed or frame in which the veneering is performed is heated by steam, or by gas-burners, where steam cannot be applied. the wood is left for twenty-four or thirty hours, till the glue has been completely set and hardened. the caul or frame is then removed, the paper used to keep the thin veneer together before gluing is scraped off, and the work of finishing and french polishing takes place. french polish, or careful wax polish, has the effect of keeping out air and damp, which latter might soften the glue and disintegrate the surface veneer. it is to be observed, that such wood as the finest french or italian walnut is often veneered on mahogany, for it lasts better in this condition than if it was solid; large surfaces and thicknesses of walnut being difficult to procure without faults. walnut veneers are applied in greater thicknesses than ebony; and if the surfaces to which they are applied are curved, cauls, or shaped pieces of wood made to fit them, are screwed down and held by numerous wooden vices, as in the method already described. _marquetry_ is the application of veneer made of different woods, ivory, &c., composed like a mosaic or painting executed in coloured woods. this kind of decoration is of ancient use, was much in vogue during the renaissance of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and was carried to a great pitch of perfection in france during the seventeenth and eighteenth. it is still practised, and the process may be seen in full activity in the workshops of our modern furniture makers. in cutting out the forms required for marquetry decoration, one, two, or more thicknesses of thin wood are gummed or pasted together, according to the pattern required. in many fine pieces of marquetry there are, as in the case of a cabinet or table, portions of the surface entirely occupied by quiet reticulated patterns. as in these cases the same pattern often recurs, several thicknesses of wood can be laid together, and are then firmly fixed in a vice, having pasted over them a piece of paper on which the pattern is drawn. a small hole is bored where it will not interfere with the design, and the end of a thin watch-spring saw is passed through, and then re-attached to the frame that strains it out in working order. with this in his hand, the workman carefully traces the outlines of his drawing, which the tenuity of the saw-blade allows the tool to follow into every curve and angle. the thicknesses are then separated with the blade of a knife, and the slices become alternately pattern and ground, so that a set of patterns and a set of matrices of each wood are ready for use, and can be applied either on different parts of the same, or on two separate pieces of furniture. if a flower or other ornament is required which will not be repeated, two thicknesses only will be cut together. it is necessary that the same action of the saw should cut out the pattern and the ground in the two woods required, so that they may fit exactly. when all the portions of the design are cut out, they are pasted on paper, and can be fitted together like mosaic. a little sawdust from the woods used, and a very small quantity of glue, join the edges and fill up the fine openings made by the saw; and in this way the whole surface of the marquetry is laid down on paper. in the case of flowers, heads, architectural or other designs, some slight additions, either of lines to indicate stalks, leaf-fibre, or the features of the face, are made with a graver, and stained; or gradations of a brown colour are given, in the case of white or light-tinted wood, by partial burning. it was formerly the custom to burn with a hot iron, but a more delicate tint is given by using hot sand, and this is the best method of tinting beech, lime, holly, box, maple, or other woods which are nearly white. there remains nothing but to rough the surface of the furniture, and to lay down the marquetry on it, precisely as in the case of plain veneering. when the glue is dry and hard, the pressure is taken off, the paper which is on the outer surface is scraped away, and the whole rubbed down to a fine surface and french polished. the most beautiful work of this description was made in france by riesener and david, during the reigns of louis xv. and louis xvi. besides graceful and delicate _design_, which these artists (for such they were) thoroughly understood, the beauty of their work owes much to their charming feeling for colour. both used light woods, such as maple, holly, box, lime, &c., and laid brown woods, such as laburnum and walnut, on this light ground. sometimes architectural compositions in the manner of pannini, a favourite roman painter of the day, were designed over the doors or flaps of secrétaires and cabinets, or busts, medallions, baskets of roses, &c. the charm of the work is the grace and repose with which these simple decorations are laid on. compare some of the work of riesener and david, on the cabinet doors in the collection of sir richard wallace, with the glaring contrasts, the gaudy, often discordant colouring, and the crowded compositions of modern marquetry, at least of most of it. there is a tenderness of treatment, a grace and harmony of colour and arrangement throughout the former, which is wholly wanting, and which no lapse of time will add to the latter. though these criticisms are not meant to be applied to the products of the leading houses now under review, the reader who has taken an observant stroll amongst the furniture of sir richard wallace, at bethnal green, will find abundant contrasts as he walks along the streets of london. in order to illustrate my remarks on the processes of colouring woods by burning or etching, i may point to a large writing bureau, or secrétaire, belonging to sir richard wallace, made by riesener, in (and signed), for stanislaus, king of poland. it is decorated partly with reticulated pattern work, partly with the royal cipher in medallions, and with other medallions containing emblematic figures, such as a carrier pigeon, a cock, the emblem of vigilance, or the head of a girl placing her finger on her lips, an emblem of silence. all these medallion figures are broadly drawn, the very slightest and most delicate tint only being added to represent shading, while the drawing is a single line lightly pencilled. the materials used in the best marquetry are lime, holly, box, maple, beech, poplar, for white; pear, laburnum, palm (cut across the grain), lignum vitæ, walnut, teak, partridge-wood, for brown; wood called in the trade fustic, satin-wood, for yellow; tulip, purple-wood, amboyna, mahogany, thuya, log-wood, cam-wood, and varieties of these woods, for red; ebony for black, or stained wood. greens and blues are also stained with metallic dyes. the finest of the old work may be called studies in brown and white, and the red woods are used sparingly; the dyed woods still more so, nor can they be said ever to be really effective. as an example of great mechanical skill in a modern piece of very difficult execution, i might call attention to messrs. jackson and graham's elaborate cabinet of marquetry, in patterns of oriental character, after designs by the late mr. owen jones (sent to the vienna exhibition by messrs. jackson and graham). it had an architectural front, with detached columns and groups of architectural mouldings, some of them put together with the lines of moulding in woods of contrasted hue, an element of ornamentation that took from the unity and completeness of cap or corona mouldings. the little columns of an inch and a half diameter were entirely covered with reticulated pattern in different woods. as the shafts were tapering, so the reticulated patterns had to be graduated in size from top to bottom. this was a feat of most difficult execution, nor was it the only difficulty in this portion of the design. the marquetry in the instance of these columns had to be wrapped round each circular shaft; and each edge, therefore, of every portion of pattern and groundwork had to be sawn out with bevelled edges, so that when rolled, the inner edges might meet and the outer edges remain in contact, which would not be so, were they not bevelled: the contrary would happen in that case, and the outer edges would start in sunder. these columns were two feet and some inches high, and the little reticulations of pattern recurred many dozens of times. the conditions of which i speak had to be carefully observed in the case of each. the pattern, too, was graduated, as above stated, so that they had to be sawn out by separate cuttings--a most laborious and costly operation. we miss in the great english houses one of the most costly and beautiful elements in the adornment of furniture, and that is, the fine moulded and chiselled bronze work, always gilt, which enters so largely into the decoration of fine old french marquetry. the english furniture makers of a century ago were not so behindhand, and old carriages had door-handles, and furniture had mounts of gilt bronze. probably the french were always superior to us in this kind of skill. they still produce good work of this class, cast and afterwards cleaned and tooled with the chisel, but it is not equal to the work of the same description by gouthière, and the famous _ciseleurs_ of paris in the last century. i must not pass over in silence a beautiful kind of furniture which was in fashion a century since, and has been revived by messrs. wright and mansfield, and other firms, viz. satin-wood furniture. in the time of chippendale, sheraton, lock, and other great cabinet makers, contemporaries of the french artists riesener, gouthière, and david, satin-wood was imported from india. it was made up by veneering, and was decorated with medallions, some of marquetry, some of wedgwood ware, after the model of the french inlaying of sèvres porcelain plaques, and in some instances painted with miniature scenes like the vernis martin, called after a french decorator of the name of martin. old examples of satin-wood furniture, such as tables, bookcases, chests of drawers, &c., are not uncommon, decorated in one or more of these methods. cipriani and angelica kauffmann were employed amongst many others in painting cameo medallions, busts, cupids and so forth for satin-wood furniture. messrs. wright and mansfield have executed much of this work, and sent a cabinet of large size to the paris exhibition of , decorated with medallions, swags, ribbons, &c., partly in marquetry of coloured woods, partly in plates of wedgwood ware. the piece is further set off by carved and gilt portions, not, however, sufficiently attractive to add greatly to the effect of the whole cabinet, which is gay, cheerful, of beautiful hue, and excellent workmanship. it is in the south kensington museum. allusion has been made to the furniture of boulle. it began to be made somewhere about , and was perhaps the earliest start taken in the more modern manufacture of sumptuous furniture. i have already called it a great advance and improvement, rather than an absolutely new invention, for pieces are found of a date too early to have been the actual work of boulle. when the tortoiseshell is dark and rich in hue, the brass of a good golden yellow, and the designs carefully drawn, boulle work seems to equal in splendour, though not in preciousness, the gold and silver furniture of the ancients, and the inlaid work of agates, crystals, amethysts, &c., with mounts of ivory and silver made in florence in the sixteenth century. boulle work is made occasionally by french and other foreign houses, and by wertheimer of bond street, but it is costly, and the rich relieved portions, such as the hinge and lock mounts, the salient medallions, masks, &c., set in central points of the composition, are either copies or imitations of old work. they lack the freshness, vigour, and spirit of the old french metallurgy. a spurious kind of boulle is made with a composition in place of the tortoiseshell. _parquet floors_ are made by messrs. howard as follows: slices of oak, varied sometimes with mahogany, walnut, and imitation ebony, are laid out and put together on a board. if rings, circles or other figures are introduced, these portions, patterns, and cavities as well as angular pieces are cut in the machine. the thickness of these pieces is a quarter of an inch. they are then laid on three thicknesses of pine, the grain of each thickness being laid crosswise to the one below, so as to keep the wood above from warping and opening. these are glued together, and kept for twenty-four hours under an hydraulic press. it is, in fact, coarse marquetry, and the whole is laid down over a rough deal floor. messrs. howard also glue up their quarter inch hardwoods without a pine backing, and lay them down with glue and fine brads on old deal floors, a less expensive method, and which can be adopted without raising the level of an old floor. it is remarkable that english cabinet makers should so rarely make these floors, or architects lay them down in rooms of modern houses. the french, germans of all states, swiss, belgians, in short most continental nations have these floors, and swiss and belgian flooring is imported into england. that of the belgian joiners is in large pieces four feet or so square, of seasoned wood, moderate in price, and easily laid down. in this country, our costly modern houses are barely provided with a border of a foot or so round the edges of the reception rooms. even that is but an exceptional practice. yet oak flooring is not a costly addition to important rooms, while the habit of keeping floors always covered with brussels carpet tacked down is not the cleanest imaginable. another application of veneered wood practised by messrs. howard is called by them "_wood tapestry_." very thin slices are arranged geometrically in large patterns, and fastened with glue on staircase and passage walls, or made into dado panelling to the room, in this case capped by mouldings. an ingenious method of inlaying thin veneers on flat surfaces of wood by machinery has been patented by the same firm. veneers or slices of wood about the thickness of coarse brown paper are glued on a board, e.g. a table top. a design punched out in zinc, of a thickness somewhat greater than that of the veneer, is laid over it, and the board is then placed under a heavy roller. the zinc is forced into the surface of the board by the roller to about the thickness of the veneer. a plane cleans off the rest of the veneer, leaving the portion only that answers to the zinc pattern, thus forced into the surface of the board. if soaked, the grain of the wood would push up the thin veneer, no doubt, but this is no greater risk than that to which all marquetry is exposed. neither of these inventions have as yet been carried beyond the simplest disposition of arrangement. what can be done in either method remains to be shown. all the woodwork passed under review thus far in joinery and cabinet-work, is of _hard_ woods. much, however, of our modern furniture is of a less valuable description, and is made of pine, american birch, hungarian and other ash. pitch-pine, an exceedingly hard wood, difficult to dry, and with a disagreeable propensity to crack if not very well seasoned, is also used, and a beautiful material it is. some small quantity of bedroom furniture in beech, oak, and ash is made in the workshops that i have been describing. as a general rule, however, this manufacture of soft woods is a separate branch of the trade. to see soft wood, such as pine, made up into admirable bedroom furniture, and french polished till the grain of it shows much of the delicacy and agreeableness of satin-wood, we should pay a visit to the works of messrs. dyer and watts, in islington, and to other houses that occupy their time exclusively in work of this kind. it is clean, cheerful, and, by comparison, cheap; is ornamented (in the works of messrs. dyer and watts) with neat lines of red, grey, and black, some of the lines imitative of inlaid wood. it is popular, and if we proceed from the workshops of messrs. graham, holland, and others, to their showrooms and warehouses, we shall find this deal furniture for sale, though they do not profess to make any of it. less costly pine-wood furniture is painted green, or white, or in imitation of other woods. the surface of woodwork, if the woods are valuable, is finished by _french polishing_. a solution of shell-lac is put on a rolled woollen rubber, which is then covered with a linen rag, on which the polisher puts a drop of linseed oil. he rubs this solution evenly over the entire surface of the wood as it passes through the fibre of the linen, smooth action being secured by the oil. it is laid on in successive fine coats till a glossy surface is obtained which is air and water-proof. for fine work the surface should not be so glossy as to look like japan work. french polishing preserves woods liable to split, such as oak, from the too rapid action of the air. _graining_ is an imitation of oak or other woods. a light colour, chrome yellow, and white, is first laid on, and glazed over with brown. while still wet, the brown is combed with elastic square teethed combs to give the appearance of graining. larger veins are wiped out by the thumb and a piece of rag. all sorts of woods are thus imitated, and the work when dry is varnished over. independently of any skill or deceptiveness, this broken painted surface looks effective and lasts long. of the propriety of such a decoration there are many doubts, for the discussion of which there is not space here. marble graining has long been represented in italy, e.g. in the loggia of raphael in the vatican. but in that particular instance, the painting is a _representation_, not an _imitation_. wood graining is performed in all countries, and such imitations seem to have been practised by the ancients. mr. norman shaw is now exhibiting in exhibition road examples of woods with fine grain stained green, red, and other colours, and french polished, the grain showing as if the woods were naturally of those hues. for inexhaustible resource in tinting, polishing, and decorating wood surfaces, we shall have to learn from the japanese, from whom probably the famous vernis martin was first borrowed in the last century. much imitation lac-japanning was executed in this country during the latter years of the century. this work is still made in birmingham. pieces of mother-o'-pearl are glued on wood and the intervening surface, covered with lac varnish which is rubbed smooth, coat after coat, with pumice and water, till the surface of the inlaid pearl shell is reached, and the whole ground to a glassy polish. london factories. the number of hands employed in large cabinet-making and furnishing establishments is very considerable. not only are the workshops well provided with joiners, cabinet makers, and turners, but also with upholsterers, cutters-out and workwomen, stuffing, tacking on or sewing on the covers of chairs, sofas, &c. indeed, it is no uncommon occurrence for the entire furniture of royal palaces and yachts to be ordered from one of these firms by the courts of foreign potentates in every corner of the world. chairs, tables, sideboards, &c., were made lately at messrs. holland's for a steam yacht of the emperor of austria; while messrs. jackson and graham have been furnishing the palace of the khedive at grand cairo. to execute, with certainty and promptitude, orders such as these, both premises, plant (such as wood and machinery), and the command of first-rate hands, must be abundant. painters, gilders, carpenters, paperers, and a miscellaneous assistant staff are required to pioneer the way for the more costly work, or to make all good behind it. the firm of jackson and graham, for instance, employs from to hands, according to the time of the year or the pressure of orders; and pays out close upon _l._ per week as wages, when all these hands are in full work; and to highly skilled craftsmen (independently of designers), occupied on the production of the most costly kind of furniture, _l._ to _l._ per week. the howards employ from to hands on cabinet making and joinery alone. it is the variety and comprehensiveness of these operations, that is so profitable as a speculation. such a business requires, it need hardly be said, a large capital, and must be liable to fluctuations. the past and the future. a few words must be given to a retrospect of the state of this branch of the national industry, and to its prospects. if we look back twenty-five years to the furniture exhibited in london in , the improvement of the present time seems incredible. we may take that exhibition, the first of these modern displays of all sorts of products of labour, as a point of departure for our review. in , the commissioners directed that a complete report should be drawn up on the subject of the decorative treatment of manufactures of all kinds, including the particular class of objects under discussion. the author of this report calls attention to what should be the first consideration, in the construction of objects for daily and personal use. from the continual presence of these things, "defects overlooked at first, or disregarded for some showy excellence, grow into great grievances, when, having become an offence, the annoyance daily increases. here at least utility should be the first object, and as simplicity rarely offends, that ornament which is the most simple in style will be the most likely to give lasting satisfaction."[ ] yet on examining the furniture on the english side, the reporter could not but notice, how rarely this very obvious consideration had been attended to. "the ornament of such works on the english side consists largely of _imitative_ carving." ornaments consisting of flowers, garlands of massive size and absolute relief, were applied indiscriminately to bedsteads, sideboards, bookcases, pier-glasses, &c., without any principle of selection or accommodation. "the laws of ornament were as completely set aside as those of use and convenience. many of these works, instead of being useful, would require _a rail to keep off the household_." [ ] supplementary report, chap. xxx. these strictures were far from being applicable to the entire british exhibition of this class of work. one or two notable exceptions may be quoted, such as a bookcase carved in oak, exhibited by mr. crace, bought by the commissioners and added to the kensington collections. this and a few other works "are particularly to be commended for their sound constructive treatment, and for the very judicious manner in which ornament is made subservient to it. the metal-work is also excellent, and the brass fittings of the panels of the bookcase deserve to be studied, both for the manner in which they have been put together and for their graceful lines." four years later, in , in the paris exhibition, our furniture and woodwork had made a stride forward, which was still more marked in the london exhibition of . by that time, our leading houses had appreciated the necessity of obtaining talented designers and foremen, and in many instances they had employed the first architects of the day to give them drawings. the result was a great progress. while the french, indeed, continued to produce very fine pieces, some on the best models, or rather after the principles of the best periods of the renaissance, our own cabinet makers had run far on in the same direction and in many others, for the mediæval feeling had still a strong hold on the taste of english architects and their patrons. the greatest change, however, was that which the paris exhibition of brought to light. fifteen full years had passed, since public attention had been called to any careful comparison between the state of our furniture and the decorations of the interiors of our houses, with those of other countries, and the advance was incalculably greater on the part of this country than on that of the other competing nations. it is worth remarking, that in three great comparative exhibitions, and particularly in that of , national tastes and peculiarities seemed to have been so completely pared away, that it became difficult to keep the productions of the north and west of europe from those of the south or the east, distinct in one's mind. each nation followed the fashion of the works that had obtained the best prizes at former exhibitions. for the present, french renaissance designs in woodwork, and the produce of the looms of lyons in hangings, serve to give the key to the school of domestic and industrial art in this country. if we look at the richest and most costly productions that have been exhibited, and carried off prizes at the international exhibitions of late years (and we have no other standard of easy comparison), it will be found that french cabinets, tables, and chairs have served as models to the successful competitors. indeed, the most successful of such pieces of furniture are actually designed by french artists in some of our leading firms. there is a decided english type in the satin-wood furniture of messrs. wright and mansfield, and there is some invention, though not always happy, about our designers of mediæval furniture. these productions are, however, too apt to be heavy and ecclesiastical, to follow rather the types of stone constructions, and the teachings of the admirable plates of viollet-le-duc, than the lighter work, inaugurated, not without power and success, by pugin. there is a company of artists, morris and co., who have combined painting and woodwork, and produced excellent results; but they have had few followers, or rather few successful followers. i cannot but mention with honourable commendation the royal school of art needlework, as a subsidiary branch of furniture art. so far as to the past. with regard to the future some few remarks may not be out of place: on the excellence of workmanship, the propriety of design, and the beauty of decoration. the altered conditions of a trade such as that of the cabinet maker, which combines the useful with the agreeable, comely, and beautiful, in its productions, have been alluded to already. this change must seriously affect the accomplishments of the workman. instead of working under and with his master, he is become one of a regiment of officials. he cannot identify himself with the entire work of which he only executes members interchangeable with other members, all mechanically alike. again, mortises, tenons, dovetails, and joinery of all sorts, no longer demand from hand-work the accuracy, neatness, and perfection of former days. these operations are done for him. occasionally he supplements the work of the engine. like a player who only plays music occasionally, we cannot expect him to retain all the fineness of his hand in perfection. is the modern workman, then, the equal of those of sixty years since, whose productions stand so well to this day, because of this perfection of manual dexterity? it will be difficult to maintain that he is, but it would be most unjust to deny either that the best workmanship can be turned out, or that it is turned out, of our great establishments. this is the work of the most choice and accomplished hands. in smaller london houses, and in the furniture which we find in the trade generally, the workmanship is inferior, relatively, to that of the former period. the introduction of machinery, however, is a fact, and its effects on manual skill must be accepted as a necessity. nor must we pass over the further fact, that if the modern joiner is not the equal of the journeymen of chippendale, he can _do more_. he has powers at command, and can carry into execution quantities, beyond the reach of half-a-dozen, perhaps a score of his predecessors. the consumer ought to reap advantages from this latter fact which he has failed hitherto to get, as shall be explained presently. this brings me to the consideration of the proprieties of design, and the beauty of decoration of our present furniture. if workmanship is affected by altered conditions of the manufacture, so also is design, that union of effective and suitable decoration with the required convenience of each piece of furniture, which may be called _style_. the artist, as regards his productions or style, is fashioned partly by what he thinks and loves, partly by his materials and his tools. with some materials he can do little, for want of tools and appliances. as regards material, wood remains what it always has been, but the steam-engine supplies an absolutely new set of tools. what has been done with them? the impressed marquetry has been mentioned, but as yet nothing really new has been done by the use of machinery. thin veneers which might be cut out with scissors, as if one were cutting paper in inexhaustible fulness and variety, are restricted, in this impressed marquetry, to such as can be copied in the coarse material, zinc, which has to be punched or sawn out for the manufacture. then again we have the carving or copying machine. at present nothing more is done with it than to copy, and to copy somewhat clumsily, in duplicate or in large numbers, that which has first been carved or modelled by hand. it would be premature to decide, that with so powerful a tool in his hand, an accomplished artist trained to use it, could not produce real and rapid sculpture. but no such artist has yet stepped on the stage, and it can only be an artist who can put the matter to a proof. in following the style and ornamentation of former periods, our new machinery is in no sense a help to us. the man who cuts out his material for a sheraton chair _felt_ what he was going to carve upon, chose his pieces, arranged the grain, and the spare material just as he would require it, with careful reference to the use of his carving tools from first to last. _the pace_, too, required in executing orders was then more deliberate; costly and elaborate plant and machinery not being required, provincial workmen of admirable skill were to be found in many towns. there is no royal process by which we can put a log of wood into one end of an engine, and find a chair, a table, or a cabinet at the other. what steam machinery does for us is to perform with certainty, and with immense rapidity, the simple operations of sawing, planing, boring, and turning. it is by turnery that ornamentation is done in the engine. any length of moulded edges can be soon turned out, any amount of the parts of panelling, of turned rails, and of ornaments turned on flat surfaces pressed on the cutting tool, together with the piercing of fretwork and curved and shaped edges to boards. the saw being a fixture in this instance, is an advantage, but machine turnery is not rich in resources. the tool itself is filed laboriously to the mould required, and the wood merely pressed against it. when the wood revolves (as in the old lathe), the turner, with the simple edge of his chisel or his gouge, was the master of an endless variety of ornament limited only by his fancy or skill of hand. it is nevertheless in the turnery and the fret-cutting machinery, that a furniture artist must find the elements of a style. the man of genius, the poet and maker, who can throw himself into these elements, will do wonders with them. the lathe is as old as history. during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries, turned wood furniture was made in considerable quantities in this country, in italy, and in the indian possessions of the portuguese. all the furniture of arabs, moors, and turks springs from the lathe and the moulding plane; the tables and stools, the ingenious reticulation of cairene geometrical panelling, the screens of woodwork so effective in the queen of arab cities and in damascus are derived from these humble sources. to surface ornament of marquetry, occasional carved insertions can be added. but light, neat, and elegant woodwork, panelling, bookcases, cabinets, dressers, chairs, and tables, can be turned out without these additions, and the variety might be endless. carved acanthus foliage, bulging legs and surfaces, artistic carving and marquetry, and chiselled metal-mountings must be the work of trained sculptors. the engine gives them no real help. to design, that is invent (not to copy), carving and marquetry that will bear comparison with the products of riesener, and of the school of gibbons, is not to be done by command of appliances or skilful workmanship _only_. the artist who is thoroughly at home in designs of this kind, is the pupil or descendant of masters whose traditions are well established: "fortes creantur fortibus." but neat furniture, unornamented by hand-work, ought to be turned out of the engine-room, the perfection of lightness, convenience, and strength. and here the buyer will look for the advantage of _cheapness_. we do not find that our large makers supply well-made machine furniture _cheap_. as a broad rule, prices seem to be calculated on _what a man would do_, and work done in the machine is priced, as if a man had made it by hand. in point of fact, five or six men's work is done in the same time, and the cost of wages charged on articles so made, will leave a disproportioned profit, notwithstanding the expense of setting up and maintaining the steam plant. decorative furniture can never be had at a cheap rate. a word, in conclusion, as to the arts which are necessarily pressed into the service of furniture, and their prospects of the future. these "sumptuary" arts have been spoken of in these pages as a revival in furniture and _style_, as dead. the disorders that culminated in the french revolution cut off our present european thoughts, or at least our manners and customs, from the past. we are now trying to revivify past traditions. the furniture makers have made extraordinary exertions in this direction. how will it be in the coming years? some critics are of opinion that "art manufacture" is a delusion, and that, if our academicians were equal to the ancient greeks, we should not find that rich buyers would care about the shapes of their chairs (if comfortable), the colours of their walls, and so forth--a singular delusion. if phidias, michael angelo, and raphael exhibited at burlington house, their pupils and followers would overflow with good work in various degrees of elaboration. we should find it in our churches, houses, seats, carriages, and the rest. this is what _did_ happen when the great artists were flourishing. ugliness and vulgarity were not endurable anywhere. mentor expressed himself in drinking cups, cellini in brooches, holbein in daggers, michael angelo in a candlestick, raphael culminated in a church banner. the art that finds its utterances on knobs, or handles, or drawer fronts, is restricted certainly, because the object is of awkward shape or surface, is to be handled and used, and is only a part of something larger. nevertheless the street of tripods in athens, the front of the _biga_ in the vatican, were "occasions" on which good sculptors did the best that those occasions allowed of. four fine silver images, representing four great provincial capitals, in the blacas collection (now to be seen in the british museum), were perhaps the ends of the poles of a sedan chair. objects of this kind, though fragmentary, or slightly worked out, or combined in some grotesque but graceful fashion, with a piece of leaf or stalk, are the easy results of long years of mental and manual training. the workman artist, therefore, though his productions may not be thought suitable for the academy walls, is a child of the same school, as that which brings forth such portents as phidias, praxiteles, michael angelo, and leonardo, not to speak of our royal academicians. artists who are "specialists," like giovanni da udine, will continue to do special things only, but those admirably. where the arts flourish, there will be a large school that includes half a nation, artists of all ranges of education, refinement, and knowledge. some will sculpture figures for the temple, others will be of the rank of workmen. vasari has given full details of the sumptuous furniture which was executed by the sixteenth century academicians of florence. how are we to procure such teachings? this was the question which colbert put to himself in the reign of louis xiv. he resolved it, by getting masters and teachers of every kind of sumptuary art from italy. the result has been to give the french nation a lead in this kind of industry, that holds good even amidst the ruin of old traditions, at this day. the kensington schools, and those on the same pattern throughout the country, are efforts made by the government to meet the wants of our manufacturers. they are inelastic, and it is too soon to judge of the work they are likely to do hereafter. the only great error in such education would be to train scholars to be "ornamentalists," i.e. _to teach them conventional art_. art is conventional in connection with architecture and furniture, because in most instances this is all that would be proper or look well. a good modeller, draughtsman, or carver, would become conventional just as occasion required, but with no abstract desire for ugliness or the grotesque. that artists should be generally well educated and good scholars, and that the profession should possess knowledge and refinement, is of more importance than most people suppose. this kind of refinement lay at the root of the universality of accomplishments of the sixteenth century artists. lastly, it is not enough that the profession only should be educated, so as to supply the manufacturer with designs. it is the rich that must be taught as well. we are neither italians nor frenchmen, and, indeed, speaking generally, we have not so much sense of beauty and propriety in art as those races have, even with such degeneracy as prevails but too widely over the channel. it is enough to look at modern london, to listen to the disputes of committees of management or selection for a public monument, a street, or a gallery, and to take a glance at their choice, to see what we are in these respects. but englishmen are not wanting in genius, and in the matter of which these pages treat, they have played their part well in the past. when buyers know what is ugly, they will not tolerate it about their houses; the eagerness to possess something new or original will give place to a just judgment of what is good, whether new or old. most periods of good sumptuary art owe their designs to a few old types constantly reproduced under new and agreeable varieties, that are not radical changes. to know good from bad in these matters, is the result not of a natural instinct altogether, but of such a sense instructed by study, experience, and reflection. nor, on the other hand, does such an instinct accompany great intellectual acquirements naturally, and as a matter of right. a man may possess a vast amount of learning, statesmanship, or professional knowledge, and be no judge of painting, sculpture, marquetry furniture, or blue porcelain. nor, though he knows something of the history of these objects, will he necessarily admire and like the best or most beautiful examples. it is this sense of what is becoming, that has to be learned, though it is occasionally a natural gift. when whole nations have become used to good domestic art, public opinion will be sound, and will perpetuate itself as regards this subject matter, till some great national convulsion reduces sumptuous living, and refined social manners and habits, to ruin. london: printed by edward stanford, , charing cross, s.w. [transcriber's notes] page numbers in this book are indicated by numbers enclosed in curly braces, e.g. { }. they have been located where page breaks occurred in the original book. obvious spelling errors have been corrected but "inventive" and inconsistent spelling is left unchanged. material suitable for searching has been converted to text. complex tables that would not provide useful search targets and would be prone to transcription errors have been left as images. [end transcriber's notes] { } [illustration] plant of howard & bullough american machine company ltd. pawtucket, r. i. { } illustrated catalogue of cotton machinery built by howard & bullough american machine company, ltd. pawtucket, r. i., u. s. a. opening, picking, carding, drawing, roving, spinning, twisting and winding machinery warpers and slashers containing also floor spaces, speeds, productions, gearing diagrams, useful tables and other information boston office, franklin street c. e. riley, treasurer southern office, empire building, atlanta, ga. { } introduction. we take pleasure in presenting this book, trusting that the information it contains will be of interest and service. in compiling this catalogue we have included such descriptive matter as will set forth the main features and advantages of our machinery, also outline drawings, gearing diagrams, floor spaces, speeds, production and other tables, and information of use to all those interested in cotton mills. some of the information contained in this book has hitherto been presented in circular and book form, but at the request of numerous friends and users of our machinery we now issue this complete catalogue which contains considerable additional information, besides which it is in a compact and convenient form. our machinery is extensively used, and is well and favorably known. it will be our endeavor in the future to continue to make improvements and maintain the high standard which has characterized our machinery in the past. { } index. opening and picking machinery page hopper bale opener general description floor plans and elevations automatic hopper feeder self-feeding opener trunking breaker lappers combination machines intermediate and finisher lappers production tables gearing diagrams calculations floor plans and elevations revolving flat cards general description patent setting arrangement for flats williams' patent stripping motion floor plan gearing diagram calculations production tables gearing tables clothing drawing frames general description floor plans table of lengths production tables gearing diagram calculations gearing and general tables electric stop motions slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames general description improved differential motion improved lay gearing speed tables floor plans tables of lengths production tables gearing diagrams { } calculations gearing tables roving tables ring spinning frames general description improved builder h. & b. separator floor plan table of lengths production tables gearing diagrams calculations gearing tables yarn twist tables table for numbering cotton yarn breaking weights of american yarns spoolers table of lengths and productions reels twisters general description floor plan table of lengths production tables gearing diagrams calculations gearing tables twist tables cone and tube winders general description floor plan warpers slashers miscellaneous shipping weights table of english weights and measures classification of cotton general rules with examples power required by cotton machinery belting required for various machines horse-power tables of shafting horse-power tables of belting data on manila transmission rope spindles in u. s. world's cotton spindles { } opening and picking machinery. the opening and picking of cotton should have the same careful attention as the carding and spinning, although the latter processes may seem to some to be more important. much more attention is being given to this department everywhere to-day than formerly, and better equipments of machinery are being used. the same equipment is not equally good for all classes of work, as the machinery must be designed and adjusted for the particular kind of stock to be used. unless the cotton is well opened and cleaned, and good even laps are made, the carding will suffer, and the card clothing will soon be damaged, which means poor and costly work. we invite with every confidence all possible investigation into the construction and improved design of our opening and picking machinery, and the work it is doing in the mills. this entire line of machinery is substantially built, very simple, and contains many valuable improvements. { } [illustration] patent hopper bale opener { } hopper bale opener. an investigation of the present methods of handling cotton before it reaches the pickers shows that in a large percentage of mills there are opportunities for greatly reducing the labor cost and at the same time improving in a marked degree the quality of opening and mixing. the saving which can be effected in labor, and the better results obtained by a more thorough opening of the cotton and a more even mixing, can hardly be appreciated except by those who have seen it demonstrated by the use of our hopper bale opener. this machine is extensively used in england and on the continent, where it is giving most satisfactory results. it is filling a need which has long existed. labor saving--a bale of cotton can be thoroughly opened without damage to the staple in six to ten minutes, which means that one hand can open upwards of , to , lbs. per week and still have time for taking care of bagging, ties, etc. even when the weekly consumption of cotton is very much less than this there is a saving in labor, as the quick completion of the work means that the attendant can give his attention to something else. quality of work--the fluffy condition of the cotton as it is delivered from the hopper bale opener shows the very thorough manner in which it is opened. although the cotton is fed to the machine in large matted sections taken directly from the bales as they lie around the horizontal feeding apron, no bunches come through. when cotton is opened and mixed by hand the result is not what is generally supposed. the stock is still in large bunches and matted to such an extent that when fed into the hoppers of ordinary openers it is impossible to obtain an even or thorough mixing. { } the feeding apron of the hopper bale opener usually extends four feet back of the hopper which enables the operator to group a number of bales around the machine so as to take cotton first from one and then from another. this gives an even mixing of the stock from the various bales. if it is desired this idea can be carried still further by making the feeding apron longer, so as to allow of taking cotton from a greater number of bales. method of working--the matted sections taken direct from the bale and placed on the slowly driven horizontal feeding apron move forward into the hopper and are taken by the more rapidly moving spiked elevating apron, which subjects the cotton to a sort of combing action. at the top of this apron there is a spiked cylinder which further combs the cotton and throws back into the hopper any unopened pieces. a stripping beater with stiff leather blades strips the stock from the spiked apron and delivers it onto the short delivery apron at the front of the machine. delivery arrangements--the ordinary or standard delivery arrangement is shown in the cut, page , and in the outline drawing, page . we have recently designed a double apron delivery for use with condenser and blower systems, where the cotton has to be carried quite a distance. this arrangement does away with the necessity of passing the stock through a fan and is approved by the insurance companies. the cotton being delivered into the conveying pipe ahead of the "blower fan," there is no fire risk due to hard substances passing through or stock getting caught in the fan. we have designed many special delivery arrangements to meet the various conditions which present themselves, including a suitable delivery for use with either lattice distributing systems or blowing systems. { } distributing systems--the installation of this hopper bale opener makes a distributing system more advantageous and satisfactory. we have equipped many opening rooms with distributing lattices which deliver the cotton directly into the hoppers of the self-feeding openers, thus saving another handling. when the hopper bale opener is located some distance from the distributing lattice, the latter may be fed by a blower and condenser system, and when the distance is very short an elevating lattice is used, dropping the cotton directly on the distributing lattice. we are always glad to take up special cases and make recommendations in connection with the conveying and distribution of cotton either for short or long distances. an advantage which is not usually thought of or appreciated is the more even breaker laps obtained where a hopper bale opener and distributing system are used. the hoppers of the feeders are more evenly fed and the stock is in a much better condition than when mixed and fed by hand. construction--the machine is very strongly built throughout. an extra large hopper is an advantage possessed by this opener. the spiked elevating lattice is made on a new patented system and the slats on same are of heavy selected stock. driving pulleys and speeds--the driving pulleys are on the right hand side when facing the hopper or feed and are in. dia., in. face, tight and loose, and should be driven at about revs. per minute. production-- , to , lbs. per week of hours. floor space--the machine with short feeding lattice, as shown on the illustration, page , is ft. - / in. x ft. in. { } [illustration] hopper bale opener with standard short apron delivery { } [illustration] hopper bale opener with double apron delivery { } [illustration] automatic hopper feeder { } automatic hopper feeder. hopper--this is extra large and capable of holding to pounds of cotton. spiked elevating apron runs over large flanged blocks and is extra strong. stripping comb or roller--this works in conjunction with the spiked apron, and is very simple and durable. it is self-cleaning and is easily adjusted by means of a handle on one side of the machine. this handle can be locked in position after an adjustment is made, and the arrangement, although operated from one side of the feeder, gives a positive parallel motion, and consequently a true setting of the stripping comb. pin beater takes the cotton from the spiked apron. the stock, after passing over the cleaning grids, drops on the delivery apron. knock-off arrangement--this is simple and durable, and is so designed as to be easily connected to the knock-off on the breaker lapper or other machine which follows. aprons all have strong and easily adjusted tightening devices. simplicity--our feeder is reduced to the simplest design possible consistent with even and good work, and has no troublesome cone drums. combinations of this feeder with the various opening and picking machines are made to suit any special requirements of the mill. the feeder when combined with an opener is driven from a pulley on the cylinder or beater shaft, and when feeding on to the apron of a lapper is driven from the lapper countershaft. driving pulley and speed--the driving pulley is in. dia., - / -in. face, and should be driven at about revs. per minute. floor space--length, ft. in.; width, ft. in. floor plan and elevation--see page . { } [illustration] self-feeding opener with -in. cylinder { } self-feeding opener. this is a combination of the automatic hopper feeder with an opener section built as one machine. the beater in the opener section may be a two-blade rigid beater, in. dia., or a -in. dia. special cylinder, which is shown and described on page . this machine may be arranged for trunking connections, as shown in the cut on the opposite page, or it may be attached directly to a breaker lapper, forming a combined self-feeding opener and breaker lapper (see page for cut of this machine). driving pulley--self-feeding opener with in. beater, in. dia., - / in. face; with -in. cylinder, in. dia., - / in. face. other sizes can be furnished. speeds-- , revs. per minute for -in. beater and revs. per minute for -in. cylinder when running with ordinary cotton. for long staple cottons the beater speed is reduced to to , revs. per minute and the cylinder speed to to revs. per minute. production--see breaker lappers. floor plans and elevations--see pages and . { } [illustration] -in. special cylinder { } -inch special cylinder. this -inch cylinder is specially designed for use in self-feeding openers where these machines are arranged for trunk connection or combined with breaker lappers. the large diameter makes it possible to use more grid bars than with the blade beaters. the main points considered in the design of this -inch cylinder were, more thorough opening of the cotton, greater production without injury to the staple, and better cleaning. these cylinders are made from steel boiler plates, and the steel fingers are fastened on by rivets. these fingers are so arranged that in one revolution they strike all points along the entire width of the feed rolls. in case of accident to fingers, caused by some hard substance getting into the machine, the damaged fingers can be easily replaced. we have adopted the -inch special cylinder, believing it to be preferable to those of larger diameter. { } [illustration] automatic cleaning trunk ( -ft. section) { } cleaning trunk. on the opposite page is shown a -ft. section of automatic cleaning trunk. it is usual to install two of these sections, making ft., and to suspend same from the ceiling. the cotton passes over transverse grids a and the leaf and dirt drop between the grids into a series of compartments b, which are automatically cleaned out by air draft from a fan. each compartment has a hinged door or bottom c, which when dropped leaves an opening into the exhaust air pipe d. the hinged doors are dropped one at a time, and the openings are shown at g. the fan is connected to the exhaust air pipe d, and is only running while the trunk is being cleaned. the removable doors e give access to the top of the trunk, and the brackets f are for the supporting rods. one of the advantages of this trunk is that it can be hung from the ceiling out of the way and not occupy valuable floor space. it is carefully built and the joints of the doors are covered with leather to prevent leaks. page shows a system where ft. of automatic cleaning trunk is used together with the necessary conducting trunk; the opener being on the first floor and the breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser on the second. { } [illustration] english pattern cleaning trunk (two -ft. sections) { } cleaning trunk is of special advantage to mills using low grade stock. all cotton contains more or less light dirt and leaf, which it is difficult to entirely remove in the lappers, on account of the fan draft essential to the formation of a good sheet on the screens carrying some of the lighter impurities along with the cotton. the passing of the stock over the transverse grids in the cleaning trunk at a low velocity provides an efficient means for removing this dirt and leaf. we also build an english pattern trunk, which is shown in the illustration on page . this trunk is supported by stands which rest on the floor, and is built in -ft. sections, several of these being coupled together. although not automatic, it is easily cleaned by dropping the doors which cover the entire bottom of the trunk and carry the grids. in the illustration one of these doors is shown down, and the sheet iron grids are plainly visible. { } [illustration] single beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser { } breaker lappers. on page is shown our single beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser, and on page the same machine with a cage section. gauge box and condenser--we strongly recommend the use of gauge boxes and condensers when the breaker lappers and openers are on different floors, or the stock has to be carried any distance. under these conditions there is a considerable quantity of cotton passing between the opener and lapper, which on account of the stopping and starting of the latter is liable to make thick and thin places in the lap. the use of the condenser and gauge box overcomes this difficulty as the cotton is received under these varying conditions and the gauge box acts as an evener and delivers a uniform supply to the feed rolls behind the beater. when the connection between the opener and breaker lapper is short the cage section can be used without difficulty. the condenser fan, which is of extra large size, is conveniently placed under the gauge box and condenser section. the gauge box has glass panels on the two sides and front, so that the cotton can be seen and the feed regulated. beaters--although the cuts show single beater machines, we build them with two beaters if required or with one cylinder and one beater. improved calender head--our lappers have many valuable special features, including our improved calender head, which allows the machine to be stopped by the drop handle without breaking the lap. when the lap is of the required length and the machine knocks off, the large lap rolls as well as the calender rolls, feed apron and cages stop, and the lap is not broken. if the lap continues to revolve after the machine has knocked off, it becomes sticky and there is likely to be trouble from split laps back of the cards. our arrangement prevents this and also enables the machine to be stopped at any time during the formation of a lap without breaking the lap. { } [illustration] feed rolls, top cage and cover showing bushed bearings and easy method of removing the top cage { } gears easily removed--all the large gears are fastened by an improved method. instead of driving them onto keys, which makes their removal difficult, we use with each large gear a square key let into the shaft, and two set screws. the gears fit the keys, but not tightly enough to prevent their easy removal after loosening the set screws. [illustration] clutch gears--the calender rolls are stopped and started by large clutch gears which are a great improvement over the common drop shaft and gear. with this method the starting strain is distributed over all the teeth in the clutch gears, entirely doing away with the frequent breakages under the old system. bearings--where it is possible the bearings are made in bush form, as shown in cut page , thus reducing to a minimum the time taken to make replacements and the cost of same. our bearings are very easy to adjust, and their special form prevents oil from getting to the inside of the machine. all high speed shafts, viz., fan, side and beater shafts, have ring oiling bearings. { } [illustration] { } top cages and covers--the top cages of our lappers are easily removed, as will be seen by referring to the cut, page . the sides of the cage cover or bonnet fit snugly over the bushed bearings. to remove the cage or bushings, it is only necessary to turn back the cover. these covers are all made with oil holes directly over the bearing, so it is not necessary to raise the cover for the purpose of oiling. no tilting of lap racks--the lap racks slide up and down on steel shafts, which entirely prevent the tilting of the racks and consequent breakages. shafts--our beater and fan shafts are made from a very hard iron specially mixed to give long life to these high speed shafts. a countershaft complete with pulleys is attached to each lapper. driving pulleys--one-beater breaker lappers in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. two-beater breaker lappers or one-beater breaker lappers with extra cage section or condenser and gauge box section in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. in combinations which have beaters to be driven from one countershaft of machine, in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. other sizes can be furnished. speeds--the usual speed of all lapper countershafts is revs. per minute, which gives , revs. per minute of the beaters, and revs. per minute of cylinders, for ordinary cotton. for long staple cottons the beater speed is reduced to to , revs. per minute and the cylinder speed to to revs. per minute. production--on ordinary cotton , to , lbs. per week of hours. in some cases the production is far in excess of these figures. for long staple cottons, , to , lbs. see production table, page . floor plans and elevations-see pages to . these plans are for -in. or -in. machines, and -in. machines are in. wider. { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) and single beater breaker lapper { } combination machines. on the opposite page is shown a self-feeding opener with -in. cylinder combined with a single beater breaker lapper. this is a very popular combination and, it will be noted, is built as one straight machine. a floor plan and elevation are shown on page . this same combination with an -in. beater instead of the -in. cylinder in the opener section is shown in plan and elevation on page . we also build a self-feeding opener with cage section and calender head, which is well adapted to work egyptian and sea island cottons. (see page for plan and elevation.) self-feeding openers when built as separate machines can be placed on any floor above or below the breaker lappers, or on the same floor, the connections being made by automatic cleaning trunks, conducting trunks, and galvanized iron pipe, as the conditions may require. on pages and we show single beater breaker lappers with gauge boxes and condensers connected to self-feeding openers by short sections of conducting trunk. the breakers are on the floor above the openers. one drawing shows the self-feeding opener with -in. beater, and the other with -in. cylinder. { } [illustration] single beater finisher lapper { } intermediate and finisher lappers. these machines have our improved calender head, which has already been described in connection with breaker lappers. each machine has a countershaft and pulleys complete with stands as shown. beater boxes--all our beater boxes are fixed and our feed rolls adjustable, which we consider superior to having the beaters adjustable. after thorough investigation and long practice we have found that adjustable beaters are liable to get out of line, causing them to heat and wear quickly. draft regulation--the air chamber from fan to cage section on each side of the machine is supplied with a damper, operated from the outside of the machine. with this arrangement the air can be drawn through the top and bottom cages in any desired proportion, and the operator can regulate the drafts to give the best results. beaters--two-blade ( in. dia.) beaters are mostly used, but we furnish the houghton patent beater with corrugated teeth, or carding beaters, when specified. outside handles for dust doors--we have recently added handles on the outside of the machine for dropping the cut-off board under the grids. the dirt and leaf which collect on this board are liable to fill up the grids if not regularly removed. the outside handles make the dropping of the cut-off boards very convenient and much reduce the liability of neglect on the part of the attendant. driving pulleys one-beater machines, in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. two-beater machines, in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. other sizes can be furnished. speeds--the usual speed of countershafts is revs. per minute, which gives , revs. of the two-blade beaters and , revs. of carding beaters. for long staple cottons the beater speed is reduced to to , revs. per minute. production--on ordinary cotton , to , pounds per week of sixty hours. these productions are often exceeded. for long staple cottons, , to , pounds. for production table, see page . floor plans and elevations--see page for floor plan of -inch one-beater intermediate or finisher lapper. -inch machines are inches wider. { } [illustration] improved evener for intermediate and finisher lappers { } improved evener. the obtaining of even laps is a matter of prime importance. the demand for more perfect work has emphasized the need for better picking, and for laps which are even not only in total weight, but throughout. our improved design fills the following essential qualifications of a good evener. st--sensitiveness and prompt action, so that any variation in the weight passing under the evener plates will be taken care of immediately. d--steadiness of running and action, so that there is no tendency to "hunt," i. e., the cone belt will at once take its new position without traveling up and down. d--simplicity and few moving parts. th--small amount of attention required. the direct method of communicating any movement of the evener plates to the cone belt, the multiplication of this movement and the short cones are features which help to secure sensitiveness and prompt action. the small amount of lost motion between the evener plates and the cone belt, and the free movement of the belt shipper rod, which runs on rollers, make the action positive and steady. the cut on page shows our evener and indicates the simplicity of same. the number of moving parts has been reduced to a minimum. the evener plates and feed roll give great cleaning capacity on account of the bite of the plates being close to the beater. the evener plates are on top of a -in. dia. steel feed roll, which gives a very rigid support and ensures all the variation in the thickness of the cotton under the plates being communicated to the evener belt. the cones are conveniently placed under the feeding apron, and the lower cone runs in an adjustable cradle which allows the belt to be made endless and keeps it at an even tension at all times. { } breaker lapper. production in pounds per ten hours [illustration] note--ten per cent. has been deducted in the above table for stops, etc. , revolutions per minute of beater. { } intermediate and finisher lapper. production in pounds per ten hours [illustration] note--ten per cent. has been deducted in the above table for stops, etc. , revolutions per minute of beater. { } [illustration] breaker lapper with cage section. side view of gearing { } [illustration] breaker lapper with cage section, side view of gearing { } [illustration] breaker lapper with cage section plan view of gearing { } breaker lapper. alphabetical references to drawings. a main driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face; - / in. face for two-beater machine. a beater driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face. b beater pulley, in. dia. x - / face (occasionally in. dia.) b feed pulley, in. to in. dia. x - / in. face; advancing by / in. increments. b calender section fan driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face. b calender fan pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face. b cage section fan driving pulley, in. dia. x - / face for straight machine or direct connected opener and breaker lapper. if with trunking connection, b is in. dia. and b is in. dia., to give higher speed of fan. b cage fan pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face for straight machine or direct connected opener and breaker lapper. if with trunking connection, b is in. dia. and b is in. dia., to give higher speed of fan. c driving pulley for bottom cross shaft, etc., in. dia. x - / in. face. c clutch driving gear, t. d large clutch gear, t. d small clutch gear, or bottom shaft driving gear, t. e bottom cross shaft driven gear, t. e front lap calender roll driving gear, t. e bottom cross shaft gear, driving calender rolls and top cross shaft, t. f large double intermediate, driving top cross shaft, t. f small double intermediate, driving bottom calender roll, t. f bottom calender roll, in. dia. g top cross shaft gear, t. g side shaft driving bevel gear, t. h side shaft bevel gear, calender end, t. h side shaft bevel gear, feed end, t. i compound intermediate bevel gear, t. i compound intermediate gear, driving bottom feed roll, t. j bottom feed roll, in. dia. { } j bottom feed roll gear, t. j cage section top stripping roll driving gear, t.; t. gear may be used to vary speed. k cage section top stripping roll intermediate gear, t. l cage section top stripping roll gear, t. m cage section bottom stripping roll gear, t. m cage section bottom cage driving gear, t. n cage section bottom cage intermediate gear, t. o cage section bottom cage gear, t. o cage section top cage gear, t. p front lap calender roll, in. dia. p front lap calender roll gear, t. p back lap calender roll driving gear, t. q back lap calender roll intermediate gear, t. r back lap calender roll gear, t. r back lap calender roll, in. dia. s d calender roll gear, t. s d calender roll, - / in. dia. t d calender roll gear, t. t d calender roll, - / in. dia. u top calender roll gear, t. u top calender roll, - / in. dia. v calender section top stripping roll intermediate gear, t. v calender section top stripping roll intermediate gear, t. w calender section top stripping roll gear, t. x calender section bottom stripping roll gear, t. x calender section bottom cage driving gear, t. y calender section bottom cage intermediate gear, t. z calender section bottom cage gear, t. z calender section top cage gear, t. { } breaker lappers. draft calculations. [illustration] { } [illustration] intermediate or finisher lapper. side view of gearing { } [illustration] intermediate or finisher lapper. side view of gearing { } [illustration] intermediate or finisher lapper plan view of gearing { } intermediate and finisher lappers. alphabetical references to drawings. a main driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face; - / in. face for two-beater machine. a beater driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face, for -in. rigid beater; in. dia. x - / in. face for carding beater. b beater pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face (occasionally in. dia.) b feed pulley, in. to in. dia. x - / in. face; advancing by / in. increments. b calender section fan driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face for -in. rigid beater, and in. dia. x - / in. face for carding beater. b calender fan pulley. in. dia. x - / in. face. c driving pulley for side shaft, etc., in. dia. x - / in. face. c evener cross shaft bevel gear, t. c evener cross shaft change gear, - t; diminishing by one tooth. d side shaft bevel gear, feed end, t. d side shaft bevel gear, calender end, t. e large clutch bevel gear, t. e small clutch gear, t. f calender cross shaft driven gear, t. f front lap calender roll driving gear, t. f calender cross shaft gear, driving calender rolls, t. g large double intermediate, driving bottom calender roll, t. g small double intermediate, driving third calender roll t. g bottom calender roll, in. dia. h d calender roll gear, t. h d calendar roll, - / in. dia. i d calender roll gear, t. i d calender roll, - / in. dia. j top calender roll gear, t. j top calender roll, - / in. dia. k top stripping roll intermediate gear, t. k top stripping roll intermediate gear, t. l top stripping roll gear, t. { } m bottom stripping roll gear, t. m bottom cage driving gear, t. n bottom cage intermediate gear, t. o bottom cage gear, t. o top cage gear, t. p bottom cone change gear, - t; advancing by one tooth. p bottom cone, driving top cone. letters also represent diameters near the middle of cones. q top cone. q worm shaft driving spiral gear, t. r worm shaft spiral gear, t. r worm shaft worm, double threaded, right hand; equivalent to gear having two teeth. s worm gear, t. s feed roll and apron roll driving gear, t. t feed roll, in. dia. t feed roll gear, t. u apron roll gear, t. v front lap calender roll, in. dia. v front lap calendar roll gear, t. v back lap calendar roll driving gear, t. w back lap calender roll intermediate gear, t. x back lap calender roll gear, t. x back lap calender roll, in. dia. { } intermediate and finisher lappers. draft calculations. [illustration] { } production calculations. [illustration] note--with our latest gearing arrangement, the number of teeth in knock-off worm gear corresponds to the number of yards in the lap. { } intermediate and finisher lappers. draft table. [illustration] { } [illustration] automatic hopper feeder { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) with cage section and calender head { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) and single beater breaker lapper { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. beater) and single beater breaker lapper { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. beater) connected by trunking to a single beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser { } [illustration] self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) connected by trunking to a single beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser { } [illustration] single beater intermediate or finisher lapper { } [illustration] three-process system of picking with ft. of automatic cleaning truck also conducting trunk between opener and breaker { } [illustration] { } revolving flat cards. our cards are extensively used, and have won for themselves a high reputation for the quality and quantity of work they will do, the small percentage of waste made, and their durability and simplicity. characteristics. --rigid bend, mathematically correct at all stages of wear of the wire. --perfect concentricity of flats to cylinder. cylinder pedestals are adjustable. --arrangements for adjusting flats whereby accuracy to the thousandth part of an inch is obtained. --better quality of yarn made from the same cotton, or equally good yarn made from cheaper cotton. --card clothing throughout is of best hardened and tempered steel wire, plough ground or needle pointed. --patent doffer slow motion, to facilitate piecing up of broken sliver. --patent method of securing clothing to the flats; neatest, cleanest and most effective. --patent top flat grinding arrangement for grinding from the working seating of the flats. --patent flat stripping motion, which insures perfect stripping without damage to the clothing on the flats. --back bends or circles for supporting flats and preventing sagging and stretching of chains. { } [illustration] flat grinding motion { } the following paragraphs briefly describe some of the points of advantage in the design and construction of our machines: cylinders and doffers are carefully balanced at a high speed and are ground after being turned, making a perfectly true surface for the card clothing. good selvages--both cylinders and doffers are clothed to the extreme edges, which prevents ragged selvages. protection of clothing--the doffers are provided with flanges to protect the clothing, keep the edges firm and prevent the wire from being knocked down. turned iron flanges on the bends, and segment rings fixed to the inside of the lower part of the framing protect the edges of the cylinders all the way round. the doffers are made / in. wider than the cylinders in order to keep the edges of the latter clean. prevention of accumulation of fly--the segment rings which are fitted close to the edges of the cylinder project in such a way as to form a circle two inches larger than the diameter of the cylinder. the underscreens are attached to these segment rings, and this arrangement makes it impossible for fly to collect inside the screens or about the edges of the cylinders and doffers. electrical tests--all bends and flats are tested at our works by special electrical apparatus, and this method of testing gives greater accuracy than can be obtained in any other way. more accurate bends and flats make closer settings possible. percentage and all casing-off plates are made of steel, polished inside and out, and bent to conform to the surface of the cylinder. each plate is set by gauge to the cylinder, and the closing up of all air spaces makes the accumulation of fly and cloudy carding impossible. adjustments--convenient adjusting arrangements with setting screws and lock nuts are provided for the knife plates, doffers and licker-ins. these are all on the outside of the machine and are accessible and easily adjusted. { } [illustration] { } licker-in shields--to prevent the accumulation of fly around the bearings and pedestals and the climbing of oil over the ends of the licker-in onto the clothing, we supply stationary shields at each end. underscreens and feed plates--our underscreens are specially heavy and well constructed, and our feed plates are very carefully finished and fitted. we supply special underscreens and feed plates for long staple cotton. [illustration] adjustable cylinder pedestals--the bearings for the cylinders are made of phosphor bronze and the pedestals are adjustable either vertically or horizontally. this is a very important point, because the concentricity of the cylinder with the bends can be maintained as the bearings wear. the construction of our card side is such that a very rigid support is given to the pedestals. flat release--this is a very simple and convenient attachment to the flat driving arrangement, which makes one of the worm gears loose on its shaft and enables the flats to be easily turned by hand with a suitable wrench. conical bushings--the cylinders are fastened onto the shafts by means of split conical bushings which are forced into place and prevent any possibility of the cylinders working loose. { } [illustration] sectional view plan view patent setting arrangement for flats { } patent setting arrangement for flats. the cuts on page are sectional and plan views of this arrangement. a--index nut which bears against outside of rigid bend d. b--setting key with fluted teeth, which gear into the teeth on nut c. c--toothed steel nut which bears against the inside of rigid bend d. d--rigid conical bend which is moved in or out. e--flexible conical bend which rests on d and carries the flats. as the index nuts a and the toothed nuts c are turned one way or the other, they move the rigid bend d in or out, and thus raise or lower the flexible bend e. the flats rest on the flexible bend e and are raised or lowered with it. each division on the index nuts a represents / part of an inch, and by turning these nuts one division, the flats are raised or lowered to this extent. our patent conical concentric bends have five setting points on each side of the machine. the bends and flats can be kept perfectly concentric with the cylinder at every point until the clothing is worn out. no other arrangement has secured such accuracy nor has any adjustment yet been invented which approaches this one for reliability and simplicity. when the flats are once set they remain set, and cannot be tampered with. special wrenches are required for turning the index nuts a and lock nuts c, and if these wrenches are kept by the one who has charge of the settings, no unauthorized person can change same. close accurate settings enable our card to do the finest quality of work and at the same time give the maximum production. { } williams patent stripping motion. [illustration] this motion enables the card to do better work and increases the life of the flat clothing. perfect flat stripping can only be obtained with a motion which keeps the comb at an even and fixed distance from the wire clothing at all points over the entire width of the flat. the williams patent stripping motion, for which we hold sole rights for america, meets this essential requirement and therefore does what no other motion has succeeded in doing. in the old system, the comb is kept at a fixed distance from the framing of the machine, which is correct as long as there is no variation in the position of the flats as they pass under the comb. in practice, it is impossible to { } prevent a certain amount of tilting or raising of the flats, due to the wearing of the chains and sprockets and also to dirt getting under the flats. with the williams system the stripping is perfectly done no matter what the tilting may be, and even if the flats are forced away from their true position through any cause, the comb follows the flat and maintains its distance. there is no comb which will not catch and damage the wire if the setting becomes too close on account of the clearance not being kept uniform. in the williams stripping motion the comb stock is mounted at each end in bearings which slide in guides away from or toward the flats. the accurate setting of the comb is maintained by means of shoes which press against the working seatings of the flats and govern the position of the sliding comb stock bearings. the shoes have adjusting screws to regulate the setting of the comb, and the shape of the shoes is such as to allow for the heel of the flat. the sliding bearings of the comb stock are pressed inward by springs which keep the shoes against the working seatings of the flat. the comb blade is given a receding motion which effectually strips all impurities from the wire. this action, together with the fact that it is impossible for the wire on the flats to be forced into the comb through the accumulation of dirt or fly on the blocks or flat seatings, makes this stripping motion the most perfect on the market. { } [illustration] revolving flat card { } standard dimensions. cylinder, in. dia. on iron. doffer, in. dia. on iron. licker-in, in. dia., clothed with inserted metallic saw teeth. flats, of which are working on the cylinder at the same time. hand of machine--cards are usually built right hand, i. e., with driving pulleys on right hand side when facing feed or lap. left hand machines are built when specified. driving pulleys-- in. dia., - / in. face, t. & l. speed--cylinder, to r. p. m., usually r. p. m. production--this is determined by the quality of carding required and the kind and grade of cotton used, and varies largely. american to , lbs. in hours. egyptian to lbs. in hours. sea island to lbs. in hours. peeler to lbs. in hours. floor space. length of card over all ( -in. coiler) ft. in. length of card over all ( -in. coiler) ft. in. width of card, in. wide on wire ( in. to in. lap) ft. in. width of card, in. wide on wire ( in. to in. lap) ft. in. see page for floor plan. { } [illustration] plan of revolving flat card { } revolving flat card. alphabetical references to drawing. a feed roll, - / in. dia. a feed roll spur gear, teeth. a large plate bevel gear, usually teeth. b draft change gear, to teeth b side shaft bevel gear, teeth (or ). c doffer bevel gear teeth (or ). c grinding pulley, in. dia., - / in. face. c doffer gear, teeth. d disengaging intermediate gear, teeth. e calender intermediate gear, teeth. f calender change gear, or teeth. f bottom calender, - / in. dia. f coiler driving gear, or teeth. g coiler change gear, teeth. g coiler driving bevel gear, teeth. h coiler top upright bevel gear, teeth. i coiler calender bevel gear, teeth. i st coiler calender spur gear, teeth. i st coiler calender, in. dia. j nd coiler calender, in. dia. j nd coiler calender spur gear, teeth. n driving pulley, in. dia., - / in. face; band pulley, - / in. dia. n licker-in driving pulley, in. dia., - / in. face. n flat driving pulley, - / in. dia., - / in. face. n comb driving band pulley, in. dia. for / in. dia. band. o licker-in driven pulley, in. dia., - / in. face. o barrow gear driving pulley, in. dia., - / in. face. p barrow gear driven pulley, in. dia., - / in. face. p barrow spur gear, usually teeth, also and teeth. q doffer lever intermediate gear, teeth. q doffer change gear, to teeth. r st lap roll intermediate gear, teeth. s nd lap roll intermediate gear, teeth. t lap roll gear, teeth. t lap roll, in. dia. u double band intermediate pulley for comb - / in. dia. u double band intermediate pulley for comb in. dia. v comb box pulley - / in. dia. v comb box pulley - / in. dia. w doffer comb. { } [illustration] revolving flat card. diagram of card coiler gearing f coil driving gear; teeth for -in. coiler, teeth for -in. coiler. f top calender driving gear, teeth. g coiler change gear, teeth. g coiler driving bevel gear, teeth. h coiler middle upright bevel gear, teeth. h coiler top upright bevel gear, teeth. h tube gear driving gear, teeth. h upright shaft can bottom driving gear. teeth. h coiler double intermediate gears, teeth. h coiler double intermediate gears, teeth. i coiler calender bevel gear, teeth. i st coiler calender spur gear, teeth. i st coiler calender, in. dia. k coiler double intermediate gears, teeth. k coiler double intermediate gears, teeth. l tube gear, teeth for -in. coiler, teeth for -in. coiler. l can bottom intermediate gear; teeth for -in. coiler; teeth for -in. coiler. l can bottom gear, teeth. m top calender gear, teeth. m top calender, - / in. dia. { } revolving flat cards. draft calculations. [illustration] { } [illustration] { } revolving flat card. doffer change gear table. [illustration] note licker-in driving pulley, in. dia. licker-in driven pulley, in. dia. barrow gear driving pulley. in. dia. barrow gear driven pulley, in. dia. doffer lever intermediate gear, teeth. doffer gear, teeth. { } revolving flat card. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note-- per cent. has been deducted in the above table for cleaning, stripping. etc. { } revolving flat card. draft table. [illustration] note--the draft is figured between the in. dia. lap roll and in. dia. coiler calender rolls. decimal equivalents. [illustration] { } card clothing. the english system of numbering card clothing is now generally used by cotton mills. we give below the numbers and points per square foot: numbers pts. per square foot s , s , s , s , s , s , the following numbers are generally used for cylinders: coarse, heavy work, s and s; medium to fine work, s and s; fine work, s and s. doffers are usually numbers higher or finer than cylinders. there is considerable variation in the clothing used for tops. some prefer thinner set than the cylinders, others about the same as the cylinders, and a few the same numbers as the doffers. { } { } [illustration] { } drawing frames. the howard & bullough patent electric stop motion drawing frame has proved one of the most successful machines ever invented, and there are large numbers of deliveries at work in every cotton spinning country. we build both electric and mechanical stop motion frames, but the great majority of our orders are for machines with electric stop motions. the quality of sliver produced by these machines cannot be surpassed; a great saving in waste "single" and roller laps is effected, and production is increased. machines stop: st--when sliver breaks at back or a can runs out. d--when top or bottom front roll laps up. d--when sliver breaks in front. th--when cans are full. th--when back electric roll or clearer laps up. on account of the positive and quick action of the electric stop motions, machines can be run at a much higher speed, in case of necessity, than mechanical stop motion frames. the tops of electric stop motion frames, being free from the many small parts and projections which are a necessity on mechanical stop motion frames, are much more easily kept clean, and "fly" is not carried into the sliver, besides which a great many delicate and troublesome mechanical stop motion parts are done away with. { } [illustration] { } framing and construction--the machines are built with low, rigid framing. can tables set into or on top of the floor. bottom fluted rolls are made in one length and are irregularly fluted so as to prevent cutting of top rolls. the usual diameters are - / in. front, - / in. second, third and fourth lines. top rolls are usually in. dia. on iron. the front line can have loose boss or loose ends; the latter are now in extensive use and are generally preferred. roller stands are made with separate adjustable slides or bearings, so arranged that the top and bottom rolls move together when setting for different lengths of staple. the roller stands and slides have brasses cast in them for roller bearings. calender rolls are made of steel, turned, ground and polished. draft gearing--all draft and roller gears are cut. changes of draft are very easily made, and the gearing is well protected with polished covers. coilers are made for cans ins. long, , , or ins. dia. as required. tension--our fine pitch gearing for the take-up of the sliver between the fluted rolls and the calender rolls enables a nice adjustment to be made for either ordinary or metallic rolls, and reduces the stretching, sagging and breakage of the sliver, preventing stoppage and waste. trumpets--these are made separate from the calender plates and can easily be taken out. this method is an advantage over the old style, as trumpets wear in time and when worn do not sufficiently condense the sliver. with this system they can easily be replaced. back guides for both electric and mechanical stop motion frames are designed so as to separate the slivers and keep kinks from going into the rolls, thus preventing lumpy and uneven work. { } [illustration] front view of drawing frame with cans removed { } clearers--both top and bottom rolls have clearers. we apply a patented and very successful clearer to the calender rolls which prevents fly from sticking to them and being carried in to the sliver. weight relieving motion--this is applied to all frames for taking the pressure off the rolls when the frames are stopped. all rolls are weighted separately. usual weights are lbs. front line; lbs. second line; lbs. third line; lbs. fourth line. traverse motion is applied to all frames with leather covered top rolls. metallic top and bottom rolls--the front bottom roll is usually - / in. dia., and the other three lines of bottom rolls as well as the top rolls, all - / in. dia. front and second lines are usually pitch; third line pitch and back line pitch. the top rolls have loose ends. weights usually lbs. on all lines. ermen top clearers--the cloth of these clearers revolves over rolls (one of which is positively driven) and comes in contact with all the top rolls. this revolving clearer is placed inside of our top clearer cover, and is stripped by a comb through an opening in the top of the cover. this clearer meets with great favor in fine mills, where combed long staple cotton is worked. driving pulley and speed--the driving pulley on the bottom shaft is usually in. dia., in. or in. face and can be placed at either end of the frame. the usual speed of this shaft is r. p. m., which gives a calculated speed of r. p. m. of front roll. one rev. of shaft equals - / of front roll. { } floor plans of drawing frames. [illustration] { } [illustration] { } lengths of drawing frames, -in. gauge. [illustration] above lengths are over all, including driving pulley. for widths, see floor plans, pages and drawing frames are usually made with , or deliveries per head or table, and , or heads per frame, but can be made with more or less deliveries per head, and more or less heads per frame. { } drawing frames. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note--in the above table per cent. has been deducted for stops, cleaning, etc. { } [illustration] draft gearing for drawing frames { } drawing frames. alphabetical references to diagram. a electric roll gear, teeth for common rolls, teeth for metallic rolls. b off end back roll gear. teeth for common rolls, teeth for metallic rolls. *c small double intermediate, driving d roll. d large double intermediate, driving d roll, teeth for common rolls, teeth for metallic rolls. e off end d roll gear, teeth. *f off end d roll gear. *g small double intermediate, driving d roll. *h large double intermediate, driving d roll. i off end front roll gear, teeth. j back roll gear, to teeth. k draft change gear, to teeth. *l crown gear. *m front roll gear. n front roll calender driving gear, teeth for common rolls, teeth for metallic rolls. o and p double intermediate gear, and teeth for -in. coiler, and teeth for -in. coiler. q calender roll gear, , , teeth for common rolls, , , teeth for metallic rolls. r coiler horizontal shaft gear, to teeth (driven by o through carrier gear). s tube wheel, teeth for -in. coiler, teeth for in. coiler. t coiler vertical shaft, top bevel gear, teeth for in. coiler, teeth for -in. coiler. note--for teeth on gears marked * refer to table on page . { } drawing frames. draft calculations. [illustration] the above figures are for total draft up to and including the -in. dia. calender rolls. when graduated pitch metallic rolls are used, and it is desired to figure drafts between them, the following equivalents are approximately correct: - / -in. dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. - / -in. dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. - / -in. dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. -in. dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. - / -in. dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. -in dia. roll, pitch, taken as / -in. or . -in. dia. { } production calculations [illustration] the greater production with metallic rolls over common rolls for a given number of revs. is due to the meshing of the flutes, which increases the effective circum. of the rolls about per cent. this accounts for the difference in the gears driving the calender rolls. short rules for production in hours based on per cent. allowance for stops, etc., and - / in. dia. front bottom roll. common rolls--. x r. p. m. of front roll x wt. of sliver in grains = lbs. in hours. metallic rolls-- . x r. p. m. of front roll x wt. of sliver in grains = lbs. in hours. { } drawing frames. gearing combinations, draft constants and drafts for machines with - / -in. front roll. [illustration] the above constant and drafts are figured up to and including the -in. calender rolls. draft gear k is the usual change gear. when making extreme draft changes the best results will be obtained by following the above arrangements of gearing. { } table for numbering card or drawing slivers. [illustration] . /wt. in grains of yd. of sliver = hank. . /hank = wt. in grains of yd. of sliver. /wt. in grains of yds. of sliver = hank. refer to table of dividends, page . { } [illustration] section of drawing frame showing electric stop motions { } explanation of electric stop motions. our improved magneto or dynamo for producing current to operate the stop motions is designed on the "induction" principle, so that the current is generated in the stationary winding, and no brushes or collectors are needed. this type of machine is very simple, requires little attention, and gives a steady current, no matter how much dirt, lint or oil collects on same. the drawing frame is divided into two parts by means of insulations (indicated by the solid black portions of cut on opposite page). one part, shown with double cross lines, is connected to the magneto through the down-rod a, and the other part through the down-rod b. it will be seen that in the case of each stop motion the parts are kept from touching each other by cotton passing between them (cotton being a non-conductor of electricity) or are brought into contact with each other by rollers lapping up or by the pressure of the cotton in the full cans. the machine stops when the electric circuit is completed, allowing the current to flow through magnet t, which attracts finger u into engagement with revolving clutch v, and by a mechanical arrangement shifts the belt on to the loose pulley. as the frame stops, the part x forces the finger u away from the clutch, and the current is broken by the piece y which moves out of contact with the spring z. when the frame is running, y is in contact with both the springs z and j. as the machine stops, the movement of y takes it out of contact with z, but j should always press against y. { } stop motion no. --c is the top electric roll which rests in cap bar d, and e is the bottom electric roll. as long as the sliver remains between the rolls they are kept apart and there is no circuit. when the sliver breaks or a can runs out the rolls come together and the frame knocks off. stop motion no. --the top clearer cover h has a screw k on the under side. if the cotton laps around the top or bottom front roll, the top roll is lifted and comes in contact with screw k, which completes the circuit and the machine stops. stop motion no. --the cotton sliver prevents the calender rolls l and m from touching each other. if the sliver breaks, the rolls touch and the machine stops instantly. stop motion no. --when the cans at the front are full and cotton presses against the coiler top n, it is lifted into contact with the spring o, and the circuit is completed, stopping the machine. stop motion no. --the underclearer p presses against the bottom electric roll e. in case the cotton laps around e or p, the screw q is lifted and touches the back plate g, completes the circuit and the frame knocks off. { } { } [illustration] slubbing frame (right hand) { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames. these frames are so well known to the users of cotton machinery that no general description is necessary. they have extra heavy framing, are made entirely by special tools, and all parts are exact duplicates. they are of superior construction and finish, and will stand the highest speeds without vibration or breakage. they contain many valuable patented improvements, some of which are described below. patent swing--well supported and with one (large) carrier gear only. improved differential motion--this motion effects a great saving in power, wear and tear, and gives more accurate winding and consequently evener and better work. see page . improved lay gearing dispenses with all bevel change gears, gives two change places instead of one, is simple and convenient, and allows free access to the main gearing. see page . improved method of lifting and lowering bottom cone drum--both ends of the cone are raised or lowered together from the front of the machine. the belt is kept at a uniform tension from one end of the cone to the other. a patent locking device secures the cone in its proper working position, after doffing, preventing all movement or vibration. improved method of tightening the cone belt does away with frequent taking-up. when slack, the belt may be tightened in a few moments by means of a quadrant bracket. over in. of stretch can be taken care of without re-piecing. a great saving is effected in labor, stoppages and cone belts. winding back the rack and cone belt is done from the front of the machine. improved system of balancing the top or bobbin rail--this rail, with its gearing, collars, bobbins, etc., is now supported under its center of gravity by a set of levers, thus relieving the slides and racks of this weight. this system prevents friction and wear of slides, also the tendency to dwell at the changes of the traverse both top and bottom. { } [illustration] roving frame (right hand) { } if slides wear, the long collars tilt forward, the top rail, spindles, bobbins and flyers vibrate, causing bad work and loss of production. this is prevented by our improved system. patent reversing and let-off motion entirely prevents the roving running over the ends on the changes. the speed of the bobbin changes simultaneously with the reversal of the lifting rail and thus overcomes the liability of stretching the roving. full bobbin stop motion is very effective in its action and prevents overfilling the bobbins. the frame cannot be started after the completion of a set until doffed and the rack has been wound back. improved top clearers--these are made of polished steel, very light and easy to clean. the hinging is so arranged that any clearer can be easily removed. long collars or bolsters are fastened in a vertical position by an improved method which prevents their working loose. they are bored throughout their entire length, thus reducing the liability of dirt accumulating inside and causing the spindles to bind. patent recessed self-lubricating spindle foot--this has proved one of the most successful inventions, and is in extensive use. it ensures constant lubrication, prevents wear, and is easily kept clean. bearings inlaid with brass--all bobbin and spindle shaft bearings, roller stands and slides are inlaid with brass. [illustration] driving ends of bobbin and spindle shafts are case hardened and are in short lengths, so that they can be easily taken out even when frames are placed end to end with narrow passages between them. this is a great convenience, as it avoids the necessity of having to remove a great many shaft gears. the shafts can be lifted out with the gears on them. automatic panel locking arrangement prevents the frame from being started if any of the gearing end panels are not in place. { } [illustration] differential motion { } improved differential motion. all the gears on the jack shaft revolve in the same direction as the shaft itself. this reduces considerably the work the cone belt has to do, saves power, and gives more accurate winding and evener and better work. a ( teeth) drives the spindle shafts and s ( teeth) drives the bobbin shafts. the gears on the spindle and bobbin shafts are alike, i. e., they have the same number of teeth. as the cut shows the number of teeth in all the gears of the differential, it will readily be seen that if q and q are held stationary, the speed of s will be retarded rev. for every revs. the jack shaft makes, and the spindles and bobbins will be running at the same speed, no winding taking place. winding is produced by the bobbins running faster than the spindles, therefore q, which is driven from the bottom cone through carrier gears, must revolve. its speed changes as the bobbins increase in diameter, being governed by the position of the cone belt, which is shifted slightly as each layer is put on the bobbins. { } casing-off plates--the front casing-off plates for bobbin and spindle shafts are made of polished steel and are circular in shape. they are light, strong, cannot be broken, and are easily kept clean. improved cap bars--cast-iron cap bars give trouble on account of the fingers being twisted, and frequent breakages. the illustrations show the construction of our improved cap bar, which entirely obviates these difficulties. figure is a back view of our cap bar applied to a machine with four spindles in a box, and figure an end view of same. figures , and show enlarged details. [illustration] improved cap bars the cap bars are fastened to the roller stands by brackets which are independent of the slides, and consequently the rolls can be set without moving the cap bars. when resetting the rolls it is only necessary to adjust the nebs for the middle and back lines, as the front nebs do not have to be disturbed. { } improved lay gearing. [illustration] to facilitate making changes in the lay gears, we have provided two change places instead of one. formerly it was the practice to change the gear on the end of the reversing shaft or the one between the reversing bevels. in order to bring the change gears into a more convenient position and at the same time increase the range, we have introduced two additional spur gears. one of these is now the regular change gear, and is on a stud carried by an adjustable quadrant bracket. the short shaft carrying the bevel gears is now in a horizontal position instead of vertical. { } besides providing for two change places, this improvement dispenses with the back cross rail and allows free access to the main gearing. any part of the gearing can be taken out and replaced with ease. there is no longer any necessity of changing any bevel gears. there are two spur gear changes, either of which may be used and which give a very wide range. the entire arrangement is very simple and convenient. [illustration] other sizes of spindles, long collars, bobbin gear tops and rolls will be supplied when necessary. driving pulleys are usually in. dia., in. face. speeds--see pages and . production--see pages to . { } speed table. slubbing and intermediate frames [illustration] { } speed table. roving and jack frames. [illustration] { } slubbing frames. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note--the above table is based on ordinary twist, . x square root of hank, with an allowance of minutes per set for doffing and stops. { } intermediate frames. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note--the above table is based on ordinary twist, . x square root of hank, with an allowance of minutes per set for doffing and stops. { } roving frames. production per day of ten hours [illustration] note--the above table is based on ordinary twist, . x square root of hank, with an allowance of minutes per set for doffing and stops. { } roving frames. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note--the above table is based on ordinary twist, . x square root of hank, with an allowance of minutes per set for doffing and stops. { } jack frames. production per day of ten hours. [illustration] note--the above table is based on ordinary twist, . x square root of hank, with an allowance of minutes per set for doffing and stops. { } floor plans of speeders. slubbing frame r.h. inter, frame r.h. roving frame r.h. [illustration] note--the hand of a speeder is determined by the end on which the driving pulley is located when facing the spindles. { } lengths over all of slubbing frames. [illustration] note--if the projection of fender bracket be taken into account, add inches to the above lengths. { } lengths over all of intermediate frames. [illustration] note--if the projection of fender bracket be taken into account add inches to the above lengths. { } lengths over all of roving frames. [illustration] note--if the projection of fender bracket be taken into account, add inches to the above lengths. if double boss rolls, the number of spindles must divide by four. { } lengths over all of jack frames. [illustration] note--if the projection of fender bracket be taken into account, add inches to the above lengths. if double boss rolls, the number of spindles must divide by four. { } [illustration] front elevation of head end gearing--roving frame { } [illustration] elevation and section of head end gearing--roving frame { } roving frames. alphabetical references to drawings [illustration] { } roving frames-continued. alphabetical references to drawings. [illustration] { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames. draft calculations. [illustration] { } [illustration] the following table may be used in calculating the required laps per inch on bobbin for any given hank roving: { } hank or below, . x square root of hank = laps per inch hank to hanks, . x square root of hank = laps per inch hanks to hanks, . x square root of hank = laps per inch hanks to hanks, . x square root of hank = laps per inch hanks and above, . x square root of hank = laps per inch good results are obtained by using . x square root of hank. taper and tension calculations. it is difficult to give hard and fast rules for figuring the taper and tension gears, as the required number of teeth on these gears is affected by the kind of stock, length of staple, amount of twist, temperature and humidity. production calculations. [illustration] { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames. draft tables. [illustration] note-the above is for front and back rolls the same dia. { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames. key to twist tables. (see pages and for complete twist tables.) [illustration] combinations nos. , , and are for slubbing and intermediate frames with - / -inch dia. front roll. combinations nos. , , , and are for roving and jack frames with - / -inch dia. front roll. combinations nos. , , , and are for roving and jack frames with - / -inch dia. front roll. { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames--twist tables. (see page for key to these tables.) [illustration] { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames-twist tables. (see page for key to these tables.) [illustration] { } slubbing, intermediate, roving and jack frames. lay gearing and constants. [illustration] there are two change gears in the lay combination, the reversing shaft change gear z and the lay change gear w . although we have given the full list of lay gearing in the above table, only the gears marked * are variable, the others being the same for all frames. the regular change gear is w and the table on the next page gives lay constants for a range of reversing shaft change gears z from to inclusive. to find the correct lay constant select the proper { } lay gearing combination from the nine given above, note the number of teeth on the reversing shaft change gear z and take the constant which corresponds in the table below. for example, the lay constant for a frame with gearing like no. combination and a t. reversing shaft change gear is . . this divided by the number of teeth on the lay change gear w will give the laps per inch on the bobbin. table of lay constants for gearing combinations no. , no. and reversing shaft change gears to t. [illustration] { } roving table. for numbering by the weight, in grains, of yards; and showing twist per inch. (square root x . ) [illustration] { } roving table--continued. for numbering by the weight, in grains, of yards; and showing twist per inch (square root x . ) [illustration] { } [illustration] { } { } [illustration] ring spinning frame--head end { } ring spinning frames. the introduction of these machines was preceded by a careful study of what had already been done in spinning frame design. our improved ring spinning frames are made from entirely new patterns, and not only combine the best features previously brought out in such machines, but also many new ideas and improvements which have proved of great benefit to both manufacturers and spinners. although these frames were only introduced a few years ago, they are very extensively used, and the demand is steadily increasing. all parts are machined and most of them are made by specially designed tools. we give below a description of the construction and chief points of advantage of these machines. low framing and construction--the frames are built very low, are extra heavy in all their principal parts, and are designed and constructed so as to stand high speeds without vibration, thus preserving the spindles, ensuring light running and reducing the cost of repairs. spindle rails--these are of the box pattern, specially heavy, and designed to prevent springing, twisting and vibration. lifting rods--the lifting rods, as will be seen in the several illustrations, do not have any foot castings attached to them. they can therefore be easily taken out, cleaned and put back without the necessity of readjustment. these rods are accurately turned and finished by a special process to prevent sticking. the wave shaft arms are designed so that the ring rails can be easily leveled by means of adjusting screws. creels--the creels are constructed with large diameter supporting rods so as to ensure rigidity, reduce vibration and prevent stretching the roving. { } [illustration] double adjustable ring in plate holder double ring in cast-iron holder, with patent concealed traveler clearer solid single flange rings { } fluted rolls--these steel rolls are carefully and accurately made from superior stock by special machinery. they have large necks and squares and are irregularly fluted so as not to cut the top rolls. top rolls--these have taper ends or pivots, and the cap bar nebs are milled to correspond, thus making it easy to pick the ends and keep them clean. cap bars--these are made with steel fingers which do not break. the upper surface of each finger is flat. the cap bar nebs, which slide on the fingers, are milled and are fastened in position by cap or frog screws so that they cannot twist or get out of place. this arrangement enables the top rolls to be accurately set, and makes it much more easy to see the necks of the bottom rolls and keep them properly lubricated without removing the top rolls or cap bars. re-levelling--this is now an easy matter and quickly done. packing up the feet is no longer necessary. the foot of each spring piece is provided with a shoe and jack screw, by which it can be raised or lowered to meet any unevenness in the floor. traverse rods and guides--iron traverse rods are applied, to which are attached adjustable brass trumpet guides. adjustable thread boards--our thread boards are adjustable. they can be raised or lowered so as to give, within reasonable limits, any required distance between the spindle points and thread guides. { } [illustration] ring spinning frame-foot end { } rings--we furnish single flange rings, double rings in cast iron holders, with or without patent wire traveler clearers, or double adjustable rings in plate holders with traveler clearers. all rings are made and finished in the most accurate manner, from a special grade of steel and hardened by improved methods. spindles--we supply any of the latest improved types of spindles. separators--we supply the rhodes-chandler, sharples, doyle or h. & b. (our own). see description, page . saddles--the dixon ordinary, dixon adjustable or common saddles are applied as required. lever screws--the speakman or common are furnished as specified. { } driving pulleys are of our own improved design. the loose pulley runs on a cast iron sleeve, which is a part of the ring oiling box. oil passes through holes in the bottom of this sleeve and lubricates the loose pulley. our method of supporting the shaft and loose pulley together with the perfect lubrication of both prevents the wearing of the shaft, sleeve or loose pulley. [illustration] ring oiling outrigger bearing and self lubricating loose pulley the fast pulley is usually made slightly larger in diameter than the loose pulley and is secured to the shaft by a woodruff key and set screws. the outrigger for supporting the driving pulleys can be applied at either the head or foot end, as specified. { } our improved cylinder head is made with a wide surface for the tin and has a long hub split at the end for several inches. the split portion of the hub is made to grip the shaft by means of a heavy clamp ring and set screw. the shaft cannot be cut by this set screw as it bears on the split hub. [illustration] cylinder head bearing and cap the shafts are steel, fitted with woodruff keys and phosphor bronze bushes with collars, which make the bearings self-oiling and practically free from wear. heavy tin is used in the construction of the cylinders which are carefully balanced and thoroughly tested. { } [illustration] twist gearing simplicity and convenience characterize our ring spinning frame gearing. all gears are cut. they are of ample width, run quietly and are well boxed to prevent accidents. { } [illustration] draft gearing the change gears are very conveniently located and a wide range of draft and twist can easily be obtained. { } [illustration] builder for ring spinning frame { } improved builder. when designing our improved spinning frame builder, special attention was given to obtaining a wide range in form and build of bobbin combined with simplicity and durability. the changes necessary when altering the wind, pick or traverse have been reduced to a minimum. the builder is a combination type, and the change from warp to filling, or vice versa, can be easily and quickly made. the illustration shows a filling cam only on the cam shaft, but when warp and filling wind are wanted, two cams are placed on this shaft. the length of the traverse is determined by the adjustable wave shaft stud, which can be easily and quickly raised or lowered, and the ring rail can be placed at the correct starting point by means of a thumb nut. the pick or take-up motion is very simple. the pawl is on a plate which has a gear at the back. this gear is driven by a quadrant which is connected to the top of the builder. the pawl shield is set so that any required number of teeth can be taken up and no change gears are used. in the builder arm is an adjusting screw, which is used with warp wind to regulate the taper on the bobbin. the taper can be decreased at the bottom and increased at the top by turning in this screw. when the foot lever is pressed, it throws the worm out of gear and allows the rail to be dropped. after winding back the pick motion, the frame is ready for doffing and starting a new set. an eccentric device is applied to enable the "socket doff" to be used when desired. the worm gear shaft is driven by a sprocket chain in the bead end. the speed of this shaft and consequently the speed of the traverse is increased or decreased by changing the sprocket gear. the bevel gears are well protected from dust and fly by a cover, and the builder screw itself is provided with a cleaner which prevents the collection of dirt in the threads. { } [illustration] howard & bullough patent automatic separator { } howard & bullough patent automatic separator it has been our aim to combine in this new separator simplicity and lightness with effectiveness and rigidity. all separators collect lint, but the howard & bullough has so few parts and is so easily cleaned that this disadvantage is reduced to a minimum. the separator rod holders, which allow the blades to be thrown back out of position for doffing, are neat and strong. vibration in a separator means bad work, and we have given special attention to this point, as evidenced by the double bearings for the lifting rods, the stiffness of the separator rod carrying the blades, and the general design. in case the operator neglects to return the blades to their working position after doffing, this is taken care of by a curved stop or bracket attached to the roller beam. easy adjustment for both long and short traverse is a good feature of this separator. { } floor space of ring spinning frames. [illustration] we make -in. or -in. framing as required. when extra large diameter roving bobbins are used and the creels are required to take double roving, the -in. framing is needed to obtain enough space in the creels. to ascertain the length of spinning frames with any number of spindles: multiply one-half the number of spindles by the gauge and add ft. in. for head and off ends. although it is advantageous when possible to keep to the number of spindles given in the table on the opposite page, other lengths can be built, but even boxes are preferable. driving pulleys are in. to in. dia., - / in. face. { } lengths over all of ring spinning frames. [illustration] { } production table of ring warp yarn. front roll, in. dia. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, etc. standard warp twist used, . x square root of number of yarn. { } production table of ring warp yarn. front roll, in. dia. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, etc. twist per inch, . x square root of number up to s. for s and finer the twist per inch is graduated from . to . x square root of number. { } production table of ring filling yarn. front roll, in. dia. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, etc. filling twist used, . x square root of number of yarn. { } production table of ring filling yarn. front roll, in. dia. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, etc. filling twist used, . x square root of number of yarn. { } [illustration] head end gearing ring spinning frame { } [illustration] sectional view ring spinning frame { } [illustration] side view ring spinning frame { } spinning frame. alphabetical references to drawings. a driving pulley, in. to in. dia., advancing by / in. increments; - / in. face. a cylinder gear, , , and t. a cylinder, in. dia. b jack gear, , , , and t. b twist change gear, - t., advancing by one tooth. c intermediate gear, t. for -in. frame; t. for in. frame. c builder motion driving sprocket gear, t. d front roll twist gear, t. d front roll draft gear, and t. d front roll, usually in. dia.; sometimes - / in. dia. and - / in. dia. e crown gear, , and t. e draft change gear, - t., advancing by one tooth. f large back roll gear, and t. f small back roll gear, t. for / in. dia. middle and back rolls, t. for / in. dia. middle roll, - / in. dia. back rolls. f back roll, usually / in. dia., sometimes / in. dia. and - / in. dia. g broad middle roll intermediate gear, t. h middle roll gear, t. for / in. dia. middle and back rolls, t. for / in. dia. middle and - / in. dia. back rolls. i whorl, / in., / in. and / in. dia. j carrier sprocket gear, t. k builder motion worm shaft sprocket gear, , , , , , and t., dependent upon the number of yarn. l carrier sprocket gear, t. { } spinning frames. draft calculations. twist calculations. [illustration] when figuring the ratio of whirl speed to cylinder speed we add / inch to the diameters to allow for the band. { } [illustration] in our production tables on pages to , the allowance for doffing, waste, etc., varies with the numbers of yarn, the percentage loss being greater for coarse than fine work. { } ring spinning frame, draft table. front roll in. diam. back roll / in. diam. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame, draft table. front and back rolls same diameter. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame, twist constants. in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame, twist constants. - / in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame, twist constants. - / in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame twist table. in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame twist table. in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame twist table. in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame twist table. in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } ring spinning frame twist table. - / in. dia. front roll. in. dia. cylinder. front roll gear, t. [illustration] { } yarn twist tables. [illustration] { } yarn twist tables. [illustration] { } yarn twist tables. [illustration] note--the above tables are extended in some cases much beyond the actual requirements as indicated by their headings, but will prove useful for other yarns. { } table for numbering cotton yarn by the weight in grains of yards or skein [illustration] { } table for numbering cotton yarn-cont'd. [illustration] { } table for numbering cotton yarn-cont'd. [illustration] { } table for numbering cotton yarn-cont'd. [illustration] { } table for numbering cotton yarn-cont'd. [illustration] { } draper tables of breaking weights of american yarns spun from american cotton. averaged from sample skein tests from several hundred american mills. [illustration] { } traveller table for ring spinning frame. [illustration] the speed, kind of cotton, etc., affect the weight of traveller, and consequently it is impossible to make up a table to cover all conditions, but the sizes given above will serve as a basis to select from. lighter travellers should be used for higher speeds and vice versa. each , revolutions of spindle makes a difference of one or two numbers in travellers. { } spoolers. the following tables of dimensions and productions are given as information: [illustration] { } reels. reels are usually made with or spindles each, but can be made either longer or shorter. the common gauge is - / in., the length of which with spindles is ft. - / in. and width ft. in. machines are made for -in., -in., -in. and -in. skeins, usually in. driving pulleys are in. x in. the usual speed with -in. swifts is revs. we give below production table for -in. skeins. [illustration] per cent. allowance has been made in above table for doffing, etc. { } [illustration] dry twister single line top and bottom rolls--narrow gauge { } ring twisters. for dry or wet twisting. our ring twister resembles our spinning frame, both in construction and design, and the descriptive matter on pages and apply to this machine. the marked success of our spinning frame led us to build a twister embodying the same improvements and special features which have been so much appreciated. all parts are machined, and are interchangeable. low framing and heavy rigid construction--the frames are built very low, are extra heavy in all their principal parts and are designed and constructed so as to stand high speeds without vibration, thus preserving the spindles, insuring light running and reducing the cost of repairs. dry and wet twisting--we build machines for either dry or wet twisting. when for wet work the bottom and top rolls are covered with brass, and brass troughs are provided for the water. the yarn is submerged by means of glass rods which are easily raised or lowered. arrangement of rolls--machines are built with any of the following arrangements of rolls: single line bottom rolls, and single line top rolls. double line bottom rolls, and single line top rolls. double line bottom rolls, and double line top rolls. spindles--any of the improved modern high-speed spindles are supplied as required. we do not make any twisters with common or old style "two rail" spindles. knee brakes are furnished when required. gauges and rings--we build machines from - / -in. gauge with - / -in. rings up to - / -in. gauge with - / -in. rings. any desired form or style of ring will be furnished. all of these rings are made from high-grade steel of special analysis, hardened by improved methods and accurately finished. { } [illustration] vertical twister rings narrow or wide band rings with brass or steel plate holders solid single flange rings { } the following headings are taken up in detail under ring spinning frames: spindle rails of box pattern to prevent springing or twisting. lifting rods specially finished to avoid sticking, and easily removed and cleaned without necessity of readjustment. re-levelling easily taken care of by means of adjustable foot casting and jack screw on each spring piece. adjustable thread board lifters. ring oiling bearing on outrigger. self-lubricating loose pulley on sleeve. improved form of cylinder head. phosphor bronze cylinder bearings of self-oiling type. gearing, simple and enclosed in boxed end to prevent accident. all cut gears. builder of simple and effective design adjustable for filling, warp, conant, reverse conant, or straight wind. creels with rigid end and center supports, free from vibration. [illustration] out bearing box (cut open) showing ring oiler and sleeve for loose pulley { } [illustration] wet twister, with driving pulleys at foot end { } floor space of twisters. [illustration] widths of machines. - / -in. and - / -in. gauge = ft. - / in. over all -in. and - / -in. gauge = ft. - / in. over all - / -in. and -in. gauge = ft. - / in. over all - / -in. gauge = ft. - / in. over all -in. gauge = ft. - / in. over all -in. gauge = ft. in. over all to ascertain the length of twisters with any number of spindles: multiply one-half the number of spindles by the gauge and add ft. in. for head and off ends. although it is advantageous when possible to keep to the numbers of spindles given in the table on page , other lengths can be built if necessary. even rolls and boxes are preferable. driving pulleys are in. to in. dia., - / -in. face. { } [illustration] wide gauge twister with double line bottom and single line top rolls { } lengths over all of twisters. [illustration] { } table showing gauges, rings and spindle speeds for various numbers and plys. this table forms a key to the production tables which follow [illustration] { } table showing gauges, rings and spindle speeds--cont'd. [illustration] { } table showing number of pounds twisted yarn produced in hours- ply [illustration] { } table showing number of pounds twisted yarn produced in hours- ply. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, waste, cleaning, etc. { } table showing number of pounds twisted yarn produced in hours- ply. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, waste, cleaning, etc. { } table showing number of pounds twisted yarn produced in hours- ply. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, waste, cleaning, etc. { } table showing number of pounds twisted yarn produced in hours-- ply. [illustration] allowance has been made for doffing, waste, cleaning, etc. { } [illustration] head end gearing twister { } [illustration] single line bottom roll double line bottom rolls arrangements of rolls twister { } twisters. alphabetical references to drawings. a driving pulley, in. to in. dia., advancing by / in. increments, - / in. face. a cylinder gear, , , , , and t. a cylinder, in. and in. dia. b jack gear, , , , , , and t. b twist change gear, to t., advancing by one tooth. c intermediate gear, t. c builder motion driving sprocket gear, t. d front roll twist gear, and t., single line bottom roll. head end stud gear, t., double line l bottom rolls. d head end stud change gear, , , and t. e front roll change gear, , , and t. e front roll gear, t. e front roll, - / in. dia. f back roll intermediate gear, t. g back roll gear, t. g back roll, - / in. dia. h top roll, - / in. dia. i whorl, / in., - / in., - / in., - / in. and - / in. dia. j carrier sprocket gear, t. k builder motion worm shaft sprocket gear, , , , , , and t., dependent upon the number of yarn. l carrier sprocket gear, t. note--for letters a and i refer to spinning frame cut on page . { } twisters. twist calculations. [illustration] { } [illustration] in our production tables on pages to the allowance for doffing, waste, etc., varies with the numbers of twisted yarn, the percentage loss being greater for coarse than fine work. see pages and for percentage deducted. { } twist gearing constants for twisters. - / -in. single line bottom rolls. -in. dia. cylinder. [illustration] rule to find change gear: divide constant by twist per inch required. { } twist gearing constants for twisters. - / -in. double line bottom rolls. -in. dia. cylinder. [illustration] rule to find change gear: divide constant by twist per inch required. { } twist table for twisters. - / in. single line bottom rolls. front roll gear, . - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. [illustration] { } twist table for twisters. - / in. single line bottom rolls. front roll gear, . - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. [illustration] { } twist table for twisters. - / in. single line bottom rolls. front roll gear, . - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. [illustration] { } twist table for twisters. - / in. single line bottom rolls. in. dia. cylinder. - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. [illustration] { } twist table for twisters. - / in. double line bottom rolls. in. dia. cylinder. - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. head end stud gear, t. [illustration] note--d = head end stud change gear. e = front roll change gear. ratio whirl to cylinder speed, . . { } twist table for twisters. - / in. double line bottom rolls. in. dia. cylinder. - / in. dia. whirl on spindle. head end stud gear, . [illustration] note-d = head end stud change gear. e = front roll change gear. ratio whirl to cylinder speed, . . { } twist tables for ply. [illustration] { } twist tables for ply. [illustration] { } twist tables for ply. [illustration] { } twist tables for ply. [illustration] { } twist tables for ply. [illustration] { } { } [illustration] cone winder { } cone and tube winders. although these machines are adapted to the winding of all kinds of yarns, they are especially good for soft hosiery and underwear yarns which should be handled so as to retain their full strength and elasticity. open wind--this feature of our machine, together with its general improved construction, enables it to wind the most delicate yarns. the open wind with its irregular coils is of great advantage, as stretching of the yarn is avoided and it unwinds freely in the knitting process. cone and parallel wind--these machines are built for winding either cones or parallel tubes, from cops, bobbins, spools or skeins. stop motions--these are applied to all machines. the detector holders and drop wires are supplied for one or more ply, as required. when a thread breaks, the individual drum stops, thus preventing waste or single. the stop motions are quick and positive, and the piecing up is very easily done. framing and construction--the winders are strong and durable. no wood is used in their construction, except for the top shelves and friction boards. all gearing is cut. the casing-off plates on each side are hinged, which facilitates cleaning. uniform tension--the conical and parallel mandrels are driven by friction from the drums, and consequently the increase in diameter of the cones or tubes does not alter the tension on the yarn. improved mandrels--these fit firmly in the paper cones at both ends. the cones are very easily removed, and although they may vary in size or shape, any irregularities are taken care of by the mandrels. improved reversing motion--the durability of winders and the uniformity of the winding depends { } to a great extent on the accuracy and wearing qualities of the reversing motion. the cam and bowl in this motion are of hardened steel, and the cam runs in oil. our motion gives an instantaneous reversal, and prevents the throwing over of the yarn at the ends, ensuring a perfectly shaped cone or parallel tube. adjustable traverse--the length of the traverse can be adjusted from in. to in. by a very simple method. available speed traverse--by means of a change gear on the main driving shaft, the ratio of the speed of the traverse to the speed of the drum can be altered. a ratio which is best suited to coarse yarn is not the best for fine yarn. the work which these machines are called upon to do may vary from winding very coarse ply yarns to fine single yarns, and a variable speed traverse is of advantage. driving pulleys--these are in. dia., - / in. face, tight and loose, and usually make to revs., according to the class of work. production--based on revs. of driving pulleys, with per cent allowance for stops, the production per drum per week of hours figures hanks (hanks/number of yarn = lbs.) floor plan of cone winder [illustration] machines are in. wide and are usually built with drums, ft. - / in. over all (including driving pulleys) but other lengths can be made. deduct - / in. for each two drums less than . { } [illustration] cone winder alphabetical references to drawing a driving pulley, in. dia. x - / in. face. usual speed, to r. p. m. a cone driving double band pulley. b cone. note--one rev. of driving shaft equals . revs. of cone. { } warpers. one -in. cylinder warper (with large dia. cylinder) occupies a space of ft. x ft. in. with -in. beam head. the floor space of creels varies considerably. an ordinary warper with creel requires a space of about ft. x to ft. driving pulleys in. x in. cylinders of warpers are run from to revs. per minute, depending on the class of work. we give below production table based on revs. of cylinder (pulleys revs.) per minute. in this table per cent. has been deducted for stoppages. [illustration] { } { } [illustration] cylinder sizing machine or slasher { } slashers. the slasher system of sizing was invented by mr. james bullough, and slashers were first made and put on the market by howard & bullough, ltd. the advent of the slasher, dispensing as it did with the old systems of sizing, is recognized as one of the greatest inventions of the age. probably no other invention was ever taken up and supplanted other systems with such rapidity as that of the slasher, in every cotton manufacturing country. although slashers are now made by others, the howard & bullough machine still keeps the lead, and improvements are being continually added. new patterns--the machines are now made from new patterns with extra heavy framing, with broad flanges, planed edges, and milled doubled-flanged joints, giving great strength and solidity. all seatings, cross-rails, principal brackets and fixings are planed or milled. headstocks--these are made in three lengths, short ( ft. in.), medium ( ft. in.) and long ( ft. in.), and are complete with fan, conducting rollers, polished dividing rods, quick and accurate yarn marker, expanding and contracting comb, spring bearings for preventing the breaking of yarn when starting the machine, triple speed change gears, slow motion arrangement, side shaft, and gearing to copper size rollers, patent yarn beam friction and patent revolving yarn beam presser. patent yarn beam friction--with four frictional surfaces. these frictions have more than double the friction surface of the older styles, and give considerably more power and are proving the most efficient frictions ever invented. slow motion driving--this enables the slasher to be run at a very slow speed, instead of being entirely stopped whilst doffing, etc., thus preventing the burning or spoiling of yarn whilst under the squeezing rollers in the size box. { } copper cylinders--made from best copper sheets well and evenly rolled by machinery, so as to give a perfectly smooth drying surface, with ends or heads made of steel plates. cylinder shafts run on anti-friction bowls, and are provided with pressure gauge, safety and reducing valves, and steam traps. size box--with two heavy seamless copper rollers, with brass glands and brass bushes. the ends of these rollers run in brass steps in pedestals supported by tables which are cast to the outside of the size box. size box also contains perforated copper boiling pipe, seamless copper immersion roller, with adjustable racks and motion, brass and tin conducting rollers, and brass taps. creels--these are usually made for beams, but are made for more if required, and have adjustable bearings. three sizes are made, - / in., - / in. and in. between centers. the latter for beam heads up to in. dia. we also apply, when ordered, any of the following: patent traversing yarn beam presser. patent expanding double yarn beam presser. patent yarn tension arrangement to size box for enabling the size to better penetrate the yarns. positive driving arrangement to cylinders for fine yarns or small number of ends. extra carrying rolls and stands. production--one slasher will supply from to looms, according to the class of work; about is the average. driving pulleys--are on right hand side of head-stock (when facing same), in. dia., in. face, t. & l. slow motion pulley is in. face, making in. in width for the three pulleys. speeds-- to r. p. m. { } floor space--dimensions of standard machines with short headstock ( ft. in.) and -beam creel, - / in. or in. centers, the latter for beam heads up to in. dia. ; / wide, for warper beams in. wide between heads, drying surface of cylinders, - / in. ft. dia. cylinder ft. in. x ft. in. (width is ft. in. over extreme projections in headstock when cannon shaft is extended.) ft. dia. cylinder ft. in. x ft. in. in. and in. dia. cylinders ft. in. x ft. in. ft. and ft. dia. cylinders ft. in. x ft. in. ft. and ft. dia. cylinders ft. in. x ft. in. ft. and ft. dia. cylinders ft. in. x ft. in. add for each additional two beams in creel, ft. - / in. add for medium headstock ft. in. add for long headstock ft. in. loom beams--slashers / wide, as described above, will take loom beams up to in. long over all, or up to in. by using cranked cannon shaft brackets. wider slashers--these are made up to / wide, for widths of yarn as follows: / / / / / / / / in. in. in. in. in. in. in. in. add to the width of machines, as given above, in. for each extra width over / . special machines--are made with extra wide or extra long heads and many other attachments for special work, also with air drying instead of cylinders. { } approximate shipping weights of machines pounds hopper bale opener , self-feeding opener , to , single beater breaker lapper , to , self-feeding opener and single beater breaker , to , single beater intermediate or finisher , double beater intermediate or finisher , revolving flat card , drawing frame, per delivery slubbing frame, spdls., in. x in. , intermediate frame, spdls., in. x in. , roving frame, spdls., in. x in. , roving frame, spdls., in. x - / in. , jack frame, spdls., in. x in. , spinning frame, spdls., - / in. ga. , spinning frame, spdls., in. ga. , spinning frame, spdls., - / in. ga. , twister, spdls., in. ga. , twister, spdls., - / in. ga. , twister, spdls., in. ga. , twister, spdls., in. ga. , cone winder, drums , { } english weights and measures of cotton yarn. grains = l pennyweight (dwt. troy). . grains = ounce (avoirdupois). oz. = , grains = l pound (avoirdupois). - / yards = in. = thread or circumference of cotton reel. yards = threads = l skein. yards = threads = skeins = hank. the number of hanks in lb. is the number of the yarn. , grains ( lb.) divided by the weight in grains of hank ( yards) = the number of yarn. it is unnecessary and inconvenient to measure and weigh a full hank, and a lesser number of yards are usually taken. yards for yarn, and yards for roving are common, and the dividends for these are given in the following table. dividend table yards dividends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . rules divide , (grains in lb.) by (yards in hank) = dividend for yd., . . dividend/by weight in grains = hank. dividend/by hank = weight in grains. examples--if yard of card sliver weighs grains, what hank is it? divide the dividend for yard ( . ) by = . hank. what should yds. of no. s yarn weigh? divide the dividend for yards ( , ) by = grains. { } general rules with examples. to find the draft between two rolls. [illustration] { } [illustration] { } [illustration] { } classification of cotton adopted by the new york cotton exchange. quarter grades in use after march , . grades quarter grades fair. strict middling fair. middling fair. barely middling fair. strict good middling. fully good middling. good middling. barely good middling. strict middling. barely middling. middling (basis). strict low middling. fully low middling. low middling. strict good ordinary. good ordinary. strict good middling tinged. good middling tinged. strict middling tinged. middling tinged. strict low middling tinged. low middling tinged. middling stained. { } approximate power required by cotton machinery. horse-power hopper bale opener hopper feeder - / self-feeding opener single beater breaker lapper, with cage section single beater breaker lapper, with gauge box and condenser - / combined self-feeding opener and single beater breaker lapper single beater intermediate or finisher lapper two beater intermediate or finisher lapper - / thread extractor with condenser - / no. fan revolving flat card-production, lbs. per week / revolving flat card-production, lbs. per week revolving flat card-production, , lbs. per week - / sliver lap machine / ribbon lap machine comber-- -head / comber-- -head / drawing frames, ordinary rolls, delvs. per drawing frames, metallic rolls, delvs. per slubbing frame, spdls. per intermediate frame, spdls. per roving frame, spdls. per jack or fine roving frame, spdls. per spinning frame, warp yarns s and coarser, spdls. per s, spdls. per s, spdls. per { } s, spdls. per s, spdls. per spinning frame, filling yarns. s and coarser, spdls. per s, spdls. per s, spdls. per s, spdls. per s, spdls. per s, spdls. per twister, to spdls. per cone winder, drums per mule spinning, to spdls. per spoolers, to spdls. per warper / ball warper / slasher - / plain loom, in. / wide loom, in. reel, spdls. brusher and shearer cloth folder / note--the above figures are only approximate, and give a fair average of the power taken to drive the various machines. the speed, production and many other conditions affect the power consumed. { } belting required for various machines for convenience in calculating the quantity of belting required when equipping a mill or ordering supplies, the following lists have been prepared. actual lengths are stated, no allowance being made for lap of belts or for splicing bands. all widths shown are for single belts. hopper bale opener. main belt, in.-- ft. in. of in. (for belt). self-feeding opener with -in. rigid beater for trunking connection. main belt, - / in.-- ft. in. of in. (for belts). self-feeding opener with -in. cylinder arranged for trunking connection. main belt, - / in.-- ft. in. of in. (for belts). self-feeding opener ( -in. rigid beater) with one beater breaker lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) with one beater breaker lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). self-feeding opener ( -in. rigid beater) with two beater breaker lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). self-feeding opener ( -in. cylinder) with two beater breaker lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). one beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belt). ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of - / in. (for belt). two beater breaker lapper with gauge box and condenser. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of - / in. (for belt). { } one beater breaker lapper with cage section. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belt). ft. in. of in. (for belts). two beater breaker lapper with cage section. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). one beater intermediate or finisher lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / . in. (for belt). ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belt). two beater intermediate or finisher lapper. main belt, in. ft. in. of - / in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belt). revolving flat card. main belt, in. without slow motion. ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of l- / in. (for belt). ft. in. of / in. dia. cotton banding (for bands). with slow motion. ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of in. (for belts). ft. in. of / in. dia. cotton banding (for bands). drawing frame. main belt, in. to in.-- ft. in. of - / -in. belt required for each head. slubbing, intermediate and roving frames. main belt, in. -in. or -in. lift: ft. in. of -in. belt (for cone drums). -in. or la-in. lift: ft. in. of -in. belt (for cone drums). -in. lift: ft. in. of -in. belt (for cone drums). -in. or -in. lift: ft. in. of -in. belt (for cone drums). ring spinning frame and twister. main bell, in. cone winder. main belt, - / in. { } shafting. horse-power transmitted by cold rolled shafting. first movers or head shafts well supported by bearings. [illustration] the above table is figured by the following rule: multiply the cube of the diameter of the shaft by the revolutions per minute and divide by . { } the table on the opposite page applies to head shafts supported by bearings close to each side of the main pulley so as to wholly guard against the transverse strain. to find the diameter of shaft necessary to carry safely the main pulley at the center of a bay, use the table given below in connection with the one on the opposite page. [illustration] { } shafting. horse-power transmitted by cold rolled shafting. second movers or line shafts with bearings feet apart. [illustration] the above table is figured by the following rule: multiply the cube of the diameter of the shaft by the revolutions per minute and divide by . { } the table on the opposite page applies to line shafts with bearings feet apart. to find the proper diameter for line shafts with bearings any other distance apart, multiply the diameter given in the table on the opposite page by the constant number corresponding to the distance between bearings in the table below. [illustration] { } horse-power of single belts. pulleys-- r. p. m.--belt contact / circum. [illustration] note--the above table is based on one horse-power per inch of width for each feet per minute belt speed. the horse-power for other pulley speeds in proportion. { } horse-power of double belts. pulleys-- r. p. m.--belt contact / circum. [illustration] note--the above table is based on one horse-power per inch of width for each feet per minute belt speed. the horse-power for other pulley speeds in proportion. { } horse-power of double belts. pulleys-- r. p. m.--belt contact / circum. [illustration] note--the above table is based on one horse-power per inch of width for each feet per minute belt speed. the horse-power for other pulley speeds in proportion. { } useful constants, etc. pint of water weighs a pound and a quarter. gal. of water = . cu. ft. = lb. of water at degrees f. knot = ft. = . statute miles. lb. (avoirdupois) = , grains = . grammes. lb. (troy) = , grains. english h. p. = , ft. lbs. of work done per min. = watts. french h. p. or force de cheval = , kilogram metres per min. = . english h. p. english h. p. = . french force de cheval. board of trade electrical unit = , watts per hour. volts x amperes = watts. the pressure of one atmosphere = . lbs. per sq. in. = , lbs. per sq. ft. = a column of mercury m/m high. a column of water . ft. high corresponds to a pressure of lb. per sq. in. cubic inches of cast iron x . = lbs. avoirdupois. cubic inches of wrought iron x . = lbs. avoirdupois. thickness of wrought iron plate in inches x = lbs. per sq. ft. sectional area of wrought iron in inches x . = lbs. per lineal ft. dia. of wrought iron in inches squared x . = lbs. per lineal ft. circumferences of circles, advancing by ths. [illustration] circum. of a circle = dia. x . mensuration of surfaces, solids, etc. area of triangle = base x half the perpendicular height. area of circle = dia.[squared] x . . circum. of circle = dia. x . . circum. of circle x . = the dia. dia. of circle x . = the side of an equal square. side of a square x . = the dia. of equal circle. square root of an area x . = the dia. of equal circle. surface of cylinder = area of both ends + length x circum. surface of cone = area of base + / (slant height x circum. of base). surface of sphere = dia. squared x . . solidity of sphere = dia. cubed x . . solidity of cylinder = area of one end x length. { } data on manila transmission rope. (american mfg. co.) [illustration] weight of transmission rope = . x dia. breaking strength = , x dia. maximum allowable tension = x dia. dia. smallest practicable sheave. = x dia. velocity of rope (assumed) = , ft. per minute. { } horse-power transmitted by manila rope. [illustration] sag of manila rope on driving and slack sides. [illustration] { } number of ring and mule spindles in united states. (depart. of commerce and labor report, .) ring mule total maine , , , new hampshire , , , , , vermont , , , massachusetts , , , , , , rhode island , , , , , connecticut , , , , new york , , , pennsylvania , , , new jersey , , , maryland , , virginia , , , north carolina , , , , , south carolina , , , , , alabama , , , georgia , , , , , louisiana , , , mississippi , , kentucky , , , tennessee , , , texas , , , indiana , , , all other states , , , total , , , , , , { } world's cotton spindles. (depart. of commerce and labor report, .) united states , , europe: united kingdom , , germany , , russia , , france , , italy , , austria-hungary , , spain , , switzerland , , belgium , , portugal , netherlands , sweden , denmark , norway , all other europe , british india , , japan , , china , brazil , , mexico , canada , other countries , total , , none generously made available by the internet archive/american libraries.) home pork making _the art of raising and curing pork on the farm_ a complete guide for the farmer, the country butcher and the suburban dweller, in all that pertains to hog slaughtering, curing, preserving and storing pork product--from scalding vat to kitchen table and dining room. by a. w. fulton commercial editor american agriculturist and orange judd farmer, assisted by pork specialists in the united states and england. new york and chicago orange judd company of all the delicacies in the whole _mundus edibiles_, i will maintain roast pig to be the most delicate. there is no flavor comparable, i will contend, to that of the crisp, tawny, well-watched, not over-roasted crackling, as it is well called--the very teeth are invited to their share of the pleasure at this banquet in overcoming the coy, brittle resistance--with the adhesive oleaginous--oh, call it not fat! but an indefinable sweetness growing up to it--the tender blossoming of fat--fat cropped in the bud--taken in the shoot--in the first innocence--the cream and quintessence of the child-pig's yet pure food--the lean, no lean, but a kind of animal manna--or rather fat and lean (if it must be so) so blended and running into each other that both together make but one ambrosian result or common substance.--[charles lamb. copyright by orange judd company table of contents. introduction. pork making on the farm nearly a lost art--general merit of homemade pork--acknowledgments. chapter i.--pork making on the farm. best time for killing--a home market for farm pork--opportunities for profit--farm census of live stock for a series of years. chapter ii.--finishing off hogs for bacon. flesh forming rations--corn as a fat producer--just the quality of bacon wanted--normandy hogs. chapter iii.--slaughtering. methods employed--necessary apparatus--heating water for scalding. chapter iv.--scalding and scraping. saving the bristles--scalding tubs and vats--temperature for scalding--"singeing pigs"--methods of singeing. chapter v.--dressing and cutting. best time for dressing--opening the carcass--various useful appliances--hints on dressing--how to cut up a hog. chapter vi.--what to do with the offal. portions classed as offal--recipes and complete directions for utilizing the wholesome parts, aside from the principal pieces--sausage, scrapple, jowls and head, brawn, head-cheese. chapter vii.--the fine points in making lard. kettle and steam rendered--time required in making--storing. chapter viii.--pickling and barreling. a clean barrel one of the first considerations--the use of salt on pork strips--pickling by covering with brine--renewing pork brine. chapter ix.--care of hams and shoulders. a first-class ham--a general cure for ham and shoulders--pickling preparatory to smoking--westphalian hams. chapter x.--dry salting bacon and sides. proper proportion of salt to meat--other preservatives--applying the salt--best distribution of the salt--time required in curing--pork for the south. chapter xi.--smoking and smokehouses. treatment previous to smoking--simple but effective smokehouses--controlling the fire in smoke formation--materials to produce best flavor--the choice of weather--variety in smokehouses. chapter xii.--keeping hams and bacon. the ideal meat house--best temperature and surroundings--precautions against skippers--to exclude the bugs entirely. chapter xiii.--side lights on pork making. growth of the big packing houses--average weight of live hogs--"net to gross"--relative weights of various portions of the carcass. chapter xiv.--packing house cuts of pork. descriptions of the leading cuts of meat known as the speculative commodities in the pork product--mess pork, short ribs, shoulders and hams, english bacon, varieties of lard. chapter xv.--magnitude of the swine industry. importance of the foreign demand--statistics of the trade--receipts at leading points--prices for a series of years--co-operative curing houses in denmark. chapter xvi.--discovering the merits of roast pig. the immortal charles lamb on the art of roasting--an oriental luxury of luxuries. chapter xvii.--recipes for cooking and serving pork. success in the kitchen--prize methods of best cooks--unapproachable list of especially prepared recipes--roasts, pork pie, cooking bacon, pork and beans, serving chops and cutlets, use of spare ribs, the new england boiled dinner, ham and sausage, etc. introduction. hog killing and pork making on the farm have become almost lost arts in these days of mammoth packing establishments which handle such enormous numbers of swine at all seasons of the year. yet the progressive farmer of to-day should not only provide his own fresh and cured pork for family use, but also should be able to supply at remunerative prices such persons in his neighborhood as appreciate the excellence and general merit of country or "homemade" pork product. this is true, also, though naturally in a less degree, of the townsman who fattens one or two pigs on the family kitchen slops, adding sufficient grain ration to finish off the pork for autumn slaughter. the only popular book of the kind ever published, "home pork making" furnishes in a plain manner just such detailed information as is needed to enable the farmer, feeder, or country butcher to successfully and economically slaughter his own hogs and cure his own pork. all stages of the work are fully presented, so that even without experience or special equipment any intelligent person can readily follow the instructions. hints are given about finishing off hogs for bacon, hams, etc. then, beginning with proper methods of slaughtering, the various processes are clearly presented, including every needful detail from the scalding vat to the kitchen baking dish and dining-room table. the various chapters treat successively of the following, among other branches of the art of pork making: possibilities of profit in home curing and marketing pork; finishing off hogs for bacon; class of rations best adapted, flesh and fat forming foods; best methods of slaughtering hogs, with necessary adjuncts for this preliminary work; scalding and scraping; the construction of vats; dressing the carcass; cooling and cutting up the meat; best disposition of the offal; the making of sausage and scrapple; success in producing a fine quality of lard and the proper care of it. several chapters are devoted to putting down and curing the different cuts of meat in a variety of ways for many purposes. here will be found the prized recipes and secret processes employed in making the popular pork specialties for which england, virginia, kentucky, new england and other sections are noted. many of these points involve the old and well-guarded methods upon which more than one fortune has been made, as well as the newest and latest ideas for curing pork and utilizing its products. among these the subject of pickling and barreling is thoroughly treated, renewing pork brine; care of barrels, etc. the proper curing of hams and shoulders receives minute attention, and so with the work of dry salting bacon and sides. a chapter devoted to smoking and smokehouses affords all necessary light on this important subject, including a number of helpful illustrations; success in keeping bacon and hams is fully described, together with many other features of the work of home curing. the concluding portion of the book affords many interesting details relating to the various cuts of meat in the big packing houses, magnitude of the swine industry and figures covering the importance of our home and foreign trade in pork and pork product. in completing this preface, descriptive of the various features of the book, the editor wishes to give credit to our friends who have added to its value through various contributions and courtesies. a considerable part of the chapters giving practical directions for cutting and curing pork are the results of the actual experience of b. w. jones of virginia; we desire also to give due credit to contributions by p. h. hartwell, rufus b. martin, henry stewart and many other practical farmers; to hately brothers, leading packers at chicago; north packing and provision co. of boston, and to a host of intelligent women on american farms, who, through their practical experience in the art of cooking, have furnished us with many admirable recipes for preparing and serving pork. chapter i. pork making on the farm. during the marvelous growth of the packing industry the past generation, methods of slaughtering and handling pork have undergone an entire revolution. in the days of our fathers, annual hog-killing time was as much an event in the family as the harvesting of grain. with the coming of good vigorous frosts and cold weather, reached in the northern states usually in november, every farmer would kill one, two or more hogs for home consumption, and frequently a considerable number for distribution through regular market channels. nowadays, however, the big pork packing establishments have brought things down to such a fine point, utilizing every part of the animal (or, as has been said, "working up everything but the pig's squeal"), that comparatively few hogs out of all the great number fattened are slaughtered and cut up on the farm. unquestionably there is room for considerable business of this character, and if properly conducted, with a thorough understanding, farmers can profitably convert some of their hogs into cured meats, lard, hams, bacon, sausage, etc., finding a good market at home and in villages and towns. methods now in use are not greatly different from those followed years ago, although of course improvement is the order of the day, and some important changes have taken place, as will be seen in a study of our pages. a few fixtures and implements are necessary to properly cure and pack pork, but these may be simple, inexpensive and at the same time efficient. such important portions of the work as the proper cutting of the throat, scalding, scraping, opening and cleaning the hog should be undertaken by someone not altogether a novice. and there is no reason why every farmer should not advantageously slaughter one or more hogs each year, supplying the family with the winter's requirements and have something left over to sell. the possibilities of profit in the intelligent curing and selling of homemade pork are suggested by the far too general custom of farmers buying their pork supplies at the stores. this custom is increasing, to say nothing of the very large number of townspeople who would be willing to buy home cured pork were it properly offered them. probably it is not practicable that every farmer should butcher his own swine, but in nearly every neighborhood one or two farmers could do this and make good profits. the first to do so, the first to be known as having home cured pork to sell, and the first to make a reputation on it, will be the one to secure the most profit. in the farm census of live stock, hogs are given a very important place. according to the united states census of there were on farms in this country , , hogs. returns covering later years place the farm census of hogs, according to compilations of _american agriculturist_ and _orange judd farmer_, recognized authorities, at , , in , , , in , and , , in . according to these authorities the average farm value of all hogs in was $ . per head. the government report placed the average farm price in at $ . , in ' , $ . , and in , $ . . a traveling pigpen. it is often desirable to change the location of a pigpen, especially where a single pig is kept. it may be placed in the garden at the time when there are waste vegetables to be disposed of, or it may be penned in a grass lot. a portable pen, with an open yard attached, is seen in the accompanying illustrations. figure presents the pen, the engraving showing it so clearly that no description is needed. the yard, seen in fig. , is placed with the open space next to the door of the pen, so that the pig can go in and out freely. the yard is attached to the pen by hooks and staples, and both of them are provided with handles, by which they can be lifted and carried from place to place. both the yard and pen should be floored, to prevent the pig from tearing up the ground. the floors should be raised a few inches from the ground, that they may be kept dry and made durable. [illustration: fig. . portable pen.] [illustration: fig. . yard attachment.] chapter ii. finishing off hogs for bacon. the general subject of feeding and fattening hogs it is not necessary here to discuss. it will suffice to point out the advisability of using such rations as will finish off the swine in a manner best fitted to produce a good bacon hog. an important point is to feed a proper proportion of flesh-forming ration rather than one which will serve to develop fat at the expense of lean. the proper proportion of these will best subserve the interest of the farmer, whether he is finishing off swine for family use or for supplying the market with home cured bacon. a diet composed largely of protein (albuminoids) results in an increased proportion of lean meat in the carcass. on the other hand, a ration made up chiefly of feeds which are high in starchy elements, known as carbohydrates, yields very largely in fat (lard). a most comprehensive chart showing the relative values of various fodders and feeding stuffs has been prepared by herbert myrick, editor of _american agriculturist_, and will afford a good many valuable hints to the farmer who wishes to feed his swine intelligently. this points out the fact that such feeds as oats, barley, cowpea hay, shorts, red clover hay and whole cottonseed are especially rich in flesh-forming properties. corn, which is rich in starch, is a great fat producer and should not be fed too freely in finishing off hogs for the best class of bacon. in addition to the important muscle-producing feeds noted above, there are others rich in protein, such as bran, skim milk, buttermilk, etc. while corn is naturally the standby of all swine growers, the rations for bacon purposes should include these muscle-producing feeds in order to bring the best results. if lean, juicy meat is desired, these muscle forming foods should be continued to the close. in order to get just the quality of bacon that is wanted, feeders must so arrange the ration that it will contain a maximum of muscle and a minimum of fat. this gives the sweet flavor and streaked meat which is the secret of the popularity of the irish and danish bacon. our american meats are as a rule heavy, rich in fat and in marked contrast with the light, mild, sweet flavored pork well streaked with lean, found so generally in the english market and cured primarily in ireland and denmark. what is wanted is a long, lean, smooth, bacon hog something after the irish hog. here is a hint for our american farmers. england can justly boast of her hams and bacon, but for sweet, tender, lean pork the normandy hogs probably have no superior in the world. they are fed largely on meat-producing food, as milk, peas, barley, rye and wheat bran. they are not fed on corn meal alone. they are slaughtered at about six months. the bristles are burned off by laying the carcass on straw and setting it on fire. though the carcasses come out black, they are scraped white and clean, and dressed perfectly while warm. it is believed that hogs thus dressed keep better and that the meat is sweeter. self-closing door for pigpen. neither winter snows nor the spring and summer rains should be allowed to beat into a pigpen. but the difficulty is to have a door that will shut itself and can be opened by the animals whenever they desire. the engraving, fig. , shows a door of this kind that can be applied to any pen, at least any to which a door can be affixed at all. it is hung on hooks and staples to the lintel of the doorway, and swinging either way allows the inmates of the pen to go out or in, as they please,--closing automatically. if the door is intended to fit closely, leather strips two inches wide should be nailed around the frame of the doorway, then as the door closes it presses tightly against these strips. [illustration: fig. . automatic door.] a hog-feeding convenience. the usual hog's trough and the usual method of getting food into it are conducive to a perturbed state of mind on the part of the feeder, because the hog is accustomed to get bodily into the trough, where he is likely to receive a goodly portion of his breakfast or dinner upon the top of his head. the ordinary trough too, is difficult to clean out for a similar reason--the pig usually standing in it. the diagram shown herewith, fig. gives a suggestion for a trough that overcomes some of the difficulties mentioned, as it is easily accessible from the outside, both for pouring in food and for removing any dirt or litter that may be in it. the accompanying sketch so plainly shows the construction that detailed description does not appear to be necessary. [illustration: fig. . protected trough.] chapter iii. slaughtering. whatever may be said as to the most humane modes of putting to death domestic animals intended for food, butchering with the knife, all things considered, is the best method to pursue with the hog. the hog should be bled thoroughly when it is killed. butchering by which the heart is pierced or the main artery leading from it severed, does this in the most effectual way, ridding the matter of the largest percentage of blood, and leaving it in the best condition for curing and keeping well. the very best bacon cannot be made of meat that has not been thoroughly freed from blood, and this is a fact that should be well remembered. expert butchers, who know how to seize and hold the hog and insert the knife at the proper place, are quickly through with the job, and often before the knife can be withdrawn from the incision, the blood will spurt out in a stream and insensibility and death will speedily ensue. it is easy, however, for a novice to make a botch of it; hence the importance that none but an expert be given a knife for this delicate operation. there are some readily made devices by which one man at killing time may do as much as three or four, and with one helper a dozen hogs may be made into finished pork between breakfast and dinner, and without any excitement or worry or hard work. it is supposed that the hogs are in a pen or pens, where they may be easily roped by a noose around one hind leg. this being done, the animal is led to the door and guided into a box, having a slide door to shut it in. the bottom of the box is a hinged lid. as soon as the hog is safely in the box and shut in by sliding down the back door, and fastening it by a hook, the box is turned over, bringing the hog on his back. the bottom of the box is opened immediately and one man seizes a hind foot, to hold the animal, while the other sticks the hog in the usual manner. the box is turned and lifted from the hog, which, still held by the rope is moved to the dressing bench. all this may be done while the previous hog is being scalded and dressed, or the work may be so managed that as soon as one hog is hung and cleaned the next one is ready for the scalding. [illustration: fig. . heating water in kettles.] necessary aids. before the day for slaughter arrives, have everything ready for performing the work in the best manner. there may be a large boiler for scalding set in masonry with a fireplace underneath and a flue to carry off the smoke. if this is not available, a large hogshead may be utilized at the proper time. a long table, strong and immovable, should be fixed close to the boiler, on which the hogs are to be drawn after having been scalded, for scraping. on each side of this table scantlings should be laid in the form of an open flooring, and upon this the farmer and helpers may stand while at work, thus keeping their feet off the ground, out of the water and mud that would otherwise be disagreeable. an appreciated addition on a rainy day would be a substantial roof over this boiler and bench. this should be strong and large enough so that the hog after it is cleaned may be properly hung up. hooks and gambrels are provided, knives are sharpened, a pile of dry wood is placed there, and everything that will be needed on the day of butchering is at hand. heating water for scalding. for heating scalding water and rendering lard, when one has no kettles or cauldrons ready to set in brick or stone, a simple method is to put down two forked stakes firmly, as shown in fig. , lay in them a pole to support the kettles, and build a wood fire around them on the ground. a more elaborate arrangement is shown in fig. , which serves not only to heat the water, but as a scalding tub as well. it is made of two-inch pine boards, six feet long and two feet wide, rounded at the ends. a heavy plate of sheet iron is nailed with wrought nails on the bottom and ends let the iron project fully one inch on each side. the ends, being rounded, will prevent the fire from burning the woodwork. they also make it handier for dipping sheep, scalding hogs, or for taking out the boiled food. the box is set on two walls inches high, and the rear end of the brickwork is built into a short chimney, affording ample draft. [illustration: fig. . practical heating and scalding vat.] chapter iv. scalding and scraping. next comes the scalding and dressing of the carcass. lay the hog upon the table near the boiler and let the scalders who stand ready to handle it place it in the water heated nearly to a boiling point. the scalders keep the hog in motion by turning it about in the water, and occasionally they try the bristles to see if they will come away readily. as soon as satisfied on this point, the carcass is drawn from the boiler and placed upon the bench, where it is rapidly and thoroughly scraped. the bristles or hair that grow along the back of the animal are sometimes sold to brush makers, the remainder of the hair falling beside the table and gathered up for the manure heap. the carcass must not remain too long in the hot water, as this will set the hair. in this case it will not part from the skin, and must be scraped off with sharp knives. for this reason an experienced hand should attend to the scalding. the hair all off, the carcass is hung upon the hooks, head down, nicely scraped and washed with clean water preparatory to disemboweling. [illustration: fig. . tackle for heavy hogs.] scalding tubs and vats. various devices are employed for scalding hogs, without lifting them by main force. for heavy hogs, one may use three strong poles, fastened at the top with a log chain, which supports a simple tackle, fig. . a very good arrangement is shown in fig. . a sled is made firm with driven stakes and covered with planks or boards. at the rear end the scalding cask is set in the ground, its upper edge on a level with the platform and inclined as much as it can be and hold sufficient water. a large, long hog is scalded one end at a time. the more the cask is inclined, the easier will be the lifting. [illustration: fig. . scalding cask on sled.] a modification of the above device is shown in fig. . a lever is rigged like a well sweep, using a crotched stick for the post, and a strong pole for the sweep. the iron rod on which the sweep moves must be strong and stiff. a trace chain is attached to the upper end, and if the end of the chain has a ring instead of a hook, it will be quite convenient. in use, a table is improvised, unless a strong one for the purpose is at hand, and this is set near the barrel. a noose is made with the chain about the leg of the hog, and he is soused in, going entirely under water, lifted out when the bristles start easily, and laid upon the table, while another is made ready. [illustration: fig. . scalding in a hogshead.] figure shows a more permanent arrangement. it is a trough of plank with a sheet iron bottom, which can be set over a temporary fireplace made in the ground. the vat may be six feet long, three feet wide and two and one-half feet deep, so as to be large enough for a good-sized hog. three ropes are fastened on one side, for the purpose of rolling the hog over into the vat and rolling it out on the other side when it is scalded. a number of slanting crosspieces are fitted in, crossing each other, so as to form a hollow bed in which the carcass lies, with the ropes under it, by which it can be moved and drawn out. these crosspieces protect the sheet iron bottom and keep the carcass from resting upon it. a large, narrow fireplace is built up in the ground, with stoned sides, and the trough is set over it. a stovepipe is fitted at one end, and room is made at the front by which wood may be supplied to the fire to heat the water. a sloping table is fitted at one side for the purpose of rolling up the carcass, when too large to handle otherwise, by means of the rope previously mentioned. on the other side is a frame made of hollowed boards set on edge, upon which the hog is scraped and cleaned. the right temperature for scalding a hog is degrees, and with a thermometer there need be no fear of overscalding or a failure from the lack of sufficient heat, while the water can be kept at the right temperature by regulating the fuel under the vat. if a spot of hair is obstinate, cover it with some of the removed hair and dip on hot water. always pull out hair and bristles; shaving any off leaves unpleasant stubs in the skin. singeing pigs. a few years ago, "singers" were general favorites with a certain class of trade wanting a light bacon pig, weighing about lbs., the product being exported to england for bacon purposes. packers frequently paid a small premium for light hogs suitable for this end, but more recently the demand is in other directions. the meat of singed hogs is considered by some to possess finer flavor than that of animals the hair of which has been removed by the ordinary process. instead of being scalded and scraped in the ordinary manner, the singeing process consists in lowering the carcass into an iron or steel box by means of a heavy chain, the receptacle having been previously heated to an exceedingly high temperature. after remaining there a very few seconds the hog is removed and upon being placed in hot water the hair comes off instantly. an old encyclopedia, published thirty years ago, in advocating the singeing process, has this to say: "the hog should be swealed (singed), and not scalded, as this method leaves the flesh firm and more solid. this is done by covering the hog lightly with straw, then set fire to it, renewing the fuel as it is burned away, taking care not to burn the skin. after sufficient singeing, the skin is scraped, but not washed. after cutting up, the flesh side of the cuts is rubbed with salt, which should be changed every four or five days. the flitches should also be transposed, the bottom ones at the top and the top ones at the bottom. some use four ounces saltpetre and one pound coarse sugar or molasses for each hog. six weeks is allowed for thus curing a hog weighing lbs. the flitches before smoking are rubbed with bran or very fine sawdust and after smoking are often kept in clear, dry wood ashes or very dry sand." [illustration: fig. . permanent vat for scalding.] chapter v. dressing and cutting. when the carcasses have lost the animal heat they are put away till the morrow, by which time, if the weather is fairly cold, the meat is stiff and firm and in a condition to cut out better than it does when taken in its soft and pliant state. if the weather is very cold, however, and there is danger that the meat will freeze hard before morning, haste is made to cut it up the same day, or else it is put into a basement or other warm room, or a large fire made near it to prevent it from freezing. meat that is frozen will not take salt, or keep from spoiling if salted. salting is one of the most important of the several processes in the art of curing good bacon, and the pork should be in just the right condition for taking or absorbing the salt. moderately cold and damp weather is the best for this. as the carcass is dressed it is lifted by a hook at the end of a swivel lever mounted on a post and swung around to a hanging bar, placed conveniently. this bar has sliding hooks made to receive the gambrel sticks, which have a hook permanently attached to each so that the carcass is quickly removed from the swivel lever to the slide hook on the bar. the upper edge of the bar is rounded and smoothed and greased to help the hooks to slide on it. this serves to hang all the hogs on the bar until they are cooled. if four persons are employed this work may be done very quickly, as they may divide the work between them; one hog is being scalded and cleaned while another is being dressed. [illustration: fig. . easy method of hanging a carcass.] divested of its coat, the carcass is washed off nicely with clean water before being disemboweled. for opening the hog, the operator needs a sharp butcher's knife, and should know how to use it with dexterity, so as not to cut the entrails. the entrails and paunch, or stomach, are first removed, care being taken not to cut any; then the liver, the "dead ears" removed from the heart, and the heart cut open to remove any clots of blood that it may contain. the windpipe is then slit open, and the whole together is hung upon the gambrel beside the hog or placed temporarily into a tub of water. the "stretcher," a small stick some sixteen inches long, is then placed across the bowels to hold the sides well open and admit the air to cool the carcass, and a chip or other small object is placed in the mouth to hold it open, and the interior parts of the hog about the shoulders and gullet are nicely washed to free them from stains of blood. the carcass is then left to hang upon the gallows in order to cool thoroughly before it is cut into pieces or put away for the night. where ten or twelve hogs are dressed every year, it will pay to have a suitable building arranged for the work. an excellent place may be made in the driveway between a double corncrib, or in a wagon shed or an annex to the barn where the feeding pen is placed. the building should have a stationary boiler in it, and such apparatus as has been suggested, and a windlass used to do the lifting. hog killing made easy. in the accompanying cut, fig. , the hoister represents a homemade apparatus that has been in use many years and it has been a grand success. the frames, _a_, _a_, _a_, _a_, are of x inch scantling, ft. in length; _b_, _b_, are x inch and ft. long with a round notch in the center of the upper surface for a windlass, _d_, to turn in; _c_, _c_ are x and ft. long, or as long as desired, and are bolted to _a_, _a_. ten inches beyond the windlass, _d_, is a x inch piece with arms bolted on the end to turn the windlass and draw up the carcass, which should be turned lengthwise of the hoister until it passes between _c_, _c_. the gambrel should be long enough to catch on each side when turned crosswise, thus relieving the windlass so that a second carcass may be hoisted. the peg, _e_, is to place in a hole of upright, _a_, to hold the windlass. brace the frame in proportion to the load that is to be placed upon it. the longer it is made, the more hogs can be hung at the same time. the sawbuck scaffold. figure shows a very cheap and convenient device for hanging either hogs or beeves. the device is in shape much like an old-fashioned "sawbuck," with the lower rounds between the legs omitted. the legs, of which there are two pairs, should be about ten feet long and set bracing, in the manner shown in the engraving. the two pairs of legs are held together by an inch iron rod, five or six feet in length, provided with threads at both ends. the whole is made secure by means of two pairs of nuts, which fasten the legs to the connecting iron rod. a straight and smooth wooden roller rests in the forks made by the crossing of the legs, and one end projects about sixteen inches. in this two augur holes are bored, in which levers may be inserted for turning the roller. the rope, by means of which the carcass is raised, passes over the rollers in such a way that in turning, by means of the levers, the animal is raised from the ground. when sufficiently elevated, the roller is fastened by one of the levers to the nearest leg. [illustration: fig. . raising a carcass.] proper shape of gambrels. gambrels should be provided of different lengths, if the hogs vary much in size. that shown in fig. is a convenient shape. these should be of hickory or other tough wood for safety, and be so small as to require little gashing of the legs to receive them. [illustration: fig. . a convenient gambrel.] gallows for dressed hogs. the accompanying device, fig. , for hanging dressed hogs, consists of a stout, upright post, six or eight inches square and ten feet long, the lower three feet being set into the ground. near the upper end are two mortises, each x inches, quite through the post, one above the other, as shown in the engraving, for the reception of the horizontal arms. the latter are six feet long and just large enough to fit closely into the mortises. they should be of white oak or hickory. at butchering time the dead hogs are hung on the scaffold by slipping the gambrels upon the horizontal crosspieces. additional hints on dressing. little use of the knife is required to loosen the entrails. the fingers, rightly used, will do most of the severing. small, strong strings, cut in proper lengths, should be always at hand to quickly tie the severed ends of any small intestines cut or broken by chance. an expert will catch the entire offal in a large tin pan or wooden vessel, which is held between himself and the hog. unskilled operators, and those opening very large hogs, need an assistant to hold this. the entrails and then the liver, heart, etc., being all removed, thoroughly rinse out any blood or filth that may have escaped inside. removing the lard from the long intestines requires expertness that can be learned only by practice. the fingers do most of this cleaner, safer and better than a knife. a light feed the night before killing leaves the intestines less distended and less likely to be broken. [illustration: fig. . simple support for dressed hog.] how to cut up a hog. with a sharp ax and a sharp butcher's knife at hand, lay the hog on the chopping bench, side down. with the knife make a cut near the ear clear across the neck and down to the bone. with a dextrous stroke of the ax sever the head from the body. lay the carcass on the back, a boy holding it upright and keeping the forelegs well apart. with the ax proceed to take out the chine or backbone. if it is desired to put as much of the hog into neat meat as possible, trim to the chine very close, taking out none of the skin or outside fat with it. otherwise, the cutter need not be particular how much meat comes away with the bone. what does not go with the neat meat will be in the offal or sausage, and nothing will be lost. lay the chine aside and with the knife finish separating the two divisions of the hog. next, strip off with the hands the leaves or flakes of fat from the middle to the hams. seize the hock of the ham with the left hand and with the knife in the other, proceed to round out the ham, giving it a neat, oval shape. be very particular in shaping the ham. if it is spoiled in the first cutting, no subsequent trimming will put it into a form to exactly suit the fastidious public eye. trim off the surplus lean and fat and projecting pieces of bone. cut off the foot just above the hock joint. the piece when finished should have nearly the form of a regular oval, with its projecting handle or hock. with the ax cut the shoulder from the middling, making the cut straight across near the elbow joint. take off the end ribs or "spare bone" from the shoulder, trim the piece and cut off the foot. for home use, trim the shoulder, as well as the other pieces, very closely, taking off all of both lean and fat that can be spared. if care is taken to cut away the head near the ear, the shoulder will be at first about as wide as long, having a good deal of the neck attached. if the meat is intended for sale and the largest quantity of bacon is the primary object, let the piece remain so. but if it is preferred to have plenty of lard and sausage, cut a smart strip from off the neck side of the shoulder and make the piece assume the form of a parallelogram, with the hock attached to one end. trim a slice of fat from the back for lard, take off the "short ribs," and, if preferred, remove the long ribs from the whole piece. the latter, however, is not often done by the farmers. put the middling in nice shape by trimming it wherever needed, which, when finished, will be very much like a square in form, perhaps a little longer than broad, with a small circular piece cut out from the end next the ham. the six pieces of neat meat are now ready for the salter. the head is next cut open longitudinally from side to side, separating the jowl from the top or "head," so-called. the jawbone of the jowl is cut at the angle or tip and the "swallow," which is the larynx or upper part of the windpipe, is taken out. the headpiece is next cut open vertically and the lobe of the brain is taken out, and the ears and nose are removed. the bone of the chine is cut at several places for the convenience of the cook, and the task of the cutter is finished. besides the six pieces of neat meat, there are the chine, souse, jowl, head, fat, sausage, two spare and two short ribs and various other small bits derived from each hog. a good cutter, with an assistant to carry away the pieces and help otherwise, can cut out from to hogs in a day. chapter vi. what to do with the offal. aside from the pieces of meat into which a hog is usually cut, there will be left as offal the chine or backbone, the jowl, the souse, the liver and lungs, pig's feet, two spareribs and two short ribs or griskins. nearly every housekeeper knows what disposition to make of all this, yet too often these wholesome portions of the hog are not utilized to best advantage. pork sausage. sausage has formed a highly prized article of food for a good many hundred years. formed primarily as now, by chopping the raw meat very fine, and adding salt and other flavoring materials, and often meal or bread crumbs, the favorite varieties of to-day might not be considered any improvement over the recipes of the ancient romans were they to pass judgment on the same. history tells us that these early italian sausages were made of fresh pork and bacon, chopped fine, with the addition of nuts, and flavored with cumin seed, pepper, bay leaves and various pot herbs. italy and germany are still celebrated for their bologna sausages and with many people these smoked varieties are highly prized. like pure lard, sausage is too often a scarce article in the market. most city butchers mix a good deal of beef with the pork, before it is ground, and so have a sausage composed of two sorts of meat, which does not possess that agreeable, sweet, savory taste peculiar to nice fresh pork. the bits of lean, cut off when trimming the pieces of neat meat, the tenderloins, and slices of lean from the shoulders and hams, together with some fat, are first washed nicely, cleared of bone and scraps of skin, then put into the chopper, and ground fine. if a great deal of sausage is wanted, the neat meat is trimmed very close, so as to take all the lean that can be spared from the pieces. sometimes whole shoulders are cut up and ground. the heads, too, or the fleshy part, make good sausage. some housekeepers have the livers and "lights," or lungs, ground up and prepared for sausage, and they make a tolerable substitute. this preparation should be kept separate from the other, however, and be eaten while cold weather lasts, as it will not keep as long as the other kind. after sausage is properly ground, add salt, sage, rosemary, and red or black pepper to suit the taste. the rosemary may be omitted, but sage is essential. all these articles should be made fine before mixing them with the meat. in order to determine accurately whether the sausage contains enough of these ingredients, cook a little and taste it. if sausage is to be kept in jars, pack it away closely in them, as soon as it is ground and seasoned, and set the jars, securely closed, in a cool room. but it is much better to provide for smoking some of it, to keep through the spring and early summer. when the entrails are ready, stuff them full with the meat, after which the ends are tied and drawn together, and the sausage hung up in the smokehouse for smoking. this finishes the process of making pork sausage. put up in this way, it deserves the name of sausage and it makes a dish good enough for any one. it is one of the luxuries of life which may be manufactured at home. bologna sausage. the popular theory is that these familiar sausages originated in the italian city of that name, where the american visitor always stops for a bit of "the original." many formulas are used in the preparation of bologna sausages, or rather many modifications of a general formula. lean, fresh meat trimmings are employed and some add a small proportion of heart, all chopped very fine. while being chopped, spices and seasoning are added, with a sufficient quantity of salt. the meat employed is for the most part beef, to which is added some fresh or salted pork. when almost completed, add gradually a small quantity of potato flour and a little water. the mixture being of the proper consistency, stuff in beef casings, tie the ends together into rings of fair length and smoke thoroughly. this accomplished, boil until the sausages rise to the top, when they are ready for use. some recipes provide for two parts of beef and one part of fat pork and the addition of a little ground coriander seed to the seasoning. westphalian sausages are made in much the same manner as frankforts, chopped not quite so fine, and, after being cased, are smoked about a week. frankfort sausages. clean bits of pork, both fat and lean, are chopped fine and well moistened with cold water. these may be placed in either sheep or hog casings through the use of the homemade filler shown on another page. suabian sausages. chop very finely fat and lean meat until the mass becomes nearly a paste, applying a sprinkling of cold water during the operation. suabian sausages are prepared by either smoking or boiling, and in the latter case may be considered sufficiently cooked when they rise to the surface of the water in which they are boiled. italian pork sausages. the preparation of these requires considerable care, but the product is highly prized by many. for every nine pounds of raw pork add an equal amount of boiled salt pork and an equal amount of raw veal. then add two pounds selected sardines with all bones previously removed. chop together to a fine mass and then add five pounds raw fat pork previously cut into small cubes. for the seasoning take six ounces salt, four ounces ground pepper, eight ounces capers, eight ounces pistachio nuts peeled and boiled in wine. all of these ingredients being thoroughly mixed, add about one dozen pickled and boiled tongues cut into narrow strips. place the sausage in beef casings of good size. in boiling, the sausages should be wrapped in a cloth with liberal windings of stout twine and allowed to cook about an hour. then remove to a cool place about hours. tongue sausage. to every pound of meat used add two pounds of tongues, which have previously been cut into small pieces, mixing thoroughly. these are to be placed in large casings and boiled for about an hour. the flavor of the product may be improved if the tongues are previously placed for a day in spiced brine. pickled tongues are sometimes used, steeped first in cold water for several hours. black forest sausages. this is an old formula followed extensively in years gone by in germany. very lean pork is chopped into a fine mass and for every ten pounds, three pounds of fat bacon are added, previously cut comparatively fine. this is properly salted and spiced and sometimes a sprinkling of blood is added to improve the color. fill into large casings, place over the fire in a kettle of cold water and simmer without boiling for nearly an hour. liver sausage. the germans prepare this by adding to every five pounds of fat and lean pork an equal quantity of ground rind and two and one-half pounds liver. previously partly cook the rind and pork and chop fine, then add the raw liver well chopped and press through a coarse sieve. mix all thoroughly with sufficient seasoning. as the raw liver will swell when placed in boiling water, these sausages should be filled into large skins, leaving say a quarter of the space for expansion. boil nearly one hour, dry, then smoke four or five days. royal cambridge sausages are made by adding rice in the proportion of five pounds to every ten pounds of lean meat and six pounds of fat. previously boil the rice about ten minutes, then add gradually to the meat while being chopped fine, not forgetting the seasoning. the rice may thus be used instead of bread, and it is claimed to aid in keeping the sausages fresh and sweet. brain sausages. free from all skin and wash thoroughly the brain of two calves. add one pound of lean and one pound of fat pork previously chopped fine. use as seasoning four or five raw grated onions, one ounce salt, one-half ounce ground pepper. mix thoroughly, place in beef casings and boil about five minutes. afterward hang in a cool place until ready for use. tomato sausages. add one and one-half pounds pulp of choice ripe tomatoes to every seven pounds of sausage meat, using an addition of one pound of finely crushed crackers, the last named previously mixed with a quart of water and allowed to stand for some time before using. add the mixture of tomato and cracker powder gradually to the meat while the latter is being chopped. season well and cook thoroughly. spanish sausage is made by using one-third each leaf lard, lean and fat pork, first thoroughly boiling and chopping fine the meat. add to this the leaf lard previously chopped moderately fine, mix well and add a little blood to improve the color and moisten the whole. this sausage is to be placed in large casings and tied in links eight to twelve inches long. in an old recipe for spanish sausage seasoning it is made of seven pounds ground white pepper, six ounces ground nutmeg, eight ounces ground pimento or allspice and a sprinkling of bruised garlic. another sausage seasoning. to five pounds salt add two pounds best ground white pepper, three ounces ground mace, or an equal quantity of nutmeg, four ounces ground coriander seed, two ounces powdered cayenne pepper and mix thoroughly. admixture of bread. very often concerns which manufacture sausage on a large scale add considerable quantities of bread. this increases the weight at low cost, thus cheapening the finished product, and is also said to aid in keeping qualities. while this is no doubt thoroughly wholesome, it is not in vogue by our most successful farmers who have long made a business of preparing home-cured sausage. bread used for sausages should have the crust removed, should be well soaked in cold water for some time before required, then pressed to remove the surplus moisture, and added gradually to the pork while being chopped. some sausage manufacturers add to per cent in weight of crushed crackers instead of bread to sausage made during hot weather. this is to render the product firm and incidentally to increase the weight through thoroughly mixing the cracker crumbs or powder with an equal weight or more of water before adding to the meat. sausage in cases. many prefer to pack in sausage casings, either home prepared or purchased of a dealer in packers' supplies. latest improved machines for rapidly filling the cases are admirably adapted to the work, and this can also be accomplished by a homemade device. figure shows a simple bench and lever arrangement to be used with the common sausage filler, which lightens the work so much that even a small boy can use it with ease, and any person can get up the whole apparatus at home with little or no expense. an inch thick pine board one foot wide and four and one-fourth feet long is fitted with four legs, two and one-half feet long, notched into its edges, with the feet spread outward to give firmness. two oak standards eighteen inches high are set thirty-four inches apart, with a slot down the middle of each, for the admission of an oak lever eight feet long. the left upright has three or four holes, one above another, for the lever pin, as shown in the engraving. the tin filler is set into the bench nearer the left upright and projects below for receiving the skins. above the filler is a follower fitting closely into it, and its top working very loosely in the lever to allow full play as it moves up and down. the engraving shows the parts and mode of working. [illustration: fig. . homemade sausage filler.] philadelphia scrapple. this is highly prized in some parts of the country, affording a breakfast dish of great relish. a leading philadelphia manufacturer has furnished us with the following recipe: to make lbs. of scrapple, take about lbs. of good clean pork heads, remove the eyes, brains, snout, etc. put in about gals. of water and cook until it is thoroughly done. then take out, separate the bones and chop the meat fine. take about gals, of the liquor left after boiling the heads, and if the water has boiled down to a quantity less than gals., make up its bulk with hot water; if more than gals. remain, take some of the water out, but be sure to keep some of the good fat liquor. put this quantity of the liquor into a kettle, add the chopped meat, together with oz. pure white pepper, oz. sweet marjoram, lbs. fine salt. stir well until the liquor comes to a good boil. have ready for use at this time lbs. good indian meal and lbs. buckwheat flour. as soon as the liquor begins to boil add the meal and flour, the two being previously mixed dry. be careful to put the meal in a little at a time, scattering it well and stirring briskly, that it may not burn to the kettle. cook until well done, then place in pans to cool. the pans should be well greased, also the dipper used, to prevent the scrapple sticking to the utensils. when cold, the scrapple is cut into slices and fried in the ordinary manner as sausage. serve hot. souse. after being carefully cleaned and soaked in cold water, the feet, ears, nose and sometimes portions of the head may be boiled, thoroughly boned, and pressed into bowls or other vessels for cake souse. but frequently these pieces, instead of being boned, are placed whole in a vessel and covered with a vinegar, and afterwards taken a little at a time, as wanted, and fried. jowls and head. if not made into souse or sausage, these may be boiled unsmoked, with turnips, peas or beans; or smoked and cooked with cabbage or salad. the liver and accompanying parts, if not converted into sausage, may be otherwise utilized. the spareribs and short bones may be cooked in meat pies with a crust, the same as chicken, or they may be fried or boiled. the large end of the chine makes a good piece for baking. the whole chine may be smoked and will keep a long time. cracknels. this is the portion of the fat meat which is left after the lard is cooked, and is used by many as an appetizing food. the cracknels may be pressed and thus much more lard secured. this latter, however, should be used before the best lard put away in tubs. after being pressed the cracknels are worked into a dough with corn meal and together made into cracknel bread. brawn is comparatively little used in this country, though formerly a highly relished dish in europe, where it was often prepared from the flesh of the wild boar. an ancient recipe is as follows: "the bones being taken out of the flitches (sides) or other parts, the flesh is sprinkled with salt and laid on a tray, that the blood may drain off, after which it is salted a little and rolled up as hard as possible. the length of the collar of brawn should be as much as one side of the boar will permit; so that when rolled up the piece may be nine or ten inches in diameter. after being thus rolled up, it is boiled in a copper or large kettle, till it is so tender that you may run a stiff straw through it. then it is set aside till it is thoroughly cold, put into a pickle composed of water, salt, and wheat-bran, in the proportion of two handfuls of each of the latter to every gallon of water, which, after being well boiled together, is strained off as clear as possible from the bran, and, when quite cold, the brawn is put into it." head cheese. this article is made usually of pork, or rather from the meat off the pig's head, skins, and coarse trimmings. after having been well boiled, the meat is cut into pieces, seasoned well with sage, salt, and pepper, and pressed a little, so as to drive out the extra fat and water. some add the meat from a beef head to make it lean. others add portions of heart and liver, heating all in a big pan or other vessel, and then running through a sausage mill while hot. blood puddings are usually made from the hog's blood with chopped pork, and seasoned, then put in casings and cooked. some make them of beef's blood, adding a little milk; but the former is the better, as it is thought to be the richer. spiced puddings. these are made somewhat like head-cheese, and often prepared by the german dealers, some of whom make large quantities. they are also made of the meat from the pig's chops or cheeks, etc., well spiced and boiled. some smoke them. chapter vii. the fine points in making lard. pure lard should contain less than one per cent of water and foreign matter. it is the fat of swine, separated from the animal tissue by the process of rendering. the choicest lard is made from the whole "leaf." lard is also made by the big packers from the residue after rendering the leaf and expressing a "neutral" lard, which is used in the manufacture of oleomargarine. a good quality of lard is made from back-fat and leaf rendered together. fat from the head and intestines goes to make the cheaper grades. lard may be either "kettle" or "steam rendered," the kettle process being usually employed for the choicer fat parts of the animal, while head and intestinal fat furnish the so-called "steam lard." steam lard, however, is sometimes made from the leaf. on the other hand, other parts than the leaf are often kettle rendered. kettle rendered lard usually has a fragrant cooked odor and a slight color, while steam lard often has a strong animal odor. to refine lard, a large iron pot is set over a slow fire of coals, a small quantity of water is put into the bottom of the pot, and this is then filled to the brim with the fat, after it has first been cut into small pieces and nicely washed, to free it from blood and other impurities. if necessary to keep out soot, ashes, etc., loose covers or lids are placed over the vessels, and the contents are made to simmer slowly for several hours. this work requires a careful and experienced hand to superintend it. everything should be thoroughly clean, and the attendant must possess patience and a practical knowledge of the work. it will not do to hurry the cooking. a slow boil or simmer is the proper way. the contents are occasionally stirred as the cooking proceeds, to prevent burning. the cooking is continued until the liquid ceases to bubble and becomes clear. so long as there is any milky or cloudy appearance about the fat, it contains water, and in this condition will not keep well in summer--a matter of importance to the country housekeeper. it requires six to eight hours constant cooking to properly refine a kettle or pot of fat. the time will depend, of course, somewhat upon the size of the vessel containing it and the thickness of the fat, and also upon the attention bestowed upon it by the cook. by close watching, so as to keep the fire just right all the time, it will cook in a shorter period, and vice versa. when the liquid appears clear the pots are set aside for the lard to cool a little before putting it into the vessels in which it is to be kept. the cracknels are first dipped from the pots and put into colanders, to allow the lard to drip from them. some press the cracknels, and thus get a good deal more lard. as the liquid fat is dipped from the pots it is carefully strained through fine colanders or wire sieves. this is done to rid it of any bits of cracknel, etc., that may remain in the lard. some country people when cooking lard add a few sprigs of rosemary or thyme, to impart a pleasant flavor to it. a slight taste of these herbs is not objectionable. nothing else whatever is put into the lard as it is cooked, and if thoroughly done, nothing else is needed. a little salt is sometimes added, to make it firmer and keep it better in summer, but the benefit, if any, is slight, and too much salt is objectionable. leaf lard. in making lard, all the leaf or flake fat, the two leaves of almost solid fat that grow just above the hams on either side about the kidneys, and the choice pieces of fat meat cut off in trimming the pork should be tried or rendered first and separate from the remainder. this fat is the best and makes what is called the leaf lard. it may be put in the bottom of the cans, for use in summer, or else into separate jars or cans, and set away in a cool place. the entrail fat and bits of fat meat are cooked last and put on top of the other, or into separate vessels, to be used during cool weather. this lard is never as good as the other, and will not keep sweet as long; hence the pains taken by careful housewives to keep the two sorts apart. it must be admitted, however, that many persons, when refining lard for market, do not make any distinction, but lump all together, both in cooking and afterward. but for pure, honest "leaf" lard not a bit of entrail fat should be mixed with the flakes. a particularly important point in making lard is to take plenty of time. the cooking must not be hurried in the least. it requires time to thoroughly dry out all the water, and the keeping quality of the lard depends largely upon this. a slow fire of coals only should be placed under the kettle, and great care exercised that no spark snaps into it, to set fire to the hot oil. it is well to have at hand some close-fitting covers, to be put immediately over the kettle, closing it tightly in case the oil should take fire. the mere exclusion of air will put out the fire at once. cook slowly in order not to burn any of the fat in the least, as that will impart a very unpleasant flavor to the lard. the attendants should stir well with a long ladle or wooden stick during the whole time of cooking. it requires several hours to thoroughly cook a vessel of lard, when the cracknels will eventually rise to the top. a cool, dry room, such as a basement, is the best place for keeping lard. large stone jars are perhaps the best vessels to keep it in, but tins are cheaper, and wooden casks, made of oak, are very good. any pine wood, cedar or cypress will impart a taste of the wood. the vessels must be kept closed, to exclude litter, and care should be observed to prevent ants, mice, etc., from getting to the lard. a secret in keeping lard firm and good in hot weather is first to cook it well, and then set it in a cool, dry cellar, where the temperature remains fairly uniform throughout the year. cover the vessels after they are set away in the cellar with closely fitting tops over a layer of oiled paper. chapter viii. pickling and barreling. for salt pork, one of the first considerations is a clean barrel, which can be used over and over again after yearly renovation. a good way to clean the barrel is to place about ten gallons of water and a peck of clean wood ashes in the barrel, then throw in well-heated irons, enough to boil the water, cover closely, and by adding a hot iron occasionally, keep the mixture boiling a couple of hours. pour out, wash thoroughly with fresh water, and it will be as sweet as a new barrel. next cover the bottom of the barrel with coarse salt, cut the pork into strips about six inches wide, stand edgewise in the barrel, with the skin next the outside, until the bottom is covered. cover with a thick coat of salt, so as to hide the pork entirely. repeat in the same manner until the barrel is full, or the pork all in, covering the top thickly with another layer of salt. let stand three or four days, then put on a heavy flat stone and sufficient cold water to cover the pork. after the water is on, sprinkle one pound best black pepper over all. an inch of salt in the bottom and between each layer and an inch and a half on top will be sufficient to keep the pork without making brine. when it is desired to pickle pork by pouring brine over the filled barrel, the following method is a favorite: pack closely in the barrel, first rubbing the salt well into the exposed ends of bones, and sprinkle well between each layer, using no brine until forty-eight hours after, and then let the brine be strong enough to bear an egg. after six weeks take out the hams and bacon and hang in the smokehouse. when warm weather brings danger of flies, smoke a week with hickory chips; avoid heating the air much. if one has a dark, close smokehouse, the meat can hang in it all summer; otherwise pack in boxes, putting layers of sweet, dry hay between. this method of packing is preferred by some to packing in dry salt or ashes. [illustration: fig. . box for salting meats.] renewing pork brine. not infrequently from insufficient salting and unclean barrels, or other cause, pork placed in brine begins to spoil, the brine smells bad, and the contents, if not soon given proper attention, will be unfit for food. as soon as this trouble is discovered, lose no time in removing the contents from the barrel, washing each piece of meat separately in clean water. boil the brine for half an hour, frequently removing the scum and impurities that will rise to the surface. cleanse the barrel thoroughly by washing with hot water and hard wood ashes. replace the meat after sprinkling it with a little fresh salt, putting the purified brine back when cool, and no further trouble will be experienced, and if the work be well done, the meat will be sweet and firm. those who pack meat for home use do not always remove the blood with salt. after meat is cut up it is better to lie in salt for a day and drain before being placed in the brine barrel. a handy salting box. a trough made as shown at fig. is very handy for salting meats, such as hams, bacon and beef, for drying. it is made of any wood which will not flavor the meat; ash, spruce or hemlock plank, one and a half inches thick, being better than any others. a good size is four feet long by two and one-half wide and one and one-half deep. the joints should be made tight with white lead spread upon strips of cloth, and screws are vastly better than nails to hold the trough together. chapter ix. care of hams and shoulders. in too many instances farmers do not have the proper facilities for curing hams, and do not see to it that such are at hand, an important point in success in this direction. a general cure which would make a good ham under proper conditions would include as follows: to each lbs. of ham use seven and a half pounds liverpool fine salt, one and one-half pounds granulated sugar and four ounces saltpeter. weigh the meat and the ingredients in the above proportions, rub the meat thoroughly with this mixture and pack closely in a tierce. fill the tierce with water and roll every seven days until cured, which in a temperature of to degrees would require about fifty days for a medium ham. large hams take about ten days more for curing. when wanted for smoking, wash the hams in water or soak for twelve hours. hang in the smokehouse and smoke slowly forty-eight hours and you will have a very good ham. while this is not the exact formula followed in big packing houses, any more than are other special recipes given here, it is a general ham cure that will make a first-class ham in every respect if proper attention is given it. another method of pickling hams and shoulders, preparatory to smoking, includes the use of molasses. though somewhat different from the above formula, the careful following of directions cannot fail to succeed admirably. to four quarts of fine salt and two ounces of pulverized saltpeter, add sufficient molasses to make a pasty mixture. the hams having hung in a dry, cool place for three or four days after cutting up, are to be covered all over with the mixture, more thickly on the flesh side, and laid skin side down for three or four days. in the meantime, make a pickle of the following proportions, the quantities here named being for lbs. of hams. coarse salt, seven pounds; brown sugar, five pounds; saltpeter, two ounces; pearlash or potash, one-half ounce; soft water, four gallons. heat gradually and as the skim rises remove it. continue to do this as long as any skim rises, and when it ceases, allow the pickle to cool. when the hams have remained the proper time immersed in this mixture, cover the bottom of a clean, sweet barrel with salt about half an inch deep. pack in the hams as closely as possible, cover them with the pickle, and place over them a follower with weights to keep them down. small hams of fifteen pounds and less, also shoulders, should remain in the pickle for five weeks; larger ones will require six to eight weeks, according to size. let them dry well before smoking. westphalian hams. this particular style has long been a prime favorite in certain markets of europe, and to a small extent in this country also. westphalia is a province of germany in which there is a large industry in breeding swine for the express purpose of making the most tender meat with the least proportion of fat. another reason for the peculiar and excellent qualities which have made westphalian hams so famous, is the manner of feeding and growing for the hams, and finally the preserving, curing, and last of all, smoking the hams. the ravensberg cross breed of swine is a favorite for this purpose. they are rather large animals, having slender bodies, flat groins, straight snouts and large heads, with big, overhanging ears. the skin is white, with straight little bristles. a principal part of the swine food in westphalia is potatoes; these are cooked and then mashed in the potato water. the pulp thus obtained is thoroughly mixed with wheat bran in a dry, raw state; little corn is used. in order to avoid overproduction of fat and at the same time further the growth of flesh of young pigs, some raw cut green feed, such as cabbage, is used; young pigs are also fed sour milk freely. in pickling the hams they are first vigorously rubbed with saltpeter and then with salt. the hams are pressed in the pickling vat and entirely covered with cold brine, remaining in salt three to five weeks. after this they are taken out of the pickle and hung in a shady but dry and airy place to "air-dry." before the pickled hams can be put in smoke they are exposed for several weeks to this drying in the open air. as long as the outside of the ham is not absolutely dry, appearing moist or sticky, it is kept away from smoke. smoking is done in special large chambers, the hams being hung from the ceiling. in addition to the use of sawdust and wood shavings in making smoke, branches of juniper are often used, and occasionally beech and alder woods; oak and resinous woods are positively avoided. the smoking is carried on slowly. it is recommended to smoke for a few days cautiously, that is, to have the smoke not too strong. then expose the hams for a few days in the fresh air, repeating in this way until they are brown enough. the hams are actually in smoke two or three weeks, thus the whole process of smoking requires about six weeks. hams are preserved after their smoking in a room which is shady, not accessible to the light, but at the same time dry, cool and airy. the pig and the orchard. the two go together well. the pig stirs up the soil about the trees, letting in the sunshine and moisture to the roots and fertilizing them, while devouring many grubs that would otherwise prey upon the fruit. but many orchards cannot be fenced and many owners of fenced orchards, even, would like to have the pig confine his efforts around the trunk of each tree. to secure this have four fence panels made and yard the pig for a short time in succession about each tree, as suggested in the diagram, fig. . [illustration: fig. . fence for orchard tree.] chapter x. dry salting bacon and sides. for hogs weighing not over or lbs. each, intended for dry curing, one bushel fine salt, two pounds brown sugar and one pound saltpeter will suffice for each lbs. pork before the meat is cut out; but if the meat is large and thick, or weighs from to lbs. per carcass, from a gallon to a peck more of salt and a little more of both the other articles should be taken. neither the sugar nor the saltpeter is absolutely necessary for the preservation of the meat, and they are often omitted. but both are preservatives; the sugar improves the flavor of the bacon, and the saltpeter gives it greater firmness and a finer color, if used sparingly. bacon should not be so sweet as to suggest the "sugar-cure;" and saltpeter, used too freely, hardens the tissues of the meat, and renders it less palatable. the quantity of salt mentioned is enough for the first salting. a little more new salt is added at the second salting and used together with the old salt that has not been absorbed. if sugar and saltpeter are used, first apply about a teaspoonful of pulverized saltpeter on the flesh side of the hams and shoulders, and then taking a little sugar in the hand, apply it lightly to the flesh surface of all the pieces. a tablespoonful is enough for any one piece. if the meat at the time of salting is moist and yielding to the touch, rubbing the skin side with the gloved hand, or the "sow's ear," as is sometimes insisted on, is unnecessary; the meat will take salt readily enough without this extra labor. but if the meat is rigid, and the weather very cold, or if the pieces are large and thick, rubbing the skin side to make it yielding and moist causes the salt to penetrate to the center of the meat and bone. on the flesh side it is only necessary to sprinkle the salt over all the surface. care must be taken to get some salt into every depression and into the hock end of all joints. an experienced meat salter goes over the pieces with great expedition. taking a handful of the salt, he applies it dextrously by a gliding motion of the hand to all the surface, and does not forget the hock end of the bones where the feet have been cut off. only dry salt is used in this method of curing. the meat is never put into brine or "pickle," nor is any water added to the salt to render it more moist. best distribution of the salt. a rude platform or bench of planks is laid down, on which the meat is packed as it is salted. a boy hands the pieces to the packer, who lays down first a course of middlings and then sprinkles a little more salt on all the places that do not appear to have quite enough. next comes a layer of shoulders and then another layer of middlings, until all these pieces have been laid. from time to time a little more salt is added, as appears to be necessary. the hams are reserved for the top layer, the object being to prevent them from becoming too salt. in a large bulk of meat the brine, as it settles down, lodges upon the lower pieces, and some of them get rather more than their quota of salt. too much saltiness spoils the hams for first-class bacon. in fact, it spoils any meat to have it too salt, but it requires less to spoil the hams, because, as a rule, they are mostly lean meat. the jowls, heads and livers, on account of the quantity of blood about them, are put in a separate pile, after being salted. the chines and spareribs are but slightly salted and laid on top of the bulk of neat meat. the drippings of brine and blood from the meat are collected in buckets and sent to the compost heaps. if there are rats, they must be trapped or kept out in some way. cats, also, should be excluded from the house. close-fitting boxes, which some use to keep the rats from the meat, are not the best; the meat needs air. in ten days to three weeks, according to weather and size of the meat, break bulk and resalt, using the old salt again, with just a little new salt added. in four to six weeks more, or sooner, if need be, break up and wash the meat nicely, preparatory to smoking it. some farmers do not wash the salt off, but the meat receives smoke better and looks nicer, if washed. curing pork for the south. this requires a little different treatment. it is dry-salted and smoked. the sides, hams and shoulders are laid on a table and rubbed thoroughly with salt and saltpeter (one ounce to five pounds of salt), clear saltpeter being rubbed in around the ends of the bones. the pieces are laid up, with salt between, and allowed to lie. the rubbing is repeated at intervals of a week until the meat is thoroughly salted through, and it is then smoked. it must afterward be left in the smokehouse, canvased or buried in a box of ashes, to protect it from the flies. chapter xi. smoking and smokehouses. for best quality of bacon, the proper meat is of first importance. withes or strings of basket wood, bear's grass, or coarse, stout twine, one in the hock end of each ham and shoulder, and two in the thick side of each middling, are fastened in the meat by which to suspend it for smoking. before it is hung up the entire flesh surface of the hams and shoulders, and sometimes the middlings also, is sprinkled thickly with fine black pepper, using a large tin pepper box to apply it. sometimes a mixture of about equal parts of black and red pepper helps very much to impart a good flavor to the meat. it was thought formerly that black pepper, applied to meat before smoking it, would keep the bacon bug (dermestes) "skippers" from being troublesome. but it is now known that the skipper skips just as lively where the pepper is. the meat is hung upon sticks or on hooks overhead very close together, without actually touching, and is ready for smoking. the smokehouse. the meat house is of course one with an earth, brick, or cement floor, where the fire for the smoke is made in a depression in the center of the room, so as to be as far as possible from the walls. a few live coals are laid down, and a small fire is made of some dry stuff. as it gets well to burning, the fire is smothered with green hickory or oak wood, and a basket of green chips from the oak or hickory woodpile is kept on hand and used as required to keep the fire smothered so as to produce a great smoke and but little blaze. if the chips are too dry they are kept wet with water. care is taken not to allow the fire to get too large and hot, so as to endanger the meat hung nearest to it. should the fire grow too strong, as it sometimes will, a little water is thrown on, a bucketful of which is kept always on hand. the fire requires constant care and nursing to keep up a good smoke and no blaze. oak and hickory chips or wood impart the best color to meat. some woods, as pine, ailanthus, mulberry and persimmon, are very objectionable, imparting a disagreeable flavor to the bacon. corn cobs make a good smoke for meat, but they must be wet before laying them on the fire. hardwood sawdust is sometimes advantageously used in making a fire for smoking meats. no blaze is formed, and if it burns too freely can be readily checked by sprinkling a little water upon it. this is a popular method in parts of europe, and in that country damp wheat straw is also sometimes used to some extent. combined smokehouse and oven. the oven, shown in fig. , occupies the front and that part of the interior which is represented in our illustration by the dotted lines. the smokehouse occupies the rear, and extends over the oven. the advantages of this kind of building are the perfect dryness secured, which is of great importance in preserving the meat, and the economy in building the two together, as the smoke that escapes from the oven may be turned into the smokehouse. this latter feature, however, will not commend itself to many who prefer the use of certain kinds of fuel in smoking which are not adapted to burning in a bake oven. [illustration: fig. . combination smokehouse and oven.] cloudy and damp days are the best for smoking meat. it seems to receive the smoke more freely in such weather, and there is also less danger of fire. the smoke need not be kept up constantly, unless one is in a hurry to sell the meat. half a day at a time on several days a week, for two or three weeks, will give the bacon that bright gingerbread color which is generally preferred. it should not be made too dark with smoke. it is a good plan, after the meat is smoked nearly enough, to smoke it occasionally for half a day at a time all through the spring until late in may. it is thought that smoke does good in keeping the dermestes out of the house. the work of smoking may be finished up in a week, if one prefers, by keeping up the smoke all day and at night until bedtime. some smoke more, others less, according to fancy as to color. no doubt, the more it is smoked, the better the bacon will keep through the summer. but it need not, and, in fact, should not, be made black with smoke. it is necessary, before the smoking is quite completed, to remove the meat that is in the center just over the fire to one side, and to put the pieces from the sides in the center. the meat directly over the smoke colors faster than that on the sides, although the house is kept full of smoke constantly. some farmers do not care to risk the safety of their meat by having an open fire under it, and so set up an old stove, either in the room or on the outside, in which latter case a pipe lets the smoke into the house. a smoldering fire is then kept up with corn cobs or chips. but there is almost as much danger this way as the other. the stovepipe may become so hot as to set fire to the walls of the house where it enters, or a blaze may be carried within if there is too much fire in the stove. there is some risk either way, but with a properly built smokehouse, there is no great danger from the plan described. the meat is now cured and, if these directions have been observed, the farmer has a supply of bacon as good as the world can show. some may prefer a "shorter cut" from the slaughter pen to the baking pan, and with their pyroligenous acid may scout the old-fashioned smoke as heathenish, and get their bacon ready for eating in two hours after the salt has struck in. but they never can show such bacon by their method as we can by ours. there is but one way to have this first-class bacon and ham, and that way is the one herein portrayed. to make a smokehouse fireproof as far as the stove ashes are concerned, is not necessarily an expensive job; all that is required is to lay up a row of brick across one end, also two or three feet back upon each side, connecting the sides with a row across the building, making it at least two feet high. as those who have a smokehouse use it nearly every year, that part can also be made safe from fire by the little arch built at the point shown in the illustration, fig. . the whole is laid up in mortar, and to add strength to the structure an iron rod or bar may be placed across the center of the bin and firmly imbedded in the mortar, two or three rows of brick from the top. of course, the rear of the arch is also bricked up. in most cases, less than brick will be all that is required. [illustration: fig. . fireproofing a smokehouse.] a well arranged smokehouse. a simple but satisfactory smokehouse is shown in the illustration, fig. , and can be constructed on the farm at small cost. it is so arranged as to give direct action of smoke upon the meat within, and yet free from the annoyance that comes from entering a smoke-filled room to replenish the fire. the house is square, and of a size dependent upon the material one may have yearly to cure by smoke. for ordinary use, a house ten feet square will be ample. there are an entrance door on one side and a small window near the top that can be opened from the outside to quickly free the inside from the smoke when desired. at the bottom of one side is a small door, from which extends a small track to the center of the room. upon this slides a square piece of plank, moved by an iron rod with a hook on one end. on the plank is placed an old iron kettle, fig. , with four or five inches of earth in the bottom, and upon this is the fire to be built. the kettle can be slid to the center of the room with an iron rod and can be drawn to the small door at any time to replenish the fire without entering the smoky room or allowing the smoke to come out. the house has an earthen floor and a tight foundation of stone or brick. the walls should be of matched boarding and the roof shingled. the building is made more attractive in appearance if the latter is made slightly "dishing." [illustration: fig. . farm smokehouse.] [illustration: fig. . fire, kettle and track.] smoking meats in a small way. a fairly good substitute for a smokehouse, where it is desired to improvise something for temporary use in smoking hams or other meat, may be found in a large cask or barrel, arranged as shown in the engraving, fig. . to make this effective, a small pit should be dug, and a flat stone or a brick placed across it, upon which the edge of the cask will rest. half of the pit is beneath the barrel and half of it outside. the head and bottom may be removed, or a hole can be cut in the bottom a little larger than the portion of the pit beneath the cask. the head or cover is removed, while the hams are hung upon cross sticks. these rest upon two cross bars, made to pass through holes bored in the sides of the cask, near the top. the head is then laid upon the cask and covered with sacks to confine the smoke. some coals are put into the pit outside of the cask, and the fire is fed with damp corn cobs, hardwood chips, or fine brush. the pit is covered with a flat stone, by which the fire may be regulated, and it is removed when necessary to add more fuel. [illustration: fig. . a barrel smokehouse.] another barrel smokehouse. for those who have only the hams and other meats from one or two hogs to smoke, a practicable smokehouse, like that shown in fig. , will serve the purpose fairly well. a large barrel or good-sized cask should be used, with both heads removed. a hole about a foot deep is dug to receive it, and then a trench of about the same depth and six or eight feet long, leading to the fireplace. in this trench can be laid old stovepipe and the ground filled in around it. the meat to be smoked is suspended in the barrel and the lid put on, but putting pieces under it, so there will be enough draft to draw the smoke through. by having the fire some distance from the meat, one gets the desired amount of smoke and avoids having the meat overheated. [illustration: fig. . barrel smokehouse with french draft.] chapter xii. keeping bacons and hams. the ideal meat house or smokehouse is a tall frame structure, twelve by fifteen or fifteen by eighteen feet, underpinned solidly with brick set a foot or more into the ground, or with a double set of sills, the bottom set being buried in the soil. this mode of underpinning is designed to prevent thieves from digging under the wall and into the house. stout, inch-thick boards are used for the weatherboarding, and sometimes the studs are placed near enough together to prevent a person from getting through between them. the house is built tall to give more room for meat and to have it farther from the fire while it is being smoked. the weatherboarding and the roof should be tight to prevent too free escape of the smoke. no window, and but one door, is necessary. the floor should be of clay, packed firm, or else laid in cement or brick. indeed, it would be better to have the entire walls built of brick, but this would add considerably to the cost of construction. the room should be large enough to admit of a platform on one or both sides, upon which to pack the pork when salted. there should be a salt barrel, a large wooden tray made of plank, in which to salt the meat, and a short, handy ladder for reaching the upper tier of joists. a large basket for holding chips, a tub for water when smoking meat, a large chopping block and a meat axe, for the convenience of the cook, are necessary articles for the meat house. nothing else should be allowed to cumber the room to afford a harbor for rats or to present additional material for a blaze, in case a spark from the fire should snap out to a distance. the house should be kept neatly swept, and rats should not be allowed to make burrows under anything in the room. the floor of the meat house should always be of some hard material like cement or brick, or else clay pummeled very hard, so that there would be no hiding place for the pupae of the dermestes (parent of the "skipper"). the skipper undergoes one or two moltings while in the meat, and at last drops from the bacon to the floor, where, if the earth is loose, it burrows into the ground and, remaining all winter, comes out a perfect beetle in spring. a hard, impervious floor will prevent it from doing this, and compel it to seek a nesting place elsewhere. the reason why country bacon is sometimes so badly infested with the skipper is that the house and floor afford or become an excellent incubator, as it were, for the dermestes, and the bacon bugs become so numerous that all the meat gets infested with them. in case the floor of the smokehouse is soft and yielding, it becomes necessary each winter, before the meat is packed to salt, to remove about two inches of the soil and put in fresh earth or clay in its place. thus, many of the insects would be carried out, where they would be destroyed. the walls and roof of the room on the interior should also be swept annually to dislodge any pupae that might be hibernating in the cracks and crevices. with these precautions, there should not be many of the pests left within the building, though it is a hard matter when a house once gets badly infested to dislodge them entirely. there are so many hiding places about a plain shingle roof that it is next to impossible not to have some of these insects permanently lodged in the meat house. but with a good, hard floor, frequent sweeping and the use of plenty of black pepper on the meat, the number of the dermestes should be reduced to the minimum. bacon keeps nowhere so well as in the house where it is smoked, and if the bugs do not get too numerous it is decidedly better to allow it to remain hanging there. bacon needs air and a cool, dry, dark room for keeping well in summer. the least degree of dampness is detrimental, causing the bacon to mold. it has been noticed, however, that moldy bacon is seldom infested with the skipper. hence some people, to keep away the skippers, hang their bacon in a cellar where there is dampness, preferring to have it moldy rather than "skippery." some housekeepers preserve hams in close boxes or barrels, in a cool, dark room, and succeed well. others pack in shelled oats or bran, or wrap in old newspapers and lay away on shelves or in boxes. inclosing in cloth sacks and painting the cloth is also practiced. all these plans are more or less successful, but oblige the housekeeper to be constantly on the watch to prevent mice and ants from getting to the bacon. but if anyone should prefer to exclude the bugs entirely from his meat the following contrivance is offered as a cheap and entirely satisfactory arrangement: after the meat is thoroughly smoked, hang all of it close together, or at least all the hams, in the center of the house, and inclose it on all sides with a light frame over which is stretched thin cotton cloth, taking care that there shall be no openings in the cloth or frame through which the bugs might crawl. there let it hang all summer. this contrivance will prevent the bug from getting at the meat to deposit its eggs, and the thin, open fabric of the cloth will at the same time admit plenty of air. the bottom or one side of the frame should be fixed upon hinges, for convenience in getting at the bacon as wanted. as the bacon bug comes out in march, or april farther south, in february it is necessary to get the meat smoked and inclosed under the canvas before the bug leaves its winter quarters. hams may be thus kept in perfect condition as long as may be desirable, and will remain sweet and nice many months. box for storing bacon. if the smokehouse is very dark and close, so that the flies or bugs will not be tempted to or can get in, all that is necessary is to have the meat hung on the pegs; but, if not, even when the meat is bagged, there is still some risk of worms. to provide a box that will be bugproof, ratproof, and at the same time cool, as seen in the illustration, fig. , make a frame one inch thick and two or three inches wide, with a close plank bottom; cover the whole box with wire cloth, such, as is used for screens. let the wire cloth be on the outside, so that the meat will not touch it. the top may be of plank and fit perfectly tight, so that no insect can creep under. of course, the box may be of any size desired. it will be well to have the strips nailed quite closely together, say, about one and a half inches apart. when the meat is put in, lay sticks between, so that the pieces will not touch. if the box is made carefully, it is bugproof and ratproof, affording ventilation at the same time, and so preventing molding. meat should be kept in a dry and cool place. [illustration: fig. . secure box for storing bacon.] chapter xiii. sidelights on pork making. the trade in country dressed hogs varies materially from year to year. since the big packing houses have become so prominent in the industry there is, of course, less done in country dressed hogs, yet a market is always found for considerable numbers. thirty years ago chicago received as many as , dressed hogs in one year. with a growth of the packing industry this business decreased, until , when only were handled at chicago, but since that date there has been a revival of interest, with as many as , received in and an ever changing number since that date. thirty years ago the number of hogs annually packed at chicago was about , . this business has increased since to as many as , , in a year, the industry in other packing centers being in much the same proportion. at all packing centers in the west there are slaughtered annually , , to , , hogs. compared with the enormous numbers fattened and marketed on the hoof, a very small proportion of the hogs turned off the farms each year are sold dressed. yet with many farmers, particularly those who have only a small number to dispose of, it is always a question as to which is the better way to sell hogs, dressed or alive. no individual experience can be taken as a criterion, yet here is a record of what one michigan farmer did in the way of experiment. he had two lots of hogs to sell. one litter of seven weighed a total of lbs. alive, and dressed , lbs., which was three pounds over a one-sixth shrinkage; one litter of five weighed lbs. and dressed lbs., losing exactly one-seventh, they being very fat. the sow weighed lbs. and dressed , dressing away about lbs. to the lbs. he was offered $ . per lbs. live weight, for all the hogs, and $ for the sow. he finally sold the seven hogs, dressed, at $ per lbs., the second lot of five at $ . , and the sow at $ . . he decided that by dressing the hogs before selling, he gained about $ . , aside from lard and trimmings. the experience here noted would not necessarily hold good anywhere and any time. methods employed in packing hogs have been brought down to such a fine point, however, with practically every portion utilized, that unless a farmer has a well-defined idea where he can advantageously sell his dressed pork, it would not pay, as a general thing, to butcher any considerable number of hogs, with a view of thus disposing of them. an easily filled pig trough. to get swill into a pig trough is no easy matter if the hogs cannot be kept out until it is filled. the arrangement shown in fig. will be found of much value and a great convenience. before pouring in the swill, the front end of the pen, in the form of a swinging door suspended from the top, is placed in the position shown at _b_. the trough is filled and the door allowed to assume the position shown at _a_. [illustration: fig. . pig trough attachment.] an aid in ringing hogs. a convenient trap for holding a hog while a ring is placed in its nose consists of a trunk or a box without ends, feet long, inches high and inches wide, inside measure. this trunk has a strong frame at one end, to which the boards are nailed. the upper and lower slats are double, and between them a strong lever has free play. to accommodate large or small pigs, two pins are set in the lower slat, against which the lever can bear. the pins do not go through the lever. this trunk is placed in the door of the pen, and two men are required to hold it and ring the hogs. when a hog enters and tries to go through, one man shoves the lever up, catching him just back of the head, and holds him there. the second man then rings him, and he is freed. fig. exhibits the construction of the trap, in the use of which one can hold the largest hog with ease. [illustration: fig. . trap for holding hog.] average weights of live hogs. the average weight of all hogs received at chicago in was lbs.; in , lbs. the average weight of all hogs received at chicago in was lbs.; in , lbs.; in , lbs. extremes in market price of pork and lard. the highest price of mess pork at chicago during the last forty years, according to the daily trade bulletin, was $ per bbl. in , and the lowest price $ . per bbl., paid in . the highest price of lard was naturally also in war times, c per lb. in ; the lowest price a shade more than c, in . net to gross. good to prime hogs, when cut up into pork, hams, shoulders and lard, will dress out to per cent, according to the testimony of the large packing concerns. that is, for every lbs. live weight, it is fair to estimate to lbs. of product of the classes named. if cut into ribs instead of pork, prime hogs would net to per cent, while those which are not prime run as low as per cent. for comparative purposes, it may be well to note here that good farm-fed cattle will dress to per cent of their live weight in beef, the remainder being hide, fat, offal, etc., and sheep will dress to per cent, per cent being a fair average. relative weights of portions of carcass. to determine the relation of the different parts of the hog as usually cut, to the whole dressed weight, the alabama experiment station reports the following results. the test was made with a number of light hogs having an average dressed weight of lbs. the average weight of head was . lbs.; backbone, . lbs.; the two hams, . lbs.; the two shoulders, . lbs.; leaf lard, . lbs.; ribs, . lbs.; the two "middling" sides, lbs.; tender loin, . lbs.; feet, . lbs. gates for handling hogs. the device shown in the accompanying illustrations for handling hogs when they are to be rung or for other purposes, is very useful on the ordinary farm. fig. represents a chute and gate which will shut behind and before the hog and hold him in position. there is just room enough for him to stick his nose out, and while in this position rings can be inserted. the sides of the chute must be much closer together than shown in the engraving, so that the hog cannot turn about. in fact, the width should be just sufficient to allow the hog to pass through. fig. represents the side view of another gate and pen, so arranged that the door can be opened and shut without getting into the pen. [illustration: fig. . hog chute.] [illustration: fig. . device for opening gate.] chapter xiv. packing house cuts of pork. while considering primarily the proper curing of pork for use on the farm and for home manufacture by farmers, it will not be out of the way to become acquainted with some of the leading cuts of meat as made by the big pork packers at chicago and elsewhere. in the speculative markets, a large business is done in "mess pork," "short ribs" and lard. these are known as the speculative commodities in pork product. the prices established, controlled largely by the amount offered and the character of the demand, regulate to a considerable extent the market for other cuts of pork, such as long clear middles, hams and shoulders. our illustrations of some of the leading cuts of meats, furnished us through the courtesy of hately bros., prominent pork packers in chicago, together with accompanying descriptions, give a very good idea of the shape pork product takes as handled in the big markets of the world. [illustration: fig. . mess pork.] [illustration: fig. . short ribs.] [illustration: fig. . shoulder.] mess pork. this standard cut, fig. , is made from heavy fat hogs. the hog is first split down the back, the backbone being left on one side. ham and shoulders taken off, the sides are then cut in uniform strips of four or five pieces. equal portions of both sides are then packed in barrels, lbs. net, the pieces numbering not more than sixteen nor less than nine. barrels to be filled with a pickle made with lbs. of salt to each barrel. short ribs. these are made from the sides, with the ham and shoulder taken off and backbone removed; haunchbone and breastbone sawed or cut down smooth and level with the face of the side. the pieces (fig. ) are made to average lbs. and over. shoulders. regular shoulders (fig. ), or commonly called dry salted shoulders, are cut off the sides between first and second ribs, so as not to expose forearm joint. shank cut off at knee joint. neck bone taken out and neck trimmed smooth. shoulders butted off square at top. made to average to , to , and to lbs. on the wholesale markets can usually be bought at about the price per pound of live hogs. hams. american cut hams are cut short inside the haunchbone, are well rounded at butt and all fat trimmed off the face of the hams to make as lean as possible. see fig. . cut off above the hock joint. hams are made to average to , to , to , to , and to lbs. picnic hams. this is a contradictory term, for the picnic ham is in truth a shoulder. picnic hams (fig. ) are made from shoulders cut off sides between second and third ribs. shank bone cut off one inch above knee joint, and neck bone taken out. butt taken off through the middle of the blade and nicely rounded to imitate a ham. made to average to , to , to , and to lbs. wiltshire cut bacon. this cut (fig. ) is from hogs weighing about lbs. formerly the hair was removed by singeing, but this method is not so much employed now. the wiltshire bacon is consumed almost entirely in london, bristol and the south of england generally. [illustration: fig. . american cut ham.] [illustration: fig. . picnic ham.] standard lard. the following is the rule in force at chicago for the manufacture of standard prime steam lard: standard prime steam lard shall be solely the product of the trimmings and other fat parts of hogs, rendered in tanks by the direct application of steam and without subsequent change in grain or character by the use of agitators or other machinery, except as such change may unavoidably come from transportation. it must have proper color, flavor and soundness for keeping, and no material which has been salted must be included. the name and location of the renderer and the grade of the lard shall be plainly branded on each package at the time of packing. neutral lard. this is made at the big packing houses from pure leaf lard, which after being thoroughly chilled is rendered in open tanks at a temperature of about degrees. the portion rendered at this temperature is run into packages and allowed to cool before closing tightly. lard stearine is made from the fat of hogs which is rendered and then pressed and the oil extracted. the oil is used for lubricating purposes, and the stearine by lard refiners in order to harden the lard, especially in warm weather. chapter xv. magnitude of the swine industry. were it not for the foreign demand for our pork and pork product there would be much less profit in fattening hogs for market than there is, irrespective of the price of corn and other feeds. england is our best customer, taking by far the larger part of our entire exports of all lard, cured meats and other hog product, but there is an encouraging trade with other foreign countries. the authorities at washington are making every effort to enlarge this foreign outlet. certain european countries, notably france and germany, place irksome embargoes on american pork product. ostensibly, these foreign governments claim the quality and healthfulness of some of the american pork are in question, but in reality back of all this is the demand from the german and french farmers that the competition afforded by american pork must be kept down. it is believed that eventually all such restrictions will be swept away, through international agreement, and that thus our markets may be further extended, greatly benefiting the american farmer. our exports of hog product, including pork, bacon, hams and lard, represent a value annually of about $ , , . the world's supply of bacon is derived chiefly from the united states, which enjoys an enormous trade with foreign consuming countries, notably england and continental europe. irish bacon is received with much favor in the english markets, while wiltshire and other parts of england also furnish large quantities, specially cured, which are great favorites among consumers. some idea of the magnitude of the foreign trade of the united states, so far as hog product is concerned, may be formed by a glance at the official figures showing our exports in a single year. during the twelve months ended june , , the united states exported , , lbs. bacon, , , lbs. ham, , , lbs. pickled pork and , , lbs. lard, a total of , million pounds pork product. on the supposition that live hogs dress out, roughly speaking, per cent product, this suggests the enormous quantity of , million pounds of live hogs taken for the foreign trade in one year. estimating the average weight at lbs., this means nearly , , hogs sent to american slaughterhouses in the course of one year to supply our foreign trade with pork product. the united kingdom is by far our best customer, although we export liberal quantities to belgium, holland, germany, france, canada, brazil, central america and the west indies. total value of our exports of pork product was $ , , . [illustration: fig. . wiltshire cut bacon.] the enormous business of the big packing houses, located chiefly in the west, with a few in the east, can scarcely be comprehended in its extent. chicago continues to hold the prestige of the largest packing center in the world, but other western cities are crowding it. in chicago received , , hogs, the largest on record, most of which were packed in that city, and the product shipped all over the world. in recent years the chicago receipts have averaged smaller, but the proportion going to the packing concerns remains about the same. it is estimated that the hogs received at that city in had a value of $ , , . co-operative curing houses in denmark. about half the pork exported to england from denmark is cured by the co-operative curing houses, established first in and since that date greatly increased in number. enormous quantities of cheap black sea barley have been brought into denmark the last few years, used principally for fodder. the principal advantage of the co-operative system, doing away with the middleman, applies to these establishments. farmers who raise hogs in a given district of say ten to twenty miles' circumference, unite and furnish the money necessary for the construction and operation of the co-operative curing establishment. the farmers bind themselves to deliver all hogs that they raise to the curing house, and severe fines are collected when animals are sold elsewhere. at every curing house there is a shop for the sale of sausage, fat, etc., these as a rule paying well and forming an important part of the profits in this co-operation. hog prices at chicago, per pounds. heavy packing, mixed packing, light bacon. year. to lbs. to lbs. to lbs. $ . @ . $ . @ . $ . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . . @ . total packing and marketing of hogs. [year ended march --cincinnati price current.] receipts. western eastern n. y., phil. packing. packing. and balto. total. - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , - , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , receipts of hogs at leading points by years. [stated in thousands--from american agriculturist year book for .] chicago , , , , , , , kansas city , , , , , , , omaha , , , , , , , st. louis , , , , ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- total , , , , , , , [ ]cincinnati indianapolis , , , , , cleveland .. .. detroit ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- total , , , , , , , new york , , , , , , , boston , , , , , , , buffalo , , , , , , , pittsburg , , , , , , philadelphia ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- total , , , , , , , st. paul sioux city cedar rapids st. joseph, mo ft. worth, tex .. .. .. .. new orleans denver ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- total , , , , , , , montreal toronto ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- ---- total chicago , , , kansas city , , , omaha , , , st. louis ---- ---- ---- total , , , [ ]cincinnati .. .. .. indianapolis , , cleveland .. .. .. detroit ---- ---- ---- total .. .. .. new york , , , boston , , , buffalo , , , pittsburg , , , philadelphia ---- ---- ---- total , , , st. paul .. sioux city .. cedar rapids st. joseph, mo .. ft. worth, tex .. .. .. new orleans .. .. .. denver ---- ---- ---- total , , .. montreal .. toronto ---- ---- ---- total [ ] for year ended march . crate for moving swine or other animals. it is often desirable to move a small animal from one building to another, or from one pasture enclosure to another. the illustration, fig. , shows a crate on wheels, with handles permitting it to be used as a wheelbarrow. into this the pig can be driven, the door closed and the crate wheeled away. it will also be found a very useful contrivance in bringing in calves that have been dropped by their dams in the pasture. [illustration: fig. . handy movable crate.] chapter xvi. discovering the merits of roast pig. by charles lamb. the art of roasting, or rather broiling (which i take to be the elder brother) was accidentally discovered in the manner following. the swineherd, ho-ti, having gone out into the woods one morning, as his manner was, to collect mast for his hogs, left his cottage in the care of his eldest son, bo-bo, a great, lubberly boy, who, being fond of playing with fire, as younkers of his age commonly are, let some sparks escape into a bundle of straw, which, kindling quickly, spread the conflagration over every part of their poor mansion, till it was reduced to ashes. together with the cottage (a sorry, antediluvian makeshift of a building, you may think it), what was of much more importance, a fine litter of new-farrowed pigs, no less than nine in number, perished. china pigs have been esteemed a luxury all over the east, from the remotest periods that we read of. bo-bo was in the utmost consternation, as you may think, not so much for the sake of the tenement, which his father and he could easily build up again with a few dry branches, and the labor of an hour or two, at any time, as for the loss of the pigs. while he was thinking what he should say to his father, and wringing his hands over the smoking remnants of one of those untimely sufferers, an odor assailed his nostrils, unlike any scent which he had before experienced. what could it proceed from?--not from the burnt cottage--he had smelt that smell before--indeed, this was by no means the first accident of the kind which had occurred through the negligence of this unlucky firebrand. much less did it resemble that of any known herb, weed or flower. a premonitory moistening at the same time overflowed his nether lip. he knew not what to think. he next stooped down to feel the pig, if there were any signs of life in it. he burnt his fingers, and to cool them he applied them in his booby fashion to his mouth. some of the crumbs of the scorched skin had come away with his fingers, and for the first time in his life (in the world's life, indeed, for before him no man had known it), he tasted--crackling! again he felt and fumbled at the pig. it did not burn him so much now, still he licked his fingers from a sort of habit. the truth at length broke into his slow understanding, that it was the pig that smelt so, and the pig that tasted so delicious, and, surrendering himself up to the new-born pleasure, he fell to tearing up whole handfuls of the scorched skin with the flesh next it, and was cramming it down his throat in his beastly fashion, when his sire entered amid the smoking rafters, armed with retributory cudgel, and, finding how affairs stood, began to rain blows upon the young rogue's shoulders, as thick as hailstones, which bo-bo headed not any more than if they had been flies. the tickling pleasure, which he experienced in his lower regions, had rendered him quite callous to any inconveniences that he might feel in those remote quarters. his father might lay on, but he could not beat him from his pig till he had made an end of it, when, becoming a little more sensible of his situation, something like the following dialogue ensued: "you graceless whelp, what have you got there devouring? is it not enough that you have burnt me down three houses with your dog's tricks, and be hanged to you! but you must be eating fire, and i know not what--what have you got there, i say?" "o, father, the pig, the pig! do come and taste how nice the burnt pig eats." the ears of ho-ti tingled with horror. he cursed his son, and he cursed himself that ever he should beget a son that should eat burnt pig. bo-bo, whose scent was wonderfully sharpened since morning, soon raked out another pig, and fairly rending it asunder, thrust the lesser half by main force into the fists of ho-ti, still shouting out, "eat, eat, eat the burnt pig, father, only taste--o lord!" with suchlike barbarous ejaculations, cramming all the while as if he would choke. ho-ti trembled in every joint while he grasped the abominable thing, wavering whether he should not put his son to death for an unnatural young monster, when the crackling scorched his fingers, as it had done his son's, and applying the same remedy to them, he in his turn tasted some of its flavor, which, make what sour mouths he would for a pretence, proved not altogether displeasing to him. in conclusion, both father and son fairly sat down to the mess, and never left off till they had dispatched all that remained of the litter. chapter xvii. cooking and serving pork. first prize winners in the american agriculturist contest for best recipes for cooking and serving pork. pork pie. unless you have a brick oven do not attempt this dish, as it requires a long and even baking, which no stove oven can give. make a good pie crust and line a large pan, one holding about quarts; in the bottom put a layer of thin slices of onions, then a layer of lean salt pork, which has been previously browned in the frying pan, next place a layer of peeled apples, which sprinkle with a little brown sugar, using / lb. sugar to lbs. apples; then begin with onions, which sprinkle with pepper, pork and apples again, and so on until the dish is full. wet the edges of the crust, put on the top crust, well perforated, and bake at least four hours, longer if possible. these pies are eaten hot or cold and are a great favorite with the english people. potatoes may be used in place of apples, but they do not give the meat so fine a flavor. pork potpie. three pounds pork (if salt pork is used, freshen it well), cut into inch cubes. fry brown, add a large onion sliced, and a teaspoon each of chopped sage, thyme and parsley. cover with pints of water and boil for two hours, add a large pepper cut small or a pinch of cayenne, and a tablespoon of salt if fresh pork has been used. add also pints vegetables, carrots, turnips and parsnips cut small, boil half an hour longer, when add a pint of potatoes cut into small pieces, and some dumplings. cover closely, boil twenty minutes, when pour out into a large platter and serve. the dumplings are made of pint of flour, teaspoon salt, and teaspoon baking powder, sifted together. add eggs, well beaten and cup of milk. mix out all the lumps and drop by spoonfuls into the stew. serve this potpie with a salad of dandelion leaves, dressed with olive oil, vinegar, salt and pepper. pork gumbo. cut into small dice lbs. lean pork. (in these recipes where the pork is stewed or baked in tomatoes or water, salt pork may be used, provided it is well freshened.) fry the pork a pale brown, add sliced onions, and when these are brown add bell peppers sliced, and quarts peeled tomatoes, with teaspoons salt. let boil gently, stirring frequently, for - / hours. peel and cut small pint of young tender okra pods, and add. cover again and boil half an hour longer. cook in a lined saucepan, as tin will discolor the okra. with this serve a large dish of rice or hominy. corn may be used in place of okra if the latter is disliked. the corn should be cut from the cobs and added half an hour before dinner time. succotash. boil a piece of lean pork (about lbs. in weight) in quarts water, until the meat is tender. the next day take out the pork, and remove the grease risen on the liquor from the pork during cooking. to pints of the liquor add pint of milk and - / pints lima beans. let them boil until tender--about one hour--when add - / pints corn cut from the cob. let the whole cook for ten minutes, add a teaspoon of salt if necessary, half a teaspoon of pepper, and drop in the pork to heat. when hot, pour into a tureen and serve. pork pillau. take a piece of pork (about lbs.) and lbs. bacon. wash and put to boil in plenty of water, to which add a pepper pod, a few leaves of sage and a few stalks of celery. one hour before dinner, dip out and strain quarts of the liquor in which the pork is boiling, add to it a pint of tomatoes peeled, a small onion cut fine, and salt if necessary; boil half an hour, when add pint of rice well washed. when it comes to a boil draw to the back of stove and steam until the rice is cooked and the liquor absorbed. the pork must boil three or four hours. have it ready to serve with the rice. this makes a good dinner, with a little green salad, bread and butter and a good apple pudding. pork roll. chop fine (a meat chopper will do the work well and quickly) lbs. raw lean pork and / lb. fat salt pork. soak a pint of white bread crumbs in cold water. when soft squeeze very dry, add to the chopped meat with a large onion chopped fine, tablespoon chopped parsley, / teaspoon each of chopped sage and thyme, and / teaspoon black pepper. mix together thoroughly and form into a roll, pressing it closely and compactly together. have ready about a tablespoon of fat in a frying pan, dredge the roll thickly with flour and brown it in the fat, turning it until nicely browned on all sides. then place it in a baking pan, and bake in a hot oven for one hour. baste it every ten minutes with water. do not turn or disturb the meat after it has been put into the oven. half an hour before dinner add or small carrots that have been parboiled in salted boiling water for fifteen minutes. when done, place the roll on a platter, surround it with plain boiled macaroni, dot with the carrots and pour over all a nicely seasoned tomato sauce. pepper pot. cut lbs. rather lean pork into -inch cubes, fry until brown, place in a -quart stone pot (a bean jar is excellent for this purpose) having a close-fitting lid; add large onions sliced, large green peppers (the bell peppers are the best, being fine in flavor and mild), a tablespoon of salt (if fresh pork was used), and large tomatoes peeled and cut small. fill the pot with water and place in the oven or on the back of the stove and allow to simmer five or six hours, or even longer. the longer it is cooked the better it will be. persons who ordinarily cannot eat pork will find this dish will do them no harm. the sauce will be rich and nicely flavored, and the meat tender and toothsome. serve with it plenty of boiled rice or potatoes. pork croquettes (in cabbage leaves). to lb. lean pork chopped fine add teaspoon salt, / teaspoon each of pepper, chopped sage and thyme, teaspoon chopped parsley and a large onion also chopped. mix well and stir in - cup (half-pint cup) of well-washed raw rice. wash a large cabbage, having removed all the defective outer leaves. plunge it whole into a large pot of boiling salted water and boil for five minutes, remove and drain. this will render the leaves pliable. let cool a little, when pull the leaves apart, and wrap in each leaf a tablespoon of the pork and rice. wrap it up securely and neatly as if tying up a parcel and secure with wooden toothpicks or twine. when all are done, lay in a baking dish and cover with a quart of tomatoes peeled and cut fine, mixed with half a pint of water, and a teaspoon of salt. bake one hour in a hot oven, turning the croquettes occasionally. if the sauce becomes too thick, dilute with a little hot water. when done, dish, pour over the sauce and serve with potatoes or hominy. these are very good indeed. if desired the croquettes may be steamed over hot water in a steamer for three hours, or plunged directly into a kettle of boiling water and boiled for one hour. they are not so delicate as when baked. pork with pea pudding (english style). boil the pork as directed above, and do not omit the vegetables, as they flavor the meat and the pudding. use the yellow split peas and soak a pint in cold water over night. drain and tie them loosely in a pudding bag and boil with the pork for three hours. an hour before dinner remove and press through a colander, add a teaspoon salt, half a teaspoon pepper and eggs well beaten. chop enough parsley to make a teaspoonful, add to the peas with a little grated nutmeg. beat up well, sift in half a pint of flour and pour into a pudding bag. the same bag used before will do if well washed. tie it up tightly, drop into the pork water again and boil another hour. remove, let drain in the colander a few minutes, when turn out onto a dish. serve with the pork, and any preferred sauce; mint sauce is good to serve with pork, and a tomato sauce is always good. in fact, it is a natural hygienic instinct which ordains a tart fruit or vegetable to be eaten with pork. the germans, who are noted for their freedom from skin diseases, add sour fruit sauces to inordinately fat meats. pork with sauerkraut (german style). boil a leg of pork for three or four hours, wash quarts sauerkraut, put half of it into an iron pot, lay on it the pork drained from the water in which it was cooking and cover with the remainder of sauerkraut, add quart water in which the pork was cooking, cover closely and simmer gently for one hour. pork chowder. have ready a quart of potatoes sliced, large onions sliced, and lb. lean salt pork. cut the pork into thin slices and fry until cooked, drain off all but tablespoon fat and fry the onions a pale brown. then put the ingredients in layers in a saucepan, first the pork, then onions, potatoes and so on until used, adding to each layer a little pepper. add a pint of water, cover closely and simmer fifteen minutes, then add a pint of rich milk, and cover the top with half a pound of small round crackers. cover again and when the crackers are soft, serve in soup plates. if you live where clams are plentiful, add a quart of cleaved clams when the potatoes are almost done and cook ten minutes. sea pie. make a crust of quart flour, teaspoons baking powder, teaspoon salt, mix well, rub in a tablespoon of fat--pork fat melted or lard--and mix into a smooth paste with a pint of water. line a deep pudding dish with this, put in a layer of onions, then potatoes sliced, then a thin layer of pork in slices, more onions, etc., until the dish is full. wet the edges, put on a top crust. tie a floured cloth over the top and drop into a pot of boiling water. let the water come up two-thirds on the dish, and keep the water boiling for four hours. invert on a dish, remove the mold and serve hot. _for fresh pork only._ corn and pork scallop. cut about lbs. young pork into neat chops and reject all fat and bone. fry them until well cooked and of a pale brown, dust with salt and pepper. cut some green corn from the cob. take a -quart dish, put a layer of corn in the bottom, then a layer of pork, and so on until the dish is full, add pint of water, cover and bake for one hour. remove the cover fifteen minutes before serving, so the top may be nicely browned. serve with potatoes and a lettuce salad. onions and pork may be cooked in the same manner. stuffed shoulder of pork. take a shoulder of pork and bone it. cut out the shoulder blade, and then the leg bone. after the cut made to extract the shoulder blade, the flesh has to be turned over the bone as it is cut, like a glove-finger on the hand; if any accidental cut is made through the flesh it must be sewed up, as it would permit the stuffing to escape. for the stuffing, the following is extra nice: peel apples and core them, chop fine with large onions, leaves of sage, and leaves of lemon thyme. boil some white potatoes, mash them and add pint to the chopped ingredients with a teaspoon of salt and a little cayenne. stuff the shoulder with this and sew up all the openings. dredge with flour, salt and pepper and roast in a hot oven, allowing twenty minutes to the pound. baste frequently, with hot water at first, and then with gravy from the pan. serve with currant jelly, potatoes and some green vegetables. another extra good stuffing for pork is made with sweet potatoes as a basis. boil the potatoes, peel and mash. to a half pint of potato add a quarter pint of finely chopped celery, tablespoons chopped onions, / teaspoon pepper, teaspoon each of salt and chopped parsley and a tablespoon of butter. pork roasted with tomatoes. take a piece for roasting and rub well with salt and pepper, dredge with flour, and pour into the pan a pint of hot water, and place in a brisk oven. this must be done two or three hours before dinner, according to the size of roast; baste the meat often. an hour before dinner peel some tomatoes (about a quart), put them into a bowl and mash with the hands till the pulp is in fine pieces, add to them a chopped onion, a teaspoon of chopped parsley and / teaspoon each of sage and thyme. draw the pan containing the roast to the mouth of oven and skim all the fat from the gravy; pour the tomatoes into the pan, and bake for one hour. with this serve a big dish of rice. pork with sweet potatoes. prepare the roast as described above, either stuffed or otherwise. when partly done, peel and cut some sweet potatoes into slices about three inches long. bank these all around the meat, covering it and filling the pan. baste often with the gravy and bake one hour. serve with this a russian salad, made of vegetables. young carrots may be used in place of sweet potatoes. rare old family dishes, described for this work by the best cooks in america. every one of these recipes is a special favorite that has been often tried and never found wanting. none of these recipes has ever before been printed, and all will be found simple, economical and hygienic. _ham._ boiled. wash well a salted, smoked pig's ham, put this in a large kettle of boiling water and boil until tender, remove from the kettle, take off all of the rind, stick in a quantity of whole cloves, place in a baking pan, sprinkle over with a little sugar, pour over it a cup of cider, or, still better, sherry. place in the oven and bake brown. for lunch. mince cold ham fine, either boiled or fried, add a couple of hard-boiled eggs chopped fine, a tablespoon of prepared mustard, a little vinegar and a sprinkling of salt. put in a mold. when cold cut in thin slices or spread on bread for sandwiches. boned. having soaked a well-cured ham in tepid water over night, boil it until perfectly tender, putting it on in warm water; take up, let cool, remove the bone carefully, press the ham again into shape, return to the boiling liquor, remove the pot from the fire and let the ham remain in it till cold. cut across and serve cold. potted. mince left-over bits of boiled ham and to every lbs. lean meat allow / lb. fat. pound all in a mortar until it is a fine paste, gradually adding / teaspoon powdered mace, the same quantity of cayenne, a pinch of allspice and nutmeg. mix very thoroughly, press into tiny jars, filling them to within an inch of the top; fill up with clarified butter or drippings and keep in a cool place. this is nice for tea or to spread picnic sandwiches. stew. a nice way to use the meat left on a ham bone after the frying slices are removed is to cut it off in small pieces, put into cold water to cover and let it come to a boil. pour off the water and add enough hot to make sufficient stew for your family. slice an onion and potatoes into it. with veal. a delicious picnic dish is made of ham and veal. chop fine equal quantities of each and put into a baking dish in layers with slices of hard-boiled eggs between; boil down the water in which the veal was cooked, with the bones, till it will jelly when cold; flavor with celery, pepper and salt and pour over the meat. cover with a piecrust half an inch thick and bake until the crust is done. slice thin when cold. omelet. beat eggs very light, add / teaspoon salt, tablespoons sweet milk, pepper to taste, have frying pan very hot with tablespoon butter in; turn in the mixture, shake constantly until cooked, then put cup finely chopped ham over the top and roll up like jelly cake, cut in slices. baked. most persons boil ham. it is much better baked, if baked right. soak it for an hour in clean water and wipe dry. next spread it all over with thin batter and then put it into a deep dish, with sticks under it to keep it out of the gravy. when it is fully done, take off the skin and batter crusted upon the flesh side, and set away to cool. it should bake from six to eight hours. after removing the skin, sprinkle over with two tablespoonfuls of sugar, some black pepper and powdered crackers. put in pan and return to the oven to brown; then take up and stick cloves through the fat, and dust with powdered cinnamon. with corn meal. take bits of cold boiled ham, cut into fine pieces, put in a frying pan with water to cover, season well. when it boils, thicken with corn meal, stirred in carefully, like mush. cook a short time, pour in a dish to mold, slice off and fry. balls. chop / pint cold boiled ham fine. put a gill of milk in a saucepan and set on the fire. stir in / teacup stale bread crumbs, the beaten yolks of eggs and the ham. season with salt, cayenne and a little nutmeg. stir over the fire until hot, add a tablespoon chopped parsley, mix well and turn out to cool. when cold make into small balls, dip in beaten egg, then in bread crumbs and fry in boiling fat. toast. remove the fat from some slices of cold boiled ham, chop fine. put tablespoonfuls of butter into a saucepan on the stove, add the chopped ham and half a cup of sweet cream or milk. season with pepper and salt; when hot, remove from the stove and stir in quickly well-beaten eggs. pour onto toast and serve at once. flavored with vegetables. take a small ham, as it will be finer grained than a large one, let soak for a few hours in vinegar and water, put on in hot water, then add heads of celery, turnips, onions and a large bunch of savory herbs. a glass of port or sherry wine will improve the flavor of the ham. simmer very gently until tender, take it out and remove the skin, or if to be eaten cold, let it remain in the liquor until nearly cold. patties. one pint of ham which has previously been cooked, mix with two parts of bread crumbs, wet with milk. put the batter in gem pans, break egg over each, sprinkle the top thickly with cracker crumbs and bake until brown. a nice breakfast dish. patties with onions. two cups bread crumbs moistened with a little milk, and two cups cooked ham thoroughly mixed. if one likes the flavor, add a chopped onion. bake in gem pans. either break an egg over each gem or chop cold hard-boiled egg and sprinkle over them. scatter a few crumbs on top. add bits of butter and season highly with pepper and salt, and brown carefully. fried patties. one cup cold boiled ham (chopped fine), cup bread crumbs, egg, salt and pepper to taste, mix to the right thickness with nice meat dressing or sweet milk, mold in small patties and fry in butter. ham sandwiches. mince your ham fine and add plenty of mustard, eggs, tablespoon flour, tablespoon butter and as much chopped cucumber pickles as you have ham. beat this thoroughly together and pour into pint of boiling vinegar, but do not let the mixture boil. when it cools, spread between your sandwiches. _salt pork._ fried with flour. slice the pork thinly and evenly, placing it in a large frying pan of water, and turning it twice while freshening. this prevents it humping in the middle, as pork, unless the slices are perfectly flat, cannot be fried evenly. when freshened sufficiently, drain, throw the water off, and, rolling each slice in flour, return to the frying pan. fry a delicate brown, place on a platter dry, add slices of lemon here and there. drain all the frying fat off, leaving a brown sediment in the pan. pour cup of rich milk on this, and when it thickens (keep stirring constantly until of the consistency of rich, thick cream), pour into a gravy boat, and dust with pepper.--[m. g. fried pork and gravy. cut the rind from a firm piece of fat salt pork that has a few streaks of lean (if preferred). slice thin, scald in hot water, have the frying pan smoking hot, put in the slices of pork and fry (without scorching) until crisp. then pour off nearly all the fat, add some hot water after the slices have been removed from the pan, and stir in some flour moistened with cold water for a thickened gravy.--[farmer's wife. fried in batter or with apples. slice thin and fry crisp in a hot frying pan, then dip in a batter made as follows: one egg well beaten, large spoons rich milk, and flour enough to make a thin batter. fry once more until the batter is a delicate brown, and if any batter remains it may be fried as little cakes and served with the pork. instead of the batter, apples, sliced, may be fried in the fat, with a little water and sugar added, or poor man's cakes, made by scalding spoons granulated (or other) corn meal with boiling water, to which add a pinch of salt and egg, stirred briskly in.--[f. w. sweet fried. take nice slices of pork, as many as you need, and parboil in buttermilk for five minutes, then fry to a golden brown. or parboil the slices in skimmilk, and while frying sprinkle on each slice a little white sugar and fry a nice brown. be watchful while frying, as it burns very easily after the sugar is on.--[i. m. w. to fry in batter. prepare as for plain fried pork, fry without dipping in flour, and when done, dip into a batter made as follows: one egg beaten light, tablespoonfuls of milk and the same of sifted flour, or enough to make a thin batter. stir smooth, salt slightly, dip the fried pork into it and put back into the hot drippings. brown slightly on both sides, remove to a hot platter and serve immediately.--[r. w. fried with sage. freshen the pork in the usual manner with water or soaking in milk, partly fry the pork, then put three or four freshly picked sprigs of sage in the frying pan with the pork. when done, lay the crisp fried sage leaves on platter with the pork.--[mrs. w. l. r. mrs. bisbee's creamed pork. slice as many slices as your frying pan will hold, pour on cold water, place upon the range to freshen; when hot, pour off the water and fry until crispy; take out upon a platter, pour the fat in a bowl. pour some milk, about a pint, in the frying pan, boil, thicken and pour upon the fried pork. serve at once.--[mrs. g. a. b. baked. take a piece of salt pork as large as needed, score it neatly and soak in milk and water half an hour, or longer if very salt; put into a baking pan with water and a little flour sprinkled over the scoring. bake until done. always make a dressing to eat with this, of bread and cracker crumbs, a lump of butter, an egg, salt, pepper and sage to taste; mix with hot milk, pack in a deep dish and bake about twenty minutes. keep water in the baking dish after the meat is taken up, pour off most of the fat and thicken the liquor. tomatoes go well with this dish, also cranberry sauce. boiled. boil or lbs. of pork having streaks of lean in it, in plenty of water, for one and one-half hours. take out, remove skin, cut gashes across the top, sprinkle over powdered sage, pepper and rolled crackers. brown in the oven. slice when cold. creamed in milk and water. freshen or slices of fat pork and fry a nice brown, then take up the pork and arrange on a deep platter. next pour off half the fat from the frying pan and add cup of milk and of boiling water, and tablespoon flour mixed with a little cold milk or water, or else sifted in when the milk and water begin to boil, but then a constant stirring is required to prevent it from being lumpy. next add a pinch of salt and a dust of pepper, let it boil up, and pour over the pork. enough for six. egg pork. take slices of pork and parboil in water, sprinkle a little pepper on the pork and put into the frying pan with a small piece of butter and fry. take egg and a little milk and beat together. when the meat is nearly done, take each slice and dip into the egg, lay back in the pan and cook until done. creamed pork. take slices nice pork, or as many as will fry in the frying pan, and parboil for five minutes, then take out of the water and roll one side of each slice in flour and fry to a golden brown. when fried, turn nearly all of the fat off and set the pan on the stove again and turn on a cup of nice sweet cream; let it boil up, then serve on a platter. _soups, stews, etc._ pork soup. put pork bones in pot of cold salted water. add the following ingredients, in a cheesecloth bag: a few pepper seeds, a bit of horse-radish, mace, and sliced turnip. boil as for beef soup; strain and add a teaspoon of rice flour to each pint, and let come to a boil. serve with crackers. pork stew slice and fry in a kettle from / to / lb. salt pork, drain off the fat and save for shortening, add pints boiling water, or onions sliced thin, quart potatoes sliced and pared, a sprinkling of pepper, large spoon flour mixed in cup of cold water. let the onions boil a few moments before adding the potatoes and flour. five minutes before serving, add dozen crackers, split and moistened with hot water, or make dumplings as for any stew. dry stew. place slices of pork in the frying pan and fill full with chipped potatoes; pour over a little water and cover tightly, and cook until the pork begins to fry, then loosen from the bottom with a wide knife and pour over more water, and so on until done. pepper and salt and a bit of butter. old-fashioned stew. place large slices of pork in the kettle with nearly a quart of water, let it boil half an hour, then add sliced potatoes and sliced onions, and when nearly done add a little flour, pepper and salt, and a lump of butter. chowder. cut slices of salt pork in dice, place in kettle and fry, add good-sized onions chopped fine, let fry while preparing potatoes, then add quart boiling water and the potatoes sliced thin. season with salt and pepper to taste. boil one-half hour. _miscellaneous._ bacon, broiled or fried. the first essential is to have the bacon with a streak of lean and a streak of fat, and to cut or slice it as thin as possible. then lay it in a shallow tin and set it inside a hot stove. it will toast evenly and the slices will curl up and be so dry that they may be taken in the fingers to eat. the lard that exudes may be thickened with flour, a cup of sweet new milk and a pinch of black pepper added, and nice gravy made. or if preferred, the bacon, thinly sliced, may be fried on a hot skillet, just turning it twice, letting it slightly brown on both sides. too long in the hot skillet, the bacon gets hard and will have a burned taste. brains. lay the brains in salt and water for an hour to draw out the blood. pick them over and take out any bits of bone and membrane. cook for half an hour in a small quantity of water. when cooked drain off the water, and to each brain add a little pepper, nearly an even teaspoon of salt, a tablespoon of butter and beaten egg. cook until the egg thickens. or when the brains are cooked, drain off the water, season with salt, pepper and sage. pork and beans. pick over and let soak over night quart beans; in the morning wash and drain, and place in a kettle with cold water, with / teaspoon soda, boil about twenty minutes, then drain and put in earthen bean dish with tablespoons molasses, season with pepper. in the center of the beans put lb. well-washed salt pork, with the rind scored in slices or squares, rind side uppermost. cover all with hot water and bake six hours or longer, in a moderate oven. keep covered so they will not burn on the top, but an hour or so before serving remove the pork to another dish and allow it to brown. beans should also brown over the top. boiled dinner. put a piece of salt pork to cook in cold water about o'clock. at o'clock add a few beets, at o'clock a head of cabbage, quartered. one-half hour later add the potatoes. serve very hot. german wick-a-wack. save the rinds of salt pork, boil until tender, then chop very fine, add an equal amount of dried bread dipped in hot water and chopped. season with salt, pepper and summer savory; mix, spread one inch deep in baking dish, cover with sweet milk. bake one-half hour. very nice. broiled pork. soak the pork in cold water over night. wipe dry and broil over coals until crisp. pour over it / pint sweet cream. ham cooked this way is delicious. lunch loaf. chop remnants of cold boiled ham or salt pork, add crushed crackers and from to eggs, according to the amount of your meat. bake in a round baking powder box, and when cold it can be sliced for the table. pork hash. take scraps of cold pork and ham, chop very fine, put in frying pan, add a very little water, let cook a few minutes, then add twice this amount of chopped potato. salt and pepper to taste, fry and serve hot. for sunday luncheon. take the trimmings saved from ribs, backbone, jowl, shanks of ham and shoulder, and all the nice bits of meat too small for ordinary use; place in a kettle with sufficient water to barely cover meat, and boil slowly until quite tender. fit a piece of stout cheesecloth in a flat-bottomed dish and cover with alternate strips of fat and lean meat while hot; sprinkle sparingly with white pepper, add another layer of meat and a few very thin slices of perfectly sound tart apples. repeat until pork is used, then sew up the ends of the cloth compactly, place between agate platters and subject to considerable pressure over night. served cold this makes a very appetizing addition to sunday suppers or luncheon. pork cheese. cut lbs. cold roast pork into small pieces, allowing / lb. fat to each pound of lean; salt and pepper to taste. pound in a mortar a dessert spoon minced parsley, leaves of sage, a very small bunch of savory herbs, blades of mace, a little nutmeg, half a teaspoon of minced lemon peel. mix thoroughly with the meat, put into a mold and pour over it enough well-flavored strong stock to make it very moist. bake an hour and a half and let it cool in the mold. serve cold, cut in thin slices and garnished with parsley or cress. this is a cooking school recipe. for ordinary use the powdered spices, which may be obtained at almost any country store, answer every purpose. use / teaspoon sage, / teaspoon each of summer savory and thyme, and a pinch of mace. pork flour-gravy. take the frying pan after pork has been fried in it, put in a piece of butter half as large as an egg, let it get very hot, then put in a spoonful of flour sprinkled over the bottom of the pan. let this get thoroughly browned, then turn boiling water on it, say about a pint. now take a tablespoon of flour, heaping, wet it up with a cup of sweet milk and stir into the boiling water, add salt and pepper to taste, and a small piece more butter, cook well and serve. pork omelet. cut the slices of pork quite thin, discarding the rind, fry on both sides to a light brown, remove from the spider, have ready a batter made of from or eggs (as the amount of pork may require), beaten up with a little flour and a little sweet milk, pouring half of this batter into the spider. then lay in the pork again, and pour the remaining part of the batter over the pork. when cooked on the one side, cut in squares and turn. serve hot. sometimes the pork is cut in small squares before adding the batter. another omelet. put cup cold fried salt pork (cut in dice) and tablespoons sweet milk on back of stove to simmer, then beat eggs and teaspoon salt until just blended. put tablespoons butter in frying pan. when hot add eggs and shake vigorously until set, then add the hot creamed pork, spread over top, fold, and serve immediately. pig's feet. cut off the feet at the first joint, then cut the legs into as many pieces as there are joints, wash and scrape them well and put to soak over night in cold, slightly salted water; in the morning scrape again and change the water; repeat at night. the next morning put them on to boil in cold water to cover, skim carefully, boil till very tender, and serve either hot or cold, with a brown sauce made of part of the water in which they were boiled, and flavored with tomato or chopped cucumber pickles. if the pig's feet are cooled and then browned in the oven, they will be much nicer than if served directly from the kettle in which they were boiled. save all the liquor not used for the sauce, for pig's feet are very rich in jelly; when cold, remove the fat, which should be clarified, and boil the liquor down to a glaze; this may be potted, when it will keep a long time and is useful for glazing, or it may be used for soups either before or after boiling, down.--[r. w. pickled pig's feet. clean them well, boil until very tender, remove all the bones. chop the meat, add it to the water they were boiled in, salt to taste. add enough vinegar to give a pleasing acid taste, pour into a dish to cool. when firm, cut in slices. or leave out the vinegar and serve catsup of any kind with the meat. or before cooking the feet, wrap each one in cloth and boil seven hours. when cold take off the cloth and cut each foot in two pieces. serve cold with catsup or pepper sauce or horse-radish. or the feet may be put into a jar and covered with cold vinegar, to which is added a handful of whole cloves.--[a. l. n. kidney on toast. cut a kidney in large pieces and soak in cold water an hour. drain and chop fine, removing all string and fiber; also chop separately one onion. put a tablespoonful of butter in a frying pan, and when melted add the chopped kidney and stir till the mixture turns a whitish color, then add the onion. cook five minutes, turn into a small stewpan, season and add a cupful of boiling water. simmer an hour and thicken with a teaspoonful of cornstarch wet with cold water. cook five minutes longer, pour over slices of nicely browned toast and serve. _pork fritters._ corn meal fritters. make a thick batter of corn meal and flour, cut a few slices of pork and fry until the fat is fried out; cut a few more slices, dip them in the batter, and drop them in the bubbling fat, seasoning with salt and pepper; cook until light brown, and eat while hot. fritters with egg. fry slices of freshened fat pork, browning both sides, then make a batter of egg, cup milk, teaspoon baking powder sifted through enough flour to make a rather stiff batter, and a pinch of salt. now remove the pork from the frying pan and drop in large spoonfuls of the batter, and in the center of each place a piece of the fried pork, then cover the pork with batter, and when nicely brown, turn and let the other side brown. currant jelly is nice with them. fricatelle. chop raw fresh pork very fine, add a little salt and plenty of pepper, small onions chopped fine, half as much bread as there is meat, soaked until soft, eggs. mix well together, make into oblong patties and fry like oysters. these are nice for breakfast. if used for supper, serve with sliced lemon. croquettes. raw pork chopped fine, cups, small onion chopped very fine, teaspoon powdered sage, cup bread crumbs rubbed fine, salt and pepper to taste, eggs beaten light. mix thoroughly, make small flat cakes, roll lightly in flour and fry in hot lard. _pork pies, cakes and puddings._ pork pie. cut fresh pork in small inch and half-inch pieces, allowing both fat and lean. boil until done in slightly salted water. lay away in an earthen dish over night. in the morning it will be found to be surrounded with a firm meat jelly. will not soak pie crust. make a rich baking powder biscuit paste. roll out thin, make top and bottom crust, fill with the prepared pork. bake.--[h. m. g. a hint for pork pie. every housekeeper knows how to make pork pie, but not every one knows that if the bottom crust is first baked with a handful of rice to prevent bubbling--the rice may be used many times for the same purpose--and the pork partially cooked before the upper crust is added, the pie will be twice as palatable as if baked in the old way. the crust will not be soggy and the meat juices will not lose flavor by evaporation.--[mrs. o. p. pork pie with apples. line a deep pudding dish with pie crust. place a layer of tart apples in the dish, sprinkle with sugar and a little nutmeg, then place a layer of thin slices of fat salt pork (not cooked), sprinkle lightly with black pepper. continue to add apples and pork until the dish is full. cover with a crust and bake until the apples are cooked, when the pork should be melted. serve as any pie.--[m. c. sparerib pie. chop the small mussy pieces of meat, put in a pudding or bread tin, add some of the gravy and a little water. make a biscuit crust, roll half an inch thick and put over the top and bake. a tasty way is to cut the crust into biscuits, place close together on top of the meat and bake. more dainty to serve than the single crust. a cream gravy or some left from the rib is nice with this pie. any of the lean meat makes a nice pie, made the same as the above. pork cake without lard. over lb. fat salt pork, chopped very fine, pour a pint of boiling water. while it is cooling, sift cups flour with heaping teaspoon soda and of cream tartar, stir in cups sugar and of molasses, eggs, teaspoon of all kinds spice, lbs. raisins, lb. currants and / lb. citron. lastly, thoroughly beat in the pork and water and bake slowly. this will keep a long time. pork cake. take / cup sugar, / cup strong coffee, / cup molasses, / cup chopped salt pork, / cup lard, cup raisins, stoned and chopped, cups flour, eggs, teaspoon soda, dissolved in coffee, teaspoon cloves, cinnamon and nutmeg. pork pudding. this is made somewhat after the style of the famous english beefsteak pudding--differs only in two points. cut up the pieces of fresh pork and stew in the skillet, in slightly salted water, till soft. make a rich biscuit dough or plain pie paste. line a quart basin and fill with the stewed pork. add pepper, a few chopped potatoes if desired, cover all with the paste pinched tightly over, tie a small cloth tightly over the basin, then place basin in a larger cloth, gather the corners together and tie snugly over top, boil in a kettle for half an hour. be sure the water is boiling hot before placing the basin in, and keep it boiling, with a tight lid. _roasts._ fresh leg. score the leg with sharp knife in half-inch gashes, fill with a filling made of chopped onion, sage, bread crumbs and mixed with the beaten yolks and whites of eggs, salt; stuff knuckle and gashes also. pepper freely and roast it well. a leg weighing lbs. requires three hours of a steady fire. drain off fat from roasting tin and make a brown gravy. serve with tart apple sauce. with buttermilk. take a piece of pork that is quite lean, soak over night in buttermilk and boil until about half done, then put it in the baking pan, cut through the rind in slices, sprinkle with pepper and sugar and bake to a golden brown. danish pork roast. braise the roast, and between each slit insert a bit of sage--which may be removed before serving; place in a deep stewpan and fill the corners and crevices with prunes that have been previously soaked in water long enough to regain their natural size. roast in moderate oven, basting as usual, taking care not to break the prunes. when half done, take up the prunes, remove pits, crush and add to a dressing made as follows: moisten cups bread crumbs--one-third corn bread is preferable to all wheat--season with salt, pepper and a mere hint of onions. put into a cheesecloth bag--saltbag if at hand--and bake beside the roast for half an hour, taking care to prevent scorching. serve in slices with the roast. sparerib. season well with salt, pepper and a little sage. put in roasting pan with a little water, bake a nice brown. by cracking the ribs twice, you can roll up and fasten with skewers, or tie up with coarse twine. put the stuffing inside, same as turkey. after it is done, take meat from pan. if the water is not all cooked out, set on top of stove until none remains. pour out the grease, leaving about half a cup. set back to cool so as not to cook the gravy too fast at first. stir spoons or more of flour into the grease and let brown. add boiling water to make the required amount of gravy. before removing from fire, add / cup sweet cream. baked or mashed potatoes with cold slaw are in order with sparerib, with currant, cranberry or apple sauce. very nice cold with fried potatoes or chips for supper. _liver._ with bacon. pour salted boiling water over the liver and let it stand a few minutes, drain and slice. crisp thin slices of bacon in a hot frying pan, lay them neatly around the edge of a platter or deep dish, and set the dish where it will keep hot. fry the liver in the drippings from the bacon and put it in the middle of the dish. pour a little boiling water into the frying pan, season to taste with pepper and salt, thicken with browned flour and pour over the liver or serve separately.--[r. f. liver and onions. use two frying pans. in both have a generous supply of fryings or salted lard. cut the liver in thin, even slices, and wash in cold water. wipe each slice dry before placing it in the hot grease; fill the frying pan full, pepper and salt all, cover with lid and set over a brisk fire. slice the onions and place them in the second frying pan of hot grease, pepper, salt and stir frequently. turn the liver once, each slice. when done, place on a platter, with the onions heaped over and around.--[h. m. g. hashed. parboil the liver, chop it fine and put it into a hot frying pan with just enough of the liquor it was boiled in to moisten it so it won't be hard and dry. when hot, season with salt, pepper and butter, and serve with mashed potato. or you can chop cold boiled potatoes with the liver and make a regular hash of it if preferred.--[r. l. _heart._ stuffed. take three hearts, remove the ventricles and dividing wall, wash and wipe out dry. fill with tablespoons chopped ham, tablespoons bread crumbs, a little melted butter, some pepper and salt; beat up an egg and mix the meat, etc., with as much of the egg as is needed to bind it together. tie each heart in a piece of cloth and boil three hours, or till tender, in salt and water. remove the cloths carefully, so as to keep the dressing in place, rub them over with butter and sprinkle with a little flour, and brown in a brisk oven. reduce the liquor and thicken it. serve with mashed potatoes and apple jelly. boiled. make a biscuit dough rather stiff, sprinkle a well-cleaned heart over with a little pepper and salt, roll the heart securely in the biscuit dough, wrap all in a clean white cloth and sew or baste together loosely, then put in a kettle of hot water and boil about four hours. serve hot by removing cloth and slicing. _sausage._ sausage with dried beef. to lbs. meat allow tablespoons salt, of black pepper, of sage, and / tablespoon cayenne. some persons prefer to add a little ginger, thinking that it keeps the sausage from rising on the stomach. mix the spices thoroughly through the meat, which may be put into skins or muslin bags and hung in a cold, dry place, or partly cooked and packed in jars with a covering of lard. every housekeeper uses fried and baked sausages, but sausage and dried beef is a more uncommon dish. cut the sausage into small pieces, put it into a stewpan with water to cover, and put on to cook. slice the dried beef and tear it into small pieces, removing fat and gristle, and put into the stew pan. when done, thicken slightly with flour, season and stir an egg quickly into it. don't get the gravy too thick and don't beat the egg--it wants to show in little flakes of white and yellow.--[rosalie williams. sausage rolls. make a rich pie paste, roll out thin and cut, with a large cooky cutter or a canister lid, large discs of the paste. take a small cooked sausage, and placing it on the edge of the circle of paste, roll it up and pinch the ends together. bake in a quick oven and serve hot or cold. with cabbage. put some pieces of fat and lean pork through the sausage mill; add a finely chopped onion, pepper, salt and a dash of mace. cut a large, sound head of cabbage in two, scoop out the heart of both halves and fill with sausage meat; tie up the head securely with stout twine, put into salted water sufficient to cover the cabbage, and boil one hour and a half. drain thoroughly and save the liquid, which should not exceed one cupful in all. brown a tablespoonful of butter over a hot fire, stir in a teaspoon of browned flour and add the liquid; pour over cabbage and serve hot. good sausage. this sausage recipe has been proved good. take lbs. pork and oz. salt, oz. pepper, oz. sage. put sage in a pan and dry in oven, then sift. you can add two ounces of ground mustard if you wish. add or lbs. sugar, mix all together, salt, pepper, etc., and mix with meat before it is chopped. after it is well mixed, cut to your liking. _fresh pork._ cutlets. cut them from a loin of pork, bone and trim neatly and cut away most of the fat. broil fifteen minutes on a hot gridiron, turning them three or four times, until they are thoroughly done but not dry. dish, season with pepper and salt and serve with tomato sauce or with small pickled cucumbers as a garnish. breaded cutlets. a more elaborate dish is made by dipping the cutlets into beaten egg seasoned to taste with salt, pepper and sage, then into rolled cracker or bread crumbs. fry slowly till thoroughly done, and serve with mashed potatoes. cutlets from cold roast pork. melt an ounce of butter in a saucepan, lay in the cutlets and an onion chopped fine, and fry a light brown; then add a dessertspoon of flour, half a pint of gravy, pepper and salt to taste, and a teaspoon each of vinegar and made mustard. simmer gently a few minutes and serve. pork chops. the white meat along the backbone (between the ribs and ham) is not always sufficiently appreciated, and is often peeled from the fat, cut from the bones and put into sausage, which should never be done, as it is the choicest piece in the hog to fry. leave fat and lean together, saw through the bone, fry or broil. the meat gravy should be served in a gravy boat. breaded pork chops. cut chops about an inch thick, beat them flat with a rolling pin, put them in a pan, pour boiling water over them, and set them over the fire for five minutes; then take them up and wipe them dry. mix a tablespoon of salt and a teaspoon of pepper for each pound of meat; rub each chop over with this, then dip, first into beaten egg, then into crackers, rolled, as much as they will take up. fry in hot lard. barbecued pork. put a loin of pork in a hot oven without water, sprinkle with flour, pepper and salt, baste with butter, cook two or three hours, or until very brown. pour in the gravy half a teacup of walnut catsup. serve with fried apples. _roast pig._ sucking pig. scald carefully and scrape clean, wipe dry, chop off the toes above first joint, remove entrails, and although some cook head entire, it is not advisable. remove brains, eyes, upper and lower jaws, leaving skin semblance of head, with ears thoroughly scraped and cleaned. make a dressing composed of one large boiled onion chopped, powdered sage, salt, pepper, cups stale bread crumbs, a bit of butter, and all mixed with well-beaten eggs. stuff the body part with this. stitch it up. previously boil the heart in salted water and stuff this into the boneless head skin to preserve its shape and semblance. place it down on its feet, head resting on front feet, hind legs drawn out, just as you want it to lie on the platter when served or sent to table. roast three hours, constantly basting. to roast whole. a pig ought not to be under four nor over six weeks old, and ought to be plump and fat. in the city, the butcher will sell you a shoat already prepared, but in the country, we must prepare our own pig for roasting. as soon as the pig is killed, throw it into a tub of cold water to make it tender; as soon as it is perfectly, cold, take it by the hind leg and plunge into scalding water, and shake it about until the hair can all be removed, by the handful at a time. when the hair has all been removed, rub from the tail up to the end of the nose with a coarse cloth. take off the hoofs and wash out the inside of the ears and nose until perfectly clean. hang the pig up, by the hind legs, stretched open so as to take out the entrails; wash well with water with some bicarbonate of soda dissolved in it; rinse again and again and let it hang an hour or more to drip. wrap it in a coarse, dry cloth, when taken down, and lay in a cold cellar, or on ice, as it is better not to cook the pig the same day it is killed. say kill and clean it late in the evening and roast it the next morning. prepare the stuffing of the liver, heart and haslets, stewed, seasoned and chopped fine. mix with these an equal quantity of boiled irish potatoes, mashed, or bread crumbs, and season with hard-boiled eggs, chopped fine, parsley and sage, or thyme, chopped fine, pepper and salt. scald the pig on the inside, dry it and rub with pepper and salt, fill with the stuffing and sew up. bend the forelegs under the body, the hind legs forward, and skewer to keep in position. place in a large baking pan and pour over it one quart of boiling water. rub fresh butter all over the pig and sprinkle pepper and salt over it, and put a bunch of parsley and thyme, or sage, in the water. turn a pan down over it and let it simmer in a hot oven till perfectly tender. then take off the pan that covers the pig, rub it with more butter and let brown, basting it frequently with the hot gravy. if the hot water and gravy cook down too much, add more hot water and baste. when of a fine brown, and tender and done all through, cover the edges of a large, flat china dish with fresh green parsley and place the pig, kneeling, in the center of the dish. place in its mouth a red apple, or an ear of green corn, and serve hot with the gravy; or serve cold with grated horse-radish and pickle. roast pig ought to be evenly cooked, through and through, as underdone pork of any kind, size or age is exceedingly unwholesome. it ought also to be evenly and nicely browned on the outside, as the tender skin when cooked is crisp and palatable. it is easily scorched, therefore keep a pig, while roasting, covered till tender and almost done. _tongue._ the tongues should be put into the pickle with the hams; boil after three or four weeks, pickle in vinegar which has been sweetened. add a tablespoon ground mustard to a pint of vinegar. will keep months. they should be pickled whole. also nice when first cooked without pickling. slice cold, to be eaten with or without mayonnaise dressing. sliced thin, and placed between thin slices of bread, make delicious sandwiches. chopped fine, with hard-boiled eggs and mayonnaise, make nice sandwiches. many boil pork and beef tongues fresh. an old brown tongue is an abomination. the saltpeter gives the pink look canned tongues have; the salt and sugar flavor nicely. when fresh, tongues are nice for mince pies. they may be corned with the hams and boiled and skinned and hot vinegar seasoned with salt and pepper poured over them; or are nice sliced with cold potatoes, garnished with cress or lettuce and a cream salad dressing poured over them. cream salad dressing: stir thoroughly together teaspoon sugar, six tablespoons thick sweet cream and tablespoons vinegar, salt and pepper or mustard to taste. the cream and vinegar should be very cold, and the vinegar added to the cream a little at a time, or it will curdle. stir till smooth and creamy. _souse._ take off the horny parts of feet by dipping in hot water and pressing against them with a knife. singe off hair, let soak in cold water for hours, then pour on boiling water, scrape thoroughly, let stand in salt and water a few hours; before boiling wrap each foot in a clean white bandage, cord securely to keep skin from bursting, which causes the gelatine to escape in the water. boil four hours. leave in bandage until cold. if you wish to pickle them, put in a jar, add some of the boiling liquor, add enough vinegar to make a pleasant sour, add a few whole peppers. very nice cold. if you want it hot, put some of the pickle and feet in frying pan. when boiling, thicken with flour and serve hot.--[nina gorton. see that the feet are perfectly clean, the toes chopped off and every particle cleanly scraped, washed and wiped. boil for three hours continually, or until every particle falls apart, drain from liquid, pick out all the bones, chop slightly, return to the liquid, add / cup vinegar, tablespoons sugar, pepper, salt and a dash of nutmeg. (do not have too much liquid.) boil up once more and turn all out into a mold, press lightly, and cut cold.--[h. m. gee. thoroughly clean the pig's feet and knock off the horny part with a hatchet. pour boiling water over them twice and pour it off, then put them on to cook in plenty of water. do not salt the water. boil until very tender, then take out the feet, pack in a jar, sprinkle each layer with salt, whole pepper and whole cloves, and cover with equal portions of vinegar and the broth in which the feet were boiled. put a plate over the top with a weight to keep the souse under the vinegar. if there remains any portion of the broth, strain it and let stand until cold, remove the fat and clarify the broth with a beaten white of egg. it will be then ready for blancmange or lemon jelly and is very delicate. _scrapple._ take hog's tongue, heart, liver, all bones and refuse trimmings (some use ears, snout and lights, i do not), soak all bloody pieces and wash them carefully, use also all clean skins, trimmed from lard. put into a kettle and cover with water, boil until tender and bones drop loose, then cut in sausage cutter while hot, strain liquor in which it was boiled, and thicken with good corn mush meal, boil it well, stirring carefully to prevent scorching. this mush must be well cooked and quite stiff, so that a stick will stand in it. when no raw taste is left, stir in the chopped meat and season to taste with salt, pepper and herb, sage or sweet marjoram, or anything preferred. when the meat is thoroughly mixed all through the mush, and seasoning is satisfactory, dip out into pans of convenient size, to cool. better lift off fire and stir carefully lest it scorch. when cold, serve in slices like cheese, or fry like mush (crisp both sides) for breakfast, serving it with nice tomato catsup. it tastes very much like fried oysters. some prefer half buckwheat meal and half corn. to keep it, do not let it freeze, and if not covered with grease melt some lard and pour over, or it will mold. this ought to be sweet and good for a month or more in winter, but will crumble and fry soft if it freezes.--[mrs. r. e. griffith. _head cheese._ have the head split down the face, remove the skin, ears, eyes and brains, and cut off the snout; wash thoroughly and soak all day in cold salted water; change the water and soak over night, then put on to cook in cold water to cover. skim carefully and when done so the bones will slip out, remove to a hot pan, take out every bone and bit of gristle, and chop the meat with a sharp knife as quickly as possible, to keep the fat from settling in it. for lbs. meat allow tablespoons salt, teaspoon black pepper, a little cayenne, / teaspoon clove and tablespoons sage. stir the meat and seasoning well together and put into a perforated mold or tie in a coarse cloth, put a heavy weight on it and let it stand till cold and firm. the broth in which the meat was cooked may be used for pea soup, and the fat, if clarified, may be used for lard.--[r. w. cut the head up in suitable pieces to fit the receptacle you wish to boil it in, first cutting off all pieces that are not to be used. if too fat, cut off that, too, and put with the lard to be rendered. take out the brains and lay them in a dish of cold water, then put the head on to boil till tender. be sure to skim well. when it begins to boil, cook till the meat is ready to drop off the bones, then take up, remove all bones or gristle and grind or chop, not too fine; put in salt, pepper and cloves to taste, also sage if liked, mix all well together, heat it all together, and pour in a cloth, which is laid in a crock, tie it up tight and put on a weight, to press it. next day remove the cloth and the head cheese is ready for the table. skim the fat off the liquor the head was boiled in and set aside for future use. heat the liquor to a boil and stir in nicely sifted corn meal. after salting, take up in crock and let it get cold, then cut off in slices and fry a nice brown. nice for breakfast.--[mrs. a. joseph. _pig's head._ english brawn: cut off the hearty cheek or jowl, and try it out for shortening. saw the pig's head up in small pieces, carefully removing the brains, snoot, eyes, jawbones or portions of teeth sockets. (it is surprising with saw and a keen, sharp-pointed knife how much of the unpleasant pieces of a pig's head can be removed before it is consigned to the salt bath.) soak all night in salt and water, drain in the morning and set over the fire to boil in slightly salted water. place the tongue in whole also. when the flesh leaves the bone, take out and strip all into a wooden chopping bowl, reserving the tongue whole. skin the tongue while warm. chop the head pieces fine, add pepper, salt, powdered sage to suit taste. pack all in a deep, narrow mold and press the tongue whole into the middle of the mass. weight down and set away all night to cool. keep this always in a cold place until all is used, and, as usual, use a sharp knife to slice.--[aunt ban. _to keep hams and shoulders._ we pack them for a few days with a sprinkle of dry salt, then lift and wipe dry (both barrel and meat), repack and cover with brine, which may be prepared thus: to gals. brine (enough to carry an egg) placed in a kettle to boil add / lb. saltpeter, pts. syrup molasses and a large shovel of hickory ashes tied in a clean saltbag or cloth; boil, skim and cool.--[mrs. r. e. griffith. to prepare smoked ham for summer use: slice the ham and cut off the rind. fill a spider nearly full, putting the fat pieces on top. place in the oven and bake. when partly cooked, pack the slices of hot ham closely in a stone jar and pour the meat juice and fat over the top. every time that any of the meat is taken out, a little of the lard should be heated and poured back into the jar to keep the meat fresh and good. be very careful each time to completely cover the meat with lard.--[marion chandler. index albuminoids, animal heat, average weights of hogs, backbone, average weight of, bacon and hams, and sides, dry salting, box for storing, bug, season for, dampness detrimental, distribution of salt, exports, hogs, prices of, pig, preservatives, quality wanted, second salting, weight of hogs, wiltshire cut, world's supply, black pepper for skippers, bleeding the hog, blood puddings, preparation of, boiler for scalding, box for salting meats, brain sausages, brawn, breeding, brine, purifying, bristles, butchering on joint account, butcher knife in slaughtering, carcass, raising a, care of hams and shoulders, cauldrons, census of hogs, of live stock, chine, chute for handling hogs, control of smoke house, cooling the carcass, co-operative curing houses, corn a fat producer, corn cobs for smoking, country dressed hogs, cracknels, crate for moving swine, crushed crackers in sausage, curing houses, co-operative, cutting up a hog, dermestes, devices for scalding, division of work, dressing and cutting, bench, hints on, the carcass, dry salt for bacon, entrails, exclusion of insects, exports of pork product, value of, farm price of hogs, fat forming foods, producers, feeding chart, for flesh, fence for orchard tree, flesh forming foods, fires in smoke house, fire proof smoke house, foods for flesh and fat, frozen meat, fuel for smoke houses, gallows for dressed hogs, gambrels, gate, device for opening, gates for handling hogs, griskins, hair, removal of, hams, a general cure, american cut, and shoulders, in close boxes, in cloth sacks, in pickling vat, in shelled oats or bran, pickling with molasses, picnic, shaping, westphalian, handy salting box, hanging carcasses, head, average weight of, cheese, for sausage, heavy hogs, handling, hints on dressing, hog feeding convenience, packing for a series of years, prices at chicago, product, exports, product, foreign outlet, product, our best customer, farm price, movement at leading points, normandy, on the farm, receipts at chicago, hoister for carcass, ideal meat house, insects, avoidance of, intestines, jawbone, jowls and head, preparation of, kettle for heating water, knife, use of, , lard, an important point in, boiling, safeguards, cheaper grades, cooking, fine points in making, from back fat, in hot weather, kettle or steam rendered, leaf, , neutral, , standard, stearine, storing, time of cooking, to refine, water in, leading cuts of meat, light packing hogs, lights, use of, liver sausage, meat house, care of, earthen floor, meat packed for home use, meats, box for salting, mess pork, methods now in use, middlings, molasses in curing pork, neat meat, net to gross, neutral lard, normandy hogs, offal, oven and smoke house combined, packing and marketing hogs, at eastern cities, centers, house cuts of pork, western, penetration of salt, pepper in pickled pork, pickling and barreling, picnic hams, pigpen, automatic door, self-closing door, traveling, pigs in orchard, pork, barrel, cleaning, brine, renewing, for the south, making, side lights on, packing in barrels, packing in boxes, pickled without brine, product of commerce, possibilities of profit, potatoes for swine food, prices of hogs at chicago, of pork and lard, prime steam lard, profit in home pork making, protein diet, pyroligenous acid, rations, for bacon purposes, receipts of hogs, relative weights, removing bristles, renewal of pork brine, resalting bacon, ringing hogs, roast pig, merits of, salt penetration, saltpeter in bacon, in curing hams, sausage bench, black forest, bologna, brain, frankfort, homemade filler, in cases, in jars, italian pork, liver, making, of pork and beef, packed in jars, royal cambridge, seasoning, , smoked, spanish, stuffing, suabian, tomato, tongue, westphalian, with bread, with sardines, wrapped for boiling, sawbuck scaffold, scalding, cask on sled, in hogshead, tub, vat, scraping, and washing, scrapple, philadelphia, season for killing, seasoning sausage, shaping the ham, short bones, cut in smoking, ribs, shoulders, shape described, singeing pigs, singers, skippers, slaughtering, best methods, sled and cask for scalding, small hams in pickle, smoked meat, best color, smoke house, and oven combined, barrel, cheap substitute for, fire proof, floors, hardwood sawdust for, objectional fuel, substitute, with french draft, with kettle track, smoking and smoke houses, best color, best days for, best meat for, care of fire, meats in a small way, preparation of meat, use of old stove, souse, preparation of, spanish sausage, spare bone, spareribs, speculative commodities, spice puddings, preparation of, standard cuts of pork, lard, stearine, stretcher, substitute for smoke house, sugar cured hams, swallow, swealed hogs, sweet bacon objectionable, swill, control of, swine industry, magnitude of, tackle for heavy hogs, temperature for scalding, tenderloin, average weight of, tin filled for sausage, trimming for bacon, for lard and sausage, trough for pigs, protected, vat, permanent, for scalding, weather for dressing, weight dressed out, weights of hogs, of portions, relative, wheat straw for smoking, wild boar, wiltshire cut bacon, yard attachment, _recipes_ fresh pork. barbecued pork, breaded cutlets, breaded pork chops, corn and pork scallop, cutlets, cutlets from cold roast pork, pork chops, roasted with sweet potatoes, roasted with tomatoes, stuffed shoulder of pork, ham. baked, balls, boiled, boned, flavored, for lunch, omelet, patties, patties fried, patties with onions, potted, sandwiches, stew, toast, with corn meal, with veal, heart. boiled, stuffed, liver. washed, with bacon, with onions, miscellaneous. bacon, broiled or fried, boiled dinner, brains, broiled pork, english brawn, for sunday luncheon, german wick-a-wack, hams and shoulders, to keep, headcheese, kidney on toast, lunch loaf, omelet, , pepper pot, pickled pigs' feet, pig's feet, pig's head, pork and beans, pork cheese, pork flour-gravy, pork hash, pork roll, pork pillau, pork with pea pudding, pork with sauer kraut, scrapple, souse, tongue, pork fritters. corn meal fritters, croquettes, , fricatelle, fritters with egg, pork pies, cakes and puddings. a hint for pork pie, cake, cake without lard, pork pie, , pork pie with apples, pork potpie, pork pudding, sea pie, sparerib pie, roasts. danish pork roast, fresh leg, sparerib, sucking pig, to roast whole pig, with buttermilk, salt pork. baked, boiled, creamed, creamed in milk and water, creamed, mrs. bisbee's, egg pork, fried in batter, fried with apples, fried with flour, fried with gravy, fried with sage, sweet fried, sausage. good sausage, sausage rolls, with cabbage, with dried beef, soups, stews, etc. chowder, , dry stew, old-fashioned stew, pork gumbo, pork soup, pork stew, succotash, advertisements meats smoked in a few hours with krauser's liquid extract of smoke. made from hickory wood. cheaper, cleaner, sweeter, and surer than the old way. send for circular. e. krauser & bro., milton, pa. best books for swine breeders. coburn's swine husbandry. by f. d. coburn. new, revised and enlarged edition. the breeding, rearing and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of their diseases. it is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet offered. cloth, mo. . harris on the pig. by joseph harris. the points of the various english and american breeds are thoroughly discussed, and the great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly shown. the work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to the breeder on an extensive scale. illustrated. cloth, mo. . horses, cattle, sheep and swine. by geo. w. curtis. the origin, history, improvement, description, characteristics, merits, objections, adaptability, etc., of each of the different breeds, with hints on selection, care and management, including methods of practical breeders in the united states and canada. . diseases of swine. by d. mcintosh, v. s. a text-book for swine growers, veterinary surgeons and students. this is the first work exclusively devoted to the subject published in america. the subjects dealt with are based on science and confirmed by experience, so that the reader will not have to lose time in reading theories which are not confirmed by facts. in the treatment of hog cholera and other diseases which in the majority of cases prove fatal, the author's original and extensive investigations have thrown considerable light on many points hitherto but little understood. cloth, pages, mo. illustrated. . feeding animals. by elliot w. stewart. a valuable and practical work upon the laws of animal growth, specially applied to the rearing and feeding of horses, cattle, dairy cows, sheep and swine. illustrated. cloth, mo. . any of the above books sent postpaid on receipt of price. send for free catalogue. orange judd company, lafayette place, new york. marquette building, chicago. ill. standard books. commended by the greatest educators of germany, england and the united states. endorsed by officials, and adopted in many schools new methods in education art, real manual training, nature study. explaining processes whereby hand, eye and mind are educated by means that conserve vitality and develop a union of thought and action by j. liberty tadd _director of the public school of industrial art, of manual training and art in the r. c. high school, and in several night schools, member of the art club, sketch club, and educational club, and of the academy of natural sciences, philadelphia_ based on twenty-two years' experience with thousands of children and hundreds of teachers. "a method reasonable, feasible and without great cost, adapted to all grades, from child to adult; a plan that can be applied without friction to every kind of educational institution or to the family, and limited only by the capacity of the individual; a method covered by natural law, working with the absolute precision of nature itself; a process that unfolds the capacities of children as unfold the leaves and flowers; a system that teaches the pupils that they are in the plan and part of life, and enables them to work out their own salvation on the true lines of design and work as illustrated in every natural thing." a wealth of illustration-- pictures and full-page plates showing children and teachers practicing these new methods or their work. a revelation to all interested in developing the wonderful capabilities of young or old. the pictures instantly fascinate every child, imbuing it with a desire to do likewise. teachers and parents at once become enthusiastic and delighted over the tadd methods which this book enables them to put into practice. not a hackneyed thought nor a stale picture. fresh, new, practical, scientific, inspiring among those who endorse the work are herbert spencer, dr. w. w. keene, president huey--of the philadelphia board of education. secretary gotze--of the leading pedagogical society of germany (by which the book is being translated into german for publication at berlin). charles h. thurber--professor of pedagogy, university of chicago. talcott williams--editor philadelphia press, book news, etc. r. h. webster--superintendent of schools, san francisco. dr. a. e. winship--editor journal of education. w. f. slocum--president colorado college. frederick winsor--head master the country school for boys of baltimore city, under the auspices of johns hopkins university. g. b. morrison--principal manual training high school, kansas city. dr. edward kirk--dean university of penn. g. e. dawson--(clark university), professor of psychology, bible normal college. roman steiner--baltimore. specifications: size, - / x - / inches, almost a quarto; pages, fine plate paper, beautifully bound in cloth and boards, cover illuminated in gold; weight, - / lbs. boxed, price $ . net, postpaid to any part of the world. orange judd company new york, n. y., - lafayette place. springfield, mass., homestead bdg. chicago, ill., marquette building. [illustration: sent free on application descriptive catalog of-- rural books containing vo. pages, profusely illustrated, and giving full descriptions of the best works on the following subjects: farm and garden fruits, flowers, etc. cattle, sheep and swine dogs, horses, riding, etc. poultry, pigeons and bees angling and fishing boating, canoeing and sailing field sports and natural history hunting, shooting, etc. architecture and building landscape gardening household and miscellaneous publishers and importers orange judd company and lafayette place new york books will be forwarded, postpaid, on receipt of price] greenhouse construction. by prof. l. r. taft. a complete treatise on greenhouse structures and arrangements of the various forms and styles of plant houses for professional florists as well as amateurs. all the best and most approved structures are so fully and clearly described that anyone who desires to build a greenhouse will have no difficulty in determining the kind best suited to his purpose. the modern and most successful methods of heating and ventilating are fully treated upon. special chapters are devoted to houses used for the growing of one kind of plants exclusively. the construction of hotbeds and frames receives appropriate attention. over one hundred excellent illustrations, specially engraved for this work, make every point clear to the reader and add considerably to the artistic appearance of the book. cloth, mo. $ . greenhouse management. by l. r. taft. this book forms an almost indispensable companion volume to greenhouse construction. in it the author gives the results of his many years' experience, together with that of the most successful florists and gardeners, in the management of growing plants under glass. so minute and practical are the various systems and methods of growing and forcing roses, violets, carnations, and all the most important florists' plants, as well as fruits and vegetables described, that by a careful study of this work and the following of its teachings, failure is almost impossible. illustrated. cloth, mo $ . bulbs and tuberous-rooted plants. by c. l. allen. a complete treatise on the history, description, methods of propagation and full directions for the successful culture of bulbs in the garden, dwelling and greenhouse. as generally treated, bulbs are an expensive luxury, while when properly managed, they afford the greatest amount of pleasure at the least cost. the author of this book has for many years made bulb growing a specialty, and is a recognized authority on their cultivation and management. the illustrations which embellish this work have been drawn from nature, and have been engraved especially for this book. the cultural directions are plainly stated, practical and to the point. cloth, mo $ . irrigation farming. by lute wilcox. a handbook for the practical application of water in the production of crops. a complete treatise on water supply, canal construction, reservoirs and ponds, pipes for irrigation purposes, flumes and their structure, methods of applying water, irrigation of field crops, the garden, the orchard and vineyard; windmills and pumps, appliances and contrivances. profusely, handsomely illustrated. cloth, mo $ . landscape gardening. by f. a. waugh, professor of horticulture, university of vermont. a treatise on the general principles governing outdoor art; with sundry suggestions for their application in the commoner problems of gardening. every paragraph is short, terse and to the point, giving perfect clearness to the discussions at all points. in spite of the natural difficulty of presenting abstract principles the whole matter is made entirely plain even to the inexperienced reader. illustrated, mo. cloth. $ . fungi and fungicides. by prof. clarence m. weed. a practical manual concerning the fungous diseases of cultivated plants and the means of preventing their ravages. the author has endeavored to give such a concise account of the most important facts relating to these as will enable the cultivator to combat them intelligently. pp., ill., mo. paper, cents; cloth. $ . talks on manure. by joseph harris, m. s. a series of familiar and practical talks between the author and the deacon, the doctor, and other neighbors, on the whole subject of manures and fertilizers; including a chapter especially written for it by sir john bennet lawes of rothamsted, england. cloth, mo. $ . insects and insecticides. by clarence m. weed, d. sc., prof. of entomology and zoology, new hampshire college of agriculture. a practical manual concerning noxious insects, and methods of preventing their injuries. pages, with many illustrations. cloth, mo. $ . mushrooms. how to grow them. by wm. falconer. this is the most practical work on the subject ever written, and the only book on growing mushrooms published in america. the author describes how he grows mushrooms, and how they are grown for profit by the leading market gardeners, and for home use by the most successful private growers. engravings drawn from nature expressly for this work. cloth. $ . handbook of plants and general horticulture. by peter henderson. this new edition comprises about per cent. more genera than the former one, and embraces the botanical name, derivation, natural order, etc., together with a short history of the different genera, concise instructions for their propagation and culture, and all the leading local or common english names, together with a comprehensive glossary of botanical and technical terms. plain instructions are also given for the cultivation of the principal vegetables, fruits and flowers. cloth, large vo. $ . ginseng, its cultivation, harvesting, marketing and market value. by maurice g. kains, with a short account of its history and botany. it discusses in a practical way how to begin with either seed or roots, soil, climate and location, preparation, planting and maintenance of the beds, artificial propagation, manures, enemies, selection for market and for improvement, preparation for sale, and the profits that may be expected. this booklet is concisely written, well and profusely illustrated, and should be in the hands of all who expect to grow this drug to supply the export trade, and to add a new and profitable industry to their farms and gardens, without interfering with the regular work. mo. $ . land draining. a handbook for farmers on the principles and practice of draining, by manly miles, giving the results of his extended experience in laying tile drains. the directions for the laying out and the construction of tile drains will enable the farmer to avoid the errors of imperfect construction, and the disappointment that must necessarily follow. this manual for practical farmers will also be found convenient for references in regard to many questions that may arise in crop growing, aside from the special subjects of drainage of which it treats. cloth, mo. $ . henderson's practical floriculture. by peter henderson. a guide to the successful propagation and cultivation of florists' plants. the work is not one for florists and gardeners only, but the amateur's wants are constantly kept in mind, and we have a very complete treatise on the cultivation of flowers under glass, or in the open air, suited to those who grow flowers for pleasure as well as those who make them a matter of trade. beautifully illustrated. new and enlarged edition. cloth, mo. $ . tobacco leaf. by j. b. killebrew and herbert myrick. its culture and cure, marketing and manufacture. a practical handbook on the most approved methods in growing, harvesting, curing, packing, and selling tobacco, with an account of the operations in every department of tobacco manufacture. the contents of this book are based on actual experiments in field, curing barn, packing house, factory and laboratory. it is the only work of the kind in existence, and is destined to be the standard practical and scientific authority on the whole subject of tobacco for many years. upwards of pages and original engravings. $ . play and profit in my garden. by e. p. roe. the author takes us to his garden on the rocky hillsides in the vicinity of west point, and shows us how out of it, after four years' experience, he evoked a profit of $ , , and this while carrying on pastoral and literary labor. it is very rarely that so much literary taste and skill are mated to so much agricultural experience and good sense. cloth, mo. $ . forest planting. by h. nicholas jarchow, ll. d. a treatise on the care of woodlands and the restoration of the denuded timberlands on plains and mountains. the author has fully described those european methods which have proved to be most useful in maintaining the superb forests of the old world. this experience has been adapted to the different climates and trees of america, full instructions being given for forest planting of our various kinds of soil and subsoil, whether on mountain or valley. illustrated, mo. $ . soils and crops of the farm. by george e. morrow, m. a., and thomas f. hunt. the methods of making available the plant food in the soil are described in popular language. a short history of each of the farm crops is accompanied by a discussion of its culture. the useful discoveries of science are explained as applied in the most approved methods of culture. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . american fruit culturist. by john j. thomas. containing practical directions for the propagation and culture of all the fruits adapted to the united states. twentieth thoroughly revised and greatly enlarged edition by wm. h. s. wood. this new edition makes the work practically almost a new book, containing everything pertaining to large and small fruits as well as sub-tropical and tropical fruits. richly illustrated by nearly engravings. pp., mo. $ . fertilizers. by edward b. voorhees, director of the new jersey agricultural experiment station. it has been the aim of the author to point out the underlying principles and to discuss the important subjects connected with the use of fertilizer materials. the natural fertility of the soil, the functions of manures and fertilizers, and the need of artificial fertilizers are exhaustively discussed. separate chapters are devoted to the various fertilizing elements, to the purchase, chemical analyses, methods of using fertilizers, and the best fertilizers for each of the most important field, garden and orchard crops. pp. $ . gardening for profit. by peter henderson. the standard work on market and family gardening. the successful experience of the author for more than thirty years, and his willingness to tell, as he does in this work, the secret of his success for the benefit of others, enables him to give most valuable information. the book is profusely illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . herbert's hints to horse keepers. by the late henry william herbert (frank forester). this is one of the best and most popular works on the horse prepared in this country. a complete manual for horsemen, embracing: how to breed a horse; how to buy a horse; how to break a horse; how to use a horse; how to feed a horse; how to physic a horse (allopathy or homoeopathy); how to groom a horse; how to drive a horse; how to ride a horse, etc. beautifully illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . barn plans and outbuildings. two hundred and fifty-seven illustrations. a most valuable work, full of ideas, hints, suggestions, plans, etc., for the construction of barns and outbuildings, by practical writers. chapters are devoted to the economic erection and use of barns, grain barns, house barns, cattle barns, sheep barns, corn houses, smoke houses, ice houses, pig pens, granaries, etc. there are likewise chapters on bird houses, dog houses, tool sheds, ventilators, roofs and roofing, doors and fastenings, workshops, poultry houses, manure sheds, barnyards, root pits, etc. cloth, mo. $ . cranberry culture. by joseph j. white. contents: natural history, history of cultivation, choice of location, preparing the ground, planting the vines, management of meadows, flooding, enemies and difficulties overcome, picking, keeping, profit and loss. cloth, mo. $ . ornamental gardening for americans. by elias a. long, landscape architect. a treatise on beautifying homes, rural districts and cemeteries. a plain and practical work with numerous illustrations and instructions so plain that they may be readily followed. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . grape culturist. by a. s. fuller. this is one of the very best of works on the culture of the hardy grapes, with full directions for all departments of propagation, culture, etc., with excellent engravings, illustrating planting, training, grafting, etc. cloth, mo. $ . turkeys and how to grow them. edited by herbert myrick. a treatise on the natural history and origin of the name of turkeys; the various breeds, the best methods to insure success in the business of turkey growing. with essays from practical turkey growers in different parts of the united states and canada. copiously illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . profits in poultry. useful and ornamental breeds and their profitable management. this excellent work contains the combined experience of a number of practical men in all departments of poultry raising. it is profusely illustrated and forms a unique and important addition to our poultry literature. cloth, mo. $ . how crops grow. by prof. samuel w. johnson of yale college. new and revised edition. a treatise on the chemical composition, structure and life of the plant. this book is a guide to the knowledge of agricultural plants, their composition, their structure and modes of development and growth; of the complex organization of plants, and the use of the parts; the germination of seeds, and the food of plants obtained both from the air and the soil. the book is indispensable to all real students of agriculture. with numerous illustrations and tables of analysis. cloth, mo. $ . coburn's swine husbandry. by f. d. coburn. new, revised and enlarged edition. the breeding, rearing, and management of swine, and the prevention and treatment of their diseases. it is the fullest and freshest compendium relating to swine breeding yet offered. cloth, mo. $ . stewart's shepherd's manual. by henry stewart. a valuable practical treatise on the sheep for american farmers and sheep growers. it is so plain that a farmer or a farmer's son who has never kept a sheep, may learn from its pages how to manage a flock successfully, and yet so complete that even the experienced shepherd may gather many suggestions from it. the results of personal experience of some years with the characters of the various modern breeds of sheep, and the sheep raising capabilities of many portions of our extensive territory and that of canada--and the careful study of the diseases to which our sheep are chiefly subject, with those by which they may eventually be afflicted through unforeseen accidents--as well as the methods of management called for under our circumstances, are carefully described. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . feeds and feeding. by w. a. henry. this handbook for students and stock men constitutes a compendium of practical and useful knowledge on plant growth and animal nutrition, feeding stuffs, feeding animals and every detail pertaining to this important subject. it is thorough, accurate and reliable, and is the most valuable contribution to live stock literature in many years. all the latest and best information is clearly and systematically presented, making the work indispensable to every owner of live stock. pages, vo. cloth. $ . hunter and trapper. by halsey thrasher, an old and experienced sportsman. the best modes of hunting and trapping are fully explained, and foxes, deer, bears, etc., fall into his traps readily by following his directions. cloth, mo. $ . the ice crop. by theron l. hiles. how to harvest, ship and use ice. a complete, practical treatise for farmers, dairymen, ice dealers, produce shippers, meat packers, cold storers, and all interested in ice houses, cold storage, and the handling or use of ice in any way. including many recipes for iced dishes and beverages. the book is illustrated by cuts of the tools and machinery used in cutting and storing ice, and the different forms of ice houses and cold storage buildings. pp., ill., mo. cloth. $ . practical forestry. by andrew s. fuller. a treatise on the propagation, planting and cultivation, with descriptions and the botanical and popular names of all the indigenous trees of the united states, and notes on a large number of the most valuable exotic species. $ . irrigation for the farm, garden and orchard. by henry stewart. this work is offered to those american farmers and other cultivators of the soil who, from painful experience, can readily appreciate the losses which result from the scarcity of water at critical periods. fully illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . market gardening and farm notes. by burnett landreth. experiences and observation for both north and south, of interest to the amateur gardener, trucker and farmer. a novel feature of the book is the calendar of farm and garden operations for each month of the year; the chapters on fertilizers, transplanting, succession and rotation of crops, the packing, shipping and marketing of vegetables will be especially useful to market gardeners. cloth, mo. $ . the fruit garden. by p. barry. a standard work on fruit and fruit trees, the author having had over thirty years' practical experience at the head of one of the largest nurseries in this country. invaluable to all fruit growers. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . the nut culturist. by andrew s. fuller. a treatise on the propagation, planting and cultivation of nut-bearing trees and shrubs adapted to the climate of the united states, with the scientific and common names of the fruits known in commerce as edible or otherwise useful nuts. intended to aid the farmer to increase his income without adding to his expenses or labor. mo. cloth. $ . american grape growing and wine making. by george husmann of california. new and enlarged edition. with contributions from well-known grape growers, giving wide range of experience. the author of this book is a recognized authority on the subject. cloth, mo. $ . treat's injurious insects of the farm and garden. by mrs. mary treat. an original investigator who has added much to our knowledge of both plants and insects, and those who are familiar with darwin's works are aware that he gives her credit for important observation and discoveries. new and enlarged edition. with an illustrated chapter on beneficial insects. fully illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . the dogs of great britain, america and other countries. new, enlarged and revised edition. their breeding, training and management, in health and disease; comprising all the essential parts of the two standard works on dogs by "stonehenge." it describes the best game and hunting grounds in america. contains over one hundred beautiful engravings, embracing most noted dogs in both continents, making, together with chapters by american writers, the most complete dog book ever published. cloth, mo. $ . harris on the pig. by joseph harris. new edition. revised and enlarged by the author. the points of the various english and american breeds are thoroughly discussed, and the great advantage of using thoroughbred males clearly shown. the work is equally valuable to the farmer who keeps but few pigs, and to the breeder on an extensive scale. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . pear culture for profit. by p. t. quinn, practical horticulturist. teaching how to raise pears intelligently, and with the best results, how to find out the character of the soil, the best methods of preparing it, the best varieties to select under existing conditions, the best modes of planting, pruning, fertilizing, grafting, and utilizing the ground before the trees come into bearing, and, finally, of gathering and packing for market. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . the secrets of health, or how not to be sick, and how to get well from sickness. by s. h. platt, a. m., m. d., late member of the connecticut eclectic medical society, the national eclectic medical association, and honorary member of the national bacteriological society of america; our medical editor and author of "talks with our doctor" and "our health adviser." nearly pages. profusely illustrated. an index of pages, so that any topic may be instantly consulted. a new departure in medical knowledge for the people--the latest progress, secrets and practices of all schools of healing made available for the common people--health without medicine, nature without humbug, common sense without folly, science without fraud. mo. pp., illustrations. cloth. $ . gardening for young and old. by joseph harris. a work intended to interest farmers' boys in farm gardening, which means a better and more profitable form of agriculture. the teachings are given in the familiar manner so well known in the author's "walks and talks on the farm." illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . money in the garden. by p. t. quinn. the author gives in a plain, practical style, instructions on three distinct although closely connected branches of gardening--the kitchen garden, market garden and field culture, from successful practical experience for a term of years. illustrated. cloth, mo. $ . the pruning book. by l. h. bailey. this is the first american work exclusively devoted to pruning. it differs from most other treatises on this subject in that the author takes particular pains to explain the principles of each operation in every detail. specific advice is given on the pruning of the various kinds of fruits and ornamental trees, shrubs and hedges. considerable space is devoted to the pruning and training of grapevines, both american and foreign. every part of the subject is made so clear and plain that it can be readily understood by even the merest beginner. cloth, vo, pages. illustrated. $ . transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. the following misprints have been corrected: "english, bacon varieties of lard" corrected to "english bacon, varieties of lard" (table of contents) "acking" corrected to "packing" (page ) "vingar" corrected to "vinegar" (page ) the wide table on page has been split. the left column is repeated in the second half as an aid to the reader. transcriber's note: a few typographical errors have been corrected: they are listed at the end of the text. * * * * * _lace its origin and history_ _samuel l. goldenberg_ [illustration] _brentano's new york _ copyrighted, , by samuel l. goldenberg. [illustration: barbara uttmann, a. d. .] "i have here only a nosegay of culled flowers, and have brought nothing of my own but the thread that ties them together."--_montaigne._ the task of the author of this work has not been an attempt to brush the dust of ages from the early history of lace in the hope of contributing to the world's store of knowledge on the subject. his purpose, rather, has been to present to those whose relation to lace is primarily a commercial one a compendium that may, perchance, in times of doubt, serve as a practical guide. though this plan has been adhered to as closely as possible, the history of lace is so interwoven with life's comedies and tragedies, extending back over five centuries, that there must be, here and there in the following pages, a reminiscent tinge of this association. lace is, in fact, so indelibly associated with the chalets perched high on mountain tops, with little cottages in the valleys of the appenines and pyrenees, with sequestered convents in provincial france, with the raiment of men and women whose names loom large in the history of the world, and the futile as well as the successful efforts of inventors to relieve tired eyes and weary fingers, that, no matter how one attempts to treat the subject, it must be colored now and again with the hues of many peoples of many periods. the author, in avowing his purpose to give this work a practical cast, does not wish to be understood as minimizing the importance of any of the standard works compiled by those whose years of study and research among ancient volumes and musty manuscripts in many tongues have been a labor of love. rather would he pay the meed of tribute to those who have preserved to posterity the facts bearing upon the early history of lace, which have been garnered with such great care. nevertheless, most of these works, necessarily voluminous and replete with detail, are more for the connoisseur or dilettante than for the busy man of affairs upon whom the practical aspect of lace, quite dissociated from the romance in which it is steeped, always forces itself. it is for men of this type, and with no little misgiving, and a full appreciation of how far short of his ideal the volume must be, that the author has undertaken the compilation of this work. samuel l. goldenberg. [illustration] { } lace: its origin and history. * * * * * when where and how lace had its origin no one will pretend to say. there is a general agreement, however, that lace, as the term is understood to-day, is a comparatively modern product, it being impossible to identify any of the antique specimens preserved from the ravages of time as belonging to a period further back than the early part of the sixteenth century. true it is that there are specimens of woven fabrics of a lacelike character which were undoubtedly made at an earlier date, but most of the authorities who have delved deep into the subject are of opinion that lace probably does not antedate a. d. . a perusal of the available records in many tongues fails to make clear just where lace was first made. spain, italy, belgium, france and germany have all claimed the honor, and each has been able to present a great deal of testimony in support of its contention; but the records of early times are so meagre and indefinite that it is impossible to bestow the coveted honor for the discovery of the art upon any one nation. { } the instrument that is responsible for lace is the needle, but the earliest forms of lace were not the woven fabric that we know to-day, but rather cutwork, which, as far as we have any authentic records, was first practiced by the nuns in the convents of central and southern europe. this work was sometimes characterized as nun's work, and was designed almost exclusively for altar decorations and the robes of prelates, though it was also regarded as the insignia of rank and station. some of the specimens of this work, still preserved in museums, show that the early workers possessed a skill in the art never excelled. of course, with the progress of time, designs have become more ornate and intricate, but many of the old patterns still survive, and doubtless will continue to survive, till the end of recorded time. the desire to elaborate the edges of plain fabrics, whether of linen or heavier material, was an entirely natural impulse to get away from the harsh simplicity of the times. to this desire must be ascribed the beginning of the mammoth lace industry of to-day. one authority says that coeval with these styles of decoration was drawnwork, in which the weft and warp threads of plain linen were drawn out, thus forming a square of network made secure by a stitch at each intersection. the design was afterward embroidered, frequently with colors. perhaps, all things considered, the lace industry received its greatest impetus during the period known in history as the renaissance, when europe, emerging from the severe and formal garb of the medieval age, began to bedeck itself in the most graceful and beautiful manner. a number of methods were employed in the production of the lace of that brilliant period, the simplest of which consisted of forming the design independently of the foundation. threads spreading at even distances from a common center served as a framework for others which were united in squares, triangles, rosettes and other figures worked over with the buttonhole stitch, forming in some portions openwork, in others solid embroidery. this was, in fact, the first needle-made lace, and doubtless its origin is due to the venetians. { } [illustration: real flemish point.] [illustration: real point de venise.] { } through constant practice the art was developed to a very high state by the nuns, who taught their methods to the pupils of the convents, through whom the knowledge passed to the peasantry, and thus became an important industry. perhaps, however, the development of the lace industry at this period was due more to the spread of the methods by which it was done--through books more than in any other manner--for it must be remembered that contemporaneously with the development of the industry the art of printing was in its first bloom. as one traces the growth of lacemaking from the earliest times he is impressed with the sharp advance made at the beginning of the seventeenth century, when laceworkers, having practically exhausted the designs possible by the then known methods, invented passementerie, which were known as passements. these, speaking broadly, much resemble the passementerie of to-day. they were made of stout linen thread in imitation of high relief work of the needle point, a thick thread being introduced to mark the salient points of the pattern. thus the term guipure was applied to the thread lace with guipure reliefs, and the designation has since remained to all laces without grounds, in which the patterns are united by brides. in the beginning lace was made by two entirely distinct processes, in commenting upon which we can do no better than to quote the words of cole, which are particularly lucid and concise. he says: "it is remarkable that lacemaking should have sprung up or been invented at about the same period of time by two entirely distinct processes without relationship or evolution between them, and that the people of the countries wherein either of the inventions was made were not only { } unknown to each other, but apparently neither had any knowledge of the processes of lacemaking employed in the other country." one of these processes is the employment of the needle and the single thread, wherein the work was perfected mesh by mesh, each mesh being completed as the work progressed. the other process was by the use of many threads at once, each one attached to bobbins, for the purpose only of separating them, the meshes being made by twisting the threads a greater or less number of times. when each mesh is only partially completed the thread is carried on to the next, and so on, from side to side, the entire width of the fabric. felkin, in his history of embroidery and lace, says that when pillow lace was invented--about the middle of the sixteenth century--the various kinds of point lace then in use had reached a high state of perfection. some early writers after much laborious investigation assert that pillow lace was first made in flanders. in later years it has been almost universally attributed to barbara, wife of christopher uttman; she was then dwelling with her husband at the castle of st. annaburg, belgium, . from the castle, where she taught the peasantry as in a school, it soon spread over the country, and women and girls of the district, finding that the making of lace was more profitable than their former employment of embroidering veils according to the italian practice, adopted the uttman method. no trace of this mode of making lace (by use of pillow and bobbins) can be found before this date; hence the presumption that these were the time and place of the invention of bobbin lace. barbara uttman died in . that she was the true inventress is recorded on her tomb. it will be seen from the foregoing that one process had its origin in italy, and the other its origin in belgium, though, if we accept felkin's statement, we must accord to italy the first honor, for he says { } distinctly that the belgian peasantry gave up making lace according to the italian method to adopt the process invented by barbara uttman; consequently, the italian method must have been first. the present writer disclaims any intention to dispose of this moot question, and is only led to the above observation by reason of the high standing which felkin's work has attained. there are two broad divisions of lace--namely, hand-made lace and machine-made lace. in the world of commerce to-day the latter-named product, which is but a child of the former, is vastly the more important. this for the reason that hand-made lace, which is produced with such arduous toil, skill and patience, is beyond the purse of the million, and is and ever must be considered as one of the luxuries. true, some of the simpler forms of hand-made lace are produced with relatively great facility, and the price is correspondingly cheap, as compared with the delicate, finely wrought designs, that it sometimes takes years to produce. nor is this the sole reason for the popularity of machine-made laces, for to such perfection has the mechanical art of lacemaking attained that it is practically impossible, even for experts, to detect the difference between lace made by the deft, cunning fingers of lady or maid from the lace made possible by modern machinery. in hand-made lace the two principal classes are the needle-point and bobbin, or pillow-made, lace. needle-point lace is worked upon loose threads laid upon a previously drawn pattern, but which have no point of contact with one another and no coherency until the needlework binds them together. this work is done with a needle and single thread. as we have said, the pattern is first drawn, usually upon parchment; a piece of heavy linen is stitched to the parchment for the purpose of holding it straight; then threads to the number of two, three, four, or more, are laid along the many lines of the pattern, and sewed lightly down through parchment and linen. the entire figure is then carried out, both solid filling and openwork, with fine stitching, the buttonhole stitch being most generally employed. { } [illustration: real duchesse and point gaze.] [illustration: real carrick-ma-cross.] { } bobbin, or pillow-made, lace is the highest artistic development of twisted and plaited threads. it is made from a large number of threads attached by means of pins to an oval-shaped cushion or pillow, each thread being wound upon a small bobbin. the design, as in the making of needle-point lace, is first drawn on stiff paper or parchment, and carefully stretched over the pillow. then the pattern is pricked out along the outline of the drawing and small pins are introduced at close intervals, around which the threads work to form the various meshes and openings. from right to left the thread is bound lightly upon the bobbins and tied at the top of each in a loop that permits it gradually to slip off the bobbin when gently pulled, as occurs generally when working. the worker begins by interlacing the bobbins, which are used in pairs, placing small pins in all perforations, and crossing the bobbins after the insertion of each pin. around these pins the design is formed, the threads being crossed and recrossed and passed under and over each other with remarkable rapidity and accuracy. when the whole width of the large piece of lace is carried on together the number of bobbins and pins is very great and the work highly expensive, but it is customary to work each sprig separately, these being joined together in the form of a strip afterward by means of a curious loop-stitch, made by a hook called a needle-pin. scarcely had lace been invented before it had assumed almost priceless value, and it is worth while remarking here that though centuries have since elapsed, the value of these delicate, hand-wrought fabrics has not in any sense diminished. throughout the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth centuries rare lace of beautiful pattern has been highly prized, some of the earliest specimens, in the possession of world-famous libraries and museums, being of relatively fabulous wealth. { } [illustration: real irish point.] [illustration: real valenciennes.] { } by very reason of the conditions inevitably associated with its making, lace must always remain one of the dearest articles of commerce, for there is certainly nothing more rare or costly than these fine, dainty, yet withal, substantial tissues. perhaps of all her compeers venice attained the highest proficiency in the production of beautiful lace. there, as we have remarked, needle-point had its origin, and many of the beautiful patterns produced by the women of the "queen of the adriatic" are even to-day the admiration of all who have a true appreciation of the artistic. venice guarded the secret of her methods with jealous care, and it was many years before the world was made familiar with the manner in which the exquisite floral designs, with their wealth of minor adornments, were worked out. thus italy was able to lay tribute upon the entire civilized world, and her coffers were enriched to overflowing from the receipts of the sales of lace to eastern, central and northern europe. apropos of italy's claim to the invention of needle-point, it has been claimed that the italians originally derived the art of fine needlework from the greek refugees in italy, while another author asserts that the italians are indebted to the saracens of sicily for their knowledge. all these claims, however, are merely speculative. for instance, no one disputes that embroidery antedates lace, and yet we have authors who endeavor to show that embroidery had its origin in arabia, deducing from this that lace, also, must have had its birth in one of the oriental countries. but it is a well-established fact that while we have absolute knowledge of the existence of embroidery in the countries of the levant, there is absolutely no indication, of even the slightest value, that points to the existence of lace before it was made by the italians and belgians. { } in the municipal archives of ferrara, dated , is an allusion to lace, but there is a document of the sforza family, dated in , in which the word "trina" constantly occurs, together with "bone" and "bobbin" lace. spain was, as far as the records testify, the earliest and most adept pupil of italy in the art of lacemaking, though, as in italy, at the beginning the work was confined in the iberian peninsula to the inmates of the convents. spain, too, achieved high distinction in this field, its point d'espagne being one of the most celebrated of all the ancient laces, even vying with the finest venetian point. in those days, as will be recalled, the power of the church was absolute, and the use of laces for daily wear was prohibited, though on sundays and holidays it was greatly in evidence in the attire of those of high station. one of the most interesting facts concerning the development of lace has to do with the patterns produced in the various localities of europe. in the beginning the number of designs was necessarily limited, but as the industry developed and spread, and as the workers became more expert and artistic, there was an uncontrollable impulse to break away from conventional designs and to evolve new patterns. then, too, there was something of the spirit of pride behind this movement--a sort of local patriotism, if it may so be termed. the belgian, the spaniard and the frenchman were not content slavishly to imitate italian designs, and, anxious to win a name for themselves, set about to produce new effects that would immediately identify them with the place of their origin. thus it was, too, that various cities and towns in italy, france, belgium, spain and elsewhere sought to establish for themselves an individual product of great excellence that would give to the city or town prestige and renown in the then few commercial marts of the world. this explains the various names which were given to distinct { } types of laces hundreds of years ago, and which designations still obtain, as, for instance, alençon, valenciennes, chantilly, honiton, arras, bayeux, genoa, florence, etc. another fact worthy of record is that of all the almost numberless designs that have been given to the world since the birth of lace there have been some one or two characteristics that tell as plainly as though expressed in words that each one of these designs was made at some particular period of history. it is well that this is so, for it has enabled the historian to trace, with more or less certainty, the development of the industry. in other words, a lace expert is enabled to tell from the fabric not only in what country it was made, but in what part of that country, and also the approximate date. in the self-sufficiency of the present age we are apt to regard with a sort of supercilious disdain any story reflecting upon the supremacy of our forebears in any of the arts or the sciences; but that we cannot make, in a commercial way, such lace as was woven in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries is beyond question. in the first place, time is lacking, and if it must be confessed, the great skill that comes only through years of constant practice is also lacking. modern real lace is artistic, even superior, but compared with such few specimens as have come down to us of the work of the lacemakers of old, its deficiency, particularly in the matter of the fineness of the execution and thread, is at once apparent. hand-made lace is to-day produced all over the world; commercially its production is confined to france, belgium, germany, spain, italy and england, where large quantities are still produced. france, however, with that fostering care which she has bestowed upon her many other arts, and with that keen appreciation of the beautiful that is so inherent in her people, is far in the van in the matter of producing hand-made lace, though in respect to two or three types belgium is in the front rank. { } [illustration: real honiton.] [illustration: real florentine.] { } coming down to the question of machine-made lace, it is necessary to observe at the outset that the same distinctions that exist between the genuine and the imitation do not obtain as applied to these fabrics. in other words, the knowledge that lace is a product of the frame rather than the fingers in no sense condemns it. for to such a high plane has the mechanical production of lace been lifted that one is almost tempted to say that the products vie in beauty of design and perfection of finish with the lace produced by hand. that there is warrant for this seeming exaggeration is borne out by the fact that not infrequently it is impossible for experts to tell the difference between two specimens of lace of the same design, one made by hand and the other by machine. what inventors have accomplished in this respect is truly marvelous. in the beginning their efforts were not at all satisfactory, and the history of machine-made lace abounds with pathetic instances of men who sought in vain to duplicate with fidelity, by means of mechanical devices of hundreds of types and patterns, the dextrous touch of the human hand. w. felkin, in his history of lace manufacture, says that lace net was first made by machinery in . other authorities place the date as between and . in bobbin net was invented, and in the jacquard system was applied to the bobbinet machine. mrs. b. palliser, in "the history of lace," says of the invention of machinery for the production of lace that the credit is usually assigned to hammond, a stocking framework knitter of nottingham, who, examining one day the broad lace on his wife's cap, thought he could apply his machine to the production of a similar article. his attempt so far succeeded that, by means of the stocking frame invented in the previous century, he produced, in , not lace, but a kind of knitting of running loops or stitches. { } in else and harvey introduced at nottingham the pin or point net machine, so named because made on sharp pins or points. point net was followed by various other stitches of a lacelike character, but despite the progress made, all efforts at producing a solid net were futile. it was still nothing more than knitting, a single thread passing from one end of the frame to the other, and if a thread broke the work was unraveled. this was overcome in a measure by gumming the threads, giving the fabric a solidity and body not possible without resorting to some artificial method of this sort. the great problem inspired the efforts of numberless inventors, and many attempts were made to combine the mechanism used respectively by the knitter and the weaver, and after many failures a machine was produced which made mechlin net. there are few histories bearing upon the invention of labor-saving devices that are so replete with the records of failure as is the history of the attempt to produce a practical lace machine. john heathcoat, of leicestershire, england, was the inventor of the machine for making bobbin net. his patents were taken out in , and to him must be accorded the credit of solving for the first time the problem that had vexed the minds of so many inventors and had depleted the purses of so many capitalists. the bobbin net machine, so named because the threads are wound upon bobbins, first produced a net about an inch in width, afterward, however, producing it a yard wide. it was the application of the celebrated jacquard attachment to the lace machine that has made possible the duplication of practically every pattern of lace made by hand. the machine of heathcoat was vastly improved by john leavers, also of nottingham, and the types produced by him are still in use throughout england and france, though, of course, there are in these days a large number of different { } types of machines bearing different names, but the principle of the leavers machine, more or less modified, obtains in practically all of the devices. therefore a description of the process of lacemaking by the leavers frame will serve as a description for all. the number of threads brought into operation in this machine is regulated by the pattern to be produced. the threads are of two sorts, warp and bobbin threads. upward of , are sometimes used, sixty pieces of lace being made at once, each piece requiring threads ( warps and bobbin threads). the supply of warp threads is held upon reels, the bobbins carrying their own supply. the warp threads are stretched perpendicularly and about wide enough apart to admit a silver quarter passing edgeways between them. the bobbins are flattened in shape so as to pass conveniently between the warps. each bobbin can contain about yards of thread. by most ingenious mechanism varying degrees of tension can be imparted to warp and bobbin threads as required. the bobbins, as they pass like pendulums between the warp threads, are made to oscillate, and through this oscillation the threads twist themselves or become twisted with the warp threads, as required by the pattern that is being produced. as the twisting takes place, combs compress the twistings, making them more compact. if the bobbin threads be made tight and the warp threads slack, the latter will be twisted upon the former; but if the warps are brought to a tension and the bobbin threads be slack, then the latter will be twisted on the warps. the combs are so regulated that they come clear away from the threads as soon as they have pressed them together, and fall into position ready to perform their pressing operations again. the contrivances for giving each thread a particular tension and movement at a certain time are connected with an adaptation of the jacquard system of pierced cards. the lace machine is highly complicated, much of its complexity being due to the mechanism by which the oscillating or lateral movements are produced. expert workmen prepare the working drawings for the lace machine, and also perform the more important duties in its operation, but a large part of the work is carried on by women and girls. { } [illustration: real point appliqué.] { } one of the most interesting developments of the lace industry has been the gradual evolution from the work of the hand toilers to the utilization of complex machinery. in addition to the leavers machine, which is referred to elsewhere in extenso, the embroidery machine plays a very important part in the making of laces. from to , various efforts had been made to produce lace on the embroidery machine, and it was during this decade that the first success was achieved in the making of oriental or net laces in plauen. this was the first actual production of lace from the embroidering machine, and this sort of lace, which still exists to-day, is really an embroidery on a net, although usually designated as lace. a few years later a discovery was made which effected a great change in the making of laces on the embroidery machine. this was the principle of embroidering on a material which was afterward removed by a chemical process. the first article produced was called guipure de genes, and was at that time patented, but the patent was held to be invalid, and a few years afterward this article was generally produced both in st. gall, where it first appeared, and in plauen. by this method of manufacture are produced to-day all of the imitation guipure laces, such as point de venise, rose point, point de genes, etc. { } [illustration: real chantilly.] [illustration: real spanish.] { } the embroidering machine in use at the present day is constructed entirely of iron, measuring from to feet long, feet high, feet wide and weighs about , pounds. it can be operated by hand or by power. the method of embroidering is exceedingly simple. the cloth, usually somewhat over ½ yards long, is tightly stretched in an upright position in the center of the machine, each end of the suspended strip being held firmly by means of stout hooks. the needles (from to in number, according to the sort of work to be done) are arranged horizontally in a framework in a straight, level row, all pointing toward the cloth and extending from end to end of same. the needles are supplied with threads about one yard in length, which are fastened by means of a peculiar knot to the eye, the latter being in the middle of the needle instead of at the end. in producing any given stitch in the pattern to be worked, the long row of needles all move forward at once at the will of the operator, and thus duplicate the stitch in every pattern or "section" along the entire ½ yards of cloth suspended in the machine. as may be readily understood, the machine in this manner completes ½ yards of embroidery in the same time it would take a woman with a needle to finish a single pattern. when one row is completed the strip of cloth is raised and another row is made, and so on until it is necessary to put in another length of cambric. this machine is capable of making patterns from the very narrow up to the full width of the cloth. what is known as the schiffli, or power machine, is very similar to the hand-embroidering device, being an improvement on the latter and worked with a shuttle in addition to the needles. its capacity is nearly eight times greater, or from , to , stitches per day, against , to , on the hand machine. to offset this advantage, however, the schiffli machine is much more expensive, and is of delicate and complicated construction, easily got out of order and costly to repair. until a comparatively recent date the schiffli was not considered as a competitor of the hand machine, its work being inferior in quality and confined to simple patterns. at present, however, it is generally conceded that the goods produced by it not only compete with the hand-machine products, but are already superseding the latter to some extent. it is predicted that the schiffli machine, operated by power, will ultimately supply all the embroidery in the low and medium grades. { } the variety and adaptability of the designs which both of these machines are capable of producing are endless, and at the same time comparatively inexpensive. it is this latter fact which accounts for the great advantage of the embroidering machine over the lace machine. the preparing and setting of a design for a lace machine is very expensive, and the great cost compels the manufacturer of machine lace to turn out large quantities of one set pattern in order to get a return from his investment. about the beginning of the nineteenth century, lace machines were first introduced into france from nottingham, at boulogne-sur-mer, where the industry remained for a few years and then moved to calais. there this industry has developed and increased to such proportions that calais is now the principal city for the production of fine laces of all kinds, and practically leads nottingham in creating novelties and new and original effects. shortly after the franco-prussian war the industry found a foothold in caudry, in the north of france, where it has also developed to quite large proportions, and shares to-day a large part of the trade which has resulted from the founding of the parent industry in calais. the kind of lace produced in caudry is generally of a cheaper character than that produced in calais. in lyons, too, there has been established for many years the industry of making laces and nettings by mechanical processes. this is still a very large industry, and about twenty years ago there was a large trade done with america in the manufacture of laces in vogue at that time, which were the imitation of the real spanish, called "blonde grenade." there are still made in lyons to-day various imitations of fine laces, which in a general way are of a different quality to the laces made at calais or caudry, and lyons enjoys a reputation in regard to the character of the laces it produces which is unique in the trade. about the year , a frenchman invented a machine similar in { } principle to the knitting machine, which reproduces with absolute fidelity the work of the bobbins in making pillow laces. through this invention he was able to imitate such hand-made laces as torchons, medicis, etc., so exactly that experts could not detect the difference. in fact, it is the general testimony of men associated with laces for years, that the work of this machine in a great many of its aspects is one of the most important contributions of the mechanical arts in the production of lace. through the importation of foreign machines and foreign workmen, various attempts have been made in the united states to establish the manufacture of lace. at the present writing it is impossible to state with any definiteness what the result will be, as the experiment has been of only a few years' duration, and in the very nature of things is at this date of a tentative character. in order that the reader may be able to distinguish the various types of hand and machine made laces, we append herewith a glossary, defining as concisely as possible the characteristics that indicate not only the manifold makes of laces, but what may be called the various sub-divisions. these definitions are set forth, the writer hopes, in terms that will enable the reader to understand what each one of the various names means, both as applied commercially and descriptively. { } [illustration: real point gaze.] [illustration: imitation duchesse.] { } characteristics of the different types of lace. alenÃ�on.--a fine, needle-point lace, so called from alençon, a french city, in which its manufacture was first begun. it is the only french lace not made upon the pillow, the work being done entirely by hand, with a fine needle, upon a parchment pattern in small pieces. the pieces are afterward united by invisible seams. there are usually twelve processes, including the design employed in the production of a piece of this kind of lace, and each of these processes is executed by a special workwoman; but in , at bayeux, in france, a departure was made from the old custom of assigning a special branch of the work to each lacemaker, and the fabric was made through all its processes by one worker. the design is engraved upon a copper plate and then printed off upon pieces of green parchment of a specified length. after the pattern is pricked upon the parchment, which is stitched to a piece of coarse linen folded double, the pattern is then formed in outline by guiding two flat threads along the edge by the thumb of the left hand, and, in order to fix it, minute stitches are made with another thread and needle through the holes of the parchment. after the outline is finished it is given to another worker to make the ground, which is chiefly of two kinds: bride, consisting of uniting threads which serve to join together the flowers of the lace, and réseau, which is worked backward and forward from the footing to the picot. there was also another ground called argentella, consisting of buttonhole-stitched skeleton hexagons. in making the flowers of alençon point, the workwoman, using a needle and fine thread, makes the buttonhole-stitch from left to right, and, when she has reached the end of the flower, throws back the thread from the point of departure and works again from left to right { } along the thread. as a result, the work is characterized by a closeness, firmness and evenness not equaled in any other point lace. when the work is completed the threads which bind lace, linen and parchment together are carefully cut, and the difficult task of uniting the pieces together remains to be done. this is accomplished by means of what is called the "assemblage" stitch, instead of the "point de raccroc," where the pieces are united by a fresh row of stitches. another way of uniting the pieces, which is used at alençon, is by a seam which follows as far as possible the outlines of the pattern so as to be invisible. a steel instrument, called a picot, is then passed into each flower so as to give it a more finished appearance. alençon point is of a durability which no other lace can rival. a peculiarity in its manufacture is, that it is the only lace in which horsehair is inserted along the edge to give increased strength to the cordonnet, a practice originating in the necessity of making the point stand up when the tall headdresses formerly worn by women were exposed to the wind. formerly alençon point, notwithstanding its beauty of construction, could not vie with brussels lace as regards the excellence of floral design, but this inferiority has now been removed by the production of exquisite copies of natural flowers, mingled with grasses and ferns. alençon point is now made not only at the seat of its original manufacture, but at bayeux, at burano, near venice, and at brussels. bayeux can boast of one of the finest examples of this lace ever made. it was exhibited in , and consisted of a dress of two flounces, in which the pattern, flowers and foliage were most harmoniously wrought and relieved by shaded tints, which give to the lace the relief of a picture. the price of the dress was $ , , and it took forty women seven years to finish it. the city of alençon had on exhibition at paris, in , a piece of { } lace of exquisite description, that had taken , working days to complete. allover.--lace of any kind which is eighteen inches or more in width, and used for yokes, flouncings and entire costumes. antique.--a pillow lace, hand-made from heavy linen thread, and characterized by an exceedingly open, coarse, square mesh. it is mainly used for curtains, bed sets and draperies. antwerp.--a pillow lace made at antwerp, resembling early alençon, and whose chief characteristic is the representation of a pot or vase of flowers with which it is always decorated. the pot or vase varies much in size and details. it is usually grounded with a coarse "fond champ." application.--a lace made by sewing flowers or sprigs, which may be either needle-point or bobbin-made, upon a bobbin-lace ground. one variety of brussels lace affords the best example of application. appliquÃ�.--the same as application lace. argentan.--a needle-point lace, usually considered indistinguishable from alençon, but which is different in some respects, its marked peculiarity being that the réseau ground is not made of single threads only, but the sides of each mesh are worked over with the buttonhole stitch. argentan is often distinguished from alençon lace by a larger and more striking pattern, and in some instances it is especially known by its hexagonally arranged brides. it is called after argentan, a town near alençon, and the lace was made there under the same direction. arras.--a white pillow lace, so called from arras, in france, the city of its original manufacture. it is simple and almost uniform in design, very strong and firm to the touch, and comparatively cheap in price. it is made on a lisle ground. the older and finer patterns of arras lace reached their climax of excellence during the first empire, between and , but since then they have gone out of fashion. { } [illustration: real duchesse.] [illustration: real irish crochet.] { } aurillac.--a pillow or bobbin lace, made at aurillac, in france. in the early period of its manufacture it was a close-woven fabric, resembling the guipure of genoa and flanders, but later it resembled english point. the laces of aurillac ended with the revolution. auvergne.--a pillow lace made at the french city of auvergne and the surrounding district. ave maria.--a narrow lace used for edging. (see dieppe lace.) baby.--a narrow lace used for edging, and made principally in the english counties of bedfordshire, buckinghamshire and northamptonshire. these laces are ordinarily of simple design and specially employed in adorning infants' caps. though this fashion went out in great britain, the ladies of america held to the trimmed infants' caps until the breaking out of the civil war, and up to that date large quantities of this lace were exported to america. basket.--a lace so woven or plaited as to resemble basket-work. it is mentioned in inventories of . bayeux.--there are two descriptions of lace known by this name: (a) a modern pillow lace, made at bayeux, in normandy, particularly the variety made in imitation of rose point; (b) a black silk lace, popular because made in unusually large pieces, as for shawls, fichus, etc. bisette.--a narrow, coarse-thread pillow lace of three qualities, formerly made in the suburbs of paris by the peasant women, principally for their own use. the name is now used to signify narrow bordering lace of small value. bobbin.--lace made on a pillow, stuffed so as to form a cushion, without the use of a needle. a stiff piece of parchment is fixed on the pillow, and after holes are pricked through the parchment so as to form the pattern small pins are stuck through these holes into the pillow. the threads with which the lace is formed are wound upon bobbins--small, round pieces of wood about the size of a pencil, having round their upper ends a deep groove, so formed as to reduce the bobbin to a thin neck, on which the thread is wound, a separate bobbin being used for each thread. the ground of the lace is formed by the twisting and crossing of these threads. the pattern or figure, technically called "gimp," is made by interweaving a thread much thicker than that forming the groundwork, according to the design pricked out on the parchment. this manner of using the pillow in lacemaking has remained practically the same during more than three centuries. { } [illustration: real irish appliqué.] [illustration: imitation point de venise.] { } blonde.--a lace so-called because, being made from raw silk, it was "fair," not white in color. blonde lace has a "réseau" of the lille type, made of fine twisted silk, the "toile" being worked entirely with a broad, flat strand, producing a very attractive glistening effect. it was made at chantilly, in france. at the revolution the demand for this fabric ceased, as lacemakers were commonly looked upon as royal protégés. during the first empire, however, blonde became fashionable again, and since that time the popularity of black silk blonde for spanish mantillas alone has kept the trade in a flourishing condition. the manufacture is not confined to any one town, but is carried on throughout the province of calvados, in normandy, and is also made in spain. bobbinet.--a variety of application lace, in which the pattern is applied upon a ground of bobbinet or tulle. bone point.--a lace without a regular mesh ground. border.--lace made in long, narrow pieces, with a footing on one side, the other edge being ordinarily van dyked or purled. during the larger part of the seventeenth century a constant supply of this lace was made at genoa. it was commonly called "collar" lace, from the use to which it was put. in the pictures of rubens and van dyke it is frequently represented as trimming the broad falling linen collars, both of men and elderly women. it can be distinguished from flemish lace, also employed in the same way, by its greater boldness of design. { } younger women also made use of it as trimming for the shoulders of their décolleté dresses, and also for sleeves, aprons, etc. bride.--lace whose ground is wholly composed of brides or bars, without a réseau or net. brussels.--a celebrated lace, made at and near brussels, in belgium; more particularly, a fine variety of the lace made there whose pattern, as compared with alençon, has less relief, and whose fine net ground is without "picots," the knots or thorns which often decorate "brides," and also the edge of the pattern. brussels lace, whose history is one of the most interesting in the progress of this industry, is now often regarded as an application lace, by reason of the fact that the laceworkers of that city, after machine-made net had been perfected by an english invention in , adopted the plan of appliquéing their pillow-made patterns on that material. lace so appliquéd can be recognized as distinct from that made with the "vrai réseau," or true network ground, by the fact that the net ground, though sometimes removed, is often seen to pass behind the lace pattern, and also by the character of the network. machine-made net is composed of diamond-shaped meshes, and is made with two threads only, tightly twisted and crossed, not plaited, at their junction, and is quite unlike the brussels pillow "réseau." other peculiarities by which brussels lace may be recognized are: (a) it is not made in one piece on the pillow, but the pattern is first made by itself, and the "réseau" ground is worked in around it afterward. (b) the "réseau" ground, when magnified under a glass, has a mesh of hexagonal form, of which two sides are made of four threads plaited four times, and four sides of two threads twisted twice. (c) brussels pillow lace has two sorts of "toilé," or substance of the pattern as contrasted with the groundwork; one, the usual woven texture, resembling that of a piece of cambric; the other, a more open arrangement of open threads, having very much the appearance of { } the fond champ "réseau." it remains to be said, in spite of the fact that the above-mentioned characteristics may always be distinguished, that the brussels pillow lace of the present day differs materially from the earlier forms, having gone through many changes and style in pattern and make. among these are point d'angleterre, called such for mistaken reasons only, as it is not point lace nor made in england; and duchesse, a name of comparatively recent date, though the style itself is of earlier origin, and was called "guipure façon angleterre." as regards brussels needle-point, the earliest made closely resembles that of alençon, though not quite so close and firm. there were also other differences, both the "cordonnet" and the "réseau" being unlike those of alençon. from the beginning of the nineteenth century brussels needle-point underwent changes analogous to those of pillow lace; it became point appliqué, in which the needle-lace pattern, instead of having a true net ground, was appliquéd on the machine-made net. but in recent years it has been noted that a return to the character of the earlier and more beautiful brussels needle-point is being sought, the chief evidence of it being the exquisite point gaze, made entirely with the needle and grounded with its own "réseau." buckingham.--a lace originally made in the county of buckingham, england, and of two kinds: (a) buckingham trolley lace, whose pattern is outlined with a thicker thread, or a flat, narrow border, made up of several such threads. the ground is usually a double ground, showing hexagonal and triangular meshes; (b) a lace with a point ground, with the pattern outlined with thicker threads, these threads being weighted by bobbins larger and heavier than the rest. in general character and design these laces strongly resemble those manufactured at lille. cadiz.--a variety of needle-point brussels lace. { } [illustration: imitation marquise.] [illustration: real point d'angleterre.] { } carnival.--a variety of reticella lace made in italy, spain and france during the sixteenth century. cartisane.--guipure or passement, made with cartisane, which is vellum or parchment in thin strips or small rolls, covered with silk, gold thread or similar material. chain.--a lace of the seventeenth century, consisting of a braid or passement so worked as to resemble chain links. it was made of colored silk, and also of gold and silver thread. chantilly.--one of the blonde laces, of the sort recognizable by their alençon réseau ground and the flowers in light or openwork instead of solid. it is made both in white and black silk. black chantilly lace has always been made of silk, but a grenadine, not a lustrous silk. the pattern is outlined with a cordonnet of a flat, untwisted silk strand. during the seventeenth century the duchesse of longueville established the manufacture of silk lace at chantilly and its neighborhood, and as paris was near and the demand of royalty for this lace increased it became very popular. at the time of the revolution the prosperity of the industry was ruined, and many of the lacemakers were sent to the guillotine. during the ascendancy of the first napoleon, the manufacture of chantilly again became flourishing. since then the industry has been driven away from that town on account of the higher labor costs resulting from the nearness of chantilly to paris, and the lacemakers, unable to meet this increased cost, retired to gisors, where half a century ago there were between , and , lacemakers. the supremacy of lacemaking formerly enjoyed by chantilly has now been transferred to calvados, caen, bayeux and grammont. the widely-known chantilly shawls are made at bayeux, and also at grammont. chenille.--a french lace, made in the eighteenth century, so called because the patterns were outlined with fine white chenille. the ground { } was made of silk in honeycomb réseau, and the patterns were geometrical and filled with thick stitches. cluny.--a kind of net lace with a square net background in which the stitch is darned. it is so called from the famous museum of antiquities in the hôtel cluny, at paris, and also because the lace was supposed to have a medieval appearance. the patterns used are generally of an antique and quaint description, mostly of birds, animals and flowers, and in the existing manufacture the old traditions are fairly well preserved. sometimes a glazed thread is introduced in the pattern as an outline. cluny is a plaited lace, somewhat similar to the genoese and maltese laces, and is made in silk, linen or cotton. cordover.--a kind of filling used in the pattern of ancient and modern point lace. cork.--a name formerly used for irish lace in general, when the manufacture of irish lace was principally confined to the neighborhood of cork. craponne.--a kind of stout thread guipure lace, of cheap price and inferior make, used for furniture. cretan.--a name given to an old lace, ordinarily made of colored material, whether silk or linen, and sometimes embroidered with the needle after the lace was complete. crewel.--a kind of edging made of crewel or worsted thread, intended as a border or binding for garments. crochet.--lace which is made with a crochet hook, or whose pattern is so made and then appliquéd on a bobbin or machine-made net. it is similar to needle-point lace, although not equal in fineness to the best examples of the latter. crown.--a lace whose pattern was worked on a succession of crowns, sometimes intermixed with acorns and roses. it was made first in the reign of queen elizabeth. a relic of this lace may still be found { } in the "faux galon," sold for the decoration of fancy dresses and theatrical purposes. dalecarlian.--lace made for their own use by the peasants of dalecarlia, a province of sweden. its patterns are ancient and traditional. it is a coarse guipure lace, made of unbleached thread. damascene.--an imitation of honiton lace, made by joining lace sprigs and lace braid with corded bars. it differs from modern point lace in that it has real honiton sprigs, and is without needlework fillings. darned lace.--a general name for lace upon a net ground, upon which the pattern is appliquéd in needlework. the different laces of this kind are described under filet brodé, guipure d'art and spiderwork. devonshire.--lace made in devonshire, england, and more frequently designated as honiton. (see honiton.) formerly practically the whole female population of devonshire were employed in lacemaking, and during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries belgian, french and spanish laces were imitated in that country most successfully, as were also venetian and spanish needle-point, maltese, greek and genoese laces. during the last century this variety in lacemaking has died out in devonshire, and now only honiton is made. diamond.--a lace made with a stitch either worked as open or close diamonds, and used in modern point and in ancient needle-points. dieppe.--a fine point lace made at dieppe, in france, resembling valenciennes, and made with three threads instead of four. there were several kinds of lace made at dieppe in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, including brussels, mechlin, point de paris and valenciennes, but the true dieppe point was eventually restricted to two kinds, the narrow being called the ave maria and poussin, the wider and double grounded, the dentelle à la vierge. dieppe and havre were formerly the two great lace centers of normandy, manufacturing in those cities having antedated that at alençon, but the prosperity of the lace industry in both these cities was nearly destroyed at the revolution, and though for a time encouraged under the restored bourbons, and patronized by napoleon iii, machine-made laces have practically driven the old dieppe point out of the market. { } [illustration: real torchon.] [illustration: imitation valenciennes.] { } dresden point.--a fine drawn lace, embroidered with the needle and made in dresden during the latter part of the seventeenth and the whole of the eighteenth century. it was an imitation of an italian point lace, in which a piece of linen was converted into lace by some of its threads being drawn away, some retained to form a pattern, and others worked together to form square meshes. the manufacture of dresden point declined, and now laces of many kinds are made there, notably an imitation of old brussels. duchesse.--a fine pillow lace, a variety originally made in belgium resembling honiton guipure lace in design and workmanship, but worked with a finer thread and containing a greater amount of raised or relief work. the leaves, flowers and sprays formed are larger and of bolder design. the stitches and manner of working in honiton and duchesse are alike. dunkirk.--a pillow lace made with a flat thread, and whose manufacture was carried on in the districts around dunkirk, a french seaport, in the seventeenth century. the best known kind was an imitation of mechlin lace. dutch.--a coarse, strong lace, made with a thick ground, and of plain and heavy design. it is a kind of cheap valenciennes. dutch lace is inferior in design and workmanship to those of france and belgium. english point.--(a) a fine pillow lace made in the eighteenth century, generally considered to be of flemish origin and manufacture, { } and mistakenly called "point d'angleterre," as it was neither point lace nor made in england. some writers, however, assert its english origin. owing to the protection formerly given by law to english laces, large quantities of belgium laces are believed to have been smuggled into england under the name of "point d'angleterre," so as to evade the customs duties. (b) at the present day the finest quality of brussels lace, in which needle-point sprigs are applied to brussels bobbin-ground. (see application lace, also point d'angleterre.) escurial.--a modern silk lace, made in imitation of rose point. the patterns are outlined with a lustrous thread or cord. fayal.--a delicately made and costly lace, hand-made by the women of the island of fayal, one of the azores, off the western spanish coast. the thread used in making this lace is spun from the fiber of the leaves of the aloe, a plant resembling somewhat the century plant. great skill is necessary in the manufacture, which is restricted to a comparatively few women of the island, who have been trained to this work from childhood. the lace is marketed in france, chiefly in paris, at a very high price, and it is very difficult for outside purchasers to buy it at any cost. the patterns are extremely elegant and original in design. notwithstanding the delicacy of this fabric, it is remarkably durable. fedora.--see point appliqué. false valenciennes.--(a) lace resembling valenciennes in surface and in pattern, but without the true valenciennes net ground, (b) a term for valenciennes lace made in belgium. flat point.--lace made without any raised-work or work in relief from raised points. flemish point.--a needle-point guipure lace made in flanders. footing.--a narrow lace which is used to keep the stitches of the { } ground firm and to sew the lace to the garment upon which it is to be worn. sometimes the footing is worked with the rest of the design. it is used also in making lace handkerchiefs and for quilling effects. genoa.--a name originally given to the gold and silver laces for which genoa was famed in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but now applied to lace made from the fiber of the aloe plant, and also to macramé lace. gold.--lace made of warp threads or cords of silk, or silk and cotton combined, with thin gold or silver gilt bands passing around it. it was anciently made of gold or silver gilt wire. it is now used chiefly to decorate uniforms, liveries and some church costumes, and occasionally for millinery. the metal is drawn through a wire, and, after being flattened between steel rollers, several strands of the flattened wire are passed around the silk simultaneously by means of a complex machine having a wheel and iron bobbins. the history of gold lace is interesting, as illustrating the oldest form of the lacemaker's art. from the days of egypt and rome down to medieval venice, italy and spain, gold and silver gilt wire were used in making this kind of lace. the jews in spain were accomplished workers in this art, and in sweden and russia gold lace was the first lace made. in france gold lacemaking was a prosperous manufacture at aurrillac and arras, at which latter place it flourished up to the end of the eighteenth century. gold lace was imported into england at an early date, and king james i established a monopoly in it. its importation was prohibited by queen anne, on account of the extravagant uses of ornamentation to which it was put, and it was also prohibited in the reign of george ii, to correct the prevalent taste for the foreign manufactured lace. the attempt was unsuccessful, for we are told that smuggling greatly increased. it became a "war to the knife between the revenue officer and society at large, all classes combined, town ladies of high degree, with waiting-maids, and the common sailor, to avoid the obnoxious duties and cheat the government." { } [illustration: real mechlin.] [illustration: real point de paris.] { } grammont.--grammont lace, so called from the town of grammont, in belgium, where it was originally manufactured, is of two kinds: (a) a cheap, white pillow lace. (b) a black silk lace, resembling the chantilly blondes. these laces are made for flounces and shawls, and were used both in america and europe. as compared with chantilly, the ground is coarser and the patterns are not so clear-cut and elegant as the real chantilly. gueuse.--a thread pillow lace made in france during the eighteenth century. the ground of this lace was réseau, and the toilé was worked with a thicker thread than the ground. it was formerly an article of extensive consumption in france, but, after the beginning of the nineteenth century, it was little used, except by the poorer classes. it was formerly called "beggars' lace." guipure.--it was originally a kind of lace or passement made of cartisane and twisted silk. the name was afterward applied to heavy lace made with thin wires whipped around the silk, and with cotton thread. the word guipure is no longer commonly used to denote such work as this, but has become a term of variable designation, and it is so extensively applied that it is difficult to give a limit to its meaning. it may be used to define a lace where the flowers are either joined by brides, or large coarse stitches, or lace that has no ground. the modern honiton and maltese are guipures, and so is venetian point. but as the word has also been applied to large, flowing pattern laces, worked with coarse net grounds, it is impossible to lay down any hard and fast rule about it. henriques.--a fine stitch or point, used both in early and modern needle-point work. { } [illustration: real arabian.] [illustration: machine irish crochet.] { } hollie point.--a needle-point lace said to have been originally called holy point, on account of its uses. it was popular in the middle ages for church decoration, but was adapted to different purposes in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and various makes of lace have since been called by this name. honiton.--a pillow lace originally made at honiton, devonshire, england, and celebrated for the beauty of its figures and sprigs. the manufacture is still carried on at that town, where there is a lace school, but a similar lace is made in the leading continental centers of the industry. (a) honiton application is made by working the pattern parts on the lace pillow and securing them to a net ground, separately made. at present it is customary to use machine-made net upon which hand-made sprays are sewn. (b) honiton guipure, which in common acceptation passes as honiton lace, is distinguished by its large flower patterns upon a very open ground, the sprays being united by brides or bars. honiton braid is a narrow, machine-made fabric, the variety in most general use being composed of a series of oval-shaped figures united by narrow bars. it is of different widths, in linen, cotton and silk, and is much used in the manufacture of handkerchiefs, collars, and some varieties of lace. the history of honiton lace is more than ordinarily interesting, partly by reason of the doubt as to whether it really was a lace of english invention, or brought by the flemish workmen to england. some writers assert the former, but the stronger probability is that the art was brought from flanders by protestant immigrants, who fled from persecution. whichever theory is held, the development of the industry at honiton, and its close resemblance to other lacemaking processes in belgium, holland and france, afford an excellent illustration of the interdependence of lacemakers in all countries upon each { } other as regards improvements resulting from new ideas. honiton, if it was brought from flanders originally, afterward repaid the debt by the beauty and celebrity of its designs, which served as examples for continental lacemakers. the very attempt to protect its manufacture in england, by imposing prohibitive duties, only increased the desire to receive foreign suggestions, and to smuggle foreign laces into england, while the ingenuity of continental manufacturers succeeded in copying the best honiton designs, and even in improving upon them. the english lacemakers at honiton were, however, at first unsuccessful in their attempts to rival the best laces of the continent, especially brussels. although they had royal patronage, and the whims and lavish expenditure of the court of charles ii were at their service, together with protective duties, it was not until the reign of george ii and george iii that english lace substantially improved. this resulted from substituting the working of the true brussels net ground, or vrai réseau, for the old guipure bar ground. the patterns were also formed of detached flower sprays, and soon the honiton product became almost unrivaled. this superiority continued until about , when machine-made net was introduced, and the old exquisite net ground, made of the finest antwerp thread, went out of fashion by reason of the commercial demand for an inferior product. honiton guipure is now the chief form of lace made at that town. as regards composition of the patterns of honiton laces, as well as finish and delicacy of execution, much improvement has been manifested during the last twenty years by reason of better schools for design, and the rivalry promoted by international exhibitions. imitation.--machine-made lace of any kind. it often rivals real lace in fineness, but necessarily its mechanical regularity of pattern detracts somewhat from the artistic character of the result. constant improvement in processes, however, has in some laces made the { } resemblance to the hand-made product so close that even experts can hardly recognize the difference. if it were asked how the imitation lace can be distinguished from needle-point, the answer is that it is not made with looped stitches like the latter, nor has it the effect of plaited threads, as in pillow lace. again, the toilé of machine-made lace is often found to be ribbed, and this lace is very generally made of cotton instead of the linen thread with which old needle-point and pillow lace is made. in the invention of substitutes for hand-made lace stitches switzerland has been the leader, and by hundreds of machines, perfected from the invention of a native of st. gall, were turning out a close imitation of the hand-made work. the most recent triumphs of this description are the imitations of venetian point, in which a nearer approximation than ever before has been made to the needle-worked toilé, and also of the bride work. but, notwithstanding the marvelous results attained in machine-made lace, they are the triumphs of mechanism which cannot displace the superiority, and charm, and rarity, of the finest hand-made work. in the latter the personal equation, the skill and the loving, workmanlike fidelity of the individual toiler to his task impart a quality which dead mechanism can neither create nor supersede. machine-made lace may be predominantly the lace of commerce, but hand-made lace is the natural expression and embodiment of a delicate and difficult art, and thus it will ever remain. insertion.--a kind of lace, embroidery or other trimming used to insert in a plain fabric for ornamental purposes. it is made with the edges on both sides alike, and often a plain portion of the material outside the work, so that it may be sewn on one side to the garment for which it is intended and to the plain part of the lace or border on the other. { } [illustration: imitation point d'alençon.] { } irish.--a term denoting a variety of laces made in ireland, of which the two most individual and best-known kinds are the net embroideries of limerick and the appliqué and cut cambric work of carrick-ma-cross. other varieties, which are imitations of foreign laces, are irish point, resembling brussels lace; black and white maltese; silver, black and white blondes. the limerick embroideries, for they cannot be strictly called lace, are an imitation of indian tambour work, and consist of fine embroidery in chain-stitches upon a nottingham net. carrick-ma-cross, or irish guipure, is a kind of so-called irish point lace, made at the town of that name, but which is really nothing more than a species of embroidery, from which part of the cloth is cut away, leaving a guipure ground. it is not a very durable lace. the most popular patterns are the rose and the shamrock. irish crochet is an imitation of the needle-point laces of spain and venice; that is to say, it resembles these laces in general effect. there is also a needle-point lace made of rather coarse thread, and used exclusively in ireland and england. the manufacture of laces in ireland is carried on by the cottagers, by the nuns in the convents, and in several industrial schools founded for that purpose. it has only become a popular industry within the last twenty-five years, as the costumes of the people in earlier times did not require lace ornamentation, and there was a widespread and deep-rooted aversion to the adoption of english fashions in clothing so long as certain sumptuary laws were unrepealed. afterward, under slightly more liberal conditions, english fashions were gradually adopted, and with them came the demand for a cheap irish lace, as the foreign laces were too expensive. not until was there any official attempt to encourage the industry, but in that year the royal dublin society established prizes for excellence in lacemaking. this attempt lasted until . in a school was opened in limerick for instruction in the now celebrated lace or embroidery first made in that town; but in the famine years of - more effectual measures were taken to spread a knowledge of the art, and several schools { } were opened in different parts of the country. the irish have never made a lace that can in any sense be called national, but great skill has been developed in the imitations of the foreign fabrics, and the irish name has been so closely associated with some of them that they are popularly considered a native irish product. the exhibition of irish laces at the mansion house in london in added materially to the reputation of these fabrics. irish trimming.--a plain-patterned, woven lace, formerly used in ornamenting muslin underwear, pillow slips and the like. jesuit.--a modern needle-point lace, made in ireland, and so called on account of the tradition as to the introduction of its manufacture after the famine of . knotted.--a term applied to the old punto a groppo, of italian manufacture originally, and consisting of a fringe or border made of knotted threads. it is commonly called knotting in all english-speaking countries. the modern macramé is made like the knotted laces. lille.--a lace made at lille, in france, noted for its clear and light single réseau ground, which is sometimes ornamented with points d'esprit. it is a lace of simple design, consisting of a thick run thread, enclosing cloth-stitch for thick parts, and plaitings for open parts. the old lille lace is always made with a stiff and formal pattern, with a thick, straight edge, and with a square instead of the usual round dots worked over the ground. lille was distinguished as a lacemaking city as far back as , and from that year until the industry was successful, but since the latter year there has been a steady decline, as more remunerative occupations have gradually drawn away the younger workers from lacemaking. the lille pattern was similar to that of the laces made at arras and mirecourt, in france, and in bedfordshire and buckinghamshire, in england, but none of the latter could rival the famous single réseau ground. { } limerick.--(see irish lace.) luxeuil.--a term applied to several varieties of hand-made lace produced at luxeuil, france. they are stout, heavy laces, mostly made with the use of braid, and are much used for curtains and draperies. macramÃ�.--a word of arabic derivation, signifying a fringe for trimming, whether cotton, thread or silk, and now used to designate an ornamental cotton trimming, sometimes called a lace, made by leaving a long fringe of coarse thread, and interweaving the threads so as to make patterns geometrical in form. it is useful in decorating light upholstery. macramé cord is made of fine, close-twisted cotton thread, prepared especially for the manufacture of macramé trimming, and also for coarse netting of various kinds. the foundation of all macramé lace or trimming is knots, made by tying short ends of thread either in horizontal or perpendicular lines, and interweaving the knots so as to form a geometrical design, as above mentioned, and sometimes raised, sometimes flat. this necessitates the forming of simple patterns. this lace is really a revival of the old italian knotted points, which were much used three centuries ago in spain and italy for ecclesiastical garments. it appears in some of the paintings of the early masters, notably paul veronese. the art has been taught during all the nineteenth century in the schools and convents along the riviera. it is developed in great perfection at chiavari, and also at genoa. specimens of elaborate workmanship were in the paris exhibition of . macklin.--another name for mechlin lace. maline.--a name sometimes applied to mechlin lace, especially to the varieties whose ground is distinguished by a diamond-shaped mesh. { } [illustration: real cluny.] [illustration: real bruges.] { } maltese.--a heavy but attractive pillow lace, whose patterns, of arabesque or geometric design, are formed of plaiting or cloth-stitch, and are united with a purled bar ground. it is made both in white silk and thread, and also in black barcelona silk. there is also a cotton machine-made variety, used chiefly in trimming muslin underwear. the history of maltese lace is interesting from the fact that the kind originally made in that island by the natives, which was a coarse variety of mechlin or valenciennes, of an arabesque pattern, was in superseded by the manufacture of the white and black silk guipures now so widely known as maltese lace. this improvement was due to lady hamilton chichester, who brought laceworkers over from genoa to teach their craft in the island. some of the patterns from that time showed the influence of the genoese instruction. maltese lace is made not only in malta, but in auvergne and lepuy in france; in buckinghamshire and bedfordshire, in england, and also in the irish lace schools. ceylon and madras lace also resembles maltese. formerly shawls and veils of much beauty and value were made of this lace, but the manufacture is now confined chiefly to narrow trimmings. mechlin.--a pillow lace originally made at mechlin, belgium, and whose special characteristics are the narrow, flat thread, band or cord, which outlines the pattern, and the net ground of hexagonal mesh. sometimes the mesh is circular. the net ground is made of two threads twisted twice on four sides and four threads plaited three times on the two other sides. in this it differs from brussels lace, whose plait is longer and whose mesh is larger. the lace is made in one piece upon the pillow, the ground being formed with the pattern. the very finest thread is used, and a high degree of skill is necessary, so that the resulting fabric is very costly. it is a filmy, beautiful and highly transparent lace, and preserves for a very long time its distinguishing peculiarity of a shiny thread or band surrounding the outlines of the sprigs and dots of the design. the earliest mechlin designs were very like those of brussels lace, though not so original and graceful; but in this respect later mechlin laces showed marked improvement. the fundamental difference between the two, however, was that mechlin was worked in one piece upon the pillow, while the brussels pattern was first made by itself, and the réseau or net ground was afterward worked in around it. the manufacture of mechlin has long been on the decline, the french revolution seriously injuring the industry; and when the trade was revived and encouraged under napoleon, the exquisite patterns of former times had been partly forgotten or were too expensive for popular demand. at the time of its highest popularity it was called the queen of laces, sharing that title with the finest alençon point. mechlin sometimes had an ornamental net ground called fond du neige, and also a ground of six-pointed fond champ, but these kinds were rare. it has always been a very great favorite with the english, and appears in most of their family collections of laces. there was a fine collection of this lace at the paris exhibition of from turnhout, belgium, as well as from other lace manufacturing centers. { } [illustration: imitation mechlin.] [illustration: imitation torchon.] { } medici.--a name for a variety of modern torchon lace, whose distinguishing peculiarity is the insertion effect, the lace being very like an ordinary insertion, with the exception of having one edge finished with scallops. the medici design is also characterized by plain, close-woven work, the close work alternating in equal amount with the openwork, the contrast between them heightening the effect. mÃ�lange.--a heavy, black silk lace, distinguished by its mingling of spanish patterns with ordinary chantilly effects. the edge is usually plain and straight, but is sometimes ornamented with a fine silk fringe. mignonette.--a light pillow lace, with an open ground resembling tulle, made in narrow strips. it was one of the earliest of pillow laces, and flourished greatly during the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. it was made of lille thread, and the chief places of its manufacture were arras, lille and paris, in france, and in switzerland. { } mirecourt.--a lace made of detached sprigs upon a net made at the same time with the pattern. in the seventeenth century it was a french guipure lace of more delicate texture and varied design than other guipures. mirecourt, in the department of the vosges, and its environs, were the center of the industry. the manufacture was begun at an early date, and for centuries only hempen thread was used, the result being a coarse guipure; but during the early part of the seventeenth century a finer lace of more delicate pattern was produced, and it began to be exported in considerable quantities. before the union of lorraine with france, in , there was less than laceworkers in mirecourt, but in the number had increased to , . during the last century the french demand for this lace increased far beyond the foreign demand, and it became desirable to produce a greater variety of pattern. this was done with great success by imitating the best designs. another recent improvement at mirecourt is the making of application flowers, and though these are not yet as finished as the brussels sprigs, they bid fair to supply the french market, so as to make it to that extent independent of belgium. the lace made at mirecourt is mostly white. the work is similar in process and equal in quality to that of lille and arras. nanduti.--a lace made by the natives of paraguay, ecuador and peru, south america, from the soft, brilliant fiber of the agave plant. it is made in silk or thread by a needle on a cardboard pattern. in peru and ecuador it is also needle-made in the form of small squares and united together. needle-point.--real lace of any kind worked with a needle, on a parchment pattern, and not with bobbins or on a pillow. the distinction between needle-point and bobbin-made, or pillow lace, is also illustrated by the solid part of the pattern, and also the ground of the former. in needle-point the solid parts are invariably made of rows of { } buttonhole stitches, sometimes closely worked and sometimes with small open spaces left in the patterns. the "brides" in needle-point consist of one or two threads fastened across from one part of the pattern to another, and then closely buttonholed over; it will be found, also, that true needle-point is made with only one kind of stitch, the looped or buttonhole stitch already mentioned, and that this is constant amid all varieties of design in this kind of lace. pillow lace, on the contrary, has a "toilé" made of threads crossing each other more or less at right angles; its "brides" consist of twisted or plaited threads, and the "picots" are simple loops, while the network ground of pillow lace is of far greater variety than that of needle-point. in all kinds of pillow lace the net groundwork is made by twisting and plaiting the threads, sometimes in twos and sometimes in fours. briefly speaking, the fundamental difference between needle-point and pillow lace is that the former is made with looped stitches throughout, while the latter is made with twisted or plaited threads, which last is really weaving, though it is done with bobbins and the hand instead of with the loom. oriental.--a lace made on the embroidering machine, which by combined needle and shuttle action produces either simple or complex designs upon netting. the action of the schiffli machine somewhat resembles that of a sewing-machine, and the product is more properly called embroidery than lace. the openwork effects are produced either by the action of chemicals upon the foundation material, or by the use of the scissors. the threadwork results from the combined action of the shuttle and needles. st. gall, switzerland, and plauen, saxony, are the chief manufacturing centers for these laces, which include trimming and border laces, curtains, bed sets, shams, and the like. in the broad historical sense, oriental laces and embroideries refer to the products of the east, especially to the chinese, indian, japanese, persian and turkish. all these were remarkable for the labor expended upon them, their great cost, and the originality and boldness of idea and coloring which marked their design. { } [illustration: real renaissance.] [illustration: machine valenciennes.] { } oyah.--a guipure lace or openwork embroidery, made by means of a hook in a fashion similar to crochet. the pattern is often elaborate, and in silks of many colors, representing flowers, foliage, etc. it is sometimes in relief. parchment.--lace in whose manufacture parchment has been used, whether in the pattern for the worker's guidance, or for stiffening the fabric, as in cartisane lace. in old accounts of laces, the term was often applied to those made on the pillow to distinguish them from needle-point laces, and it was derived from the pattern on which pillow laces were worked. { } [illustration: imitation point de venise combined with point gaze.] { } passement.--a term applied to the oldest class of pillow laces, at a time when they were of comparatively simple construction, being little more than open braids and gimps. this designation was in use until the middle of the seventeenth century. the word is now applied to a decorative edging or trimming, especially a gimp or braid. it is an old french word, and in the country of its origin included in its meaning both lace and embroideries. it has an interesting literary association, having figured, under the slightly altered form of "passemens," in a satirical poem published at paris in . the poem, which is entitled "la révolte des passemens," is dedicated to mademoiselle de la trousse, a cousin of madame de sévigné, and was probably composed by one of her literary friends. it is a protest against a sumptuary law passed in the previous year to check the lavish expenditure on laces imported from venice and italy, and is interesting as an account of the best laces of that day, among which are "pointes de gènes, de raguse, de venise, d'angleterre et de flanders," as well as the "gueuse" of humbler pretensions. the various laces are supposed to revolt against the law excluding them from france, and especially from their place in the exalted society of the court. mesdames les broderies-- "le poincts, dentelles, passemens, qui par une vaine despence, ruinoient aujourd'hui la france"-- call an indignation meeting. one of them hotly demands what punishment shall be meted out to the court for such treatment-- "dites moi je vous prie, poincts, dentelles ou broderies, qu'aurons nous donc fait à la cour," etc. various laces speak their mind freely in reply, but most of them are gloomy as to the future, while a few try to take a philosophical view of the situation, and resign themselves to an humbler though still useful fate. an english lace, "une grande dentelle d'angleterre" answers "cet infortune sans seconde elle fait bien renoncer au monde * * * * * * pour ne plus tourner à tout vent comme d'entrer dans un convent." the laces of flanders are not so submissive as that, being too vain and ambitious for renunciation of the world and life in a convent, and their angry opposition starts a little tempest of debate, fierce resolution alternating with despair. a black lace in hopeless mood hires herself out with a game merchant, for nets to catch snipe and woodcock. an old gold lace, in grandmotherly style, tries to comfort the younger ones, by reminding them of the vanity of the world. she knows all about it--she, who has dwelt in king's houses. the flanders laces cry out that rather than give in they would sooner be sewn to the bottom of a petticoat. some of the younger ones declare they must still have amusement, having had so much, and rather than renounce the world they will { } seek refuge in the masquerade shops. the point laces, with the exception of aurillac, then resolve to go each to his own country, when suddenly the humble but plucky gueuse lace, the lace of the common people, arrives from a village near paris and encourages the others to fight it out. the next morning they all assemble and agree upon a plan of campaign, but before doing so take stock of their qualifications and prospects. poinct d'alençon has a good opinion of herself; a flanders lace says she made two campaigns under the king, as a cravat; another had been in the wars under the great marshal turenne; another was torn at the siege of dunkirk; and all had done something worth notice. "what have we to fear?" asked an english lace. a poinct de génes, of rather flabby character, advises the english lace to go slow. finally open war is declared, and the laces all assemble at the fair of st. germain to be reviewed by general luxe. the muster roll is called by colonel sotte depense, and the various regiments and battalions march forth to victory or death. but they got neither, for at the first approach of the royal artillery they take to their heels, are captured and condemned to various punishments. the gold and silver laces, the leaders of the rebellion, are sentenced to the fate of jeanne d'arc, to be burned alive; the points are condemned to be made into tinder for the sole use of the king's musketeers; others are to be made into cordage or sent to the galleys. but pardon is obtained through the good offices of cunning little cupid--"le petit dieu plein de finesse," and the rebels are restored to their former position. the poem illustrates the policy of most european governments at that time, a policy of excluding foreign manufactures of all kinds; and in the case of laces, the fear of encouraging wasteful habits among the rich, who offered a tempting opportunity for royal extortion, was too { } useful a pretence to be passed by. but all these efforts were fruitless to discourage the growth of lacemaking. the passion for beauty in personal adornment would not down. the engravings of abraham bosse, which portray the dress and manners of that time, humorously depict the despair of the fashionable lady over the prospect of giving up her laces. she is represented as attired in plain hemmed linen cuffs, collar and cap of puritanical severity, bemoaning her sad fate, in heartbreaking strains, as she sorrowfully packs away her rich lace-trimmed costumes. her sadness was not unduly prolonged. colbert, the great french statesman, saw that laces would be smuggled if they were legally prohibited, that the rich would have them at any cost, so he encouraged foreign lacemakers to come to france, and the manufacture was thus promoted. pillow.--lace made on the pillow or cushion, both pattern and mesh being formed by hand. see needle-point lace. plaited.--a pillow lace of simple geometrical design, often made of strong and stiff strands, such as gold thread or fine braid. the pattern, besides being geometrical in design, is open, and has no grounds. for ordinary purposes tinsel is used instead of real gold, and the lace is then employed for theatrical purposes. historically considered, the plaited laces made of gold, silver or silk thread, took the place of the italian knotted laces of the sixteenth century. those produced at genoa and in spain were the best, and they are made in spain to-day, chiefly for church uses. the thread plaited laces of the seventeenth century were used to trim ruffs and falling collars, but went out of fashion when flowing wigs came in, as the latter hid the collar and would not allow ruffs to be worn. at the present time plaited laces have become known under the name of maltese and cluny, and are made at auvergne, in france, malta, and in the english counties of bedfordshire and buckinghamshire. { } [illustration: real maltese.] [illustration: real guipure.] { } plauen.--a name applied to any kind of lace made at plauen, saxony, or elsewhere, upon the embroidering machine, such as oriental, tulle and chiffon lace, point de venise, point d'irlande. plauen led in the manufacture of this kind of lace, having begun it in , from which year dates the importance of that city as a lace market. the manufacture was gradually developed. only the tulle variety of embroidery lace was produced until . the distinguishing feature of this was that the hollow effects were made by opening the tulle meshes by hand. then, in , an openwork process was invented by which chemical action was employed to remove a woolen or silk foundation from the cotton-embroidered pattern, or a cotton foundation from a silk embroidery that had been worked on it. this made it possible to form the pattern by the embroidery machine in the same way as in the case of ordinary embroidery. the wool foundation, which is necessary to be removed in finishing the goods, is dissolved by the action of certain chemicals without changing the cotton or silk pattern. in this way the most difficult and complicated patterns of real lace can be imitated. plauen manufacturers have for the most part taken the old and costly hand-made laces of former times for their models; but they have also originated new and tasteful designs from time to time. point appliquÃ�.--point lace whose design is separate from the net ground, to which it is afterward applied. at the present time the net ground is usually machine-made. the word "point," however, in this connection, is of variable application, sometimes signifying point appliqué, and sometimes denoting lace, whether pillow or needle-point; that is, worked in sprays and laid upon a machine-net ground. (see application lace.) point d'alenÃ�on.--see alençon. point d'angleterre.--see english point. point de gaze.--a very fine, gauze-like lace, made entirely with the { } needle and grounded with its own net. point de gaze is the result of an attempt of the brussels lacemakers to return to the best early traditions of needle-point. point de gaze differs, however, from the finest old needle-point in certain respects, partly necessitated by modern taste in design, and partly from the need of great economy in labor costs. for example, the execution is much more open and delicate than in the early lace of this description, but this very delicacy and slightness are made use of to produce a very elegant effect. part of the toile, or substance of the pattern, is made in close and part in open stitch, giving an appearance of shading, and the open parts are very tastefully ornamented with dots. the result does not in all respects equal the softness and richness of the early lace, but if point de gaze seems thin and loose in comparison, and if the patterns seem less ideally beautiful, nevertheless the later work has a unique lightness and delicacy to which the earlier lace did not attain. it certainly is the most etherial and delicately beautiful of all point laces. its forms are not emphasized by a raised outline of buttonhole stitching, as in point d'alençon and point d'argentan, but are simply outlined by a thread. point de gÃ�ne.--a name at present applied to a species of lace made both in cotton and silk at st. gall and plauen, and recognized by its regular net ground and large, open patterns in heavy stitchwork. it is a popular trimming for women's dresses. point de gène, or gènes, was originally one of the laces made at the city of genoa and in the surrounding country during the seventeenth century, both the pillow and needle laces made there being deservedly famous. gold and silver thread and gold wire were used in the manufacture of the earliest needle-point laces at genoa, and the gold wire was drawn out in exact imitation of the early greek method. one of the best genoese laces resembles the early greek points in patterns. there was also a guipure lace, made from aloe fiber, as well as the knotted lace now { } known as macramé. the last named is the only lace at present made in genoa, and along the seacoast. point d'esprit.--a term applied to a small oval or square figure, peculiar to certain varieties of early guipure, and ordinarily composed of three short lengths of parchment or cord, placed side by side and covered with thread. these oval or square figures were most commonly arranged in the form of rosettes. at present the term point d'esprit denotes a much smaller solid or mat surface, used to diversify the net ground of some laces. it is in the form of small squares that set at close and regular intervals. in standard histories of lace the term is also used as synonymous with embroidered tulle, made in brittany, denmark and around genoa. point d'irlande.--a coarse, machine-made imitation of real venetian point lace. it is popular for dress trimmings, and is manufactured in a great variety of widths in cotton and silk. it has no net ground, the patterns being united by brides. point de milan.--a guipure lace with a small mesh ground, and the pattern distinguished by striking scroll designs. the flowers in the pattern of hand-made point de milan are flat, and have the appearance of having been wrought in close-woven linen. milan point was made at the city of that name in . gold and silver thread were first used, but the milan points were finer than these, and fully equal to the best spanish and venetian points. point de paris.--originally a narrow pillow lace, resembling brussels. the term is now generally applied to a machine-made cotton lace of simple pattern and inferior quality. in its making a design whose figures, such as flowers and leaves, are outlined with a heavy thread, is worked upon a net ground. point de paris is distinguished by the net, which is hexagonal in form. point de venise.--see venice point. { } [illustration: imitation irish crochet.] { } point.--same as needle-point lace, made wholly by hand, with the needle and a single thread. pot.--lace whose pattern is distinguished by the figure of a vase or deep dish, and sometimes by that of a basket containing flowers. it is the best-known lace made at antwerp, and was formerly in common use in that city for decorating women's caps. the vase and basket figures vary much in size and design. some have considered this pattern to be a survival from an earlier design, including the figure of the virgin and the annunciation, but this is not certain. powdered.--lace whose ground is strewn with small, separate ornaments, such as flowers, sprigs, or squares, like point d'esprit. the term is applied also to whitened lace. renaissance.--a modern point lace, whose patterns are made of narrow braid, and united by bars or filling of different kinds. it is generally ornamented with circular figures and scroll-work, stitched in place by needle and thread, the intervening spaces or groundwork, being composed of a variety of fancy openwork. irish renaissance, luxeuil and battenberg are the other names for this lace. rose point.--see venice point. saxony.--fine drawnwork embroidered with the needle, in much demand in the eighteenth century. at the present time the term is somewhat vague, denoting many kinds of laces made in saxony, especially in imitation of old brussels lace. though the latter is the best that is made, a coarse guipure lace, known as etervelle, and plaited lace has the greatest sale. seaming.--a narrow openwork insertion, gimp or braiding, with parallel sides, used for joining two breadths of linen, instead of sewing them directly the one to the other. the name is given to a similar lace used for edgings, as in the trimming of pillow-cases and sheets. { } during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries this lace was very popular, though the name "seaming" was then applied to any kind of lace used for a particular purpose--namely, to insert in the linen or other fabric wherever a seam appeared, and often where no seam was really necessary. the lace first used for this purpose was cut-work; then hollie point became fashionable, and afterward the custom grew to be so common that cheaper laces were employed. there is still in existence a sheet decorated with cut-work that once belonged to shakespeare. silver.--a passement or guipure wholly or in large part composed of silver wire, or of warp threads of silk, or silk and cotton combined, wound with a thin, flat ribbon of silver. see gold lace. spanish.--a general term applies to the following four different kinds of lace: (a) needle-point lace, brought from spanish convents after their dissolution, though the art of making it is thought by some to have been learned in flanders. (b) cut and drawnwork made in spanish convents, of patterns usually confined to simple sprigs and flowers. (c) a modern black silk lace with large flower patterns. (d) a modern needle-made fabric, the pattern usually in large squares. the machine-made black and white silk laces, with their flower patterns, are from lyons and calais, france. much could be said about the uncertain application of the term "spanish" in regard to certain kinds of lace. it has often been inaccurately used. for instance, "spanish point" and "point d'espagne" have been misapplied to italian laces, in the same way that "point d'angleterre" has been misapplied to brussels lace. in the four kinds of spanish lace above enumerated, it is noticeable that some are of flemish origin. a lace known for certain to be of spanish origin is a coarse pillow guipure made in white thread and also of gold and silver. it is a loosely made fabric consisting of three cordonnets, the center one being the coarsest, united by finer threads running in and out across them, and with brides to join { } the parts of the pattern and keep them in shape. it is well known that large quantities of lace that have the characteristics of raised venetian point were used in spain, both for court dresses and church purposes, such as the ornamentation of vestments and altars. during the invasion of napoleon the churches and monasteries were pillaged and the laces contained therein were scattered abroad and sold as being of spanish origin, though many of them were not. the graceful spanish headdress, the mantilla, has been chiefly made in the province of catalonia, out of black and white blondes, but it is inferior to a similar lace of french manufacture. the most celebrated of the spanish laces are the gold and silver fabrics, known as point d'espagne, the blonde laces and spanish or rose point. the first-named is a very old lace, was known in spain as early as the middle of the fifteenth century, and is made with gold and silver threads, upon which a pattern is embroidered in colored silk. the blondes, which have been already mentioned, have thick though graceful patterns upon a light net ground. rose point is wholly made with the needle and is very like venetian point, being considered, in fact, as a variety of the latter. the close resemblance is accounted for by the fact that this kind of lace was made by the inmates of religious houses, which were transferred from one country to another at the will of their superior and carried with them the secret of a difficult art. the rose points, some of which are not raised, are formed with a pattern-worked net in buttonhole stitches, the parts of the pattern being joined together by brides. the raised rose points are recognized by their thick cordonnet or outlining of the pattern. tambour.--lace made with needle embroidery upon a machine-made net, generally black or white nottingham. it is chiefly made in ireland and commonly included among the limerick laces. { } [illustration: leavers's lace machine.] { } tape.--a lace made with the needle, except that a tape or narrow strip of linen is wrought into the work and is the distinguishing feature of the pattern. these plain or ornamented tapes or braids, arranged so as to form the pattern, have always been peculiar to this kind of lace. the patterns are connected together with either bride or net grounds. the earliest were made with a bride ground and simple cloth stitch, but gradually very elaborate designs were wrought as part of the braid-like patterns and united by open-meshed grounds. in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries the braid and tape laces included the large majority of coarse pillow laces made in flanders, spain and italy. thread.--lace made from linen thread as distinguished from silk and cotton laces. black thread is a misnomer for chantilly. torchon.--a coarse pillow lace made of strong, soft and loosely twisted thread. in europe it is known also as "beggars'" lace, and the old french gueuse lace was similar to torchon. the patterns generally are very simple and formed with a loose stout thread and the ground is coarse net. torchon is now also machine made. valenciennes.--a solid and durable pillow lace having the same kind of thread throughout for both ground and pattern. both the pattern and ground are wrought together by the same hand, and as this demands much skill in the manipulation of a great many threads and bobbins, the price of valenciennes is very high. the mesh of the ground is usually square or diamond shaped, very open and of great regularity. it is a flat lace, worked in one piece, and no different kind of thread is introduced to outline the pattern or to be wrought into any part of the fabric. this affords a ready means of distinguishing the hand-made variety of this lace. the valenciennes now made is not so beautiful in design and construction as the fabric of an earlier date, especially in the latter part of the eighteenth century. it is usually of narrower width and is easier to learn how to make. valenciennes was first made at the town of that name, which, { } though originally flemish, was transferred to france by treaty; and the manufacture at this town was carried on under conditions which assured the superiority of the lace produced there. the difference between the valenciennes product and that of other towns could be detected by the softer "feel" in the former case, because the moist climate of valenciennes gave a smoother action to the bobbins when used in manufacture; and it is interesting to note that the lace was made in underground rooms. these peculiarities earned for lace made in that town the name of vraie valenciennes, and it brought a higher price than the valenciennes of the surrounding villages. the thread was spun from the finest flax. to buy a yard of a flounce or a pair of broad ruffles was a serious matter for the purchaser unless he was wealthy. the labor cost was high even in those days of low wages; from to , bobbins were required in a piece of fine work. the history of the changes in valenciennes patterns is, to some extent, a history of deterioration in elegance of design. the first patterns were exquisitely beautiful, the designs often being wrought in grounds that were varied in several ways even in one piece. the designs afterward became simpler, and octagon and hexagon meshes came to take the place of the close grounds of earlier manufacture. since the lighter and less expensive laces of lille, brussels and arras have partly ousted the more beautiful, costly and durable product of valenciennes, while changes in modern dress have stopped the demand for some articles which were formerly among the fashionable mainstays of the industry; for example, men's ruffles. the french revolution practically destroyed lacemaking at valenciennes, and the industry was transferred to belgium. the lace produced there was, however, given the name of false valenciennes. alost, bruges, ypres, ghent, menin and courtrai became centers of the manufacture, and the lace made in each town had a distinguishing { } feature in the ground. for example, the ghent ground is square meshed, the bobbin being twisted two and one-half times. at ypres, the ground is square meshed, but the bobbins are twisted four times. in courtrai and menin, the bobbins are twisted three and a half times, and in bruges three times. as an illustration of the fact that the making of old valenciennes is a lost art, it is interesting to note that the last important piece of work executed within that town was a headdress presented by the town to the duchesse de nemoms on her marriage in . the headdress was made by old women, the few real valenciennes laceworkers then surviving, with the praiseworthy and patriotic object of showing the perfection of the product of former days. there are several machine-made varieties of valenciennes. english valenciennes is chiefly made at nottingham; it is also called platt and normandy valenciennes. it is an imitation of the early hand-made lace, to the extent of having a similar diamond-meshed ground. its pattern is without relief, and the threads of which it is made are no heavier than the ground. french valenciennes is made mostly at calais. its pattern is usually outlined by a stouter thread than that forming the ground, and it has a finer finish and softer "feel" than the english valenciennes; in fact, it is an excellent imitation of the real. italian valenciennes is a narrow, fine-threaded lace, used for trimming fine underwear. { } [illustration: schiffli or power embroidering machine.] { } venice point.--a needle-point lace made at venice during the first half of the seventeenth century. it is somewhat difficult to apply the name exclusively to any one of the several varieties of venetian point made at that time; but venetian raised point, whose pattern is of large, beautifully designed flowers in decided relief and united by brides or bars, is commonly called venetian point. other names applied to this kind of lace are rose point, venetian flat point, carnival lace, cardinal's point, pope's point, and point d'espagne. these names simply register the various changes of style and manufacture in the history of this lace. with the exception of point d'espagne, which has a less valid claim to be called venetian point than the others, the various names given serve roughly to suggest the distinction between three separate stages in point of style and date of the fabric known broadly as "punto tagliato a foliani," or venetian point. they are generally given as follows: ( ) venetian raised point, or gros point de venise, under which is included rose point; ( ) venetian flat point, or point plat de venise, with its later variety, known as coraline point; ( ) grounded venetian point, or point de venise à réseau, which includes burano point, so called from the island near venice, where it was made. with regard to raised point, it is worth noting, in addition to the characteristics already referred to, that the flower design is of a freedom and continuity that make the pattern so filling that there is very little space left for the ground, the bridework merely serving to hold the pattern strongly together. the cordonnet, or outlining thread, is unusually prominent, and the raised part is no less remarkable for its boldness in design than for its delicate workmanship. an italian poet has described this work as "sculptured in relief." in raised point the skill of the laceworker was informed by the instinct for beauty in such a degree as to produce one of the highest types of the art. rose point resembles raised point in all essential features, the only difference being that the designs are smaller and the ornamentation more abundant. the pattern is less filling and the connecting brides more prominent. flat venetian point is marked by an absence of the prominent raised work, the designs are more attenuated, and the brides are altogether more prominent than in the raised point. coraline point is a variety of flat point, which must be considered a deterioration in design on account of its ill-connected and irregular pattern, which was originally supposed to imitate a branch of coral. there is no raised work, the ground meshes are ill-arranged and ill-shaped, and on the whole this { } lace marks the decadence of an art formerly almost perfect. it is more like an imitation of a free growth of plants, the tangled growth of a state of nature, as compared with the order and beauty of art. the grounded point, the last stage of development of venetian lace, began to be made to supply the markets of france after the fine old venetian point had been excluded by protective laws. the venetian lacemakers then adopted the réseau or net ground made at alençon. the ground is composed of double twisted threads, and has a rounder mesh than alençon, and there is no outlining cordonnet. in this variety of venetian point, which was produced during the latter half of the eighteenth century, the pattern is not so well arranged as in others, and there is a redundancy of ornamentation. the manufacture of venetian point is now almost extinct. the machine-made variety, produced on the schiffli embroidery frame, is now made at plauen and st. gall. (see plauen lace.) yak.--a stout, coarse pillow lace, made from the fine wool of the yak. the patterns are of simple, geometrical design, connected with plaited guipure bars that form part of the pattern, being made out of the same threads at the same time. the term is also applied to a machine-made worsted lace, produced in black, white and colors. it is used as a trimming for undergarments, shawls and petticoats. ypres.--a pillow lace resembling valenciennes, but sometimes with bolder designs and rather large lozenge or square mesh in the ground; also a type of valenciennes. * * * * * corrections made to printed original: page in "though it was also regarded as the insignia":--"though", printed as "thought" in original. page in "transferred to calvados":--"transferred", printed as "trasferred" in original. page in "the leaves of the aloe":--"aloe", printed as "alol" in original. page in "raised outline of buttonhole stitching":--"raised", printed as "raise" in original. page in caption "schiffli or power embroidering machine":--"embroidering", printed as "embroldering" in original. internet archive (http://www.archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see http://www.archive.org/details/advancedtoymakin mitc transcriber's note: text enclosed by "pound" or "number" signs is in bold face (#bold#). advanced toy making for schools by david m. mitchell instructor manual arts willson junior high school, cleveland, ohio [illustration] the manual arts press peoria, illinois copyright david m. mitchell b printed in united states of america preface toys are today regarded as educational factors in the life of boys and girls. new toys come into demand at frequent intervals in the growth and mental development of the child. on account of the unfailing interest on the part of the pupils in toys and because of the unlimited educational possibilities contained in toy making, this work is rightfully taking an increasingly important place in the manual arts program in the schools. this book is the outgrowth of toy-making problems given to junior-high and high-school pupils. the author claims no originality for some of the toys. however, most of them have been originated or improved upon in the author's classes. while it is entirely satisfactory to have any of the toys mentioned in this book made as individual projects, they are here offered as suitable group projects or production projects, and it is hoped that the suggested form of shop organization for production work as treated in part i is flexible enough so that the plan can be applied to most any shop conditions. the drawings of toys in part ii will suggest a variety of articles which may be used in carrying out the production work. of course, the success of organizing and conducting classes for this kind of work depends largely upon the instructor. he must know definitely what he is trying to get done. he must adopt and pursue such methods of dealing with both the members of the class and the material as will contribute directly towards the desired end. toy making carried on by the so-called productive plan, if handled properly, will bring out many of the essentials of an organization typical of the commercial industries. together with its educational possibilities and its power to attract the attention of those engaged in this activity, toy making will rightfully take its place alongside other important subjects offered in a complete industrial arts course. the author wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to william e. roberts, supervisor of manual training, cleveland public schools, for valuable suggestions and inspiration; to joseph a. shelley, jersey city, n. j., for suggestions on finishing kiddie car wheels; to the eclipse air brush company, newark, n. j., for valuable information and photographs of air brush equipment; and to the american wood working machinery co., for the use of the illustrations showing the operation of the turning lathe, universal saw, and other woodworking machines. d. m. mitchell cleveland, ohio, . contents part i operations in toy making chapter i. productive work . suggested plan for shop organization. . grouping of students. . the time clerk and tool-room clerk. . recording attendance. . time cards. . using time card. . grading students. . preliminary discussion and preparation for shopwork. . bazaars, toy sales, etc. chapter ii. coloring toys . sanitation emphasized. . preparation of surfaces. . application of water colors. . analine water stains. . formulas for analine water stains. . oil stains. . shellacking. . varnishing. . points on varnishing. . colored varnish. . another suggestion for finishing. . use of paint. . ingredients of good paint. . application of paint. . preparation of surface. . tinting materials. . mixing paints. . paint formulas. . formulas for making tinted paint. . enameling. . the dipping method. . polishing by tumbling. . care of brushes. . paint application by means of compressed air. . uses of pneumatic sprayers. . construction of pneumatic painting outfit. . special attachments for different surfaces. . cleaning pneumatic machines. . directions for cleaning machine. . directions for operating pneumatic equipment. . preparing colors. chapter iii. common woods used in toy making . economy in selecting material. . qualities of different woods used. chapter iv. use of jigs and fixtures . value of jigs and fixtures. . cutting small wheels. . turning wheels. . use of wheel cutter. . use of coping saw. . cutting sharp corners. . removing the saw-blade from frame. . making heavy wheels. . designs for wheels. . cutting wheels on band-saw. . boring holes in wheels. chapter v. operation of woodworking machines . importance of machine operations. . operating the lathe. . face plate turning. . the universal saw. . the hand jointer. . the sander. part ii drawings for toys page plate . fox and geese game " . ring toss " . baby's cart " . hay cart " . horse head " . horse on wheels " . kido kar trailer " . auto roadster " . auto racer " . passenger car " . milk wagon " . table for doll house " . chair and rocker " . buffet " . toy wheel-barrow " . horse barrow " . doll's carriage " . noah's ark " . "bean bag" game board " . child's swing no. " . child's swing no. " . doll's bed, no. " . doll's bed, no. " . adjustable stilts " . scooter " . steering coaster " . kido kar " . kid kar junior " . pony kar " . duplex speedster " . rock-a-doodle " . sled " . "sturdy flyer" sled " . ducky loo " . duck rocker " . jitney " . junior roadster " . details of junior roadster " . senior coaster " . details of senior coaster " . auto-kar " . choo-choo-kar " . teeter-totter " . teeter rocker " . checker board " . child's costumer " . baby's chair " . children's sand box " . sand box no. " . doll's house no. " . doll's house no. " . doll's house no. " . dumb bell & indian club " . bats suggestions to teachers where the work is to be done on the so-called productive basis, it is of utmost importance that, before starting, the classes should be so organized as to allow the work to be carried on in the most efficient, progressive manner. the form of shop organization suggested in this book is recommended. however, the instructor may, particularly if he has had good practical shop experience, employ other methods of organization that are just as good and possibly even better for his particular class and the conditions under which he has to work. it is also of great importance that the instructor should acquaint himself with the processes involved in the making of each toy before allowing the class to begin it. this may be accomplished by the making of a sample of the contemplated project, carefully analyzing its different parts and arranging the operations in a logical sequence. this phase of the work may be done during class discussions and demonstrations at which time the different jigs and fixtures needed for progressive production may also be developed. the different methods of coloring toys have been suggested with the hope that the student will gain a realization of the importance of finishing, from both the artistic and the practical point of view. the application of paint by means of compressed air is the latest development in the coloring of toys, and an equipment in the school shop illustrating the principles of compressed air as applied to productive finishing of toys, is a step forward in making school shops function as they should. the working drawings in this book should serve as suggestions. they have been so constructed as to be free from unnecessary technicalities, and to leave as much opportunity as possible for the exercise and development of the student's judgment. it will be found that toy making offers itself readily to the desired co-operation and correlation with other departments in the school. for instance, the art department may aid with the designing and color scheme to be used on toys; the general metal shop may help in the making of necessary metal parts: the mechanical drawing department can co-operate in the making of working drawings; the mathematics department can figure the costs of production, etc., etc. it is hoped that the purpose of this book is not merely to set forth a few plans and drawings for the construction of toys, but to give the work the broadest possible application; creating a constructive influence on the minds of the students, in which case it will also act as a means of bringing into closer relationship their life outside of school with the work in school. [illustration: toy making on a productive basis employing factory methods] part i operations in toy making chapter i productive work # . suggested plan for shop organization.#--while it is entirely satisfactory to have any of the toys mentioned in this book made as individual projects, they are here offered as suitable group projects or production projects. production work may be defined as work done by a class to turn out a number of similar projects that have a marketable value, with the aid of jigs, fixtures, and other means of duplication, illustrating the industrial or practical application to the tasks in hand, figs. , , and . this does not mean, however, that the school shops be transformed into a factory in the full sense of the word. it should differ from a factory in that the education of the student is the major part of the product, while in the factory production is the foremost aim. in doing work by the productive plan two important problems will present themselves at the outset; first, the time element; and second, industrial or practical application to the tasks in hand. a brief explanation of the plan of organization in one of the author's classes will attempt to show how nearly these problems can be solved. [illustration: fig. . material for toys, prepared on a large scale] # . grouping of students.#--classes are divided into groups of between four and six boys, with a boy foreman appointed at the head of each group. the foreman is held responsible for the work turned out by his boys. he is to see that they understand just what is to be done and how it is to be done. all the group foremen are directly responsible to the general foreman who in turn is responsible to the instructor. the general foreman is to act as an inspector of finished work after it has received the group foreman's o.k. he is also held responsible for the condition of the shop during his class hour. this includes looking after all material, the manner in which stock is put away after class, and adherence to all shop rules that have been adopted to help in the efficiency of shop procedure. [illustration: fig. . a large order of toys partly constructed] # . the time clerk and tool-room clerk.#--a "_time clerk_" is appointed to take charge of the time cards. he is also held responsible for all the clerical work that is to be done in the shop. a _tool-room clerk_ is appointed to take charge of the shop tool room. he is to keep check of all tools given out and taken in. his spare time should be devoted to the care of tools. if possible, each boy in the class should be given an opportunity to act in each capacity that has been created, so that he may get the most varied experience in shop procedure. this will necessitate the changing of boys from one group to another; the changing of foremen, clerks, etc., at intervals which will of course be governed by the size of the class and the number of hours devoted to the work. [illustration: fig. . milk wagons completed by the production method] # . recording attendance.#--boys, upon entering the shop, register their presence at the time-card rack, fig. . this is done by turning the time card shown in fig. , so that the back side, which has the word present printed at top, is exposed. the time clerk then inspects the cards and notes those that have not been turned, and records the absences. he then fills in the date and passes the cards out to the boys in the shop. toward the latter part of the period, a few minutes time is given the boys to fill in the necessary data on the time card. the time cards are then collected by the time clerk and put into a box where the time cards of all the classes are kept. in the meantime the time clerk puts back into the time rack the cards of the incoming class. this duty is performed by the time clerks of all the classes, thereby necessitating the use of only one time card rack. [illustration: fig. . the time-card rack.] # . time cards.#--referring to the time card mentioned in fig. it will be seen that the workman's shop number is filled in at the top. then under the heading of "woodworking department" are two horizontal rows of items which need very little explanation. following are three columns headed "operation," "assignment," and "time." below the word "operation" are set down the various operations undertaken in the woodworking department, with several vacant spaces provided where other and special operations can be filled in. it will also be noticed that "operations" are divided into two kinds, machine work and bench work. the instructor's glance at the time card will tell him at once what phase of the work the boy has been employed in and will help him in apportioning the work so that the boy is offered a varied experience. # . using time card.#--for shops that are not equipped with the kind of machines marked on the illustrated card, it would be well to omit the names of machines in the "operation" column. the instructor may then fill in the operation whatever it may be. under the heading "assignment" and against the operation which is to be undertaken by the student, the instructor writes in the name of the part to be made. this is the student's assignment and it should be read by him at the time he records his presence at the time-card rack upon entering the shop. in making assignments, the instructor may find it rather difficult to keep up with large classes of boys. this difficulty may be overcome by making an assignment to an entire group instead of to each boy. for example, in a class of twenty-five that would probably be divided into five groups, the instructor may make the assignment to the foreman of each group and each foreman in turn can inform the boys of his group as to the nature of the assignment. the boys can then enter the assignment on their time cards at the end of the period when the time spent on the job at hand is also recorded. the student's shop number, name, and grade should be filled in by the time clerk who can get out a number of cards for each student in advance and these are kept ready for use by the instructor. the instructor can then mark the project and the job number together with the student's assignment. at the same time he estimates the journeyman's time and rate and enters them in the space provided. the time card in fig. , is ½ inches by inches, made of three-ply bristol board. all worker's cards are printed on white colored bristol while those of the foremen are of blue colored bristol. this plan is for the instructor's convenience to be able to pick out the foremen's time cards at a glance. in the triple column under the heading "time" is provided room for the date and spaces in which the student can write the time in minutes spent on the various operations on that date. the triple columns on each side of the card allow of the cards being used for six days. if a job lasts longer than six days another card should be used marking them no. and no. , respectively, in the space marked "card no." both cards should be fastened and kept together. [illustration: fig. . time card] effort should always be made to have all the assignments short (less than six days) so that the student's record may be computed at the end of each week by the time clerk. # . grading students.#--the next four spaces contain in condensed form, the information itemized in other parts of the card. this, together with other information set down by the instructor, is the vital material sought for. the item a "journeyman's time" is very easily recorded by the instructor. it is arrived at in the same way as in making out the estimate for any piece of work and can be recorded almost at once. the main purpose here is to set for the student a standard of time on which to work. the item b is the rate in points per hour, based on the journeyman's time. the item c is the total of the student's time added together from the various spaces under "time." item d "quality decimal" is the quality of the student's job expressed in the form of a decimal, with % as the maximum. this mark should be filled in by the instructor when the student completes his job. the next item, the number of points the student earns is found by the formula points = (aÃ�b)d points earned per hour = ((aÃ�b)d)/c for example, a student receives an assignment to cut to thickness, width, and length, sixty chair legs. the size of the legs he is to get from the job blueprint. he spends minutes a day, for three days, making a total of minutes or hours. the time it would take a journeyman to do the same job is estimated at hours. the rate adopted is at points per hour; the journeyman therefore earns aÃ�b = Ã� = points. the quality of the student's job is graded by the instructor as %. the number of points the student earns is found by the formula points = (aÃ�b)d = ( Ã� ). = points. to find the number of points the student earns per hour, divide points by the number of hours it took the student to complete the job, which equals ÷ = , the number of points the student earns per hour. however, if the student would be graded %, he would earn the same number of points as the journeyman. but of course, he would have done it in three hours where the journeyman has earned the same number of points in two hours. it will readily be seen that this scheme offers the student an everlasting incentive to equal the journeyman's record. having obtained the points on the time card or assignment card as it may be called, these are then transferred to a monthly accomplishment sheet as shown in fig. , which is provided for all the students in all classes. [illustration: fig. . monthly accomplishment sheet] the total number of points for each boy, group, and class can then be easily obtained. these totals can be put up in poster form and hung on the shop's bulletin board, showing the standing of each boy, group, and class. it is surprising the amount of interest and competition that can be aroused; everyone working for the highest honors, unconsciously, with a competitive spirit that will bring out considerable thought and effort to the matter of handling material for maximum production. # . preliminary discussion and preparation for shopwork.#--of course, no time card or assignment-record scheme can hope entirely to eliminate the necessary preliminary discussions and preparation. the author has found it of material help to meet the foremen of all the classes at hours other than their regular class hour and discuss such topics as "securing cooperation," "instructing workers," "maintaining cleanliness and order," "records and reports," "inspecting work," "routing material thru shop," "care of stock," etc. details regarding construction and assembling should be worked out by the instructor beforehand, and also developed with the class as the work progresses. care should be taken that plans are carefully made regarding the storage of stock and unfinished parts. the old saying, "an ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure," is an old one, but a good one. # . bazaars, toy sales, etc.#--the plan of selling toys, that are made in the school shop, to the boys and girls of the school is a plausible one. it can very easily be accomplished in the form of bazaars, exhibitions, or school toy sales. the writer has had a number of samples of different toys made and put on exhibition, and orders taken, requiring a deposit on each order. these were then turned in to the shop department and the toys made on the productive plan. the boys in the shop would receive school checks, fig. , for the total number of points that they earned for the semester. these checks could then be used by them towards the purchasing of any of the toys that were put on sale; a certain number of points required for the purchase of different toys. [illustration: fig. . credit check, based on number of points carved] this plan was made possible by adding on to the number of orders received an additional number equal to the number of boys in the shop. for example, twenty-four orders for toy milk wagons were received by a class of twenty-four boys. then instead of making twenty-four toy milk wagons we doubled the number and made forty-eight of them. the price that was figured on for the twenty-four orders would more than cover the cost of material for the other twenty-four articles that the boys would be able to buy with their earned checks. chapter ii coloring toys # . sanitation emphasized.#--all application of color to toys should carry with it a realization that toys are meant primarily for children and that all paints should therefore be free from poisonous compounds. all paints used should be of good quality so that it will not come off easily to discolor the hands or tongues of children who cannot resist the temptation of sticking everything possible into their mouths. # . preparation of surfaces.#--wooden toys may be finished quite bright and in various colors. before applying the color it is absolutely necessary that every part of the toy has been thoroly sanded. where sanding is done by machine, care should be taken not to sand the wood too much. many difficulties may arise from too much as well as from too little sanding. in hand sanding, the use of a block ½" Ã� ½", to which is glued a piece of cork, is recommended. # . application of water colors.#--toys may be colored by the use of different materials and by various methods. kalsomine colors, opaque water colors, variously known as show card colors, liquid tempera, and letterine,--all come under the heading of water colors. all but the kalsomine may be obtained in small jars and ready for use. kalsomine colors come in powder form in various colors and may easily be prepared by mixing with water and a little glue to bind the parts together. they are much cheaper than the ordinary forms of transparent and opaque water colors. they may be applied with the ordinary water color brushes. after a coat of water color has been applied to the toy, it may be necessary to remove the rough parts with very fine sand paper. care should be taken not to "cut thru" when sanding. to preserve and protect the water color on the toy a coat of white shellac may be applied. if a more durable finish is desired a coat of good clear varnish over the shellac will serve the purpose. # . analine water stains.#--for general finishing of toys analine water stains will produce excellent results. they are known for their ability to penetrate the wood deeply and the ease with which any shade can be produced. water stain raises the grain of the wood more than any other. this makes it necessary to sandpaper down the raised grain until smooth and then proceed with the shellacking and varnishing until the desired results are obtained. in preparing analine water stains, only analines that are soluble in water are used. place an ounce of the analine to a quart of hot or boiling water, pouring the water over the dye-stuff and stirring meanwhile with a wooden paddle or stick. soft water is the best. in about an hour the dye may be filtered thru a piece of fine woven cloth. as metal is apt to discolor the dye, it is better to use a glass container. if the prepared solution is too strong it may be diluted in more water. use hot water for diluting the stain. the work with water stain must be done quickly in order to obtain a uniform coloring on the surface. water stains are used a great deal where the dipping process is employed in the finishing of toys. a hot dipping stain is preferable to a cold dipping stain, first, because it penetrates more readily and second, because it dries quicker. # . formulas for analine water stains.#--(stock solutions). _red_: rose benzol five parts, water ten parts. _rose red_: dissolve oz. rose bengal in pints of water. _blue_: (a) dissolve oz. of the best indigo carmine in oz. of water. (b) prussian blue dissolved in water. _dark blue_: dissolve oz. bengal blue in ½ pints of boiling water, and stir and filter the fluid in ten minutes time. _green_: mix prussian blue and raw sienna in such proportions as will give the desired color. mix in water. _brown_: dissolve oz. of bismark brown in ½ gal. of water. _yellow_: auramine parts, sulphate of soda parts, mixed in water. _black_: nigrosine black, four ounces, dissolved in one gallon of boiling water. when wanted for use, these analines may be diluted with water. the rule is, an ounce of analine to the gallon of water to form a working stain. or to a pint of the stock solution, as it is called, you may add three pints of water. # . oil stains.#--it will be found that quicker work can be done with oil stain than with water colors. for that reason, oil stains are also used a great deal as a dipping stain. in preparing oil stains, the best mineral or earth pigments to dissolve with turpentine are van dyke brown, chrome green, burnt and raw sienna, and lamp black. # . shellacking.#--there are two kinds of shellac, orange and white. the white shellac is orange shellac that has been bleached. the purpose of shellac as commonly understood is to give a quick coat over the stain. the thin coat formed serves as a protector for the stain and also as an undercoater for the following coat of varnish. in this way at least one coat of varnish is eliminated and a great deal of time saved because the shellac dries within a few minutes. to thin shellac use denatured alcohol. on cheaper toys a coat of shellac only may be used as a covering for the color stain. if orange shellac is used it will be found that it effects the color of the stain used. white shellac also produces a slight change in color and for this reason many working with toys will use a good clear varnish instead. # . varnishing.#--two or three coats of varnish will produce a very durable finish. the first coat of varnish ought not be quite as heavy as the succeeding coats. if the varnish is of extra heavy body it should be reduced slightly for the first coat. the best varnish reducer is thin varnish. to prepare this reducer, take one part varnish (the same varnish to be reduced), and two parts of turpentine. shake these together well and let stand twenty-four hours before using. this will reduce the consistency of the varnish without tearing down the body as pure turpentine would. the first coat of varnish should be allowed to dry thoroly before the second coat is applied. oil varnishes made from good hard gums, pure linseed oil, and turpentine, are the most valuable. in using turpentine to thin varnish care should be taken that adulterated turpentine is not used. to play the game safe it is advisable to use a little benzine, for it will not injure the varnish, but will evaporate entirely, and not flatten the varnish as turpentine does. # . points on varnishing.#--( ) the less varnish is worked under the brush the better its luster. ( ) use clean brush and pot, and clean varnish. see that the surface is clean before beginning to varnish. ( ) allow a coat of varnish plenty of time for drying until it becomes hard. # . colored varnish.#--colored varnish is that in which a proportion of varnish is added to the pigment and thinned. the base is usually an earth color such as ochre, sienna, venitian red, van dyke brown, umber, lamp black, etc. with this the work can be done in one coat. this method of finishing is usually employed on the cheaper class of toys where it isn't advisable to apply an expensive finish. # . another suggestion for finishing.#--tint a gallon of benzine or gasoline with chrome green, chrome yellow, and vermilion, ground in japan until the desired shade is obtained. this formulae is especially good for dipping purposes. # . use of paint.#--although paint can be bought ready prepared and in any color, as has been stated, it is advisable to have the students mix their own colors and choose their own color scheme. # . ingredients of good paint.#--the best paints are usually made by mixing together white lead, linseed oil, pigment of the desired color (colors ground in oil), and a drier. while white lead is sufficient as the pigment for white paint, a better result is obtained by mixing zinc oxide with the white lead. these two substances have the convenient property of balancing each other's disadvantages. for instance, zinc oxide has a tendency to crack and to peal, which is overcome by the tougher coating formed by the white lead. again, when white lead is exposed to light and weathering, it becomes chalky, which fault is remedied by the property possessed by zinc oxide, of remaining hard. the linseed oil used is obtained from flaxseed by pressing the thoroly ground seed. about twenty-three gallons of oil can be obtained from one bushel of the seed. by boiling the oil with lead oxide or manganese oxide it can take more oxygen from the air, and thereby its drying powers are increased. driers are substances that absorb oxygen from the air and give part of it to the oil. the raw linseed oil absorbs the oxygen from the air very slowly, but the addition of turpentine is a great aid in overcoming this defect. to insure the best results in painting, one must first consider the kind and condition of the surface to be painted, and to what use the toy will be put; then decide on the proper composition and consistency of the paint. # . application of paint.#--in applying the paint to the toy the first coat should be thinned. this will act as a primer or undercoat for the succeeding coats of paint. care should be taken that plenty of time is allowed between coats for the paint to dry thoroly. three coats of paint will produce a good finish. # . preparation of surface.#--all woodwork must be sanded and thoroly dry before any paint is applied. care should be taken to see that all knots and sappy streaks shall be covered with a coat of orange shellac. then apply the first coat. after the priming coat of paint is thoroly dry, putty up all knot holes, dents, cracks, and other defects in the surface with a pure linseed oil putty composed of equal parts of white lead and whiting. when putty is dry, proceed with the other coats. # . tinting materials.#--formulas for making tints are to be followed only in a general way. make some allowance for slight variations in the strength and tone of different makes of colors. chromes and ochres vary noticeably. weigh out your color and add it gradually, not all at once, noting the effect as you go. when you reach the desired shade, stop, regardless of what the formula calls for. turpentine and dark driers will slightly alter shades. make allowance for this. # . mixing paints.#--faulty mixing, even with the best of materials, is not likely to make durable paint. the important thing is to give the lead and oil a chance to incorporate themselves in that close union which they always make if allowed to do so. the following directions give best results. the order is important. ( ) break up the white lead with a paddle, using only enough oil to bring it to the consistency of colors in oil. ( ) add your colors for tinting. coloring matter added after the paint has been thinned is likely to break up in lumps which leave streaks when brushed out. ( ) put in drier. ( ) add remainder of oil, stirring well. ( ) last of all, put in turpentine. thinners help only the flow of the paint never the quality. to strain paint thru cheese cloth before using will be a safeguard against lumpy colors and streakiness. paint also spreads further if strained. # . paint formulas.#--as most toys are exposed to the weather a great deal, the following formulas are recommended. these take no account of tinting materials. (a) priming coat: pounds pure white lead gallon pure raw linseed oil ½ gallon pure turpentine ¼ pint drier, free from rosin (b) body coat: pounds pure white lead / gallon pure raw linseed oil / gallon pure turpentine ¼ pint drier, free from rosin (c) finishing coat: pounds pure white lead gallon pure raw linseed oil ¼ pint pure turpentine ¼ pint drier. one must exercise his own discretion in using a larger or smaller quantity of oil according to whether the wood is oil absorbing, as white pine, poplar, and basswood, or less permeable, as yellow pine, cypress, spruce, and hemlock. # . formulas for making tinted paint.#--any color or tint may be obtained by varying the addition of tinting colors. these tinting colors are called "colors in oil." the colors should be added to the white lead before the paint is thinned. to twenty-five pounds of white lead ground in oil add colors in oil as follows: medium blue slate ½ oz. lamp black gray blue ¼ oz. lamp black oz. prussian blue ¼ oz. medium chrome green dark drab lbs. french ochre ½ lb. lamp black ¼ lb. venitian red dark slate oz. lamp black oz. medium chrome yellow dark lilac oz. lamp black oz. venitian red lilac ½ oz. lamp black ½ oz. venitian red forest green ½ oz. lamp black lbs. light green oz. medium chrome yellow buff ½ lb. french ochre / oz. venitian red cream oz. french ochre sea green / oz. lamp black ½ oz. medium chrome green ¼ oz. medium chrome yellow where tinting colors are used in sufficiently large quantities to alter the consistency of the paint, add one-half as much linseed oil and turpentine, by weight, as you add tinting material. # . enameling.#--when using enamel as a finish for toys, care should be taken that the surface of the toy is in proper condition. to obtain good results proceed as follows: give the wood a coat of shellac. sand lightly and dust. the following coat should consist of part of white paint and one part of the enamel to be used. this coat should be slightly tinted with the finishing color, if the finishing coat is not white. allow twenty-four hours for drying thoroly; then sand with no. oo sand paper. next apply a coat of enamel of the color desired for the finished work. (enamels may be tinted with colors ground in oil.) should the enamel not work freely, add a spoonful of benzine to a gallon of enamel. turpentine may also be used as a thinner for enamel. a better finish of enamel consists of two coats of paint before applying the enamel. this gives it a stronger body and of course makes it more durable. because of its durability and for sanitary reasons enamel is the most desirable finish for toys. its glossy finish is attractive and very appealing to children. # . the dipping method.#--when a considerable quantity of toys is to be finished, the problem to be faced will be the cost of application of the paint rather than the cost of the paint itself. the dipping process, (immersing the material to be covered) is found to be the most successful, especially in toy making, where so many small parts are used. many of the small pieces made can be subjected to the dipping process at quite a saving of time and labor, with probably better results than where the application of paint or stain is done with a brush. the success of the dipping process depends on the arrangement adopted for holding the toys while the actual dipping is done and while they are drying. here the exercise of a little ingenuity on the part of the students and teacher, will overcome most difficulties. supposing that a number of checkers, or handles, or small wheels are to be stained. a dipping frame as shown in fig. could very easily be prepared. you will notice the screen tray (which is removable), and the tin sheet which slopes towards the container. the small pieces to be stained can be handled in wire baskets with mesh just small enough so that the pieces will not fall thru. the wire basket is then immersed in the container and worked up and down, so that the liquid will penetrate and touch all pieces. it is then pulled up and swung over the screen tray, where the contents of the wire basket is dumped. here, the superfluous paint will drip off on the tin sheet, which, because of its slope, will cause the superfluous paint to flow back in to the container. fig. shows the dipping frame in use. the screen tray can be removed and placed in a rack to allow for further drying. several trays could then be made and a rack to hold them could very easily be constructed. the paint used for dipping purposes must so be prepared that too much does not run off or too much stay on, for this is surely one way to spoil the work. it should be thinned to the right consistency and care should be taken that the thinners used are of the best quality. where larger pieces of work are to be dipped, wire attachments could be devised and each part hung separately over the dipping frame until ready to be placed in a rack. if the wire attachment forms a hook on one end, it will be possible to hang up the toy until drained and dried. in removing the toy from the paint it should be drawn out very slowly so that the surface of the paint may be left as smooth as possible. where one desires line effects on toys, these may be lined in afterwards with a small size striping brush or sign painter's pencil. [illustration: fig. . dipping frame] [illustration: fig. . using the dipping frame] # . polishing by tumbling.#---excellent results in polishing large quantities of small pieces, may be obtained by tumbling. the material to be polished should be thoroly dry. the parts are then placed in a tumbler as shown in fig. . cut up paraffine wax into small pieces, using about one-fourth pound to each tumbler full of toys. allow these to tumble several hours. this will distribute the wax evenly over the parts and produce a polished surface. the tumbler as shown in fig. is turned by hand, altho it could very easily be placed in a lathe, where one is available. # . care of brushes.#--a suitable place should be provided for brushes that are not in use. a tin-lined keeper is recommended. brushes should be suspended so that their bristles will not touch the bottom of the keeper, and have the liquid in which they are kept come well up over the bristles, so that none of the paint or varnish may dry in the butt of the brush. # . paint application by means of compressed air.#--in recent years, great advancement has been made in the application of paint by means of compressed air. the early use of pneumatic painting equipment was confined almost exclusively to the application of finishing materials such as japans, enamels, lacquers, varnishes, etc., on manufactured products. but in the past few years improvements have been made which eliminate all of the difficulties originally experienced and make possible the use of this method for interior and exterior painting, such as buildings, ships, etc.; and at present, a large portion of factory maintenance work is done in this manner. excessive fumes have been eliminated and all materials can be applied without removing the volatile thinners, solvents, binders, etc., thru air reduction. this is brought about thru the use of low pressure and the perfection of ingenious patent nozzles and other improvements. [illustration: fig. . tumbler for polishing small pieces] # . uses of pneumatic sprayers.#--pneumatic paint sprayers, or air brushes, are extensively used in the manufacture of toys, furniture, automobile bodies, sewing machines, telephones, electrical equipment; in fact, very nearly all manufactured products, as well as on ships, structural steel and iron work, bridges and buildings. the speed of the air brush is very great compared with hand-brush work. usually, an air-brush operator will accomplish as much in one hour as a hand or bristle-brush worker will in one day; and it is possible to obtain an even coating, free from sags, runs or brush-marks and better results are obtained than with the hand brush method. a film of paint can be applied in one operation equal to two hand-brush coats, as it is not necessary to reduce paints by thinning as much for air brush application, in a great many instances, as is the usual practice for hand-brushing. the air sprayer can also reach places inaccessible to the hand brush, and a perfect coat can be applied over rough, uneven surfaces, which could not be obtained by hand-brushing. in considering pneumatic painting equipment, the most important thing to be kept in mind is the proper application of materials. this can be successfully accomplished only thru the use of compressed air at low pressures. by this is meant using only sufficient main-line air to lay the paint, enamel, varnish or whatever finish may be used, on the object. excessive pressure results in fumes, waste of material and air reduction taking place. by air reduction is meant the removal of the more volatile solvents, thinners, binders, etc., thru evaporation, and the material thus loses its adherent and coherent properties. both types of air-brush equipment illustrated here require three cubic feet of air per minute to operate and the pressure necessary depends on the density, consistency or viscosity of the material used. for example, undercoaters, japans, etc.; require from twelve to fifteen pounds of pressure to apply perfectly; while enamels and varnishes take from eighteen to twenty-five pounds. water stains require about five pounds of pressure. # . construction of pneumatic painting outfit.#--a pneumatic painting outfit for finishing work consists essentially of an air brush, either of the attached-container type or the gun-type with separate paint tank, and a small compressor of sufficient capacity to operate the air brush, which can be belt-driven from shafting or direct connected. an exhaust hood with fan, for the removal of fumes, is advisable where the operation is reasonably continuous and especially where lacquers are used. the paint, ready for application, is poured into the tank; and the compressed air line leads to the tank with a branch line for air and paint from the tank to the nozzle of the gun type of machine; while only the air line is required with the attached-container type. the air hose used is / " in diameter while the paint or fluid hose is the same size. the paint hose is made of a special compound to resist the action of the thinners, solvents, etc., used in the paint; and it is important to have this correct, so that the lining will not disintegrate and clog the air brush or gun. fig. shows a five-gallon container type. it will be noticed that the fluid connection is nearest the nozzle and that the air connection is at the bottom of the grip. # . special attachments for different surfaces.#--a cone nozzle is furnished for painting irregular surfaces and a fan nozzle for wide, flat work. adjusting and locking the nozzle regulates the degree of atomization. the jets of the fan nozzle are depressed to prevent being knocked out of alignment. final regulation of the flow of material is made on the back of the gun, independent of the pressure on the material container. a wide variety of adjustment is possible with this positive regulation. the first pull on the trigger gives air only, which can be used for dusting ahead of the work; and as the trigger is released, the air valve closes last, which prevents clogging and dripping. when adjustments have been made the trigger action is the only moving part of the machine. figs. and show the five-gallon container type in actual use. # . cleaning pneumatic machines.#--it is not necessary to take the gun apart nor disconnect the hose to clean the machine. thinner can be run thru the device without loss by placing a small can of reducer of the last material used in the machine, and forcing it thru in the usual manner. [illustration: fig. . a five-gallon air brush outfit] # . directions for cleaning machine.#--close right-hand air valve and open release valve. unscrew air nozzle a few turns. obstruct outlet with thumb and pull trigger. spraying pressure is thus forced thru gun and fluid hose and the material backed into the container. it is advisable frequently to run thinner thru the machine as follows: ( ) place small can of thinner in center of container directly beneath fluid tube. ( ) replace cover and tighten wing-nuts. ( ) close left-hand air valve and open right-hand air valve. pressure on container will force thinner thru the machine and clean perfectly without loss. do not use spraying pressure in cleaning. the thinner can be used again for either cleaning or thinning purposes. [illustration: fig. . using pneumatic paint sprayers] # . directions for operating pneumatic equipment.#-- . attach main-line air hose to air filter. . attach fluid hose to connection marked "fluid" on tank and to the front connection near air nozzle on hand-piece. [illustration: fig. . a five-gallon outfit in actual use] . attach air hose to connection marked "air" on cover and to the handle connection on hand-piece. . thoroly mix and strain material so that it is entirely free from skins, lumps, and foreign materials. . tighten wing-nuts until paint container is air-tight. . see that release valve is closed. then open right-hand air valve, turn fluid-pressure regulator until gage shows lbs. pressure in container. pull trigger and use fluid regulator on gun to control the flow. if material is heavy, increase pressure in container. [illustration: fig. . attached container type of sprayer] . open left-hand air valve and turn spraying pressure regulator until sufficient pressure ( lbs. to lbs.), is obtained to lay the material on. . make final adjustment of the flow of material with fluid regulator on back of hand-piece and get proper spray by adjusting the air nozzle. . spraying pressure and pressure in the container depends upon the density of the material used and the size of the surface to be coated. a little experimenting on the part of the operator will determine the best pressure to use. when the fan nozzle is used, to lbs. more pressure should be applied to the material container and from to lbs. more atomizing or spraying pressure used. fig. shows a complete attached container which operates on identically the same principles as the type shown in fig. . it consists of a ½ pint container, reducing outfit, compressor, and air tank. the ½ pint container as shown in fig. is supplied complete with two fluid tips, gasket, agitator tube, cup-holder, hose union, and six feet of air hose. the reducing outfit in fig. consists of a regulative valve, an air gage, and an air filter, complete with connections and fittings. this outfit is for the purpose of maintaining an even low spraying pressure. regulated pressure is applied to the air-tight material container, raising the coating material to the nozzle where only sufficient main-line pressure is used to lay the coating on. the spraying pressure necessarily depends on the density, consistency and viscosity of the material used. [illustration: fig. . a one and one-half pint container and parts] for fine finishing work, where the quantity of materials used each day is not great, or where the colors are changed frequently, the attached container type is recommended. # . preparing colors.#--the three primary colors are red, blue and yellow. with the three primary colors at hand, almost every variety of color desirable for ordinary use can be easily prepared. fig. shows a color chart. red mixed with yellow will result in orange. red mixed with blue will result in purple. yellow mixed with blue will result in green. the colors obtained by mixing any two primaries are called secondary colors. therefor the secondary colors are orange, purple and green. orange mixed with purple will result in brown. orange mixed with green will result in olive. purple mixed with green will result in slate. the colors obtained by mixing any two secondaries are called tertiary colors. the tertiary colors are brown, olive and slate. of course different tones of each color can be made up by mixing unequal proportions. [illustration: fig. . reducing outfit] [illustration: fig. . chart showing proportions required for standard colors] chapter iii common woods used in toy making # . economy in selecting material.#--economic use of materials should be encouraged at all times. toy making offers an excellent opportunity where economy may be taught in the most practical way. where toys are to be painted, more than one kind of wood may be used in the same toy and thereby using up small pieces of wood that would otherwise be called scrap. yet, it is not advisable to sacrifice the strength and durability of the whole toy for the sake of using up a piece of scrap wood which weakens the particular part of the toy where it is used. for that, in the long run, is not economy. # . qualities of different woods used.#--the following are some of the common woods used in toy making. maple: hard, fine grained, compact, tough, used for wheels, axles, handles, dowel rods, etc. ash: white, strong, open grained, easily worked; used for bodies of coasters, wheels, axles, oars, etc. oak: hard, firm and compact, strong and durable, hard to work. birch: moderately hard and heavy, even grained; difficult to split, but easily worked. chestnut: resembles oak in appearance, is much softer, moderately hard, course grained, not strong, but durable. cypress: moderately hard, very fine and close grained, virtually indestructable; known as "the wood eternal". basswood: white, light, soft, tough, closed grained, easily worked, not strong, but durable; used for almost any part of a toy where much strength is not required. white pine: very light, soft, close and straight grained, inferior; easy to work. yellow pine, yellowish, grain noticeable, harder than white pine, stronger. tulip (yellow poplar): light, soft, close and straight grained; tougher than many woods equally soft, compact, not very strong or durable, easily worked. spruce: straight growing, light, straight and even in grain, tough, elastic, easy to work. chapter iv use of jigs and fixtures # . value of jigs and fixtures.#--the use of jigs, fixtures, and other labor-saving devices is an important factor in illustrating industrial and practical applications in the school shop. it is advisable to let each group of boys work out its own jig or fixture for the particular job they have on hand. the three most common forms of jigs are cutting jigs, boring jigs, and assembling jigs. the important reasons for the use of such devices are: ( ) they illustrate the speed of output in shop work. ( ) they give the student a good idea of machine operation. ( ) they help in making the parts interchangeable. ( ) they offer an opportunity for getting first hand information on cutting edge tools and their proper uses. ( ) they show the boy the value of the use of jigs in factory work. the toys illustrated in this book have many simple operations, such as cutting stock to length, drilling holes, surfacing, etc., that can be easily done by the use of the proper fixtures. for that reason toys are desirable projects to be made by the productive plan. fig. shows the use of a jig and the miter box. # . cutting small wheels.#--a circle of the desired size wheel may be laid out on the wood with the aid of a compass, and cut in the outline with a coping saw or band saw. of course, it would take quite a long time by this method to make the small wheels in large quantities and besides the result would not be as good as when the wheels are made by machine. # . turning wheels.#--another way to produce wheels is to turn a cylinder to the required diameter, on the turning lathe. then cut the cylinder on the circular saw into required thicknesses of wheels desired. this method is recommended for quick work. [illustration: fig. . production of toys by use of jigs] if it is desired to round the end of wheels the operation can be done by leaving the cylinder in the lathe and applying the broad side of the skew chisel as shown in fig. . the wheels may then be polished with a cloth after they have been sanded and while rotating in the lathe as shown in fig. . in sanding, use first a fairly course grade of sandpaper, no. or ½ and afterwards a fine grade, no. o or oo. before applying the cloth the wood may be varnished lightly while the lathe is not running, taking care to wipe off all the surplus varnish. the varnish will assist in giving the surface a fine polish when the cloth is applied. for further explanations of the use of the turning lathe, see sec. . # . use of wheel cutter.#--still another method of making small wheels is by use of the wheel cutter as shown in fig. . this wheel cutter may be used in the ordinary bit brace. good results may be obtained where the wheels are made out of thin, soft wood. this wheel cutter is known on the market as a leather washer cutter. if one cannot be obtained it can easily be made in the school machine shop at a small cost. fig. shows a drawing of a wheel cutter. you will notice that the blade can be adjusted to cut any diameter desired. # . use of coping saw.#--where a band saw is not included in the shop equipment, many articles such as animal forms and small wheels could very easily be cut out with a coping saw. [illustration: fig. . wheel cutter in use] a saw board, as shown in fig. should be fastened to a table top with an iron clamp; or, a saw board made to fasten in a vise may also be used. [illustration: fig. . details of a wheel cutter which may be made in school] when cutting out the toy part, the coping saw should be held in a vertical position as shown in fig. , and in an up-and-down motion, with short fast strokes, following the outline carefully. cut on the line. do not press hard on the saw for the blade is very thin and can very easily be broken, but it should last a long time if used correctly. [illustration: fig. . clamping the saw board to the bench] [illustration: fig. . correct method of holding coping saw] # . cutting sharp corners.#--when cutting a sharp turn in the wood with the coping saw, care should be taken not to twist the saw blade out of shape. upon reaching the sharp turn, continue the up-and-down motion, but without doing any cutting; turn the wood very slowly until you have made the complete turn, then continue with the sawing and follow the rest of the outline carefully. [illustration: fig. . removing the saw-blade] # . removing the saw-blade from frame.#--to remove the saw-blade from the frame, place the head of the frame against the table top as shown in fig. . pressing down on the handle will release the saw-blade. when inserting the blade into the frame the same method may be followed, being careful that the teeth of the saw-blade point toward the handle of the frame. the blade may be put in the end or the side slots of the frame, using the side slots only when the end slots will not serve the purpose. # . making heavy wheels.#--in turning heavier wheels that are to be used for coasters, kiddie cars, etc., the work is done with the head stock only, the wood being supported by the screw-center chuck or face plate. in turning the wheel the first step is the scraping cut as shown in fig. . this cut is properly made with the concave chisel held in such a position as to give a light scraping cut. care should be exercised not to allow the chisel to extend too deeply, otherwise the material will chip with the grain. after the desired circumference has been obtained the surface should be worked to the desired form as shown in fig. . this is accomplished by using the lathe rest, set at right angles with the bed or parallel with the face plate. the illustration in fig. shows the use of the dividers in marking off the position of the various corrugations in the wheel that is being turned. the sanding should be done while the wheel is in the lathe. use first a fairly course grade of sand paper and afterwards a fine grade, no. o or oo. # . designs for wheels.#--suggestions for wooden toy wheels are shown in fig. . those numbered , , , , , , and are plain wooden wheels varying in design only. no. and are re-enforced with zinc and large iron washers. no. shows a segment of an iron pipe fitted in the center of the wheel to prevent wearing away of material. no. shows a spoke wheel. the spokes are made of dowel rods; these fitting into a hub that can easily be turned out on the lathe. no. shows a wheel built in segments which is then cut out on the band saw to resemble a standard spoke wheel. the rim is / " steel, fastened to spokes with very small rivets. [illustration: fig. . making heavy wheels. the scraping cut] # . cutting wheels on band-saw.#--a circle of the required size wheel may be marked off on the wood with a compass, then cut in the outline on the band-saw. this method will leave square corners and will be more or less out of truth with the center of the wheel. to true up and smooth the outside of the wheel the lathe attachment as shown in fig. can be easily prepared. this attachment consists of a block _a_ fastened to the lathe bed with a single bolt, and a stop _b_ fastened to the upper face of the block _a_. the carriage _c_ is a loose piece the same thickness as the stop _b_ and is provided with a dowel rod to fit the central hole in the wheel. this dowel rod is so located that when the edge of the carriage _c_ is tight against the edge of the stop _d_, the distance from the center of the dowel rod to the face of the abrasive material on the disk, will be equal to the radius of the finished wheel. [illustration: fig. . smoothing the side of wheels] the wood is cut out on the band saw a scant / " over-size in diameter, and is then placed on the dowel rod in the carriage _c_ which is held flat on block _a_ while the edge of the blank is brought in contact with the grinding disc face by pushing the carriage forward with the left hand while the blank is slowly revolved with the right. this grinding is continued until the edges of stop _b_ and carriage _c_ will remain in contact during a complete revolution of the wheel blank. during this grinding process, the carriage should be moved back and forth from the edge to the center of the grinding disc so that the wear on the abrasive material may be equalized. [illustration: fig. . using dividers to mark for cuts] a similar device used for chamfering the edges of the blanks is also shown in fig. , as it looks when viewed from the front of the lathe. the preceding description will suffice for this as the same system of lettering has been used. it differs only in that block _a_ is made to set at an angle of degrees instead of being level. [illustration: fig. . many ways of making wheels for toys] [illustration: fig. . simple attachments which may be made for lathe] grinding discs may be made either of metal or wood. metal is preferable but a hardwood disc fastened to a metal face plate will answer very well. there are many methods of fastening the abrasing material to the disc but the most convenient way is by the use of stick belt dressing. the disc is coated with dressing by holding the stick against it as it revolves and the abrasive is applied before the dressing has set. a pair of dividers or trammels is used to cut the abrasive material to the same diameter as the disc and it should be warmed on the uncoated side before it is applied. it sticks tightly to the disc but is easily removed and replaced with fresh material in a few minutes. # . boring holes in wheels.#--the center holes in wheels may be bored with bit and brace, but better results are obtained if the holes are bored in the lathe. a drill chuck fitted to the live spindle and a drilling pad for the tail stock spindle will be required to do this job efficiently. the tail stock is locked fast and the wheel to be drilled is placed against the drilling pad and fed up to the revolving bit by turning the tail spindle feed wheel. this method will produce a cleaner hole and one that is square with the wheel face. chapter v operation of woodworking machines # . importance of machine operations.#--a fair understanding of what is the correct position to take at some of the principal machines such as the lathe, universal saw, jointer, and sander, is very important to the student in the wood-working department. such knowledge is of special importance to the one engaged in toy making, where every knowledge of use of machines, is put to the test. [illustration: fig. . the roughing cut] [illustration: fig. . the sizing cut] sufficient examples are given to enable the student to arrive at a fair understanding of the correct postures. # . operating the lathe.#--the lathe is perhaps one of the most important machines used in toy making. it lends itself to unlimited varieties of work and for that reason is really indispensible in the shop. [illustration: fig. . the paring cut] in fig. the student is preparing to take the _roughing cut_ in turning a cylinder. this operation consists of removing the corners of the square piece and is done with the tool known as the _gouge_. after the roughing cut has been taken, calipers set to the diameter desired will determine the depth of the next cut, _sizing cut_. the illustration in fig. shows the student performing this operation with the _cut-off tool_. [illustration: fig. . using the cut-off tool] when the correct dimension has been found, the next step in the process of turning a cylinder is the _paring cut_ or finishing cut, fig. . this is done with the _skew_ or _bevel chisel_. a very thin shaving is removed by this operation. the ends are then cut by using the cut-off tool as shown in fig. . it is merely taking a slice off the end. if a very thin slice is to be removed, it is usually made by the long point of the skew chisel. if it is more than a quarter of an inch it should be _sized_ and then removed by the skew. [illustration: fig. . making convex surfaces] if it is desired to round the end of a piece or to produce a convex surface the operation can be done by applying the broad side of the skew chisel, as in fig. . # . face plate turning.#--the preceding paragraphs describe the process of turning when the piece is supported between the live and the dead centers. the processes shown in figs. , and , illustrate the character of the work done with the head stock only when the piece is supported by the screw-center chuck or face plate. [illustration: fig. . polishing wood in lathe] the first step in face plate turning is the scraping cut, fig. . this cut is properly made with the concave chisel held in such a position as to give a light scraping cut. care should be exercised not to allow the chisel to extend too deeply, otherwise the material will chip with the grain. after the desired circumference has been obtained the surface should be smoothed with the skew chisel. [illustration: fig. . cutting off stock] [illustration: fig. . fluting on circular saw] fig. shows the student modeling a rosette, using the rest, set at right angles with the bed or parallel with the face plate. prior to the modeling a shearing cut should be taken with the skew chisel to face off the material to an even surface. [illustration: fig. . cutting with special fence] the illustration in fig. shows the use of the dividers. the student is marking off to a uniform scale the position of the various corrugations in the rosette he is turning. # . the universal saw.#--the operations that can be performed on the universal saw are so many that no attempt will be made to illustrate them all here. but enough are given to show the characteristic operations involved in cross-cutting, ripping, and dadoing,--the three basic uses of a circular saw. [illustration: fig. . grooving, or ripping special work] it is a more dangerous tool than the lathe and the guard should be kept over the saw at all times, except of course, in dadoing when it can not be used. figs. , , , , , illustrate the basic uses of a circular saw. [illustration: fig. . cutting segments] [illustration: fig. . surfacing board on jointer] # . the hand jointer.#--the great variety of work that can be done on a hand jointer depends very largely upon the knowledge and skill of the operator. it lends itself to so many operations, that the student gains much in knowledge and efficiency. [illustration: fig. . cutting bevels on jointer] the five operations shown in figs. , , , and , give a fair idea of the scope of work that is usually accomplished on a hand jointer and show something of the method by which the work should be done. the jointer is another tool where the use of the guard should never be omitted. # . the sander.#--the sander is an interesting machine in the school shop for on it considerable "forming" can be done as with the lathe, altho its prime use is to make smooth or polish. [illustration: fig. . jointing the edge] in fig. the boy at the left is forming a mitre while the one on the right is smoothing surface. [illustration: fig. . rabetting on the jointer] [illustration: fig. . cutting miter joints] [illustration: fig. . the machine sander in operation] part ii. drawings for toys [illustration: plate _fox and geese game_] [illustration: plate _ring toss_] [illustration: plate _baby's cart_] [illustration: plate _hay cart_] [illustration: plate _horse head_] [illustration: plate _horse on wheels for milk wagon_] [illustration: plate _kido kar trailer_] [illustration: plate _auto roadster_] [illustration: plate _auto racer_] [illustration: plate _passenger car_] [illustration: plate _milk wagon_] [illustration: plate _table_ _toy furniture for doll house_] [illustration: plate _chair and rocker_ _toy furniture for doll house_] [illustration: plate _buffet_ _toy furniture for doll house_] [illustration: plate _toy wheel-barrow_] [illustration: plate _horse barrow_] [illustration: plate _doll's carriage_] [illustration: plate _noah's ark_] [illustration: plate _"bean bag" game board_] [illustration: plate _child's swing_ # ] [illustration: plate _child's swing_ # ] [illustration: plate _doll's bed_] [illustration: plate _doll's bed_] [illustration: plate _adjustable stilts_] [illustration: plate _scooter_] [illustration: plate _steering coaster_] [illustration: plate _kido kar & details_] [illustration: plate _kid kar junior_] [illustration: plate _pony kar_] [illustration: plate _duplex speedster_] [illustration: plate _rock-a-doodle_] [illustration: plate _sled_] [illustration: plate _"sturdy flyer" sled_] [illustration: plate _ducky loo_] [illustration: plate _duck rocker_] [illustration: plate _jitney_] [illustration: plate _junior roadster_] [illustration: plate _details of junior roadster_] [illustration: plate _senior coaster & details_] [illustration: plate _details of senior coaster_] [illustration: plate _auto-kar_] [illustration: plate _moto-kar_ _choo-choo-kar_] [illustration: plate _teetter-totter_] [illustration: plate _teeter rocker_] [illustration: plate _checker board_] [illustration: plate _child's costumer_] [illustration: plate _baby's chair_] [illustration: plate _children's sand box_] [illustration: plate _sand box # _] [illustration: plate _doll's house-# _] [illustration: plate _doll's house-# _] [illustration: plate _doll's house-# _] [illustration: plate _dumb bell_ _indian club_] [illustration: plate _bats_] index a auto kar, plate , auto racer, plate , auto roadster, plate , b bats, base ball, plate , bazaars, toy sales, etc., bed, doll's, plates , , , boring holes in wheels, brushes, care of, buffet, plate , c car, baby's, plate , car, passenger, plate , cars, auto, motor, choo-choo, plates , , , cart, baby's, plate , cart, hay, plate , carriage, dolls, plate , chair & rocker, plate , chair, baby's, plate , checker board, plate , check, credit, fig. , coasters, plates , , , , , coloring toys, sanitation emphasized, preparation of surfaces, application of water colors, analine water stains, formulas for analine water stains, oil stains, shellacking, varnishing, points on varnishing, color varnish, use of paint, dipping method, , polishing by tumbling, paint application by compressed air, colors, preparing, color chart, fig. , contents, table of, coping saw, use of, correlation, costumer, child's, plate , d doll's house, plates , , , , , dipping frame, drawings for toys, dumb bell, plate , e enameling, f foremen, shop, fox & geese game, plate , furniture, doll, , , g game board, "bean bag," plate , game board, "fox & geese," plate , grading students, h horse head, plate , horse on wheels, plate , house, doll's, plates , , , , , i indian club, plate , j jigs & fixtures, jointer, hand, k kiddie kars, plates , , , , , l lathe, operating the, , , , m machines, operating of woodworking, n noah's ark, plate , o organization, plan for shop, p paint, use of, ingredients of, application, preparation of surface, tinting materials, mixing, formulas, formulas for tinted paint, enameling, plan for shop organization, grouping students, time clerk, tool-room clerk, recording attendance, time-card rack, time cards, grading students, accomplishment sheet, preparation for shop work, pneumatic equipment, preface, productive work, r ring toss, plate , rocking chair, plate , rocker, duck, plate , rocker, ducky loo, plate , rock-a-doodle, plate , s sand box, plates , , , sander, , saw, universal, scooter, plate , sleds, plates , , , sprayer, pneumatic air, , , sprayer, directions for operating, speedster, duplex, plate , stain, oil, stain, analine water, stilts, adjustable, plate , suggestions to teachers, swing, child's, plates , , , t table for doll house, plate , teeter-totter, plate , teeter-rocker, plate , time clerk, time cards, tool-room clerk, toy sales, trailer, kido-kar, plate , tumbler, drawing of, tumbling, polishing by, , v varnishing, varnish, colored, varnishing, points on, w wagon, milk, plate , water colors, wax polishing, wheel-barrow, toy, plate , wheel-barrow, horse design, plate , wheel cutter, , wheels, cutting small, wheels, designs, fig. , , wheels, turning, woods used in toy making, the romance of rubber edited by john martin editor of john martin's book the child's magazine published by united states rubber company contents the discovery charles goodyear the hevea tree wickham's idea plantation development plantation life harvesting the rubber a last word an introductory note we have undertaken to print this booklet, telling you how rubber is grown, gathered, and then made useful, for this reason: the united states rubber company, as the largest rubber manufacturer in the world, wants the coming generations of our country to have some understanding of the importance of rubber in our every day life. we hope to interest and inform you. we believe the rubber industry will be better off if the future citizens of our country know more about it. chapter the discovery if you were asked, "what did columbus discover in ?" you would have but one answer. but what he discovered on his second voyage is not quite so easy to say. he was looking for gold when he landed on the island of hayti on that second trip. so his eyes were blind to the importance of a simple game which he saw being played with a ball that bounced by some half-naked indian boys on the sand between the palm trees and the sea. instead of the coveted gold, he took back to europe, just as curiosities, some of the strange black balls given him by these indian boys. he learned that the balls were made from the hardened juice of a tree. the little boys and girls of spain were used to playing with balls made of rags or wool, so you may imagine how these bouncing balls of the indians must have pleased them. but the men who sent out this second expedition gave the balls little thought and certainly no value. since columbus brought back no gold, he was thrown into prison for debt, and he never imagined that, four hundred years later, men would turn that strange, gummy tree juice into more gold than king ferdinand and queen isabella and all the princes of europe ever dreamed of. in the next century after columbus's travels the portuguese founded the colony of brazil on the continent of south america. their settlements were near the coast and they did not begin to explore the great amazon region for a hundred years or so. the journey down this great river--which theodore roosevelt took so many years later--was first made by a portuguese missionary, who found the same kind of gummy tree juice as that of the west indies. but the natives along the amazon had discovered that besides being elastic it was waterproof, and they were making shoes that would keep out water. you can picture a native boy spilling some of this liquid on his foot, then covering it, as he might with a mud pie, and when it dried wiggling his toes to find that, he had the first and perhaps the best fitting gum shoe that ever was made. little by little samples of this new substance found their way to europe. it was another hundred years before thoughtful men believed it worth while to investigate this gum. in the paris academy of science sent some explorers to learn about it. one of these frenchmen, la condamine, wrote of a tree called "hevea"[ ] "there flows from this tree a liquor which hardens gradually and blackens in the air." he found the people of quito waterproofing cloth with it, and the amazon indians were making boots which, when blackened in smoke, looked like leather. most interesting of all, they coated bottle-shaped moulds, and when the gum had hardened they would break the mould, shaking the pieces out of the neck, leaving an unbreakable bottle that would hold liquids. [ ] hevea is pronounced hee'-vee-uh. caoutchouc is pronounced koo'-chook. it was not long afterwards that lisbon began to import some of these crudely fashioned articles, and it is said that in the king of portugal sent to brazil several pairs of his boots to be waterproofed. a few years later the government of para, brazil, sent him a full suit of rubber clothes. for all that, this elastic gum was for the most part only a curiosity, and few people knew there was such a thing. about the year , a black, bouncing ball of caoutchouc, as the indians called the gum, after many travels found its way to england, and priestley, the man who gave us oxygen, learned that it would rub out pencil marks. then and there he named it what you have probably guessed long before this: "rub-ber." nearly every language except english uses in place of the word rubber some form of the native word "caoutchouc," which means "weeping tree." after priestley's discovery, a one-inch "rubber" sold for three shillings, or about seventy-five cents, but artists were glad to pay even that price, because their work was made so much easier. chapter charles goodyear in brazil was the only country manufacturing rubber articles, and her best market soon proved to be north america. probably the first rubber this country saw was brought to new england in clipper ships as ballast in the form of crude lumps and balls. rubber shoes, water-bottles, powder-flasks, and tobacco-pouches found buyers in the american ports, but rubber shoes were most in demand. soon some americans began to import raw rubber and to manufacture rubber goods of their own, and in the old world a scotchman named macintosh found a way of waterproofing cloth by spreading on it a thin coating of rubber dissolved in coal naphtha. many people still refer to raincoats as mackintoshes. rubber clothing shared favor with rubber shoes, but its popularity was short-lived for it did not wear well and was almost as sensitive to temperature as molasses and butter. the rubber shoes and coats get hard and stiff in winter and soft and sticky in summer. a man wearing a pair of rubber overalls who sat down too near a warm stove soon found that his overalls, his chair and himself were stuck fast together. the first rubber coats became so stiff in cold weather that when you took one off you could stand it up in the middle of the floor and leave it, for it would stand like a tent until the rubber thawed out, and when thawed it was almost as uncomfortable as is fly-paper to the fly. one day charles goodyear, a connecticut hardware merchant of an inventive turn of mind, went to a store to buy a life preserver. he could find only imperfect ones, but they drew his attention to the study of rubber, and presently he was thinking of it by day and dreaming of it by night. rubber became a passion with him. he felt sure some way could be found to make it firm yet flexible regardless of temperature, and for ten years he experimented with different mixtures and processes, hoping to find the right one. so intent was he on his search that he found time for nothing else. due to neglect his business went to pieces and he became very poor. finally, in , when he was on the point of giving up in despair, he accidentally came upon the solution. he was experimenting in his kitchen, a place which, through lack of funds, he was often forced to use as a laboratory. part of a mixture of rubber, sulphur and other chemicals, with which he was working, happened to drop on the top of the stove. it lay there sizzling and charring until the odor of the burning rubber called his attention to it. as he stooped to scrape it off the stove he gave a start of wonder as he noted that a change had come over the rubber during its brief contact with the stove. to his surprise the mixture had not melted, but had flattened out in the shape of a silver dollar. when it had cooled enough to be handled, he found that it bent and stretched easily, without cracking or breaking, and that it always snapped back to its original shape. strangest of all, it was no longer sticky. apparently half the problem was solved. whether his new mixture would stand the cold he had yet to find out, so he nailed it on the outside of the door and went to bed. probably he slept but little and was up early. at any rate he found the rubber unaffected by the cold. then he knew that he had made a real discovery and he named the process "vulcanizing" after vulcan, the roman god of fire. "vulcanizing" means mixing pure rubber with certain chemicals and then applying heat. on this process, which is by no means simple, the great rubber business of the world has been established. practically everything made of rubber, or of which rubber is a part, has to go through the vulcanizing process, whether it is a pair of keds, a tire, a fruit jar ring, or a doormat. so many people had been deceived by previous rubber ventures that goodyear had great trouble in finding anyone with enough faith to invest money in his discovery. it was some time before he was able to take out the first of the more than sixty patents which he was granted during his lifetime for applying his process to various uses. under these patents he licensed several factories to use the process in the manufacture of rubber goods, but required them to stamp all goods with the words "goodyear patent." scores of companies have since used the name goodyear, but the only factories that he licensed which are now in existence are parts of the united states rubber company. goodyear often had to defend his patents in court. in the most famous of these suits, he was defended by daniel webster and opposed by rufus choate, so that we see interwoven in the story of rubber the names of two of the greatest statesmen this country has produced. chapter the hevea tree for the very first of the rubber story we may thank a little wood-boring beetle, and the way nature has of helping her children to protect themselves. the thistle of the meadow is as safe from hungry cattle as though fenced in by barbed wire. a cow must be starving that would care to flavor her luncheon with the needles that the thistle bears. the common skunk cabbage would make a tempting meal for her after a winter of dry feeding, had not nature given it an odor that disgusts even a spring-time appetite. the milkweed welcomes the bees and flies that help to distribute her pollen where she wants it spread, but she has her own way of punishing the useless thieves that trespass up her stalk. wherever the hooks of an insect's feet pierce her tender skin, she pours out a milky juice to entangle its feet and body, and it is a lucky bug that succeeds in escaping before this juice hardens, and holds him a prisoner condemned to die. all over the world there are plants with the same ability that the milkweed has, but it is especially true of certain trees and vines of the tropics. as soon as the little beetle begins to bore into the bark of one of these trees, there pours out a sticky, milky fluid that kills the insect at once. if this were all, the wound would remain open, ready for the next robber who came along. in order that the break may be healed, a cement is necessary, but not a hard, unyielding one, for that would crumble away with the motion of the tree in the wind. so with mother nature's perfection in doing things, the very plant juice that has done duty as a poison is hardened into an elastic stopper, with the result that, no matter how far the tree may sway and tug at the wound, the filling gives and stretches, true to the task it has to perform. this was the juice the crafty savage induced the tree to give up. wherever the bark was cut, the fluid poured forth to heal the break and hardened like blood on a cut finger. the native caught it while it was still soft and applied it to his simple needs. this juice is not the sap of the rubber tree. sap, which is the life-blood of the tree, flows through the wood, but the juice we are describing is contained in the inner bark, a thin layer directly below the outer bark. scientific men call this juice latex. it is like milk in three ways: it is white, it contains tiny particles that rise to the top like cream, and it spoils quickly. the particles in cow's milk are full of fats which make it good for us to drink. but a rubber tree's milk has tiny atoms of rubber and resin and other things, and it took time to discover which of the vines and trees was the prize milker of the tropics and gave the largest amount of pure rubber. finally, the hevea, the very tree the frenchman wrote about, proved to be the best, and, although by no means the only rubber tree of commercial value, it is acknowledged the greatest of rubber trees. the hevea tree grows sixty feet tall, and when full grown is eight or ten feet around. it rises as straight as an elm, with high branching limbs and long, smooth oval leaves. sprays of pale flowers blossom upon it in august, followed in a few months by pods containing three speckled seeds which look like smooth, slightly flattened nutmegs. when the seeds are ready to drop the outer covering of the pod bursts with a loud report, the seeds shooting in all directions. this is nature's clever scheme to spread the hevea family. the tree grows wild in the hot, damp forests of the amazon valley and in other parts of south america that have a similar climate. the ideal climate for the rubber tree is one which is uniform all the year round, from eighty-nine to ninety-four degrees at noon, and riot lower than seventy degrees at night. the amazon country has a rainy season which lasts half the year, though the other season is by no means a dry one, and so for half the time the jungles are flooded. these rubber storehouses had been growing for thousands of years in the amazon jungle with their wealth securely sealed up in their bark, the peck of a bird, the boring of a beetle, or the scratch of a climbing animal being the only draft upon their treasure. the trees around the mouth of the river supplied whatever was needed for the little manufacturing that was at first done. but the discovery that made a universal use for rubber changed all this. brazil was surprised to find what great treasure her forests contained. large rubber areas were found a thousand miles up the river and she began in a serious way to develop a large crude rubber business. less than twenty years ago brazil produced practically all the rubber used in the world. but to-day she furnishes less than one-tenth of the world's supply. how brazil, possessing in her vast forests millions of rubber trees of the finest quality, has been forced by unfavorable conditions to permit the far east to sweep from her in this short time the crude rubber supremacy of the world is one of the most unusual chapters in modern industrial history. chapter wickham's idea the story of the success of the east indies in wresting the crude rubber supremacy from brazil, begins with an englishman named wickham, who might be called the father of plantation rubber. wickham, who had spent some years in south america, understood the difficulties of gathering rubber in the jungles. he believed that if rubber could be cultivated it might prove a good crop on the coffee plantations in india which a blight had recently rendered valueless for coffee. what a strange fact it is that this blight gave brazil a chance to go into coffee growing, and that while brazil was losing the rubber supremacy to the far east, the far east at about the same time was surrendering the leadership in coffee to brazil. the latter now holds first place in coffee growing as firmly as does the far east in rubber growing. wickham saw that there were difficulties that would prevent the gathering of wild rubber from keeping pace with the growing demand. although millions of rubber trees still stood untouched in the brazilian forests, only those trees near the river banks could be tapped because of the impossibility of getting the rubber out of the dense vegetation. life in the jungle was dangerous and lonely, and therefore rubber gatherers were not easy to find. they were compelled to work far from their families and friends, and in constant danger from wild beasts, reptiles and death-bearing fevers. it is no wonder that rubber obtained in this way came to be known as "wild rubber." moreover, transporting the crude product through the jungles was hard and expensive and the rubber obtained under these conditions was not always so clean or high in quality as might be wished. "if rubber trees grow from the seeds which nature scatters in the jungle," said wickham to himself, "why should they not grow from seeds put into the ground by hand?" "if rubber trees could be raised from seed, they could be planted in the open in rows where they could easily be tended and tapped, and the rubber gathered quickly and safely. instead of having to brave the dangerous jungles, men could plant and cultivate rubber in spots of their own choosing so long as they chose places where the climate was right." for many years people only laughed at wickham's great idea, but like goodyear he had faith enough to persevere. while in brazil he planted some rubber seeds to see what would happen. the seeds did grow, and the book which wickham wrote about his idea and his experiments finally came into the hands of sir joseph hooker, the director of the botanical gardens in kew, near london. so interested did he become that he called wickham's plan to the attention of the government of india, and finally wickham was commissioned to take a cargo of rubber seeds to england, so that his idea might be tried out. this commission was more difficult than one might think, and all of wickham's faith and perseverance were needed to carry it out. indeed for a time it seemed hopeless, principally because the seeds so quickly dry up and lose their vitality that they must be planted very soon after being gathered. but wickham watched his opportunity, and finally he was able to charter a ship in the name of the indian government. about a third of the way up the amazon river he placed in her hold several thousand carefully packed seeds of the hevea braziliensis, or rubber tree. let wickham, himself, tell how he surmounted the next difficulty: "we were bound to call in at the city of para as the port of entry, in order to obtain clearance papers for the ship before we could go to sea. any delay would have rendered my precious freight quite valueless and useless. but again fortune favored. i had a 'friend at court' in the person of consul green, who went himself with me to call on the proper official, and supported me as i presented to his excellency 'my difficulty and anxiety, being in charge of, and having on board a ship anchored out in the stream, exceedingly delicate botanical specimens, especially designated for delivery to her britannic majesty's own royal garden of kew. even while doing myself the honor of thus calling on his excellency, i had given orders to the captain of the ship to keep up steam, having ventured to trust his excellency would see his way clear to furnishing me with immediate dispatch. an interview most polite, full of mutual compliments in the best portuguese manner, enabled us to get under way as soon as the captain had got the dinghy hauled aboard." can you imagine wickham's sigh of relief as his vessel, with its freight of perishable treasure, steamed out of port, and began the long journey to england? chapter plantation development the transporting of the rubber seeds from the brazilian forests to england was only the first step in wickham's project. the real test was still to come. the seeds were planted in the famous botanical gardens of kew, and on august , , the several thousand seedlings which had been raised from them were packed in special cases and shipped to ceylon on the other side of the globe for the final and most important stage of the experiment. how long the next five years must have seemed to the anxious wickham, for it was that long before the first rubber tree flowered in the gardens at heneratgoda, sixteen miles from colombo, where the trees had finally been planted. in this year, , experiments in tapping began, and it was plain that wickham's dream was to be realized. from these few trees, so carefully tended in their youth, has sprung the whole rubber industry of ceylon and the far east. wickham must indeed have been proud to see the plantations spreading from ceylon to malaya, where rubber was eagerly taken up by planters who were despairing of ever making a living out of coffee, and later to sumatra and java and borneo. to-day rubber plantations cover an area of over , , acres, with a yearly output of almost , tons, or about ten times the average yearly output of "wild rubber." there is a curious coincidence in the fact that wickham got his idea about planting rubber trees in india at about the same time that men in america began to experiment with the horseless carriage. you may never have stopped to think of it, but mechanical experts say that without rubber pneumatic tires, automobiles could never have become the fine, swift vehicles they are. it was a wonderful thing that when in the early part of this century the automobile industry suddenly burst forth with a demand for rubber so great that brazil could never have hoped to supply it, there was found ready in the far east, as a result of the planting that had been done there, a supply that took care of the sudden emergency. a little more than ten years ago american business men began to take an interest in the rubber plantations. they have shown characteristic energy in the field, and the greatest single rubber plantation in the world is owned by an american company, the united states rubber company. this plantation is on the island of sumatra in the dutch east indies, one of the best governed colonies in the east. on this island is an orchard of rubber trees, as beautifully laid out and as well cared for as any orchard of fruit trees in our own country. for seventy square miles, an area as large as the district of columbia, the orderly ranks of trees fill the gently rolling landscape, every inch of which is weeded as carefully as a garden. it takes twenty thousand employees to care for the trees, which number more than , , . on this plantation the science of growing rubber trees has been brought to a perfection known nowhere else in the world. groups of botanists, chemists and arboriculturists study constantly tree diseases, methods of increasing the yield, and the other problems of growing fine trees that will produce high grade rubber. here, by experiment and inspection, the secrets of the rubber tree are being brought to light, so much so that growers look to this plantation for leadership in methods of rubber culture. this great project so far from american soil and in a field so new gives a thrill of pride to the americans visiting sumatra on their way around the world. chapter plantation life the moist but very hot climate which rubber trees require is found only in a zone around the world between the parallels of latitude thirty degrees north to thirty degrees south of the equator. within this zone there have been found more than rubber bearing trees, shrubs and vines. for this reason this zone is called the rubber belt. as most of the rubber used commercially is gathered from trees growing within a zone extending from ten degrees north to ten degrees south of the equator, this latter zone is sometimes called the inner rubber belt. if you will trace this belt on a map of the world you will see that it includes the amazon region which produces more than three-quarters of the wild rubber used in manufacturing. most of south america's wild rubber is obtained from brazil, the remainder from bolivia, peru and venezuela. now continue the belt across the atlantic ocean to africa, where you will strike the belgian congo which produces a small quantity of wild rubber. partly owing to the careless manner of gathering and partly to the fact that it is not originally of as good quality as brazilian rubber, congo rubber is not as valuable for manufacturing as brazilian. then complete the circle by following the belt across the indian ocean to ceylon and the east indies which contain the great rubber plantations where most of the rubber used to-day comes from. to establish a rubber plantation requires very careful planning. the choice of a site is of first importance, for the planter must find a locality having a moist climate with an evenly distributed rain-fall where the temperature throughout the year does not fall below seventy degrees fahrenheit, and where there is protection from the wind. there must also be, of course, access to a steady labor supply and a convenient shipping port. as the proper climate is a tropical one, there is usually dense jungle to be cleared away. immense trees and thick bushes, rank straggling weeds and vines form an almost impenetrable jungle. to turn such a place into a garden spot means a genuine battle against jungle conditions. but gradually trees, shrubs and undergrowth are torn out and burned, laying bare the rich soil ready for the plow of the planter. meantime the rubber seedlings have been sprouted in nurseries. when the ground is ready they are carefully taken up and transplanted to the holes which have been made for them in the field where they are to be permanently planted. though the growth of the trees is very rapid, sometimes as much as twenty feet in the first year, there are five years of anxious waiting and guarding against winds and disease before they are ready to be tapped and so begin to reward the planters. at first the yield of a tree is only about one-half pound of rubber a year, and this increases so slowly that it is many years before it amounts to as much as ten pounds a year. the highest yield ever recorded was given by one of the original trees set out in the gardens at heneratgoda, which gave ninety-six and one-half pounds in one year. how different is life on the rubber plantations of to-day from the life of the gatherer of wild rubber in the jungle. in brazil, the solitary workers have to plunge at dawn into the perilous forest, with its lurking wildcats and jaguars, its coiled and creeping serpents. the dwellings are flimsy huts, food is scarce and expensive, and disease and fever cause many deaths. on the other hand, workers on a well-managed plantation live in comfortable houses in healthy surroundings and are supplied with plenty of good food. in fact the conditions are so much better than generally prevail among natives in the orient that work on a plantation is considered more desirable than most other forms of labor. the unmarried men live in barracks, but the men with families have individual houses with garden plots adjoining. big kitchens prepare and cook the food in the best native style. schools for the children, recreation centers for old and young, and hospitals to care for the sick, are all parts of the plantation organization. in erecting hospitals and caring for the health of its plantation workers, as in other branches of the rubber industry, america has taken the lead. so well is this recognized, that the dutch government has awarded a medal to the united states rubber company for the efficiency and completeness of its plantation hospital, which happens to be the largest private hospital in the east indies, having accommodations for nearly a thousand patients. chapter harvesting the rubber it is a cheerful sight to see the workers, men and women, dressed in all the colors of the rainbow, trooping out from their quarters to begin the day's work. the tapping must be done early in the day, for the latex or rubber juice stops flowing a few hours after sunrise. when the trees reach eighteen inches in girth at a point eighteen inches from the ground, they are ready for tapping. this growth is usually attained when the trees are about five years old. in tapping, a narrow strip of bark is cut away with a knife, the cut extending diagonally one-quarter of the way around the tree. at each succeeding day's tapping the tapper widens the cut by stripping off a sliver of bark one-twentieth of an inch in width.[ ] he must be careful not to cut into the wood of the tree, as such cuts not only injure the tree but permit the sap to run into the latex and spoil the rubber. when the tapper has made the proper gash in the bark he inserts a little spout to carry the dripping latex to a glass cup beneath. [ ] this method of tapping is shown on the front cover. later in the morning the workers make the rounds of the trees with large milk cans, gathering the latex from the cups. when the cans are full they are carried to a collecting station, called a coagulation shed. it is as clean and well kept as a dairy. here the latex is weighed, and when each collector has been credited with the amount he has brought, it is dumped into huge vats. the next step is to extract the particles of rubber from the latex and to harden them. the jungle method of hardening rubber is to dip a wooden paddle in the latex and smoke it over a fire of wood and palm nuts.[ ] it is a back-breaking process to cover the paddle with layer after layer, until a good-sized lump, usually called a "biscuit," is formed. the plantation method is a quicker and cleaner one. into the vats is poured a small quantity of acid, which causes the rubber "cream" to coagulate and come to the surface. the "coagulum," as it is called, is like snow-white dough. it is removed from the vats and run in sheets through machines which squeeze out the moisture and imprint on them a criss-cross pattern to expose as large a surface as possible to the air. [ ] see picture, page . these sheets of rubber are then hung in smoke houses and smoked from eight to fourteen days in much the same way that we smoke hams and bacon. after being dried in this way they are pressed into bales or packed in boxes ready for shipment. chapter a last word it would be an adventure to follow a bale of plantation rubber as, carefully boxed or wrapped in burlap, it starts on its long and picturesque journey. bullock carts, railroads, boats and steamers bring it at last to one of the world markets, singapore, colombo, london, amsterdam or new york, where it is bought by dealers, and then sold to factories which make rubber goods. an equally fascinating story might be told of its progress through the factory, how it is kneaded and rolled, mixed with chemicals, rubbed into fabrics, baked in ovens, and finally emerges as any one of the tens of thousands of articles that are made wholly or partly from rubber. rubber manufacturing is peculiarly an american industry. south america gave us the original rubber trees, and the one man who, more than any other, was responsible for making rubber useful was the american, charles goodyear. to-day, two-thirds of the entire output of rubber is sold to the united states, whose manufactured rubber goods set the standard for the whole world. in spite of the wonders which rubber has already accomplished, and the adventures, which have colored its history, only the beginning of the romance of rubber has been told. the plantation industry is still in its infancy, and experiments are constantly being made to determine the best methods of planting, the most fruitful number of trees to the acre, the most advantageous way of tapping. in the laboratories of the great rubber manufacturers, scientists are at work improving old methods of using rubber and devising new ones. rubber is a substance of so many important characteristics that its uses are countless. it is used for certain purposes because it stretches, for others because it is airtight and watertight, for others because it is a non-conductor of electricity, for others because it is shock-absorbing, and for others because it is adhesive. it is on rubber that infants cut their teeth; after all the teeth are gone old age makes use of rubber in plates for false teeth. ten million motorists and other millions of cyclists in the united states ride on rubber tires that are durable, noiseless and airtight. balloons of rubber float aloft, and huge submarines plow their routes beneath the ocean's surface propelled by electricity stored in great rubber cells. sheathed in rubber, the lightning makes a peaceful way through our homes, offices and factories, furnishing light and telephone service. divers sink out of sight beneath the waves in rubber suits. rubber air-brake hose on railroad trains makes safe the travel of a nation, air-drill hose rivets our ships, fire hose protects the properly in city and town and garden hose brings nourishment to our growing plants. rubber clothing protects against storm and rubber footwear guards us against cold and wet. tennis balls and golf balls and rubber-cored baseballs give healthful sport to the millions. in hospitals and medical work the uses of rubber are without number. to select the most important use to which rubber is put would be difficult. one student of the subject says: "of all the applications of rubber, that of packing for the steam engine and connecting machinery appears to have been the most important, as it has been an essential condition of the development and extended use of steam as a motive power." even as you read this, rubber may be in the act of performing some new magic, some fresh service to mankind. and who knows which one of us will, in the years to come, write a chapter in the story of rubber more thrilling than we are able to imagine to-day! a review and questions . who was the first white man to see rubber? what use were the natives making of it? . who was the first white man to go up the amazon? . of what nationality were the explorers who were sent to find out about rubber? . who was the first european monarch to use rubber? . how did rubber get its name? . how did rubber first come to the united states? . why are some raincoats called mackintoshes? . why is charles goodyear called "the father of the rubber industry"? . what is "vulcanizing"? . what famous men fought in court over the patents? . what has a beetle to do with rubber? . name and describe the liquid in which rubber is found? . in what part of the tree is this liquid found? . what is the difference between this liquid and the sap of a tree. . name and describe the best rubber tree. . how are the seeds spread? . what climate is needed for rubber trees? . which country formerly supplied all the rubber used in the world? . who first thought of growing rubber trees on plantations? . why did he think it was better to grow them on plantations? . how were the rubber seeds taken from brazil? . on what tropical island was the first plantation started? . where are rubber plantations found to-day? . what is the yearly output of the plantations? . what was the curious coincidence in the growth of the plantation industry? . what is meant by the rubber belt around the world? . what countries are the principal producers of rubber? . why is the worker on a plantation better off than one who lives in the jungle? . when are trees ready to be tapped? . how are trees tapped? . how is rubber "cured" in the jungle? . how is it "cured" on the plantation? . why is rubber manufacturing peculiarly an american industry? rubber products there are so many different articles made in whole or part of rubber that it would not be possible to list them all on this page. the following list of just a few of the thousands of rubber products made by the united states rubber company, the oldest and largest rubber organization in the world, will help you to think of many other articles made of rubber. tires "u.s." royal cord automobile tires. "u.s." mono-twin truck tires. "u.s." traxion tread motorcycle tires. "u.s." bicycle tires. "u.s." royal tubes for automobile tires. clothing raynster raincoats. naugahyde belts for men, women and children. bathing caps and suits. footwear keds, the standard canvas rubber-soled shoes. "u.s." boots. "u.s." arctics and gaiters. "u.s." rubbers. hard rubber goods battery jars. radio parts. dye sticks. household hot-water bags. rubber gloves. ice caps. tubing and sheeting. nursing bottle nipples. toys. fruit jar rubbers. mechanical goods "u.s." rainbow packing. "u.s." rainbow transmission belting. "u.s." elevator and conveyor belts. "u.s." hose for all purposes, including garden, steam, suction, water, fire, oil, irrigation, etc. paracore insulated wire and cable. moulded goods in thousands of varieties, as, for example, washers, gaskets, plumbers' rubber goods, drainboard mats, bath mats, etc. "u.s." tile and sheet flooring. sundries naugahyde traveling bags. "u.s." royal golf balls. balloons and balloon fabrics. notice to teachers these booklets are intended for presentation to your pupils. a full supply will be sent to you, free of charge, if you will indicate the number of students in your class. please address educational department united states rubber company broadway new york city baltimore hats past and present. an historical sketch of the hat industry of baltimore from its earliest days to the present time. by william t. brigham. _printed for gratuitous circulation only._ baltimore: mdccclxxxx. copyrighted, , by wm. t. brigham. _press and bindery of isaac friedenwald, baltimore, md._ preface. it is not impossible that some useful information may be conveyed by this book. should these pages prove of such service, their cost in labor is most cheerfully donated. this volume is composed of a series of articles which appeared in a trade journal, covering a period of two years from to . it must be accepted as but a brief history of an industry long identified with baltimore. thanks are due the librarian of the maryland historical society and mr. b. r. sheriff for favors in lending rare and valuable old city directories; also to the many citizens who kindly aided and assisted in the search for needed information. the author. baltimore, . contents. . introductory . early days . period of the revolution . after the revolution . early in the nineteenth century . some old firms . patriarchs of the trade . jacob rogers . old methods . john petticord . middle of the century . fashions . new developments . growth of business . history of the mackinaw hat . modern improvements . a model establishment . ways and means of the present time baltimore hats--past and present. introductory. no. . past and present have each their independent significance. the past gives freely to us the experiences of others, the present a suitable opportunity to improve upon what has already occurred. with our observation and acceptance of these privileges so easily obtained, we reap the benefit of their advantages and unconsciously find ourselves the gainers both in capacity and intelligence. a history of the past, giving the record of events and circumstances existing before our own day, bringing to our knowledge the accomplishments, business enterprises and undertakings of our predecessors, is a profitable study, and the reader gratifies his curiosity in observing how differently things were conducted and managed a century ago as compared with the processes of the present day, exciting a sense of wonder at the rapid progress that has been made in a comparatively short period of time. think of it! quite within the lifetime of many of us have been the most wonderful of inventions--the steam engine, steam vessels, the telegraph and other wonders and triumphs of electricity. the wildest fancy may not be styled visionary in anticipating the appearance of things still more surprising. [illustration: then.] [illustration: now.] continued familiarity with the present system of making hats has the tendency in a great degree to prevent a recognition, until brought to our notice by comparison of the wide difference existing between the old and new methods, and this common every-day experience assists in making us unappreciative of the remarkable improvements that have been made in this branch of business. only a half a century ago the time required to make a single fur hat from the prepared material was fully a week, and the average production was two hats per day per man. with the bowing of the fur, the forming and shrinking of the bodies, and the handwork of finishing and trimming, all of which by the aid of modern science and invention is to-day done by machinery more perfectly and completely at the rate in production of twenty times that of fifty years ago, while the sewing of a straw hat, which could hardly be done in an hour by the plodding work of the hand, stitch by stitch, is, by the rapid sewing-machine, made in a minute. when we think of the largest number of stitches our mothers and sisters could take in their needlework by hand and contrast it with the result of the sewing-machine that spins its twenty-two hundred stitches a minute, we are able to gain some adequate idea of the saving of labor, and while we complacently accept these marvellous accomplishments, the question whether it be to the poor and needy a loss or gain is still an undecided problem. with all the advantages now at our command, it appears to us a matter of surprise how our forefathers, with their apparently indifferent methods, could profitably succeed in their labors. with steam engines, sewing-machines and electricity, the quick accomplishments of the present compared with the slow movements of the past tend to make one think we are living in an age of wonders amounting almost to miracles. what would be the exclamation of the ghosts of our great-grandfathers who, with the rapid trot of an ox-team, drove to church miles away through the storms of winter to exemplify their devotion to the truth of their faith, if suddenly they could rise and observe the luxury of the present modes of transportation in convenient palace cars and palatial steamships, our comfortable and gaudy churches, and our easy ways of communicating instantly with those thousands of miles away from us? aladdin's wonderful experiences, or the magical change by cinderella's fairy god-mother, would appear tame to their intense surprise. [illustration: rapid transit in olden times.] in a series of articles it is proposed to give an account of the growth of the hat manufacturing business, one of the most interesting of baltimore's industries; how at an early period it was raised into conspicuous prominence in common with other enterprises undertaken in the active spirit which has always characterized baltimore merchants as among the foremost of their time. they will also treat of its gradual growth and development, followed by a temporary decline of progress caused by the civil war and its consequences, and finally of its triumphant stride to place itself again in line with other leading industries of this enterprising metropolis, for without doubt it holds to-day an enviable position among the different trades, a position acquired by the thoroughness, determination and perseverance of those engaged in its development. [illustration: an old timer.] early days. no. . the spirit of ambition and independence constituting the fundamental principles of manhood, and inspiring a nobleness of character which in time of the country's struggle for liberty helped to give her the benefits of wise counsel, noble patriotism and manly service, was early manifested by the neighboring colony of virginia, as in the year she ventured upon a practical plan to encourage the manufacture of hats by offering a premium of ten pounds of tobacco for every domestic hat made of fur or wool. what resulted from this generous act we are not informed, but there is no evidence that it in any degree stimulated the production of hats in that colony, and it is a noted fact that hat-making to any extent has never flourished south of baltimore. this city seems to have been the southern boundary line--the geographical limit in that direction--of hat-manufacturing. as an offset to this enterprising manifesto of virginia is a petition in the year of the hat-makers of london to the "lords of trade," to enact a law forbidding the american colonists to wear hats not made in great britain. this law was passed, attaching a penalty of five hundred pounds sterling (twenty-five hundred dollars) for its violation. the archives of the new jersey historical society for the year show that there was one hatter in that colony, and from a history of boston we learn that sixteen hat-makers of that town were affected by the edict of these despotic english law-makers. in this manner were the enterprises of the new continent checked and the attempt made to crush out that spirit of progress so manifest in the brightest of the english colonies. it was the continuation of such injustice and oppression that eventually inspired a rebellious spirit to take the place of patience and submission, ending in a revolt, the termination of which secured us liberty and justice and the announcement of our complete independence on the th of july, . the style of hat of this period ( ) had the sides of the brim turned up, with a front of an easy curl, which, nearly resembling a cap-visor, made it in shape somewhat between a hat and cap; this seems to have been the first approach toward the "cocked" or three-cornered hat afterwards so extensively used, and to americans the most familiar of past styles, from its being a fashion of the period of the revolution, by which it became the prominent part of an historical costume. the arbitrary law before alluded to was afterwards modified, but an uncomfortable restriction continued to be enforced upon all manufactures, for in the year the english parliament, among other unjust acts, enacted a law forbidding exportation of hats from one colony to another and allowing no hatter to have more than two apprentices at one time, "because the colonists, if let alone, would soon supply the whole world with hats." [illustration: ] the french fashion of this time had the brazen characteristic of its brim rising erect from the forehead, a style seemingly in keeping with the then irritable condition and reckless agitation of the french people. planché, in his "cyclopædia of costumes" (vol. , page ), quotes a humorous description, evidently referring to this particular style, as follows: "some wear their hats with the corners that should cover the forehead high in the air, these are called gawkies; others do not half cover their heads, which, indeed, is owing to the shallowness of their crowns, but between beaver and eyebrows exposes a blank forehead, which looks like a sandy road in a surveyor's plan." [illustration: ] from the year until after the revolution there was but little change in the general character of style in men's hats: the custom of erecting the brims by tying or looping them up prevailed. soon the elevation of the brim of was abandoned and a change made by looping it at the points of a triangle, producing the three-cornered or "cocked" hat. this was a becoming style we must admit, and one seemingly well suited to the independent, fearless and patriotic characteristics of our forefathers' traits, the possession of which at that time gave us all the comforts that are ours now. the "cocked" hat enjoyed a long popularity, continuing in fashion until near the close of the century, when the "steeple top" and "chimney pot" styles--slang terms for the high beavers--came into vogue, a style which ashton, an english writer, designates as "the hideous head-covering that has martyrized at least three generations." [illustration: ] departure from settled and accustomed styles created the same furore and astonishment, and subjected the venturesome individual whose inclinations led an advance in fashion to the same exposure to ridicule as affects the "swell" of the present day, and the reporters of "society doings" then were as close observers, as keen in wit, and as unmerciful in criticism as any of their kin to-day. planché, quoting from the _london chronicle_ for , refers to fashion of hats at that time as follows: "hats," says the writer, "are now worn on the average six and three-fifths inches broad in the brim and cocked. some have their hats open like a church spout or like the scales they weigh their coffee in; some wear them rather sharp like the nose of the greyhound, and we can designate by the taste of the hat the mood of the wearer's mind. there is a military cock and a mercantile cock, and while the beaux of st. james wear their hats under their arms, the beaux of moorfields-mall wear theirs diagonally over the left or right eye; sailors wear their hats uniformly tucked down to the crown, and look as if they carried a triangular apple pasty upon their heads." that "there is nothing new under the sun" is a maxim the truth of which is often verified within the limits of fashionable manners; thus the counterpart of the present captivating custom of carrying in the public ball-room or at the private party the collapsed "opera" hat under the arm is seen in the fashion of , the only difference being, not as now, to doff the hat in the house, but when promenading the street the beau was to be seen with "a pretty black beaver tucked under his arm, if placed on his head it might keep him too warm." [illustration: folded hat, .] [illustration: the 'opera', .] the folded hat of differed from the opera hat of the present day also in the softness of the crown, permitting its being flattened, and the brim, as if hinged front and rear, folded at the sides like the corners of a book, while the present opera hat, constructed with jointed springs, allows its cylindrical crown to be flattened down to a level with the brim, which keeps its fixed shape. scharf's "chronicles of baltimore" give the copy of an inventory made in the year of the personal effects of one thos. edgerton, a citizen of the province of maryland, and among them is his hat, described as having a gold band and feathers. this hat evidently was the celebrated cavalier style that appears in many of the portraits of rubens, vandycke and rembrandt, of all styles the prettiest and most picturesque ever introduced. the wide brim of the cavalier hat was arranged as suited the fancy of the wearer, some of whom allowed it to take its natural shape, some would wear it looped up on the side, and by others it was caught up and attached to the crown at different angles; in fact, it was modeled very much as the ladies now-a-days do the "gainsborough," exercising their own individual fancy as to the treatment of the brim. [illustration: the 'cavalier', ] identical with the interests of baltimore were the industries of other towns of the colony of maryland, and among the earliest records referring to the hat business are several advertisements found in the _maryland gazette_, published at annapolis. in february, , chas. diggs advertises "men's and boys' castor and felt hats." in barnet west advertises "gold and silver band hats, just imported from london," and in april, , appears the advertisement of nathaniel waters, of annapolis, who announces that he has for sale "silver and gold buttons and loops for hats, and that he carries on the hat-making as usual." about this time annapolis, being in her palmy days, was the center of gentility and fashionable life; here was congregated the blue blood of english aristocracy, who strove to foster and cultivate the same courtly splendor and etiquette existing in old england, which brought to the venerable place the enviable fame of being considered the most fashionable of our colonial towns. [illustration: the beau of .] period of the revolution. no. . an indulgence of those inborn habits of luxury and fondness for rich and expensive dress by the wealthy land owners, comprising the large majority of the population of the southern colonies, encouraged a demand for articles more elaborate and costly than those produced within the colonial territory; hence imported fabrics were by them largely preferred to those of domestic make. the gay and festive social life, and the means easily acquired from their profitable crops of cotton and tobacco, permitted indulgence in lavish expenditures for articles of fashionable attire and household elegance. the general customs of the people of the south had the effect of retarding the progress of ordinary trades by not affording sufficient patronage to encourage their successful undertaking; while, on the contrary, from the greater necessity with the northern people of personal exertion and labor to provide the comforts of home life, sprung that support of manufactures which has so largely increased as to place the power and wealth of the country in their hands. the event of the american revolution, however, somewhat changed this aspect of affairs. the genuineness of maryland's loyalty was certainly in one way nobly demonstrated, and by an act of patriotic self-sacrifice, gave to her an unlooked-for reward in a prosperous future. her people quickly espousing the cause of liberty, at once rejected articles of foreign make and gave choice to those of home production, thus stimulating industries in their midst which had not before flourished from lack of encouragement and support. actuated by a feeling of sympathy for their fellow-citizens of boston--whom the british parliament in attempted to shut out from commercial intercourse with every part of the world--the citizens of baltimore called a town meeting, unanimously recommending a general congress of delegates, to meet at annapolis, to take action against this indignity on american liberties. the congress met june , , offering their heartiest support not only in resolution, but in the more substantial way of money and food, as aid to their boston friends in the resistance to british tyranny and oppression, supplementing these patriotic resolutions by one making the importation of english goods an act disloyal to the sentiment of american hearts. the earliest manufacturing hatter in baltimore, of whom any definite knowledge can be obtained, was david shields, who kept store at no. gay street. as the location was on the east side of gay and the seventh house from the corner of baltimore street, it probably was about half-way between baltimore and fayette streets. here he sold to his patrons the products of his "back shop" or factory, which was located on the south side of east, now fayette street, at a point half-way between gay and frederick streets. mr. shields' father was from pennsylvania. david shields was born in the year , and his descendants of to-day include some of the wealthiest and most refined citizens of baltimore. in scharf's "chronicles of baltimore" his name is mentioned, in connection with others, in the year as aiding by a general subscription in procuring an engine for the extinguishment of fires; this engine was for the "mechanical fire company," and was the first machine of its kind in baltimore, costing the sum of two hundred and sixty-four dollars. unfortunately, the information gained of mr. shields' business career is so meagre as to leave much to the imagination, but it is natural to suppose that in , being thirty-two years of age, he must have been established in business. that mr. shields was a public-spirited citizen is further proven by his connection with the first baptist society, being one of a committee constituted for the purpose of purchasing a lot upon which to erect a church; this was in , two years before the revolution. the church was built on front street, upon the site now occupied by the merchants' shot tower, and was the first baptist church erected in baltimore. the _federal gazette_ announces the death of mr. shields, october , , in the seventy-fourth year of his age; his funeral taking place from his residence, which was over his place of business, on gay street. what may have been the actual condition of the hat business of baltimore just before the revolution has been difficult to ascertain. mr. shields must have been in business during this period, and it is more than probable that in a town of the size of baltimore at that date there must have been others engaged in this branch of business, but how many and who they were cannot be ascertained. it is very likely that the restriction placed by english rule upon most manufacturing industries prior to the revolution operated detrimentally upon this industry also, and while the ordinary kind of wool felt hats were made by the hatter in his own shop, undoubtedly most of the fashionable hats sold and worn at that time were of english or french make. paris (which then, as well as now, was the axis upon which revolved the world of fashion) possibly supplied the wants of baltimore's highborn gentry, always famous for exquisite dress and refined taste, with the french chapeau--the _ton_ of those days. as there are no existing detailed statistics of the business of baltimore during the revolutionary war, the record of some business firms has been entirely lost, and although some trades have received slight mention in the published histories of the city, a trace of the existence of but two hatters, who afterwards continued in business, is to be found. since it is known as a fact that fourteen hatters were engaged in business in baltimore, not later than ten years after the close of the war, we have a right to suppose that more than two must have been in business during the existence of the war. among the proceedings of the "council of safety" of maryland, organized at the outbreak of the war, is found the following order: "march , . the council of safety authorize major gist to contract for fifty camp-kettles and as many _hats_ as may be necessary for the battalion, not to exceed shillings apiece." again, april , , "commissary of stores of baltimore is ordered to send to annapolis of the hats arrived from philadelphia." why baltimore hatters did not supply the needed hats for maryland militia we cannot say, but probably a sharp competition for so _large_ a contract wrested it from them. the adoption of the "cocked" hat in its various forms as a portion of the military costume of the continental army brought about the necessity of making a distinction between civil and military wear. after the close of the american revolution france was in a state of civil insurrection, and the french "chapeau" of that time was constructed upon a plan somewhat similar to that of the "cocked" hat. with the termination of the french revolution appeared the "steeple-top" hat, having a conical crown with stiff curled brim, drooping front and rear, being trimmed with a very wide band and ornamented in front with a huge metal buckle, a change radical enough from those preceding it, but admitting a question as to its comparative intrinsic beauty or to its being a more becoming part of male attire; the style withal certainly proved acceptable, for with slight modifications it has continued and is now embodied in the fashionable silk hat of the present time. thus with the opening of the nineteenth century commenced the era of what may be correctly termed the _high_ hat. ashton, in "old times," says of the style of - : "the 'cocked' hat had gone out, and the galling yoke of the 'chimney pot' was being inaugurated, which was as yet of limp felt." [illustration: ] in fashions prevailing at the opening of the new century, particularly those of wearing apparel both for ladies and gentlemen, paris took the lead, and though with many articles to-day parisian designs and ideas secure the largest share of popularity, yet in regard to hats for gentlemen it can proudly be said that american-made hats are ahead in point of style and quality, and are no longer dependent upon foreign ingenuity for assistance in securing for them a ready sale; in fact, no american industry to-day stands in a more enviable position relatively to foreign manufactures than does that of hat-making. the fancy for sentimental hits and political phrases indulged in by modern hatters seems to have been the rage at an earlier period, as is evident from the following, published in the london _times_ of december , : "if the young men of the present day have not much wit in their heads they have it at least in their _hats_." among the pleasantries we have seen in this way are the following: "not yours," "hands off," "no vermin," and "rip this as you would a hot potato," and other charming sallies of _refined_ and _elegant_ vivacity. but the wittiest linings are the political ones. the other day we observed one perfectly clean and tidy in which was written: "avaunt! guinea pig," and on the lining of a very powdery hat that lay in the window of the same room were inscribed the two monosyllables "off-crop." "guinea pig" and "off-crop" were probably local political distinctions of the day. [illustration: a citizen of ' .] after the revolution. no. . not until after the revolution is it apparent that any attempt was made in baltimore to concentrate the hatting industry into a legitimate business upon any extensive scale, or to separate the manufacturing from the retail branch of business; in fact, far into the new century was it the practice of those who manufactured extensively for the trade, to continue to keep in operation also a _retail_ establishment. the general system of conducting the hat business at the time of which we are now writing was for the hatter to have his "back shop" in the rear and accessible to the "front shop," where the proprietor and his "prentice hand" made the needed supply for the existing or future small demand likely to come; for hats in those days were "built" for service, not for show, and in a manner quite different from those suited to the modern requirement of almost a monthly change in style. then the principle demand came from maturing youth, desiring to assume suitable dignity for entrance into manhood, by procuring a "beaver" which, unless he lived to a patriarchal age, might serve him during his natural life, and that, too, without fear of banishment from society for being out of the fashion. in the first "baltimore city directory," printed in the year , appear the names of nineteen hatters; the business locations of some of the number, it is curious to observe, being at places hardly recognizable by those living at the present day. gay street, prior to the year , extended from the water to griffith's bridge (now called gay-street bridge), beyond which it was called bridge street; german lane is now german street; east street is fayette street, and the euphonious name of cowpen alley is now dignified by that of garrett street. baltimore street was then called market street, and for a long time after was often designated by either name. the following names and localities of hatters are found in the baltimore city directory published in : richard averson, german lane, between howard and liberty streets. joseph burnet, welcome alley, federal hill. peter bond, bridge street, old town. william branson, market street. peter beze, charles street. frederick deems, cowpen alley. joseph burneston, george street, fell's point. " shop, george street, fell's point. george littig, market street, shop on "the causeway." arnold livers, shop, south calvert street. aaron mattison, shop, east street, between calvert and gay. william mockbee, east street, between st. paul's lane and charles street. gasper morelli, charles street. john parks, shop, light street. jacob rogers, south street. george smith, bond street. david shields, north gay street. john steiger, market street. john underwood, alley between st. paul's lane and calvert street. daniel weaver, front street. judging from localities here given, ten of this number were engaged in business as principals, the others were probably journeymen, working at their trade in the various shops in the town. john parks, who did business at light street, had his residence at market street, about the location now occupied by clogg & son as a shoe store. in the year , no. market street was occupied by john walraven, hardware and silversmith, and john and andrew parks are in the dry-goods business, at no. market space. william branson, at market street, appears to have continued business in the same place up to the year . during the years - the firm was branson & son; their store was the second house west of grant street, then called public alley; the place is now occupied by geo. steinbach & son as a toy establishment. aaron mattison, whose shop, in , was on east street, in associated his son with himself in business, locating at north gay street, next door to david shields. in wm. mattison, probably the son, opened a store at market street; the firm continuing at n. gay street as aaron mattison & son. the next year w. mattison appears at market street, following which no further record is found of this firm. no. market street was two doors east of charles, on the north side, now occupied by towner & landstreet's rubber store. no. market street was also on the north side, second house east from lemon, now holliday street. peter bond, whose location was no. bridge street, continued as a hatter in the same place until the year ; afterwards he appears to have changed the character of his business, for in he is found to be a "storekeeper" at no. bridge street. no. was on the north side of what is now gay street, the seventh or eighth house beyond the bridge over the falls. peter bond was a member of the committee of "vigilance and safety" organized by the citizens of baltimore in the dark days of anxiety and trouble preceding the invasion of the city by the british in september, . richard averson had his residence on german lane, between howard and eutaw streets. at that time there was but one dwelling-house on german lane between hanover and liberty streets. german lane, now german street, then extended only from charles to greene street. mr. averson kept his hat store at no. county wharf, which was the lower terminus of south calvert street; he had for his neighbors gerard t. hopkins, peter cox and george mason, grocers. david shields continued in business at his old locality, north gay street, certainly until the year , and probably up to the time of his death in . in his place is found to be occupied by francis foster as a hat store. arnold livers would seem to have been the most peripatetic of hatters, and must have caused no little stir and comment among his fellow-tradesmen. until he appears as solitary arnold livers, carrying on the hat business at south calvert street, where probably he had a retail "shop." in the directory records: "arnold livers, south calvert street," and on fayette street (probably his residence), also cumberland row; livers & atkinson, fell street, and livers & atkinson, george street, fell's point. in arnold livers is still at south calvert street, also at market space, and george atkinson has succeeded to the firm of livers & atkinson. in it is livers & grover, south, corner of water street. from this time mr. livers disappears entirely; one may imagine what a commotion this evidently unsettled man of business must have raised during ten years of these varied and numerous changes, and possibly others of which the directories give no account. so rapidly and effectively does time erase the evidence of former labors, and so quickly is the past forgotten, that one is surprised and disappointed at not finding more proof on record of what these worthy apostles of work may have done. of the nineteen whose names are in the directory of , traces of the personal history of but two of the number can be found: these are david shields, before alluded to, and john parks. in griffith's "annals of baltimore," john parks is mentioned in the year as subscribing ten pounds to the funds raised by citizens for the purpose of elevating the courthouse to admit the extension of calvert street. then the courthouse stood in the bed of calvert street, which it spanned, where since has been erected and now stands battle monument, commemorating the loss of baltimore's brave citizens, who gave their lives in defence of their homes against british invasion in . among the patriots whose names are inscribed upon this monument by a grateful people, desiring in such way to honor and perpetuate the memory of those who sacrificed themselves in the defence of their homes and firesides, appears that of joseph burneston, a hatter, who is found in doing business at george street, fell's point. thus, while little else is known of mr. burneston's career, he is immortalized by a noble deed, and his name is handed down to coming generations to show what sacrifices were made in securing to us that freedom and comfort we now possess, sacrifices which should inspire us with the determination that when similar calls come we will be ready to answer as unhesitatingly as did this patriotic hatter. from the location of mr. burneston's place of business it may be inferred that he was only a hat-maker, having no "front shop" or retail establishment, but was merely a maker of hat bodies to be sold to retailers, who themselves finished and trimmed them ready for sale. of the hatters of there is but one through whom can be connectedly traced baltimore's hat industry from before the revolution down to the present time; that one is jacob rogers, whose long-continued business career brings personal knowledge of him down to a time quite within the recollection of some now living. singularly enough, by this solitary instance are we able to connect hatting in with that of , for it is known that mr. rogers learned his trade with mr. david shields, who was in business in , and engaged in their occupation to-day are several who were apprenticed to mr. rogers. [illustration: in readiness.] early in the xix century. no. . so wonderful were the recuperative powers of the american people, after undergoing the trials and sacrifices consequent upon a protracted struggle for liberty, as to surprise the most sanguine advocates of self-government. following the train of war came ruin and desolation, but freedom was the birthright of the people, who, though sorely tried by a tremendous outlay in blood and money, were by no means disheartened or discouraged, and without delay they cheerfully took in hand the task of renovation with the same resolute determination that characterized the conflict with their enemies. the contributions of maryland to the country's wants during the war were always generous in both men and money. baltimore, after recovering from the exhaustion consequent upon her constant participation in the seven long years' contest for freedom, commenced the foundation of her future commercial greatness, and early in the present century she had attained a commerce greater in extent than that of many older seaport towns. baltimore "clippers" were celebrated for their marvelous speed, and their white sails were to be seen in the ports of every foreign nation. baltimore kept steadily advancing in population and wealth; compared with her rivals, she was precocious. the town was settled in the year , and its increase shows evidence of growth that must have created a surprise in its early days similar to that now experienced by the development in a few weeks of a full-fledged western city, with its thousands of inhabitants, from its humble foundation of a few straggling hamlets. new york was settled in , boston in , philadelphia in , each being well on in existence before baltimore was born. at the close of the revolutionary war the population of baltimore was ; in it was , . the first united states census, taken in , places the number at , , and in it had grown to be a prosperous commercial city of , inhabitants. the persistent patriotism of baltimore throughout the revolutionary war was proverbial; the strong intelligence of a majority of its citizens, though of foreign birth, gave them an intuitive knowledge of the distinction between right and wrong, and a fine sense of honor and justice prompted them to act as well as theorize, consequently their personal convictions as to the allegiance they owed their adopted country enabled the city of their choice to assume a strong and patriotic attitude in behalf of america's struggle, and incited them to act with the native element in expelling from their midst all who indulged in hostile acts or expressions. but one sentiment prevailed in baltimore during the period of the war--that of loyalty to country. the courteous attention and honor paid by citizens to many of those who attained distinction in the war lent great assistance to baltimore in quickly recovering from the damage she had sustained, and gave to the city a renown for hospitality which has remained by her to the present day. washington, lafayette, count rochambeau, and many others united in unrestricted praises of baltimore's patriotism and liberality, and general vallette, who commanded a french division of troops, declared: "i will never forget the happy days i have passed among you, citizens of baltimore, and i beg you will believe that your remembrance will be forever dear to my memory." the famous general greene, of rhode island, on his way homeward from the war in the south, stopped in baltimore and gave his impression of the city in as follows: "baltimore is a most thriving place. trade nourishes, and the spirit of building exceeds belief. not less than three hundred houses are put up in a year. ground rents are little short of what they are in london. the inhabitants are all men of business." the period from - , although interrupted by the war of , when the city was made the immediate battle-ground, was marked by a wonderful growth in both commercial and industrial occupations, and, in common with the general prosperity of the place, hat-making also flourished. in maryland is found, from the united states census reports, to have taken the lead in the production of fur hats. aside from the custom with some retailers of making and finishing the hats they sold, we find in the year several firms engaged in the _manufacture_ of hats. the products of these factories were distributed throughout the entire south, a section the natural resources of which enabled its people to easily recuperate from the war and quickly become large purchasers and consumers of goods which they did not themselves manufacture. in addition to this desirable field of business was the region of the "far west," then comprising ohio, kentucky and tennessee, the rapid increase of which in population by emigration greatly enlarged the demand for the products of baltimore's hat industry. this being the most accessible seaport city, regular traffic by wagon trains was established, connecting baltimore with the west, and giving to the former such superior advantages as to enable its enterprising merchants to secure a large trade, which they long and tenaciously held. the city directories of that period were not, as now-a-days, issued annually, but at intervals of three or four years, and while furnishing much valuable information, cannot be relied upon for complete correctness, the main object of the compiler being to get the names of house-holders and business men, while many who were temporarily employed, and all who were unmarried though permanently employed, were omitted from registration. thus the directory of does not give a full list of hatters in this city at that time, for while it appears that there were in operation in baltimore twenty-five hat establishments in the year (five or six of which were extensive manufactories), the directory does not show any fair proportion of the number that then must have been engaged in the occupation of hat-making. it may be safely estimated from the extent and the activity of this branch of business at that time, that it gave employment to at least three hundred hands. before the year the "taper crown" or "steeple top" had yielded to the uncompromising demands of fashion, and a style appeared quite different from that which existed at the opening of the century. it had so expanded its crown as to become "bell" in place of "taper," a change so manifestly popular that the "bell crown" since that time, though subject in a greater or less degree to occasional alterations in its proportions, has been for a dress hat the generally accepted style. [illustration: ] in the style of , fashion, indulging as she not infrequently does, in a gymnastic summersault from one extreme to another, went in this instance quite as far as prudence would allow: the crown was about seven inches in height and about eight and one-quarter inches across the tip, with a brim about two-and-a-quarter inches wide, the hat being thickly napped with long beaver fur and trimmed with a wide band and buckle. following the year there came a reduction in heights of crowns as well as in the proportions of "bell," and a modified style prevailed until the year , when it again developed into an extreme "bell" shape with a very narrow brim, a style so utterly extravagant as to bring it into ridicule. some old firms. no. . of the hatters engaged in business in baltimore during the early part of this century, many are worthy of more than passing notice as men of honest character, strict in their dealings and successful in their business undertakings, gaining the respect of their fellow-townsmen and becoming honored and trusted citizens of a growing community. when it is known what were the social surroundings of the "old time" hatter in his youth, it seems a matter of surprise that such good fruit should spring from so unpromising soil. no one was supposed to be capable of conducting the retail hat business unless he had served his term of apprenticeship to the trade, and apprenticeship in those days was no trivial matter. it meant the surrender at an early age of home, with its parental influences--a most dangerous experience for the untrained youth to encounter--and was entered into by contract for a term of years, binding master and hand to its faithful execution; not merely a verbal agreement between parties themselves, but one solemnly executed by parent and employer, ratified and signed before a magistrate and made binding after all this legal form by the attachment of the portentous seal of the orphans' court, before the boy could be considered bounden as "an apprentice to the trade." this was virtually a surrender of all domestic control, giving to one not of "kith or kin" absolute guardianship of the boy. the habits and morals of the "'prentice" were often a secondary consideration, if not wholly neglected. thus, as a class, the journeyman hatters often developed into loose, shiftless, migratory characters, spending their liberal wages freely, with no ambition beyond that of daily support; and the surprise is that from such a source came notably honorable men, whose lives seemed to contradict the whole theory of the influence of early training. to these worthy pioneers belongs the credit of laying a secure foundation for a trade that from humble beginnings has developed into one of the most prominent industries of the country, requiring extensive capital, liberal business capacity, and one that gives employment to a large, intelligent and skillful class of people. among those conducting the hatting business in baltimore at the opening of the present century, mr. jacob rogers, from his long and successful business career, as well as from being the only one through whom it has been possible to connect this special industry as it existed before the revolution, with that of the present time, ranks most prominently. what year mr. rogers commenced business cannot be ascertained, but as early as , being nearly years of age, he is found established at the corner of south and second streets, and in the year (almost the middle of another century), after the lapse of nearly fifty years, and while actively engaged in business pursuits, his life was suddenly ended; his funeral taking place from his residence, at south and second streets, his home for more than half a century. about the year mr. rogers erected a large factory on second street near tripolet's alley (now post-office avenue). this building was about one hundred and fifty feet long, forty wide, and four stories in height. afterwards a wing extension of considerable proportions was added. [illustration: hat shop of jacob rogers, built about .] this establishment was one of the "big" concerns of the day, and mr. rogers was credited with conducting, at this time, the most extensive and prosperous hat business in the united states. to-day not a vestige remains of mr. rogers' factory, and upon its site is the extensive structure of the corn and flour exchange. his store, at the corner of south and second streets, still remains, however, having been remodeled from that of mr. rogers' time, the ground-floor being now occupied by h. w. totebush as a cigar store. in mr. rogers took as partner in business his eldest son, george, the firm becoming jacob rogers & son. in mr. rogers leased from the carroll family the property no. west baltimore street, at the corner of public alley (now grant street), where a branch establishment was opened, both establishments being continued up to the time of mr. rogers' death, in , at which time the firm was "jacob rogers & sons," william, another son, having been admitted about the year . upon the occasion of celebrating the laying of the cornerstone of the baltimore and ohio railroad in baltimore, july , (a great event in the annals of the city), the exhibition of trades was a most prominent feature of the immense procession, and none made a finer display than the hatters. george rogers commanded that division, a description of which is thus given in the baltimore _gazette and daily advertiser_ of july , : "the hatters' car was drawn by four horses, showing the men at work in the several stages of hat-making. the group attracted much attention; they carried a banner with a white ground, and on the shield was a beaver resting on a scroll bearing the motto: 'with the industry of the beaver we support our rights,' crossed with implements of the trade, the whole supported by the motto: 'we cover all.'" bazil sollers commenced business in at no. market street, a location on the north side of the street, four doors east of what is now holliday street. in he removed to no. market street, also on the north side, four doors west of harrison street; this latter place was previously occupied by brant & hobby as a hat store in , and by stansbury & hobby in . mr. sollers continued in business on market street until the year , when he removed to north gay, no. , on the northwest corner of front street. his factory was on east, now fayette street, three doors east of lemon street. mr. sollers continued in the manufacturing business until about the year . james gould & co. started hat-manufacturing at no. water street in the year . water street at that time was numbered from calvert to south street, subsequently from south to calvert, and lately renumbered as formerly. no. , the second building from calvert, is now occupied by j. e. warner & co., commission merchants. in joseph cox succeeded to the business of james gould & co., and kept a retail store on the corner of south and water streets. mr. cox had the reputation of making a superior class of hats, excelled by no manufacturer in the country, selling at both wholesale and retail. requiring more extensive accommodations, he located his factory on the corner of little water and calvert streets, where now stands the large warehouse of keen & hagerty, tinware manufacturers. in , disposing of his hat business to boston & elder, he associated with himself his son james, the firm becoming "james cox & son, dealers in hatters' furs and wools," at no. south liberty street. in latter years, the members of this firm having acquired a competency, retired from business. joseph pearson was established as a hat manufacturer in , having his shop on green, now exeter street, old town. he changed his business in the year to that of dealer in furs, for which baltimore in early days was a good market, the _catch_ of the trappers of the alleghanies and of the pioneers of the new west finding their way to baltimore, and the otter and muskrat of lower maryland, virginia and north carolina also coming in large quantities to this market. the fur business of baltimore was then of sufficient importance for jacob astor to make mr. pearson his representative agent. in latter years the firm became joseph pearson & son, dealers in hatters' furs and trimmings, at baltimore street. all the members of this firm being dead, edward connolly, who was in their employ, succeeded to the business, afterwards changing it to a general hat-jobbing business, which is still conducted by edward connolly & son at w. baltimore street. john amos was a well known and respected hatter of old town, who commenced business as early as the year at no. bridge street, on the north side of the present north gay street, between high and exeter. his "back shop," or factory, was on hillen street. he continued business during the period of thirty years at the same place, and died in at the age of . patriarchs of the trade. no. . gleaning more closely in the historic field of the early part of the century, others are found whose enterprise contributed largely to this important industry of baltimore, and whose successful prosecution of the hat business maintained the credit and position won by their predecessors. in the year runyon harris erected a large hat factory on fish, now saratoga street. this building was about one hundred and twenty-five feet in length and two and a half stories high. the business of this establishment was carried on under the style of "the baltimore hat manufacturing co." while evidence cannot be given, it may be inferred that mr. harris must, before this date, have been engaged elsewhere in the city in the manufacture of hats, as others entering into business about this time are known to have been apprenticed to mr. harris. [illustration: ye old hat factory of runyon harris balto. erected in ] in aaron clap & co. commenced the retail hat business at market street, on the north side, five doors east of st. paul street, and probably identical with the present east baltimore street, recently occupied by john murphy & co., publishers. messrs. clap & co. having secured a good location by purchasing the factory of runyon harris, engaged extensively in the manufacturing business, which was continued by their several successors down to the year , when results of the civil war (so disastrous to maryland's manufacturing industries) caused its temporary abandonment, but the enterprise established by messrs. aaron clap & co. has, by an unbroken series of firms, continued to the present time, being now represented by brigham, hopkins & co. in henry lamson kept a first-class retail hat store at no. south calvert street, the locality now the southwest corner of carroll hall building. in the firm of aaron clap & co. and henry lamson consolidated, making the firm lamson & clap, and continuing the retail business at no. south calvert street, in connection with manufactory. mr. lamson in went to the west indies in search of health, and died on the island of st. thomas. he was a gentleman of much social refinement, and was held in high esteem as a citizen. in the year the firm of lamson & clap was dissolved by the death of mr. lamson, and mr. wm. p. cole was admitted, the firm becoming clap, cole & co. after the death of mr. clap, which occurred in , his widow's interest was retained and the firm was changed to cole, clap & co.; following this, mrs. clap retired and mr. hugh j. morrison became a member of the firm, which was made cole & morrison. in thaddeus and william g. craft became interested, the firm becoming cole, craft & co., still continuing business at no. south calvert street (the same place established by lamson & clap). about the year the firm removed to no. west baltimore street, now east baltimore street and occupied by likes, berwanger & co., clothiers. in mr. cole associated with him his son, william r., the firm being wm. p. cole & son. in the firm moved to no. west baltimore street, present number , where they remained until the year , removing then to occupy the building which they had erected at no. sharp street, now hopkins place. in mr. wm. t. brigham was admitted to the firm, it then becoming wm. r. cole & co. in the firm name was again changed to cole, brigham & co., which was dissolved in by the withdrawal of mr. brigham, in which year mr. brigham associated with robert d. hopkins as the firm of brigham & hopkins, locating at no. west fayette street (present number ), which firm of brigham & hopkins continued until , when it was changed to brigham, hopkins & co. by the admission of isaac h. francis. in brigham & hopkins erected the large and handsome building at the corner of german and paca streets, which the present firm continue to occupy as a factory and salesroom. in andrew ruff is found at no. camden street, likely to have been his place of residence. whether he was then engaged in business is not known, but in he had a factory on davis street between lexington and saratoga streets, the site now occupied by the stables of the adams express company. about the year he established a retail store at baltimore street. in the firm was andrew ruff & co., at baltimore street. at one time mr. ruff was foreman in the manufacturing establishment of clap & cole. henry jenkins, in , was a hat manufacturer at green street, old town, and from to messrs. h. & w. s. jenkins kept a hat store on the northeast corner of baltimore and calvert streets, where afterwards was erected the banking-house of josiah lee & co., now occupied by the pennsylvania railroad company as a ticket office. joseph branson was a hatter in the year at market street. he was a son of william branson, who was engaged in the same business from to . joseph branson ranked as the fashionable hatter of that time. he was a man of considerable military distinction in the state. he raised and commanded the famous marion rifles, a superb military organization of the city, to which was accorded the honor of receiving general lafayette upon his visit to baltimore in . mr. branson is said to have been the first to introduce a thorough system of military tactics in baltimore. he served several terms in the city council, and was an active, enterprising citizen. in the year he went out of business and took the position of inspector in the custom house. mr. charles grimes was a well-known hatter who commenced business at baltimore street about . in he removed to no. north gay, near high street. he evidently had a love for his first choice, as in he is found again at baltimore street. mr. grimes retired from business as early as the year . he was extremely fond of the maryland sport of duck shooting, in which he was associated with many of baltimore's sporting gentlemen. in he removed to philadelphia, enjoying a life of comfort and ease. he was an exemplary man in all the relations of life, and died in the year at the advanced age of . in john petticord was learning his trade with jacob rogers, being then fourteen years of age. his honesty and faithfulness were appreciated by his employer, and in he occupied the position of foreman in mr. rogers' factory. after continuing in that capacity for some time he commenced the manufacture of hats on his own account, continuing it until the feebleness of age compelled him to abandon it. thomas sappington was a hat manufacturer who, in the year , was located at no. baltimore street, which at that time was at or near the present number, east baltimore street. he had his factory on north street near saratoga. it is known that he was in business for a number of years, but what year he commenced and when he abandoned business cannot be ascertained. victor sarata was a frenchman who located in baltimore as early as . he opened a retail store at baltimore street, and was the first one to introduce the silk hat in this city. wm. h. keevil was a hatter doing a retail business in at - / baltimore street. he was evidently of the "buncombe" style, and conducted his business in a sensational manner, advertising extensively and brazenly, as will be seen from the following quotation from an advertisement of his printed in : "who talks of importing hats from england while _keevil_ is in the field? pshaw! 'tis sheer folly. for while he continues to sell his beautiful hats at his present reduced prices, any such speculation as importing hats from europe will be 'no go' or 'non-effect.' the hatters, therefore, on the other side of the atlantic had better keep their hats at home, as it would be quite as profitable for them to send 'wooden nutmegs' and 'sawdust hams' to new england, or coals to newcastle, as hats to baltimore to compete with the well-known _keevil_." his business existence could not have been of long continuance, as in his name is not found in the city directory. at the close of the first half of this century there were several who afterwards attained prominence both in business and a public capacity, among whom were joshua vansant, samuel hindes, charles towson, george k. quail, james l. mcphail, p. e. riley, john boston, ephraim price, robert q. taylor, lewis raymo and others, the last two mentioned being the only ones now living. jacob rogers. no. . to one man more than any other belongs the credit of establishing upon an extensive scale the hat business, which in the early part of the present century was so prominently identified with the growth and prosperity of baltimore; that person was jacob rogers, whose business career in his native city extended over a period of more than fifty years, fortified by a reputation that brought the universal respect of his fellow-citizens, and leaving a worthy example for those succeeding him. jacob rogers was born in the year . as in those days boys were apprenticed at an early age, it may be supposed that when he was fifteen years old he was in the employ of david shields, with whom it is known he served his term of apprenticeship at hat-making. in mr. rogers is found the proprietor of a retail hat store at the corner of south and second streets. he was an enterprising man, and succeeded in building up a business of large proportions. he died in , possessed of a fortune amounting to three hundred thousand dollars, a large accumulation for those days. in he built an extensive factory on second street, near tripolet's alley--now post-office avenue--and adjoining the old lutheran church, the spire of which then contained the town clock; these old landmarks are now all removed and the location occupied by the stately edifice of the corn and flour exchange. the number of hands employed by mr. rogers at his factory and "front shop" was about one hundred, including apprentices. his "plank" shop comprised five batteries, aggregating thirty men; in the finishing shop he employed about twenty-five, and he had usually bound to him as many as fifteen apprentices. this would appear to be a large force for a hat-manufacturing concern of that early period, but it must be remembered that the manual labor bestowed upon one hat then was more than that on some thousands in the present day of labor-saving machinery. that mr. rogers was a strict disciplinarian and an excellent business man is proven by the perfect control he exercised over the large number in his employ, whom he ruled with a firm hand yet with a wise judgment, and while rebuking any disobedience of orders, was feared, respected and loved for his strict sense of honor, justice and propriety. he boarded under his own roof nearly all his apprentices to the trade; a few were privileged to lodge at home, while their board was supplied by their master, as one of the stipulations of their indenture; so jacob rogers' immediate family, which was not a small one, was greatly enlarged by the addition of fifteen to twenty wild, untamed "prentice" boys. what would have been the domestic condition of such a family without the ruling influence of a stern master only those can imagine who know the kind of material of which the journeyman hatter of those days was composed. he was a veritable tramp. as a rule with mr. rogers, chastisement immediately followed misconduct; with him the present was the opportune time for punishment, and whether in the home, the shop, or on the street, any of the shop-boys were found doing wrong, correction was given in the then customary way--by flogging. mr. rogers was a conscientious member of the methodist church, and maintained a high character for honesty and probity, and recognized as a fair man in all his dealings. a good story is told to show how, though driving a keen bargain, he was careful not to misrepresent. in his store one day he was divulging to a friend some of the secrets of his business, showing how successfully a _prime_ beaver-napped hat could be made with the slightest sprinkling of the valuable beaver fur, a trick just then discovered. soon after a purchaser appeared inquiring for a beaver-napped hat. mr. rogers expatiated upon the marvelous beauty of the "tile," and his customer put the question: "mr. rogers, is this a genuine beaver hat?" "my dear sir," said mr. rogers, "i pledge my word that the best part of the material in that hat is pure beaver." the hat was bought and paid for and the customer departed, well satisfied with his purchase. at once mr. rogers was catechised by his friend, who had earnestly watched the trade, remarking: "why, mr. rogers, did you not tell me that there was but a trifling amount of beaver in that hat you just sold, and you, a church member, so misrepresent to a customer?" "my friend," replied mr. rogers, "i made no misrepresentation, i told my customer the honest fact, that the _best_ part of the material of which the hat was made was pure beaver, and so it was." the journeyman hatter of mr. rogers' time was a character, migratory in his ways, his general habit being to work for a short time--a season or less in one place--then, from desire of change or lack of employment, to seek for pastures new. as railroad travel was not then thought of, and stage-coach conveyance a luxury at most times beyond the pecuniary means of the itinerant hatter, the journey was usually made on foot. application for work could not be made to the proprietor, but must necessarily go through the medium of an employee. frequently an applicant in straitened circumstances who failed to be "shopped," appealed to his more fortunate fellow-workmen to relieve his destitute condition, who always made a ready and hearty response by providing for his immediate wants and starting him again on his pilgrimage with a light heart and a wish for good luck. this constant wandering habit frequently brought the hatter of those days to a condition of abject dependence, and supplied a large proportion of that vagrant class now denominated "tramps." it was often the boast of these hatter "tramps" that in the period of a year or two they would make the tour of the entire country from portland, maine, to baltimore in the south, and pittsburg, then "far west," "shopping" awhile in some town or village and then marching on in search of another chance. [illustration: hat store of jacob rogers.] in the "season" when labor was in demand good workmen did not apply in vain, but most hat factories were subject to dull times between seasons, necessitating a reduction in the number of hands. this general plan was productive of irregularity in the habits of the workman, allowing him to have no settled place of habitation. baltimore, however, was an exception to the general rule, her factories providing constant employment for her workmen, thus encouraging a deeper interest in their vocation. it is said that in business mr. rogers never knew what dull times were; he kept his hat factory in active operation all the year round. this prosperous condition of things had the tendency to make the baltimore hatter somewhat of a permanent settler, thereby identifying him more closely with the interests and the growth of his own city, and causing him to become personally concerned in its success and prosperity; an experience quite different from that of his fellow-workmen elsewhere, who were constantly changing their habitation. thus the baltimore hatter was reared under conditions favorable to his improvement by serving his apprentice days under the influence of a conscientious master. the effect of this early training was manifest in his character as a good citizen ever after, often securing for him in the place of his birth positions of trust, and many of baltimore's best citizens, and some of her noblest men, received their early training in the model hat-shops of their own city. with the growing trade of the city, the business of hat-making kept steady pace. the prosperity of the south, and the constant development of the west, provided baltimore with a wide outlet for her products. through the business channels of this young and enterprising city flowed a large proportion of the products of the mills and factories of new england, assisting materially the business activity of the place, and it is quite likely that the interests of baltimore and new england at that time being so connected is an explanation why so many new england people migrated to baltimore in those days of her prosperity. with characteristic energy and enterprise, mr. rogers extended his business, pushing forward into new fields as the settlement of the country advanced. besides a large trade with the entire south, the wagon-trains, which were the expresses of those days, distributed his goods throughout the states of ohio, indiana, kentucky and tennessee, thus securing to him at that time the most extensive business in hat manufacture conducted by any one firm in the united states. fortune favored mr. rogers, and during his whole business career there was no interruption in the progress of this industry in baltimore. not until his death, or after the middle of the century, was there any noticeable decline. the eventful business career and commendable private life of mr. rogers ended on the th of april, , he falling suddenly in the old light-street methodist church while attending divine service. the baltimore _sun_ of april , , mentioned his death as follows: "the illness of jacob rogers, esq., occurred in light-street church; he fell in a faint from which he died an hour after at his residence, no. south street. he was well known and respected as one of the most worthy, industrious, and valuable of our citizens of baltimore." [illustration: western express, .] old methods. no. . just as the first half of the present century was expiring, an invention was made that at once revolutionized the whole system of hat-making. a machine was patented in the united states by h. a. wells, in the year , which successfully accomplished the work of making or forming a hat in a very short space of time, which heretofore had required the slow, tedious and skillful labor of the hands, thus so equally dividing the century that the first half may be practically considered as following the _old_ method, and the latter half as using the _new_ method. so remarkable was this invention that its introduction quickly produced a change in the character of hats by greatly reducing their cost of manufacture, together with a change in the manner of conducting the hat business. to show up the _old_ method of hat-making that existed prior to the use of the wells machine is the purpose of this chapter, the greater part of the information here given having been gained from an article in "sears' guide to knowledge," published in . let us enter a baltimore hat "shop" of fifty years ago and watch the making of a single hat. fur and wool constitute the main ingredients of which hats have always been made, because possessing those qualities necessary for the process of "felting," the finer and better class of hats being made of the furs of such animals as the beaver, bear, marten, minx, hare and rabbit. the skins of these animals after being stripped from the body are called "pelts"; when the inner side has undergone a process of tanning the skins obtain the name of "furs" in a restricted sense, and the term is still more restricted when applied to the hairy coating cut from the skin. the furs to which the old-time hatter gave preference were the beaver, the muskrat, the nutria, the hare and the rabbit, of which the first was by far the most valuable. these animals all have two kinds of hair on their skins, the innermost of which is short and fine as down, the outermost, thick, long and more sparing, the former being of much use, the latter of no value to the hatter. after receiving the "skins" or "pelts," which are greasy and dirty, they are first cleaned with soap and water, then carried to the "pulling-room," where women are employed in pulling out the coarse outer hairs from the skins, which is done by means of a knife acting against the thumb, the fingers and thumb being guarded by a short leather shield. the skins are then taken and the fur cut or "cropped" from them, which is done by men dexterously using a sharp knife, formed with a round blade, such as is used now-a-days in the kitchen as a "chopping knife." by keeping this knife constantly moving across the skin the fur is taken off or separated without injury to the skin, which is to be tanned for leather or consigned to the glue factory. the cutting of furs, however, had become before a business in some measure conducted by itself, and a machine had been invented to separate the fur from the skin, which, though it might be considered now a simple affair, was at that time looked upon as a wonder. [illustration: fur-cutting machine.] we have said the women in the "pulling-room" cut, tear, or pull out the long, coarse hairs from the pelts, and that these hairs are useless to the hatter. but it is impossible completely to separate the coarse from the fine fur by these means, and therefore the fur, when cropped from the pelt, is conveyed to the "blowing-room," finally to effect the separation. the action of the blowing machine is exceedingly beautiful, and may perhaps be understood without a minute detail of its mechanism. a quantity of beaver or any other fur is introduced at one end near a compartment in which a vane or fly is revolving with a velocity of nearly two thousand rotations in a minute. we all know, even from a simple example of a lady's fan, that a body in motion gives rise to a wind or draught, and when the motion is so rapid as is here indicated, the current becomes very powerful. this current of air propels the fur along a hollow trunk to the other end of the machine, and in so doing produces an effect which is as remarkable as valuable. all the coarse and comparatively valueless fur is deposited on a cloth stretched along the trunk, while the more delicate filaments are blown into a receptacle at the other end. nothing but a very ingenious arrangement of mechanism could produce a separation so complete as is here effected; but the principle of action is not hard to understand. if there were no atmosphere, or if an inclosed place were exhausted of air, a guinea and a feather, however unequal in weight, would fall to the ground with equal velocity, but in ordinary circumstances the guinea would obviously fall more quickly than the feather, because the resistance of the air bears a much larger ratio to the weight of the feather than that of the guinea. as the resistance of air to a moving body acts more forcibly on a light than a heavy substance, so likewise does air when in motion and acting as a moving force. when particles of sand or gravel are driven by the wind, the lightest particles go the greatest distance. so it is with the two kinds of fur in the "blowing machine," those fibers which are finest and lightest are driven to the remote end of the machine. [illustration: blowing engine.] the "body," or "foundation," of a good beaver hat is generally made of eight parts rabbit's fur, three parts saxony wool, and one part of llama, vicunia, or "red" wool. a sufficient quantity of these for one hat (about two and a half ounces) is weighed out and placed in the hands of the "bower." on entering the "bowing-room" a peculiar twanging noise indicates to the visitor that a stretched cord is in rapid vibration, and the management of this cord by the workman is seen to be one of the many operations in hatting wherein success depends exclusively on skillful manipulation. a bench extends along the front of the room beneath a range of windows, and each "bower" has a little compartment appropriated to himself. the bow is an ashen staff from five to seven feet in length, having a strong cord of catgut stretched over bridges at the two ends. the bow is suspended in the middle by a string from the ceiling, whereby it hangs nearly on a level with the work-bench, and the workman thus proceeds: the wool and coarse fur, first separately and afterwards together, are laid on the bench, and the bower, grasping the staff of the bow with his left hand and plucking the cord with his right hand by means of a small piece of wood, causes the cord to vibrate rapidly against the fur and wool. by repeating this process for a certain time, all the original clots or assemblages of filaments are perfectly opened and dilated, and the fibers, flying upwards when struck, are, by the dexterity of the workman, made to fall in nearly equal thickness on the bench, presenting a very light and soft layer of material. simple as this operation appears to a stranger, years of practice are required for the attainment of proficiency in it. [illustration: bowing] the bowed materials for one hat are divided into two portions, each of which is separately pressed with a light wicker frame; the light mass of fluffy fur, after being pressed with the frame, is covered with a wet cloth, over which is placed a piece of oil-cloth or leather called a "hardening skin," until, by the pressure of the hands backwards and forwards all over the skin, the fibers are brought closer together, the points of contact multiplied, the serrations made to link together, and a slightly coherent fabric formed. these two halves, or "batts," are then formed into a hollow cap by a singular contrivance. one of the "batts," nearly triangular in shape, and measuring about half a yard in each direction, being laid flat, a triangular piece of paper, smaller in size than the batt, is laid upon it, and the edges of the batt, being folded over the paper, meet at the upper surface, and thus form a complete envelope to the paper. the two meeting edges are soon made to combine by gentle pressure and friction, and another "batt" is laid on the other in a similar way, but having the meeting edges on the opposite side of the paper. the double layer, with the enclosed paper, are then folded up in a damp cloth and worked by hand; the workman pressing and bending, rolling and unrolling, until the fibers of the inner layer are incorporated with those of the outer. it is evident that were there not a piece of paper interposed, the whole of the fibers would be worked together into a mass by the opposite sides felting together, but the paper maintains a vacancy within, and when withdrawn at the edge which is to form the opening of the cap, it leaves the felted material in such a form as to constitute, when stretched open, a hollow cone. the "battery" is a large kettle or boiler open at the top, having a fire beneath it, and eight planks ascending obliquely from the margin, so as to form a sort of octagonal work-bench, five or six feet in diameter, at which eight men may work; the planks are made of lead near the kettle, and of mahogany at the outer part, and at each plank a workman operates on a conical cap until the process of felting or "planking" is completed. the "battery" contains hot water slightly acidulated with sulphuric acid. the cap is dipped into the hot liquor, laid on one of the planks, and subjected to a long felting process; it is rolled and unrolled, twisted, pressed, and rubbed with a piece of leather or wood tied to the workman's hand, and rolled with a rolling-pin. from time to time the cap is examined, to ascertain whether the thickness is sufficient in every part, and if any defective places appear, they are wet with a brush dipped in the hot liquor, and a few additional fibers are worked in. considerable skill is required in order to preserve such an additional thickness of material at one part as shall suffice for the brim of the hat. when this felting process has been continued about two hours, it is found that the heat, moisture, pressure and friction have reduced the cap to one-half its former dimensions, the thickness being increased in a proportionate degree, assuming a conical shape. the "cap" is then taken to the "water-proofing" or "stiffening" room, where the odor of gum, resins and spirits gives some intimation of the materials employed. gum-lac, gum-sandrach, gum-mastic, resin, frankincense, copal, caoutchouc, spirits of wine and spirits of turpentine, are the ingredients (all of a very inflammable nature) of which the water-proofing is made. this is laid on the cap by means of a brush, and the workman exercises his skill in regulating the quantity at different parts, since the strength of the future brim and crown depends much on this process. after another heating in a hot room, called "stoving," by which the spirit is evaporated, the exterior of the cap is scoured with a weak alkali, to remove a portion of the gummy coating, and thereby enable the beaver fur with which it is to be "napped" or "coated," to adhere. a layer of beaver fur is spread, and, by means of the "hardening stick," is pressed and worked into a very delicate and light felt, just coherent enough to hold together. this layer, which is called a "ruffing" or "roughing," is a little larger than the cap-body, and to unite the two, another visit to the "battery" is necessary. the cap being softened by immersion in the hot liquor, the "ruffing" is laid on it, and patted down with a wet brush, a narrow strip of beaver being laid round the inside of the cap to form the underside of the future brim. the beavered cap is then wrapped in a woolen cloth, immersed frequently in the hot liquor, and rolled on the plank for the space of two hours. the effect of this rubbing and rolling is very curious, and may be illustrated in a simple manner: if a few fibers of beaver fur be laid on a piece of broadcloth, covered with tissue paper, and rubbed gently with the finger, they will penetrate through the cloth and appear on the opposite side. so, likewise, in the process of "ruffing," each fiber is set in motion from root to point, and enters the substance of the felt cap. the hairs proceed in a pretty straight course, and just enter the felt, with the substance of which they form an intimate union. but if the rolling and pressing were continued too long, the hairs would actually pass through the felt, and be seen on the inside instead of the outside of the cap; the workman therefore exercises his judgment in continuing the process only so long as is sufficient to secure the hairs in the felt firm enough to bear the action of the hat-brush in after-days. at length the cap is to assume somewhat the shape of a hat, before it finally leaves the "battery." the workman first turns up the edge of the cap to the depth of about an inch and a half; and then draws the peak of the cap back through the centre or axis so far as not to take out the first fold, but to produce an inner fold of the same depth. the point being turned back again, produces a third fold, and thus the workman proceeds, till the whole hat has acquired the appearance of a flattish circular piece, consisting of a number of concentric folds or rings, with the peak in the centre. this is laid on the "plank," where the workman, keeping the substance hot and wet, pulls, presses and rubs the centre until he has formed a smooth flat portion equal to the intended crown of the hat. he then takes a cylindrical block, on the flat end of which he applies the flattened central portion of the felt, and by holding a string down the curved sides of the block, he causes the surrounding portion of the felt to assume the figure of the block. the part which is to form the brim now appears a puckered appendage round the edge of the hat; but this puckered edge is soon brought to a tolerably flat shape by pulling and pressing. the workman then raises and opens the nap of the hat by means of a peculiar sort of comb, and then shears the hairs to a regular length. connoisseurs in these matters are learned as to the respective merits of "short naps" and "long naps," and by the shearer's dexterity these are regulated. the visitor recognizes nothing difficult in this operation, yet years of practice are necessary for the attainment of skill therein, since the workman determines the length of the nap by the peculiar position in which the long, light shears are held. a nap or pile as fine as that of velvet can be produced by this operation. however carefully the process of "blowing" may be performed in order to separate the coarse fibers of the fur from the more delicate, there are always a few of the former left mingled with the latter, and these are worked up during the subsequent processes. women are employed, therefore, after the hats have left the "finishers," in picking out with small tweezers such defective fibers as may present themselves on the surface of the hats. lastly, the hat is placed in the hands of a workman whose employment requires an accurate eye and a fertile taste in matters of shape and form: this is the "shaper." he has to study the style and fashion of the day, as well as the wishes of individual purchasers, by giving to the brim of the hat such curvatures in various directions as may be needed. simple as this may appear, the workman who possesses the requisite skill to give the acceptable curl to the brim which is to create the finishing touch for the hat is a desirable hand, and can command a high rate of wages. thus, in our imaginary tour through an old-fashioned hat factory, we have seen the many skillful manipulations then required to make a hat, which, when compared with modern processes, awaken in our minds a sense of wonder at the change. john petticord. no. . the subject of this article, who died in baltimore, october th, , in the d year of his age, was probably the oldest hatter in the united states. his identity with baltimore hatting all the days of his life made him prominent in connection with that industry. born but a few years after the thirteen states had by compact formed a republic, washington being president of the united states, mr. petticord lived to see in office every president down to that of president cleveland. when he was a young man of business, savages roamed and tented where beautiful and populous cities with all the advantages of refinement and art now exist. during his lifetime the population of his own city changed from , to , , and the united states extended its area of territory from the limits of the thirteen original states, which was , square miles, to upwards of , , , increasing its population from , , to , , . when john petticord first made hats, the "cocked" or "continental" style was in vogue. no more curious museum could be collected than specimens of the various freaks of fashion in hats that appeared during the lifetime of this old hatter. john petticord was born in baltimore in . at an early age he was apprenticed to john amos to learn the trade of hatting; soon after finishing his service of apprenticeship, he secured work in the establishment of jacob rogers. he was faithful to his duties, serving his master with that same conscientiousness that he would have done for himself, soon becoming foreman of mr. rogers' extensive factory. after serving with mr. rogers for some years, he entered into business as a manufacturer on his own account, and continued until feebleness of age compelled him to abandon it. he was a man of quiet, simple habits, his chief ambition being to lead an upright life, and appear before god and his fellow-creatures an honest man. john petticord was exemplary in character and habits, modest and gentle in his disposition, pure in his faith and in his living; he had no enemies, and was always known as a reliable man. during his long career as foreman or master of the shop, he never had a quarrel or a serious difficulty with the many who came under his control. he never drank intoxicating beverages, although in his early days that was the general custom, which, with hatters, was unfortunately the universal habit. his manliness and strength of character were also well displayed by his never chewing or smoking tobacco. he was patient and methodical, an indefatigable worker at his trade, believing that undivided attention to his work was a duty he owed to others. john petticord was a patriot, being one of that noble band who fearlessly stood and successfully resisted the british attack upon baltimore in . at that time he was a youth of nineteen working at his trade. at noon-time on the eventful september th, , the "tocsin" was sounded to call to arms every able-bodied citizen to defend his home and fireside, and, if possible, prevent the destruction of their beautiful city. at the first sound of the cannon, which was the signal agreed upon, john petticord left his unfinished noonday meal, seized his musket, and was one of the first to join the ranks of his company. the day was desperately hot, and a forced march of two miles to the battlefield brought them, dusty, tired and thirsty, face to face with the enemy, who was in a fresh condition and eager for fight. petticord's canteen, as all others, by regulation orders, was filled with whiskey, but he, being a temperance man, would not assuage his thirst with grog. famishing for water, he obtained permission from his superior officer to go a short distance away, where a "squatter" was dispensing cider for the comfort of the soldiers and profit to himself. petticord, emptying his canteen of whiskey on the ground, had it filled with hard cider, and quenched his thirst with a good round drink. that hard cider, together with heat and exhaustion, came about as near ending the earthly career of john petticord as did the storm of enemy's bullets which whizzed about his head. on that trying day the bravery of this man was well tested. he stood manfully in position while his comrade on the right fell dead at his feet, and the one on his left was removed wounded from the battlefield, he himself receiving a slight wound on the finger. the riderless white horse of the british general ross, who had just been killed, pranced by in front of the rank in which mr. petticord was stationed, and the hearts of himself and comrades beat lightly with hope of success, as the shouts of the americans echoed along the line, announced the death of the invaders' great leader, encouraging a grand rally that gave them the victory of the day. mr. petticord, though a brave soldier in the time of his country's need, was a man of peace, and, upon the ending of hostilities with great britain, resigned his position in the eighth company of the th regiment of maryland militia. baltimore always honors her noble band of brave defenders, and upon each anniversary of the th of september a public celebration is given, and the old defenders occupy the post of honor. it is but a few years since they marched with lively and steady step to martial music; later on, age required their appearing in carriages in the procession, and each year, at the annual dinner given by the city, their number has grown less and less. the present year but three were on earth to answer to the "roll call," and but one able to appear at the banquet. who can realize the sad feelings of the _last_ of such a noble band? feeble old age, with its infirmities, mindful of its duty, sat perhaps for the last time around the banquet board, where, with friends and comrades, he before had enjoyed happy and jovial times, his spirits were cheered and the occasion made as pleasant as possible, by the presence of many of baltimore's honored citizens; but not to see a single face of the many with whom during the seventy-five long years he had kept up a pleasant association, is an experience others cannot imagine. with mr. petticord's death, but two[ ] are left of that noble band who so bravely protected our rights and fought for and firmly secured that liberty and freedom we of the present day are enjoying. [ ] this article was written in , since when these two have passed on. middle of the century. no. . baltimore hat-manufacturing interests at the middle of the century suffered greatly by comparison with those of an earlier period. that which had been a prominent industry, engaged in by active, enterprising men, and extending steadily and widely, keeping pace with the growth of the country, and giving encouragement to the continued employment of skilled labor, was at the middle of this century gradually falling off in volume and importance, and continued to decline until what was once a thriving and prosperous industry of the city, became one almost of insignificance. in the government census of , the statistics regarding hat manufacturing place maryland as leading in the manufacture of fur hats. while connecticut, new york, new jersey and pennsylvania gained rapidly, still this business in baltimore continued to increase and grow, until during the period from to it reached the height of its prosperity. before the year the once prominent concern of james cox & sons had retired from the hat-manufacturing business, and the oldest and wealthiest firm was contemplating liquidation, as messrs. george and william rogers, of the firm of jacob rogers & sons, had decided to discontinue the business left by their father, choosing to follow other occupations. the retirement of these two firms, so long and closely identified with the mercantile and manufacturing industries of baltimore, which had successfully contributed by their faithful business labors to its growth and prosperity, was a serious blow to the interests of the city. this change left in the field but one important firm who had been their contemporary--cole, craft & co.--of which the late wm. p. cole was the active business partner. this firm followed in succession the business established in by runyon harris, and was the predecessor of the present firm of brigham, hopkins & co. much speculation might be indulged in as to the real cause of the decline and loss to baltimore of so important an industry, but the plain facts force but one conviction; namely, the unwillingness of these successful old manufacturers to adopt newer methods of hat making, leading to such reduction in cost, through improvements, as to preclude the chance of their successful competition with those of more progressive ideas. while baltimore hat makers clung tenaciously to the old ways, whereby labor and expense were incurred unnecessarily, those at the north were readily adopting the various new methods by which improvements in the art of hat making were constantly being made; thus, with the use of newly invented machinery, the cost of making hats was greatly lessened, and the northern manufacturer constantly gained in competition with those of baltimore. the invention of the wells _forming machine_ added largely to the misfortune of this business. an expensive machine, with a comparatively tremendous production, required a large market as an output; a heavy royalty also was attached to it, and the business of baltimore at that time appeared not to be in condition to justify its introduction. though the machine was invented in , it was not until the year that the venture was made to introduce into baltimore the wells _hat-body forming machine_. with the pecuniary assistance of wm. p. cole, messrs. bailey & mead, in , commenced hat forming by machinery, the "mill" being located on holliday street, and afterwards removed to front street (present number ). from failure of support, caused by inability to revive the depressed condition of the hat business, the venture of messrs. bailey & mead was not successful, and mr. mead retiring from the firm, the business was continued by messrs. bailey, craft & co., mainly in the interest of mr. cole's factory, until about , when hat forming by machinery in baltimore was entirely abandoned, followed with the retirement of mr. cole from the manufacturing business. charles towson, who established himself in the retail hat business in , on eutaw street, near lexington, entered into partnership in with mr. mead, the firm being towson & mead; they commenced hat manufacturing at no. water street, in the factory formerly occupied by jas. cox & sons. the business was carried on for about one year, when it was abandoned and the firm was dissolved. other parties made fruitless attempts to restore to baltimore the prestige it once held in this business. to one person, however, is due the credit of maintaining a long, persistent and noble fight against odds and difficulties, and who, after all chances to restore vitality to an apparently pulseless enterprise seemed lost, retired from the contest, unscarred and full of honors, after a creditable business career of forty-six years, carried on in the same factory where fifty-two years before he entered service as a boy. this person was mr. wm. p. cole, who engaged in the manufacturing business in , as a member of the firm of clap, cole & co. at the time of mr. cole's retirement from the manufacturing business he was associated with his son, wm. r. cole, and his nephew, wm. t. brigham, as the firm of wm. r. cole & co., who were then engaged in the jobbing hat business and located at no. sharp street, now hopkins place. in the year the firm was changed to cole, brigham & co.; mr. cole retiring from active business only upon the dissolution of that firm in , having been engaged in business on his own account more than half a century, leaving behind a record bright with faithfulness to duty, unspotted by any unmanly business transaction, brilliant in having met every business obligation; for, during the whole course of a long business life, he so systematically managed his affairs as to allow him to pass safely through the many perilous business periods he encountered. as a manufacturer, mr. cole acquired a wide reputation for the class of goods he produced, and when the demand was most exclusively for soft felt hats, those manufactured by him were considered the best made in the united states, and were sought by retailers far and near. while at the outbreak of the civil war there may have lingered a vital spark in the hat industry, that event gave it, apparently, a death thrust. the relative position of baltimore to both sides was disastrous to its business interests; being close upon the dividing line of hostilities, the sympathies of a large part of its citizens were enlisted in the cause of the south, while, singularly enough, the larger proportion of the wealth and business interests of the city was centered in persons allied by family ties to those of the north, who earnestly upheld the cause of the union. cut off from all intercourse with the south--its legitimate field for business--the share of western trade that was enjoyed by baltimore was lost by the strategy of war, for with the partial destruction of the baltimore and ohio railroad the channel of her western trade was diverted, and it drifted in other directions. while dissension and strife were being stirred in baltimore and her industries lying dormant, business at the north was being stimulated by state and government calls for articles necessary to equip an army for service. hats were a needful part of an army's equipment, and northern hat manufacturers were called upon for the supply; their factories soon assumed the life and activity of prosperity, creating a demand for additional skilled labor with good pay; this induced the unemployed baltimore hatter to migrate and seek other places for his support. thus did baltimore part with an industry of importance closely identified with its prosperous early days, which, after passing through many vicissitudes, dwindled gradually until it became apparently extinct. fashions. no. . the high crown hat, vulgarly termed "stove-pipe," may be taken as the general indicator of fashions existing during the period of the present century. following the "cocked" hat (the counterpart of the french chapeau), which style prevailed at the time of the american revolution, was the "steeple top," which had a conical crown. this shape for a high hat was soon abandoned and the bell crown substituted, and so acceptable has this particular style proved that, since the opening of this century, it has held supremacy as the fashionable head-covering for man, despite frequent attempts to destroy its popularity by the introduction of other shapes, or the advocating of a change as practical. high hats were first napped with beaver fur, which material, being expensive, necessarily made costly hats. otter fur was afterwards used, then muskrat, which greatly lessened their cost. "scratch" or "brush" hats (terms used for hats made with a felt body and afterwards combed or scratched until a nap was raised) were manufactured and worn prior to the middle of the century. these were all stiffened high hats, and constituted the dressy article of headwear until the introduction of the silk hat, which for the last fifty years has maintained its ascendency as the leading article of fashion in gentlemen's hats. about the year the beaver hat assumed huge proportions of crown, having a very heavy "bell," measuring full seven inches in height and nine inches across the tip; to this crown was added an insignificant brim of only one and a half inches in width. these hats were covered with a beaver nap of such a length that it waved with the wind, and its appearance upon the head of the wearer was as _outre_ and unique as the "shako" on the head of a modern drum-major. to more forcibly illustrate the proportions of this style of hat, we may say that its actual capacity was nearly a peck. besides the high hats of either beaver, brush or silk, caps made of cloth or fur were much used prior to the introduction of the soft felt hat, and continued to be so until an incident occurred which created a sudden revolution in the tastes of the american people regarding their head-dress. the visit of louis kossuth, the eminent hungarian patriot, to this country in the year , had the effect of producing a wonderful change in the fashion of hats. the one worn by kossuth was a high unstiffened black felt trimmed with a wide band, and was ornamented with an ostrich feather. the immense popularity of this famous foreigner with all americans brought about the fashion of a similar hat. never before or since in this country did the introduction of a new fashion in hats spread with such rapidity as did the "kossuth." all hat factories in the country were taxed to their utmost capacity to supply the demand, until every american citizen, old and young, was to be seen wearing a soft hat ornamented with an ostrich plume. it was the "kossuth" that marked the era of the introduction of the soft or slouch hat, and stimulated the sale of that undress article of headwear, which continued in vogue throughout the united states for a number of years. the soft hat appeared in many forms and styles, some of which became universally popular. the "wide-awake," brought out during the election campaign of abraham lincoln, in the year , was a noted and successful style. it was a low crown, white felt, with wide black band and binding. robert bonner's original and successful advertising of his newspaper, the new york _ledger_, was a sensation of the day, and the "ledger" was the name given to a soft hat that commanded a great sale. the peculiarity of the "ledger" was a narrow leather band and leather binding. the "resorte" brim was an american invention, introduced about the year ; it was simply a wire held to the edge of the brim of a soft hat with a binding, and so extended as to maintain a flatness, and permit its conforming to the head without destroying its outlines. this invention was patented, and its extensive use brought large profits to the owners of the patent. the event of the civil war gave an increased stimulus to the use of the soft hat. with the south in a state of excitement, alarmed with portentous fears of a sectional war, such matters as pertained to elegance of dress were banished from the minds of its people, and the north, with a large army recruiting from its citizen class, brought the universal practice of economy among the american people, limiting their indulgence in expenditures for articles of dress considered as luxuries, and the silk hat falling under that ban, dropped almost into absolute disuse. with the return, however, of prosperity, an apparent desire for a more dressy article was manifest, and the stiff felt hat generally denominated the derby was introduced. the derby was made in various proportions of crown and brim, as the caprice of fashion dictated, and was, as its name might imply, an adopted english style; it gradually grew in favor with americans, until it became the universal fashion of the day, maintaining that position for several years. from an increased popularity it has been brought into such common use as to again create a growing desire for an article claiming something bearing a more exclusive mark of gentility or dignity, which the silk hat meets, and the silk hat is again so increasing in use as to establish the certainty of its maintaining with the american people its wonted place of priority as the article of genteel head-dress, marking the standard of fashion and style. baltimore, always noted for its readiness in accepting foreign fashions, must have been among the first of american cities to adopt the silk hat, which was claimed to be of french invention, but if there be any foundation for the following narrative, the first silk hat was not made in paris, but in china. it is stated that a french sea-captain, while sailing on the coast of china, desiring to have his shabby napped beaver hat, which had been made in paris, replaced by a new one, took it ashore, probably to calcutta or canton, to see if he could procure one like it. as parisian styles were not in vogue in china, he found nothing of closer resemblance than the lacquered papier-mache or bamboo straw. the keen shrewdness of the chinaman, however, quickly suggested a near imitation in silk-plush. this is said to have happened in , and the captain returning to paris, showed the chinaman's product to his own hatter, who, upon perceiving its beauty, at once attempted its introduction as a fashion, which has long ruled nearly the whole world. the first silk hat produced in baltimore is said to have been made by one victor sarata in , though some contend that jacob rogers was the first to make such goods; but as the silk hat was looked upon as an innovation, and its introduction opposed by hat makers of that time, as being detrimental to their interests, it is more than probable that mr. rogers did not give encouragement to the manufacture of an article likely to supplant the use of his own make of "beavers," "russias" and "bolivars," and we may thus safely give credit to victor sarata for first producing in baltimore this new article of fashion, originating in paris, the city from whence he came. until the year , paris fashions were those generally adopted in the leading american cities, after which english fashions in hats entirely superseded the former, becoming so popular that not only large importations of english hats were made, but american manufacturers invariably copied english styles, and indulged in the degrading habit of pirating english trade-marks, for the purpose of increasing their sales. happily, the necessity for such pernicious practices is at an end, for during the past ten years the great strides made by american manufacturers in the improvements of hat making place them in the foremost rank of that industry; in fact, with those elements of manufacture necessary to perfection, such as fineness of texture, lightness in weight, and elegance in style, american hatters to-day hold supremacy in the whole world, and, favored by relief from the tariff tax upon raw materials from which hats are made, all of which is of foreign growth, america will be found sending to the countries which taught her the art, examples of this industry far superior to those her teachers ever furnished her. [illustration: the "derby" of .] new developments. no. . a strange fact is that the civil war, so disastrous in its effect upon the industries of baltimore, was followed at its close by the rise of a new enterprise, of manufacturing straw hats, which so increased and extended that in number of establishments and volume of production it soon outrivalled those of fur hats in their most prosperous time, thus securing to this city a kindred business, greater in extent and importance than the one which had, by force of circumstances, been wrested from her. the good reputation which the products of the new industry has acquired in every part of the country has contributed not only to the prosperity of the city, but has assisted by adding credit for the high standard of its manufactured goods. in the year mr. g. o. wilson and mr. albert sumner left their homes in foxboro, mass., in search of a promising field for establishing the business of renovating straw hats. without any definite place in view, one city after another was visited, baltimore being finally their chosen locality. messrs. wilson & sumner associated with them mr. w. c. perry, who also came from foxboro, and the firm was made sumner & perry, establishing themselves in the rear of no. , now west lexington street. mr. sumner withdrawing from the firm the same year, the two remaining partners continued the business at the same place as the firm of wilson & perry. at that time the retail price of straw hats was such as to allow a profitable business to be done in renovating and altering styles, and in that branch these persons met with success. previous to this, however, others had been engaged in the business of bleaching and pressing straw hats. among the first who entered into the business, as far as can be learned, was the firm of rosenswig, davidson & ash, about the year ; they were cap manufacturers, and added the pressing of leghorn hats as an auxiliary business. mr. samuel white, who learned his trade of the previously mentioned firm, afterwards carried on hat bleaching and pressing in connection with cap making, at no. south charles street (present no. ). from to extensive importations of german straw hats came into the port of baltimore, and mr. white did a large business in finishing these goods. in mr. white commenced the jobbing hat business, forming in the firm of white, rosenburg & co., and is now in business at no. south howard street, of the firm of s. white & son. richard hill, at present in the retail hat business at no. south liberty street, was formerly engaged in hat bleaching and pressing at the same locality. messrs. wilson & perry continued to prosper in their enterprise, and, increasing their facilities, gradually developed it into straw goods manufacturing, confining their business for several years almost exclusively with two prominent baltimore jobbing houses, who supplied sufficient patronage for their constantly increasing production; one of their patrons being cole, brigham & co., the other armstrong, cator & co., one of the largest millinery firms in the country. in messrs. wilson & perry purchased the premises no. west lexington street, now , where they secured more commodious quarters, and, with an admirably equipped factory, continued to do a large and prosperous business. mr. perry died in . in july, , the firm title of wilson & perry was changed, mr. wilson associating with m. frank, j. d. horner and a. levering, formed the firm of wilson, frank & horner, and occupied the warehouse no. west baltimore street, in connection with the factory on lexington street. in january, , isaac h. francis and james e. sumner, who had been in the employ of wilson & perry, started the straw hat manufacturing business at the n. w. corner of lexington and liberty streets, and in the following year wm. t. brigham (then of the firm of cole, brigham & co.) became associated with them, the firm being made francis, sumner & co. in the firm of cole, brigham & co. was dissolved, mr. brigham becoming connected with r. d. hopkins, as the firm of brigham & hopkins, occupying the premises no. west fayette street (present no. ). in mr. hopkins was admitted as a partner in the firm of francis, sumner & co., and messrs. francis and sumner became members of the firm of brigham & hopkins, the interests of the two firms having always, in fact, been identical since they were first established. the two firms were continued until july, , when, by the withdrawal of mr. sumner, they were dissolved, and became consolidated as the firm of brigham, hopkins & co., now occupying the large and spacious factory at the corner of german and paca streets, erected in . in the year messrs. francis, sumner & co. placed their interest in their lexington and liberty street factory with wm. fales and jas. m. hopkins, transferring their own entire business to the enlarged premises at w. fayette street. fales & hopkins continued at the corner of lexington and liberty streets until the fall of , when mr. hopkins, forced by declining health to give up business, sold his interest to mr. louis oudesluys, the firm becoming fales & oudesluys. mr. james m. hopkins died of consumption at colorado springs, february, . in s. c. townsend and john w. grace became associated with messrs. fales & oudesluys, and a new firm formed, as fales, oudesluys & co., continuing for two years, when it was dissolved, messrs. townsend and grace remaining as the firm of townsend, grace & co., at w. fayette street, while messrs. fales and oudesluys formed a new firm, as fales, oudesluys & co., locating at s. eutaw street. mr. fales remained in the latter firm but a few months, when it was again changed to that of oudesluys bros., comprised of louis, adrian and eugene oudesluys, now doing business at s. eutaw street. in mr. m. s. levy, who was then a cap maker, commenced the finishing of straw hats, having the hats sewed by others, while he did the finishing and trimming, his place of business being then at the n. e. corner of sharp and german streets. with increasing trade, mr. levy removed in to more spacious quarters at nos. and w. baltimore street (present numbers and ), where he commenced the general manufacture of straw hats. in he took his two sons into partnership, the firm being made m. s. levy & sons; their premises being destroyed by fire in october, , they removed to s. sharp street. in september, , being again the victims of fire, they occupied temporarily the premises n. e. cor. paca and german streets, remaining there until taking possession of their present extensive factory located at the n. w. cor. of paca and lombard streets. in tomz, richardson & co. commenced in a small way to manufacture straw hats at no. w. baltimore street (now ), but, from lack of business experience, soon abandoned the undertaking. messrs. bateman & richardson in embarked in the business, occupying a portion of the premises no. s. liberty street. in mr. scutch was admitted as a partner, the firm becoming bateman, richardson & co., and, removing to no. st. paul street (now ), continued until ; not meeting with anticipated success, they gave up the business. messrs. francis o. cole & co. in commenced the manufacture of straw goods, erecting for the purpose a building at nos. and saratoga street (now e. saratoga), continuing business until , when the firm was dissolved. mr r. q. taylor has long been engaged in the manufacture of mackinaw straw hats as a specialty. his acquaintance with and interest in this product dates as far back as , when he first used the mackinaw for his retail trade, since which, every season the "mackinaw" has been the prominent straw hat sent from his establishment, and for a period of fifteen years was the _only_ article of straw hat retailed by him. the successful control of a special style as an article of fashion for thirty-five consecutive years is a remarkable record, an accomplishment that plainly shows ability as a leader of fashion, for which mr. taylor's natural capacity so well fits him. mr. taylor confined the use of the "mackinaw" hat strictly to his retail demands until after the year , since when he has manufactured the article for the trade, distributing his products over the entire country, and establishing for "taylor's mackinaws" a national fame. in addition to the manufacture of men's and boys' straw hats, which class has heretofore comprised the larger proportion of such goods made in baltimore, another branch, that of ladies' straw goods, has been developed, and is already assuming interesting proportions, promising to become a valuable addition to this industry. messrs. wolford & shilburg in commenced the manufacture of ladies' straw goods at no. e. pratt street, remaining at that place for one year, removing in to no. camden street, where they are now located. in , messrs. l. w. sumner, g. k. thompson and d. whitney, as the firm of sumner, thompson & whitney, commenced the manufacture of ladies' and misses' straw goods, locating their factory at n. howard street. at the present time there are in baltimore, apparently in prosperous condition, eight straw hat establishments, giving employment to eleven hundred hands, male and female, and producing annually, manufactured goods to the value of upwards of a million dollars, in the distribution of which baltimore is brought into close business contact with every state and territory of the union, and the city's importance as a manufacturing centre is enhanced by the character of articles sent forth by those engaged in this class of business. growth of business. no. . for many years the mackinaw took precedence of all straw hats as the most desirable summer article for gentlemen's headwear, far out-rivalling in its success as a fashion any other straw product ever introduced to the american people. having attained this prominent position mainly through its successful management by baltimore manufacturers, it forms an important factor in the prosperity of the straw hat industry of baltimore. in fact it is the actual foundation of the present large and increasing straw goods business of the city to-day. while the mackinaw hat had previously found favor with a few prominent retailers, it was not until the year that mr. w. t. brigham, then of the firm of wm. r. cole & co., observing the merits of the article, concluded to undertake its introduction to the trade, to whom it was generally quite unknown. among those who had used profitably the mackinaw for their retail trade were r. q. taylor, of baltimore, charles oakford, w. f. warburton and louis blaylock, of philadelphia. though it was an article of domestic production, the beauty and commendable qualities of the mackinaw were indeed a surprising revelation to the trade at large. each year added to the popularity of the mackinaw, until it became the acceptable american straw hat, without which no first-class retailer could consider his stock complete. while the great demand existed, baltimore continued to supply the larger proportion of all the mackinaw hats sold, and taking advantage of the reputation thus gained for such goods, her manufacturers produced other kinds of straw hats, and by the exercise of proper care and attention acquired such skill as to secure for the straw goods products of baltimore the worthy reputation of being the best made in the united states, consequently and beyond contradiction the best in the world. in the earliest days of straw hat making in baltimore, at the time when the mackinaw was being introduced, the sewing of straw hats by machine was a new invention, and practically a close monopoly controlled by a strong combination of wealthy straw goods manufacturers of the north, who, jointly as a stock company, prevented the sale of the straw sewing machines outside their own circle. fortunately for the success of the new undertaking in baltimore, the good qualities of the mackinaw hat were more satisfactorily retained by hand sewing, rendering machines in their manufacture a useless requirement. thus an advantage was gained in supplying a hand-sewed hat, embodying such points of perfection in style and finish as to quite surprise those not familiar with the manufacture of such goods. the "mackinaw" of baltimore make continued to grow in popular favor until it had secured a greater distribution than was ever before attained by any other article of straw hat, making a remarkable record for tenacity, by holding for upwards of fifteen successive years, popularity as the leading article of summer headwear. baltimore continued to enlarge and increase her straw hat factories and improve their products, so that now in this industry she stands in the proud position of being the leading city in the united states in the production of the best class of straw hats. this, in brief, is a history of another branch of the hat business, which attained large proportions, supplementing the one which, having gained a degree of importance in the manufacturing history of the city, was by force of circumstances reduced to comparative insignificance. the growth of the straw hat business of baltimore may be looked upon as somewhat phenomenal. the first introduction of the mackinaw hat by william r. cole & co., in , may be taken as the beginning of straw goods manufacturing, and with but a single manufacturing firm existing in , its development and increase dates from that time. it is doubtful if in the total value of manufactured straw goods produced in baltimore reached the sum of $ , , while in the face of a steady and constant decline in values--the result of labor-saving machines, together with reduced cost of raw material--an increase in production of twenty-fold is an accomplishment of less than fifteen years. this success cannot be attributed to any local advantages, but is due entirely to the energy, enterprise and business qualifications of those engaged in the business, qualifications which have accomplished the result of giving valuable assistance in the city's advancement as an important manufacturing centre. it has also, by the recognized merits of its products, lent a worthy influence throughout the whole united states in sustaining the excellent reputation long enjoyed by baltimore for the good quality and reliability of its manufactured goods. history of the mackinaw hat. no. . a result of the remarkable popularity of the mackinaw straw hat was, that baltimore came rapidly forward as a straw goods manufacturing place, becoming important as a center in that particular branch of business; therefore a history of the article which contributed so largely to the development of this industry is likely to prove both interesting and instructive. "mackinaw," as a trade term or name, does not, as might be supposed, indicate the region from whence the articles comes, but undoubtedly received its christening from some one of the few retailers who early used these goods, in order to create a distinction from a similar, but much inferior article, then termed the "canada" hat. while both the "mackinaw" and the "canada" are made of wheat straw, the difference between the two, as the product of one country and of nearly the same latitude, is a great surprise. the wheat of the eastern part of canada produces a straw dark in color, harsh in texture, and of little use for making a hat, while that grown in the western part of the same country is clear and white in color, possessing a brilliant enamel which imparts the beauty that rendered the mackinaw so famous as an article of fashion. the mackinaw must be considered a local rather than a national production, coming as it does from a region comprised within a small radius around the city of detroit, part of which is canadian territory and part within the borders of the united states; for while considerable straw from which the plait is made is raised and plaited within the limits of the state of michigan, by far the largest proportion, as also the best quality, is the product of the canadian territory. nature seems to have provided a small community with unusual advantages, for within a limited territory has been produced all the large quantity of straw plait required to supply the popular demand that for many years existed for mackinaw hats, and all efforts elsewhere to produce material combining the peculiarities of this straw, from which these hats were made, invariably failed. the claim of the mackinaw to antiquity and long use is perhaps as strong as that of other plaits with which the trade has become familiar, for no doubt the natives of the country made use of these hats as a head-covering long before they became an article of trade. the mackinaw was for many years after its first introduction sold under the designation of the "canada" hat, the name given to a similar but comparatively degraded article produced in lower, or eastern canada; and the title mackinaw was first applied by the late mr. charles oakford, of philadelphia, or by mr. r. q. taylor, of baltimore, each of whom were among the first to make it a fashionable hat. the makers of these goods are wholly the poor, ignorant half-breeds, who spring from the canadian french and the indian. finding that hats, as well as the skins of the animals they trapped, could be traded for, the family talent was brought into use to produce something that might contribute to their meagre subsistence. so during the winter season, while the men hunted the muskrat, the indian women and children plaited straw and made hats, which, on the opening of spring, were carried with the skins obtained by the hunters, to the towns, where they were exchanged for food, drink, clothing and ammunition. to the advantages of soil and climate is attributed that purity of color, brilliancy of enamel, toughness of fibre and elasticity of texture which are recommendations of the mackinaw. added to these natural qualities was the advantage of a peculiar treatment given to the straw by the natives, who employed a whitening or bleaching process without the use of chemicals, giving increased beauty to the article. during the prosperity of mackinaw straw plaiting, a prominent character among the half-breeds was one madame lousseux, a sturdy, aged matron, with twelve hearty daughters, who, inheriting their mother's prolific nature, were in turn each the proprietress of a family of a dozen boys and girls. they all appeared to inherit the old lady's natural ability and wonderful expertness, and surpassed all competitors in the plaiting of the straw. the choicest products in braid and hats came from the lousseux family. in , and for many years after, these goods were sold and used only as ordinary harvest hats. it now seems surprising that an article possessing such attractive merits should have occupied a secondary position and been so long in establishing the reputation it finally secured. the first person, as far as discovered, who used this article for retail purposes as a genteel and fashionable hat, was henry griswold in the year , who did business in the then little and obscure town of racine, wisconsin. the raciners must have been people of an appreciative and refined taste, as it appears that mr. griswold sold the hat for several seasons to his own advantage. prior to these goods were sold in new york by leland, mellen & co., at that time the largest wholesale hat firm in the country. mr. mellen retired from business in . in reply to a personal inquiry of the writer in the year , mr. mellen wrote from framingham, mass., as follows: "the canada straw hat from the region of detroit was sold by our firm as early as . after being blocked and trimmed, they were sold as an ordinary staple hat. we sold a few to john h. genin, w. h. beebe & co., and charles knox, then the leading retail hatters of broadway. i think, however, they were sold by them only as a fishing or harvest hat. we continued to receive these goods from detroit for several seasons, until an article from lower canada, of inferior quality and less price, made its appearance, and stopped the sale, as far as we were concerned." the exact date of the appearance of the mackinaw in philadelphia cannot be accurately determined, but it must have been as early as . messrs. beebe, coster & co., a prominent retail firm in philadelphia, in , sold the tapering crown, wide brim "canada straw hat." from about to the mackinaw became so very popular in the quaker city that it was recognized as a leading article. the prominent retailers then using it were charles oakford, w. f. warburton, louis blaylock, and sullender & pascall; each of these firms themselves finished the straw hats, taking them as they were sewed by the natives, which was with a taper crown and wide brim, making little pretence to any variety in style or proportion. messrs. sullender & pascall made an advanced step and undertook one season to sell the mackinaw to the exclusion of all other straw hats, preparing them in various shapes and for the first time adapting them to the requirements and tastes of a "nobby" trade. in william ketchem of buffalo, e. b. wickes of syracuse, and john heywood & sons of rochester sold these hats. in l. benedict & co., prominent retailers of cleveland, handled the goods. this firm was followed next season by messrs. r. & n. dockstadter, then a very prominent concern in the same place. in they were sold in sandusky by c. c. keech. the mackinaw during these periods must have been introduced and sold in other places, but it had not secured its recognition as an article worthy of being placed on a level with foreign productions, which were then considered the desirable and suitable straw hat for genteel wear. it was probably not until after the year that the article received its title of "mackinaw," and not until then did it secure its well merited, dignified position. by far the largest retailer of the mackinaw hat in this country, and the one to whom belongs the greatest credit in popularizing it, is mr. r. q. taylor, of baltimore. he introduced the hat to his customers as far back as , and for _thirty_ consecutive seasons sold it without any apparent diminution of popularity. for many years mr. taylor sold the mackinaw to the exclusion of all other straw hats. at one time so identified did the mackinaw become with the people of this city, that it was said a baltimorean might be recognized anywhere by the straw hat he wore. mr. taylor asserts that in the years and he retailed from his own counter, in the two seasons, upwards of hats. the reputation of the mackinaw has been admirably sustained by mr. taylor, whose firm is still engaged in their manufacture, with a constant demand for them. probably no other straw hat ever introduced to the american public can show such a continued and extended sale. in messrs. wm. r. cole & co., predecessors of the present firm of brigham, hopkins & co., commenced to produce these goods for the general trade, and it is to their efforts that much of the widespread popularity of the mackinaw is due. they first tried these hats with their own local trade, and finding them eminently successful, ventured to offer them in new york, meeting with much encouragement. from a small commencement their trade in these goods continued to increase until a large and well established business was secured, continuing to grow in volume and extent, and becoming the precursor of an industry that places baltimore in a leading position as a manufacturing place for straw goods. modern improvements. no. . in the rank of those whose successful undertakings have contributed towards the restoration to baltimore of a lost industry, and placing it upon such a foundation as to have it recognized as one of importance, no firm stands more prominent or has done more towards its accomplishment than that of brigham, hopkins & co. the straw hat business inaugurated by this firm's immediate predecessors, and encouraged by their own efforts, has grown in volume and strength until baltimore is now designated in trade parlance "the straw hat city," rightfully claiming the honor of surpassing in this class of her manufactured products the efforts of all rivals of this or of any other country. messrs. brigham, hopkins & co., while possessing a large business, have the pleasure of conducting it in a spacious building, whose architectural design is one of the handsomest of its kind in the country, and whose conveniences for the successful prosecution of their business cannot be excelled. a business coming from one of its pioneers through a direct succession of firms gives to brigham, hopkins & co. a natural pride in such an inheritance, and brings also a pleasure in being able to trace its progress from its origin, showing how this branch of manufacture was at an early day brought to an admirable condition of prosperity, afterwards to pass through a period of almost total decay, then again to attain a development that entitles it to rank with any of the successful and prominent industries of the city. it is a pleasant reflection as well as a happy coincidence that the restoration of a forsaken industry, once a vital element in the city's life and activity, is greatly due to the labors of the firm who, in this branch, connect the past with the present, the old with the new. the enterprising business traits manifested by runyon harris, in erecting, in the year , a large hat factory in this city, seemed to have prompted his various successors to a spirit of emulation, enabling them to preserve the legacy bequeathed them, and to perpetuate that reputation for meritorious products that was so early earned in the factory of mr. harris. following the erection of the factory by mr. harris came the firm of aaron clap & co., who purchased the property and commenced in the manufacture of hats, and a remarkable fact--one encouraging an innate pride in their successors--is that during three-quarters of a century all of the firms inheriting a title of descent from that of aaron clap & co. have passed in safety through every financial convulsion of the country, and have promptly met every pecuniary obligation incurred. although during the former period of prosperity in the hat business of baltimore, felt hats only were manufactured, which business was completely reduced by the unfortunate conditions existing at the time of the civil war; its revival came through the establishing of a different branch, that of the manufacture of straw hats; and while messrs. brigham, hopkins & co. have lately entered extensively into the manufacture of silk and felt hats also, it is the purpose of this article to dwell more particularly upon facts relating to the straw hat branch that has contributed so largely in bringing baltimore once again forward as a leading hat manufacturing city. prior to messrs. wm. p. cole & son, then manufacturers and jobbers, became especially interested in the straw goods branch of their business. being at that time manufacturers of the best class of felt hats, the straw goods sold by them were all made in the factories of the north. machines for sewing the straw braid were not then in use, and much of the straw products of foreign countries came ready sewed in shapes that were very irregular in proportions and sizes. the looseness of the stitches in sewing rendered the use of glue a necessity in the manufacture of the hats, producing an article of headwear that gave but little comfort. suggestions for improvements were given the manufacturers, who adopted them with advantage to themselves. the first suggestion made by the baltimore firm was an improvement in the appearance of the hat by trimming it with wider bands. at that time the use of bands about lines wide was prevalent, and the adoption of -line bands was looked upon as a very radical departure. the substitution of leather sweats for those of oil muslin was also first undertaken by the baltimore firm; following which, the most important improvement ever gained in the production of straw goods was conceived and executed in this city, which was the abandonment of the heavy glue-sizing and the manufacture of the comfortable "flexible finish" straw hat, an accomplishment secured by careful attention to the proper sewing of the goods aided by hand finish. for several years wm. p. cole & son and their successors had straw hats of their own designing made and finished at the north, continuing to suggest improvements which were made at their command, and the privilege of retaining which for their own trade was for the time extended to them by the manufacturers, from which they gained such advantages as would arise from having goods superior to and differing from the general class sold by others. it was in the year , upon the dissolution of the firm of cole, brigham & co., that mr. w. t. brigham and mr. r. d. hopkins, uniting as the firm of brigham & hopkins, became straw hat manufacturers. the mackinaw straw hat had at this time gained well in popularity; the natural firmness and flexibility of the mackinaw were merits particularly acceptable to the trade, and the new firm made a careful study of embodying as far as possible in the manufacture of all their straw hats, those essential points possessed by the mackinaw. so successful were their efforts that, by the exercise of thorough watchfulness, they continued to improve, until they secured for their products a celebrity that gave the firm the foremost position in the trade. following the onward movement of the straw hat business in baltimore since its first introduction (less than twenty years ago), it is interesting to watch its constant and steady growth, and to observe the advance that has been accomplished. even before messrs. brigham & hopkins entered upon the business, a great improvement in the straw goods had already been made through the favorable impetus imparted by their predecessors. straw hats which from a lack of style and comfort had heretofore played a secondary part in the conditions of man's costume, were so much improved in style and finish as to be accepted as a desirable article of dress, thus an increased demand was created for them. to still further improve the straw hat, and as near as possible secure perfection, was the aim of the baltimore manufacturers. entering the field with the commendable object of producing a class of goods that should be recognized as the best, messrs. brigham & hopkins, abandoning traditional ways, commenced their work upon a thoroughly independent basis; copying after none, but relying upon their own ingenuity; striving to improve upon every last effort, observing and studying the wants and needs of their customers, they continued to put forth a class of goods bearing an undoubted stamp of originality, which, being supplemented by excellent workmanship and the use of good materials, resulted in securing a large patronage, and brought to them a constantly increasing trade. in this way did the firm secure a recognized position at the head of the straw hat industry of the country, and gained for their products a reputation for excellence in style and finish that is widespread over the whole country. american manufacturers had a long and tedious struggle in their efforts to overcome the prejudices of the people existing in favor of foreign productions, but steady endeavors to win the approval of americans for american made hats have scored a genuine success, and the american gentleman of to-day may take a just pride in wearing a straw hat of baltimore make--one not to be excelled. a model establishment. no. . that part of the history of baltimore which relates to the present position of its hat industry is especially interesting, as it records a business that has acquired large proportions, placing it prominently among the many important manufactures of this city. a business identified with the very earliest days of the city's existence, growing and assuming in its movement a condition of vigor and prosperity that is encouraging for the future, has given to baltimore a name and fame that places her in an enviable position at the very head of the hat-manufacturing cities of this country. as an example, showing the growth and progress of the hat business, and giving evidence of its extent in baltimore at the present time, no better illustration could be offered than a description of the complete establishment erected by messrs. brigham, hopkins & co. for the requirements of their extensive business. [illustration: present factory of brigham, hopkins & co.] while at the present time the hat business of baltimore is largely confined to the special manufacture of straw goods, a revived movement made by one firm in the manufacture of silk and felt hats assures a development of that branch of the business also into such proportions that ere long it may restore to baltimore the prestige and rank it once held as the manufacturing centre of high grades of that class of goods. going back to the early period of , runyon harris, the predecessor of this firm, in advance of his time displayed evidence of progressive ideas by erecting what was then considered a large and spacious factory. his structure was one hundred and twenty-five feet in length, about twenty-five in width, and two and a half stories high; the area of space upon the two floors, which was alone suited for work-people, was square feet. the line of successors to runyon harris have all been found proverbially enterprising and energetic, always noted as active and successful manufacturers of their day. inheriting somewhat the spirit of activity so marked in their worthy predecessors, messrs. brigham, hopkins & co. are found in the advance, and make no idle boast of an establishment whose breadth of space, architectural beauty, and convenience of arrangement find few rivals in the whole catalogue of similar business places in this country. their warehouse, prominently situated, rising six stories above ground, being one hundred and fifty feet deep by forty in width, gives a surface area of , square feet of work room, all of which is provided with unusual advantages for daylight and ventilation. added to this is the detached "make-shop" of the firm, located at relay station, on the line of the baltimore and ohio railroad, nine miles from the city.[ ] it is a high studded building, of one story, built in this manner to allow the condensing and evaporation of steam, which escapes from the "batteries" of boiling water, around which the men are constantly at work. this building is one hundred and thirty by sixty feet, giving in addition to the city warehouse square feet, or a total in round numbers of , square feet, upwards of an acre of working space, which is a good showing of growth and expansion when contrasted with one of the best establishments of the year . [ ] this department has lately been removed to the city, and is located corner paca and king streets. the handsome structure at the corner of german and paca streets was erected by messrs. brigham, hopkins & co., designed and arranged to suit the demands of their own manufacturing business. ground was broken in the month of april, , and the building completed and occupied in january, . it has a frontage of forty-one feet six inches on german street, and extends back on paca street one hundred and fifty feet to cider alley. located upon one of the broadest thoroughfares, at a point which is the water-shed of this part of the city, being at the level of one hundred feet above tide-water, it rises prominently among other fine warehouses surrounding it, showing its array of architectural beauty to advantage, for it is one of the most imposing of the mercantile structures of the city. the building is constructed of baltimore pressed brick and the famous potomac red sandstone, which together so harmonize in color as to render a very pleasing effect; the ornamentations surrounding the windows are in terra-cotta and moulded brick. the style of the building is romanesque, or round arched. very striking features are the immense arched openings upon the paca street façade, being seventeen feet in width and twenty-five feet in height, which with their broad treatment of mullioned panels and heavy rough-hewn stonework, give strength and character to the building. these spacious windows are not simply for effect, but designate the location of the principal offices, and by their wide expanse afford abundance of light to the show-rooms, making these departments particularly attractive by the cheerful airiness and brightness that plenty of sunlight always brings. [illustration: the large office windows.] throughout the whole building is a generous treatment of spacious windows, flooding the interior with a bountiful supply of light, so necessary to the production of properly manufactured goods as well as to the health and comfort of the work-people. the main entrance to this building is marked by its liberal dimension. a slight elevation is made from the sidewalk, and beyond a recess of several feet are framed two large french plate glass windows, which afford a view of the entire extent of the first floor with its offices and extensive storage room. entrance doors are placed on either side of this recess. [illustration: the front entrance.] broad stairways connect every floor, providing easy and quick ingress and egress at both the front and the back part of the building, rendering in the greatest degree security to the lives of those employed within. adjoining, in the rear, is another structure three stories high, separated from the main building by fire-proof brick walls, and used as a boiler-room, as also for other departments of work desirable to be kept apart from the general work-rooms. this separate building was designed as an additional means of safety, in not having the large boilers within the limits of the main building. from basement to roof this model factory is well equipped with all necessary modern plans for producing the best that is capable of being made in this manufacturing line. ways and means of the present time. no. . taking the start for a tour of inspection through the establishment of brigham, hopkins & co., one is ushered directly into the first or main floor of the building, which is partly occupied by offices for the members of the firm and for the necessary clerical force, as well as the show-rooms for the exhibit of the products of this factory. these various apartments are partitioned off with handsomely beaded cherry, and a series of arched windows give beauty to the architecture and serve the practical purpose of ventilation. the several rooms upon this floor are handsomely finished in solid cherry; this was done solely with the view of harmonizing the effect with that of the exterior of the building, rather than for an indulgence in luxury. in the first office is a capacious fire-proof vault, having its counterpart in size in the basement, upon which the one in the office rests; it is built of yellow enameled-face brick, and with its handsomely finished iron door surmounted with a bold decoration in terra-cotta, adds greatly to the ornamentation of this room. the desks are all of cherry, large and capacious, designed expressly for the required accommodation of the bookkeepers. adjoining is the private office of the members of the firm; among the decorations of this room is a spacious open fire-place, ornamented with terra-cotta tile and a handsome mantelpiece in carved cherry. the carpeted floor and tasty furniture serve to give that comfort that is looked for in the modern office of the business man. beyond and leading from this office are show-rooms for the exhibition of the firm's products. these show-rooms, two in number, are without doubt the best in finish, breadth of space and arrangement of any in this branch of business in the united states, affording the best conveniences for the display of the handsome goods they contain; the first in size, x feet, with an adjoining one x feet, is supplied with handsomely designed show-cases of solid cherry and of glass; the wall space is colored a light tint, while the ceilings are laid off in yellow and brown. a long table of cherry occupies the centre of the large room, while the hard-wood floors are partially covered with oriental rugs. when these rooms are filled with the choice products of the firm, embracing the finest qualities of straw, with their trimmings of various hues and colors, intermingled with the sombre black of the derbys and the brilliant lustre of the silk hat, upon which is thrown a bountiful supply of light that comes from the spacious windows, a striking melange of harmonious colors is produced. here the customer is surrounded by all that is desired from which to make his selection. [illustration: a bit of the offices] beyond these show-rooms is still another room devoted to the valuable collection of hat trimmings. while to the uninitiated the trimmings of a hat, consisting merely of its band and binding, may appear quite insignificant, yet to the manufacturer it is a part of great importance. here in this room, stored in various quantities, are two hundred different designs of hat-bands, every one of which is the product of a french or german loom, mostly made from original designs furnished and sent abroad to be executed for this firm. from this, the last of the series of departments on this floor, exit is gained to the remaining space, which is used for the packing and storing of goods ordered and received finished from the factory. with an ascent to the second floor by a broad stairway, the "finishing" department of silk and fur hats is entered; this department occupies the entire space of this floor. here the silk hat is made and finished complete, and the derby, whose process of manufacture belongs to several departments, receives its finishing touches, of curling and setting the brim, after which it is neatly nested in tissue paper and placed in paper boxes to be sent to the packer. the third floor provides three departments: that of silk and felt hat trimming, straw hat trimming department, and that very valuable and necessary auxiliary to business, the printing department. although two branches of the hat business are carried on under the same roof (that of straw and that of silk and felt hats), they are kept entirely separate and distinct in all their requirements and details, which affords a reason for the difference in aspect of the trimming departments on this floor. in one, the multitude of busy hands is at work upon hats of black, while in the adjoining department, the many nimble fingers are handling the light and delicate straw and the bright ribbons, making a contrast of the sombre with the gay. entering the next department, we find that element of development, that force of propulsion by means of which modern business plans are moved and executed--the printing press. this department is fitted and furnished complete with such requirements as are necessary to the advance of an enterprising business. a large gordon press, propelled by steam power, is kept constantly in use to supply the vast amount of printing required in the details of this business. tips, labels, size-marks, tickets for use in the various departments of "making," "sewing," "sizing," "finishing," and "blocking." order tickets, coupons, boxes and box labels and mercantile printing are but a portion of the work done here. in addition, a patent gas-heating press is used for printing in gold and silver leaf. there also emanates from this department a monthly trade journal, conducted under the auspices of the firm. ascending to the fourth floor, the noisy sound of machinery is first heard. this is the department for sewing straw braid; here unquestionably centres the interest in a hat factory; the hum of a hundred machines quickens the pulse, and to the observer, the interest and astonishment increases as the wonderful machine with its lightning speed, guided by the magic touch of the young woman who rules it, draws towards itself yard after yard of the delicate strand of straw plait which it sews together by the finest stitch of the most slender thread, till suddenly a hat comes forth, complete in its full perfection of shape. one's surprise would not be more greatly heightened by a display of the magician's art. the marvel of this accomplishment may be effectively demonstrated by a simple statement. that bit of mechanism occupying a space of x inches, with its apparently simple arrangement of levers and cogs, merely carrying a needle to and fro, up and down, will do in a single minute the work an industrious woman with her unaided fingers could not do in less than an hour. that little machine is capable of doing within the working hours of a day the labor of sixty women; while a hundred machines in a factory are capable of producing the handwork of six thousand people; this shows the progress of the world, and the advance that has come to this branch of industry within the last thirty years. [illustration: sewing department.] straw braid preparatory to being sewed is wound upon reels, from which it is easily fed to the sewing machine; this department of winding and reeling is also located upon this floor. adjoining is the machine room. this department is not only the hospital for invalid and incapacitated machines, where they receive the treatment required to put them in suitable working condition, but its field of usefulness is extended to the making of much of the required machinery, implements and various tools used throughout the establishment. another flight of stairs and the fifth floor is reached. this is the straw hat pressing department, occupied entirely by men. here are the more weighty evidences of labor and work. heavy and powerful hydraulic presses are used in shaping the ordinary kinds of straw hats, and the necessary metal moulds that form the "dies" for these machines represent tons of zinc. also in this room is row after row of benches, equipped for that special branch of "hand-finish," which has so greatly assisted in the reputation of the straw hats sent from this establishment. these benches each accommodate six workmen, are supplied with a labor-saving appliance of great merit, the invention of one of the firm's employees and at present in use only in this factory, which is, that by means of rubber tubes a combination of gas and air is carried into the pressing irons, by which heat is regulated to any required degree. the advantage of this may be realized when it is known that heretofore these press-irons were heated by "slugs" or pieces of iron or steel, which, drawn from the furnaces of anthracite coal fires, were encased in the hollow irons. by this new invention a remarkable saving is made, by the abandonment of the furnace, in the coal necessarily used, also in the not insignificant matter of time consumed by the presser in the constant replenishing of "slugs." its work is acceptable to the workman and desirable for securing an improvement to the goods. [illustration: straw hat finishing department.] the next, the sixth floor, has a department of both the straw and felt hat branches of the business. the finishing department of felt hats is a large room by an average of feet, closely studded on three sides with large windows, which at this height throw upon the workmen an unobstructed flood of light, affording unusual advantages for the most thorough perfection in the finish of these goods. this room has capacity for one hundred finishers, allowing generous space for each, giving the convenience and comfort that but few factories afford their work-people. adjoining is the department of bleaching and dyeing of straw plaits. this department is supplied with all the modern conveniences for securing the best results. large wooden vats receive the straw plaits for a thorough cleansing before it is ready for manufacture. bleaching tubs are near at hand, and large copper vats with all the required steam attachments for dyeing the many desired colors are here conveniently arranged. ascending still another flight of stairs, the drying department is reached; this is the most spacious of all the many divisions of this establishment, for it has the sky for a ceiling and unlimited space, being virtually upon the roof. here, ninety feet from the ground, is carried on one of the important divisions of the straw hat business. two large rooms, really houses in themselves, are built upon this roof; these are the bleach houses, which are provided with artificial stone floors, rendering them thoroughly secure from the chance of ignited brimstone coming in contact with any part of the woodwork of the building. the remaining space upon the roof, equal in its extent to two good-sized city building lots, is secured around and over by a substantial wire netting. within this enclosure the hats and straw braids coming from the bleaching and dyeing departments are dried. ascent has been provided by stairways leading from the front part of this building; descent is also had by the rear, where broad stairs are partitioned off from the work-rooms, making a continuous spacious hallway from top to basement--a wise precaution, taken in consideration of the safety of the lives of those employed. this building, capable of accommodating six hundred work-people, is provided with the most convenient means of escape in case of fire by these broad stairways at each end of the building. as additional precaution for safety, the boilers supplying the required steam for the various departments, as well as for the motive power and heat, are in a building adjoining the main one, but separated by a fire-proof brick wall, and is only accessible by entrance from the outside; here are located two boilers, with a combined capacity of one hundred horse power. above this boiler-room are two departments desirable to be kept apart from the others; these are the moulding and casting departments, in one of which is made the vast number of plaster shapes and blocks required in the factory, and some idea may be gained of the quantity when it is here mentioned that this department converts annually two hundred barrels of plaster of paris into hat blocks. in the casting department are the necessary melting furnaces and other requisites for casting metal "dies," parts of machinery, and the various things needed in a large manufacturing business. two large freight elevators, reaching from basement to roof, each of one ton capacity and propelled by steam power, are placed in the building. these elevators are furnished with automatic attachments by which as they ascend and descend each of the floors open and close, thus avoiding permanent openings, the frequent cause of accidents and assistance in the spread of a conflagration; an additional small elevator gives the convenience of transmitting light packages to and from every floor. electric bells and tubes afford telephonic communication with every department. steam heat radiates throughout the entire building, and a reel of hose attached to a water supply pipe is in readiness upon each floor in case of fire. the length of steam, gas, and water pipes throughout the building is estimated at five miles. the telegraph call-box signals for the messenger, and the telephone, aids in the execution of the advanced method of reducing the detailed requirements of a large business to a perfectly controllable system in its management. the engine supplying the motive power for this establishment is located in the basement. with exception of this room, partitioned off for the engine, the entire space of the basement of this large building is used for receiving and storing raw materials used in the manufacture of both straw and fur hats. here the visitor's imagination may indulge in a wide scope, and his thoughts wander away to many foreign lands, for in this store-room are found the products of nearly every country in the world. china is seen in its strong and durable straw plaits; japan, a new and formidable rival, shows its handsome goods; far-off india contributing its products, while england, france and belgium send their choice plaits; italy, germany, and spain are represented, as also south america, canada, and our own united states, while the hawaiian islands make a pretence at competition with the world in the making of straw plaits, by submitting creditable specimens of their native products. furs for making derby hats are also here, sent by russia, france and germany. in observing the firm's connection with countries quite encompassing the entire globe, some idea of the extent of this business may be realized. thus a fair description is here given of a thoroughly equipped hat factory existing in baltimore, in the year eighteen hundred and eighty-nine, and the reader may realize by comparison the advance of improvement from the last decade of the eighteenth century to the commencement of the last decade of the nineteenth century. the end. the hatter and furrier published monthly at _ washington place,--=new york=_, is the largest and handsomest hat and fur journal in the world, and the only journal in its line that gives full and reliable information upon the trades represented by its title. each number comprises editorials upon the trade styles and colors, treasury decisions, reports of meetings, original correspondence from trade centers, etc., etc. the fashion plates issued each season are superior in design and execution to anything of the kind in this or any other country, and are alone worth the full price of subscription. the =fur department= contains special information and reports upon all matters connected with this important industry. all patents of interest to the hat, fur and allied trades are published and illustrated as soon as issued. =all for $ . per year.= * * * * * _the gallison & hobron company_, _ washington place, cor. mercer st., =new york=_, issue the following publications: the hatter and furrier, monthly, $ . per year the clothier and furnisher, monthly, . " the cloak, suit and ladies' wear review, monthly, . " the hatter and furrier directory, yearly, in june. * * * * * advertising cuts for hatters, furriers, clothiers and furnishers. send for illustrated catalogues. hatters' letters _for initial letters in hats_. gummed and easily attached. _block or script, in gold or silver._ a complete alphabet of twenty-six dozen letters (one dozen of a kind in a package) mailed on receipt of p. o. order or stamps, for $ . . any special letters at the rate of cents per gross (no dozen packages broken). neat and strong division boxes at cents apiece. _geo. franke, hanover st.,_ _baltimore, md._ reference: dun's mercantile agency. chapin hats are sold by a representative broadway hatter at a saving to the consumer of =one dollar on each hat.= guaranty with derby hats. price four dollars. this hat is warranted equal in value to any sold at five dollars. it is absolutely correct new york style. the styles are issued semi-annually by the undersigned and his agents throughout the united states and canada. spring shapes, first wednesday in march. fall shapes, first wednesday in september. chapin. broadway and astor place, new york. guaranty with silk hats. price seven dollars. this hat is warranted equal in value to any sold at eight dollars. it is absolutely correct new york style. the styles are issued semi-annually by the undersigned and his agents throughout the united states and canada. spring shapes, first wednesday in march. fall shapes, first wednesday in september. chapin. broadway and astor place, new york. first-class hatters wishing to secure the chapin agency for territory not already represented will please communicate with l. a. chapin, = broadway, new york=. _only skilled work-people employed._ edward a. selliez, manufacturer of =fine cloth hats and caps,= no. north fifth street, careful attention given to details. =philadelphia, pa.= _=new york agent, w. p. montague, broadway.=_ you make a safe hit when you call upon =c. w. findley & co.= _ n. third street, philadelphia, or cor. baltimore and liberty streets, baltimore,_ =for hatters' printing, advertising novelties, rickett's hat tags, pure gold initials, box labels, size marks, adhesive labels, etc.= waterbury button co. no. howard street, new york. factory, waterbury, conn. manufacturers of military, and all uniform buttons, ladies' fancy metal buttons, cloth, and all kinds of covered buttons, vegetable ivory buttons, gilt, plain and fancy buttons. fancy brass goods. toilet pins. nursery pins. _william p. montague,_ manufacturer of novelties in boys' and children's =hats,= = broadway, new york.= selling agent for =brigham, hopkins & co.= baltimore. =edward a. selliez,= philadelphia. the most desirable =straw,= silk, cassimere, fine stiff and self-conforming =hats= are those made by =brigham, hopkins & co.= _factories_: { _german and paca sts., baltimore._ { _paca and king sts., baltimore._ _salesrooms_: { _german and paca sts., baltimore._ { _ broadway, new york._ the productions of brigham, hopkins & co. rank as best in the united states, which signifies the best in the world. none stories about famous precious stones by mrs. goddard orpen _illustrated_ boston d lothrop company washington street opposite bromfield copyright, , by d. lothrop company. contents. i. the regent ii. the orloff iii. la pelegrina iv. the koh-i-nur v. the french blue vi. the braganza vii. the black prince's ruby viii. the sanci ix. the great mogul x. the austrian yellow xi. a famous necklace xii. the tara brooch and the shrine of st. patrick's bell list of illustrations. page. the regent the orloff the koh-i-nur koh-i-nur, as recut tavernier's blue diamond the "hope blue" diamond "brunswick" blue diamond "hope blue" diamond, as mounted the crown of england the sanci the great mogul the austrian yellow diamond in the rough diamond after cutting "the necklace of history" the tara brooch st. patrick's bell stories about famous precious stones i. the regent. of all the gems which have served to adorn a crown or deck a beauty the regent has perhaps had the most remarkable career. bought, sold, stolen and lost, it has passed through many hands, always however leaving some mark of its passage, so that the historian can follow its devious course with some certainty. from its extraordinary size it has been impossible to confound it with any other diamond in the world; hence the absence of those conflicting statements with regard to it which puzzle one at every turn in the cases of certain other historical jewels. the first authentic appearance of this diamond in history was in december, . in that month it was offered for sale by a diamond merchant named jamchund to the governor of fort st. george near madras, mr. thomas pitt, the grandfather of the great earl of chatham. although, as we shall see later on, the diamond came fairly into the hands of mr. pitt, it had already a taint of blood upon it. i allude to the nebulous and gloomy story that has drifted down to us along with this sparkling gem. how far the story is true it is now impossible to ascertain. the regent itself alone could throw any light upon the subject, and that, notwithstanding its myriad rays, it refuses to do. tradition says the stone was found by a slave at partreal, a hundred and fifty miles south of golconda. the native princes who worked these diamond mines were very particular to see that all the large gems should be reserved to deck their own swarthy persons; hence there were most stringent regulations for the detection of theft. no person who was not above suspicion--and who indeed was ever above the suspicion of an absolute asiatic prince?--might leave the mines without being thoroughly examined, inside and out, by means of purgatives, emetics and the like. notwithstanding all these precautions however, the regent was concealed in a wound made in the calf of the leg of a slave. the inspectors, i suppose, did not probe the wound deeply enough, for the slave got away safely with his prize and reached madras. alas! poor wretch, it was an evil day for him when he found the great rough diamond. on seeking out a purchaser he met with an english skipper who offered him a considerable sum for it; but on going to the ship, perhaps to get his money, he was slain and thrown overboard. the skipper then sold the stone to jamchund for one thousand pounds ($ ), took to drink and speedily succumbing to the combined effects of an evil conscience and delirium tremens hanged himself. thus twice baptized in blood the great diamond was fairly launched upon its life of adventure. and now we come to the authentic part of its history. mr. pitt has left a solemn document under his own hand and seal recounting his mercantile encounter with the eastern jamchund. it would appear from this notable writing that mr. pitt himself had been accused of stealing the diamond, for he begins with lamentations over the "most unparalleled villainy of william fraser thomas frederick and smapa, a black merchant," who it would seem had sent a paper to governor addison (mr. pitt's successor in madras) intimating that mr. pitt had come unfairly by his treasure. the writer then calls down god to witness to his truthfulness and invokes his curse upon himself and his children should he here tell a lie. after this solemn preamble, mr. pitt goes on minutely to describe his transaction with the diamond merchant; how in the end of jamchund, in company with one vincaty chittee, called upon him in order to effect the sale of a very large diamond. mr. pitt, who seems to have been himself a very considerable trader in precious stones, was appalled at the sum, two hundred thousand pagodas ($ , ), asked for this diamond. he accordingly offered thirty thousand pagodas; but jamchund went away unable to sacrifice his pebble for such a sum. they haggled over the matter for two months, meeting several times in the interval. the indian merchant made use of the classical expressions of his trade, as, for example, that it was only to mr. pitt that he would sell it for so insignificant a sum as a hundred thousand pagodas. but all this was of no avail and they consequently parted again without having effected a bargain. [illustration: the regent: top and side views.] finally jamchund having resolved to go back into his own country once more presented himself, always attended by the faithful vincaty chittee, before the governor, and offered his stone now for fifty thousand pagodas. pitt then offered forty-five thousand, thinking that "if good it must prove a pennyworth." then jamchund fell a thousand and pitt rose a thousand. now the bargain seemed pretty near conclusion; but it often happens that hucksters who have risen or fallen by pounds come to grief at the last moment over the pence that still separate them, so these two seemed unable to move further towards a settlement. mr. pitt went into his closet to a mr. benyon and had a chat over it with that gentleman who appears to have advised him to the purchase, remarking that a stone which was worth forty-seven thousand pagodas was surely worth forty-eight. convinced by this reasoning the governor went again to jamchund and at last closed the bargain at forty-eight thousand pagodas ($ , ). it was a lucky moment for him, since it was upon this minute but adamantine corner-stone that the governor of fort st. george began to build up the fortunes of the great house of pitt. the diamond, valued far below its price in order not to attract attention, was sent home to england and lodged with bankers until mr. pitt's return from india, when he had it cut and polished. this process, the most critical one in the life of a diamond, was performed in an eminently satisfactory manner. the rough stone, which had weighed four hundred and ten carats, came forth from the hands of the cutter a pure and flawless brilliant of unparalleled lustre weighing one hundred and thirty-six and three fourths carats. it took two years to cut it, and the cost of the operation was ten thousand dollars; but its lucky owner had no reason to complain, since he sold the dust and fragments for no less than forty thousand dollars and still had the largest diamond in the world to dispose of. this, however, proved to be no easy matter, for though many coveted it few persons were ready to give mr. pitt's price for it. one private individual did indeed offer four hundred thousand dollars, but he was not listened to. the fame of this wonderful stone soon spread over europe. in an inquisitive german traveler, one uffenbach, made "a wonderful journey" into england and tried to get a sight of it. but by this time mr. pitt and his diamond were so renowned a couple that the former must have been a most miserable person. the german tells us how it was impossible to see the stone, for mr. pitt never slept twice in the same house and was constantly changing his name when he came to town. indeed his life was one of haunting terror lest he should be murdered for his jewel as the hapless slave had been in the very outset of its career. at last, in , he was relieved from his troubles. he sold the stone to the king of france, having in vain offered it to the other monarchs of europe. the duke of saint simon minutely chronicles the whole transaction. the model of the diamond, which was then known as the "pitt," was brought to him by the famous scotch financier, law. at this time the duke of orleans ruled in france as regent for the boy who was afterwards to be louis xv. the state of the french finances was well-nigh desperate. the people were starving, the national credit was _nil_, and the exchequer was almost if not quite empty. nothing dismayed, however, by the dark outlook, that accomplished courtier, the duke of saint simon, set himself to work upon the feelings of the regent until he should be persuaded to buy this unique gem. when the regent feebly urged the want of money the duke was ready with a plan for borrowing and pledging other jewels of the crown until the debt should be paid. the regent feared to be blamed for expending so extravagant a sum as two millions of money on a mere bauble; but the duke instantly pointed out to him that what was right in an individual was inexpedient in a king, and what would be lavish extravagance in the one would in the other be but due regard for the dignity of the crown and the glory of the nation. in short says the courtier in his entertaining memoirs, "i never let monsieur d'orleans alone until i had obtained that he would purchase this stone." to such successful issue was his importunity brought. the financier law did not let the great diamond pass through his hands without leaving some very substantial token of its passage. he seems to have received forty thousand dollars for his share in the negotiation. it is instructive to learn that the regent's fear of being blamed for the purchase was entirely groundless. on the contrary he received the applause of the nation for his spirited acquisition of a gem the price of which had terrified all the other monarchs of europe; whereupon the duke of saint simon remarks with complacency that much of the credit was due to him for having introduced the diamond to court. the sum actually paid to mr. pitt appears to have been one hundred and thirty-five thousand pounds sterling, equivalent to eight hundred and seventy-five thousand dollars, and the diamond received its name of regent in compliment to the duke of orleans. the regent now enters upon a long period of tranquillity, nothing conspicuous happening to it for many years. it pursued its way quietly as a royal gem during the reign of louis xv., adding its lustre to the brilliant but dissolute court of that monarch. after a lapse of nearly sixty years the regent again came forward upon a stately occasion in order to fitly decorate a king of france. it was on the eleventh of june, , that the unfortunate youth louis xvi. was crowned king in the ancient cathedral town of rheims. a new crown of especial splendor was made for the new king and in it were incorporated nearly all the royal jewels. the top of the diadem was ornamented by fleurs-de-lys made of precious stones. in the centre of the principal one blazed the regent, flanked right and left by the "sanci" and the "gros mazarin," while round about sparkled a thousand diamonds of lesser magnitude. louis's gorgeous head-gear was no less than nine inches high, and it is said that the king, made dizzy by the immense weight of it, put up his hand several times to ease his poor head. at last he said peevishly "it hurts me"; simple, thoughtless words to which after-events have given a sad and most fateful significance. one of the actors in this magnificent pageant was the king's youngest brother, the count d'artois, a handsome youth of such exquisite courtliness of manner that he obtained and kept through life the title of the _vrai chevalier_. we shall meet him again in still closer proximity to the regent, fifty long years hence. during the troubled reign of louis xvi. the crown jewels including the regent were lodged in the garde meuble where upon stated days they were exposed to public view. on the famous tenth of august, , when louis was deprived of his crown he was also relieved from the burden of looking after the regent. it had at once become the national diamond and as such belonged to everybody, hence everybody had a right to see it. in compliance with this popular notion the regent was deposed from its regal niche in the crown of france and was securely fastened in a steel clasp. a stout chain was attached to the clasp and padlocked inside an iron window. thus secured from the too affectionate grip of its million owners the regent used to be passed out through the window and submitted to the admiration of all who asked to see it. as a further security policemen and detectives were liberally scattered about the place in the interest of national probity. after the bloody days of the second and third of september when the ferocious mob of paris broke into the prisons and massacred the unfortunate inmates, the government imagined that the people should no longer be trusted with the custody of the regent. accordingly they locked up all the crown jewels as securely as they could in the cupboards of the garde meuble and affixed the seals of the commune most visibly thereto. notwithstanding their precautions, however, the result does not seem to have justified their conclusions. on the seventeenth of the same month it fell to m. roland, then minister of the interior, to make a grievous statement to the assembly. he informed the deputies that in the course of the preceding night some desperate ruffians had broken into the garde meuble nationale between two and three o'clock in the morning and had stolen thence jewels to an enormous value. two of these ruffians had been arrested, but unfortunately not those who had the large diamond and other national property secreted upon their persons. a patrol of ten men who were posted at the convent des feuillants had pursued the miscreants, but being less effectively armed than the robbers they were unable to capture them. the two thieves then in custody upon being questioned gave, of course, answers which aroused the suspicions of these easily inflamed patriots. it seemed certain--so at least argued roland--that the robbery had been planned by persons belonging to the late dominant aristocratic party in order to supply themselves with money to be used in paying the foreign troops who were to subdue france and again reduce her to slavery. he then proceeded to deliver an impassioned address upon this fertile theme. patriot deputies freely accused each other of being the authors of this crime. danton was pointed at by one party, while he retorted by naming roland, minister as he was, as one who knew too much about it. it seems probable however that none except the thieves themselves were concerned in this astonishing robbery and that they were actuated by greed alone. the patriots only made use of it for party purposes to obtain their own objects, just as they tried to utilize in the same way any uncommon natural phenomenon, such as comets, earthquakes or hail stones. a few days later an anonymous letter was received by the officials at the commune stating that if they searched in a spot most carefully described in the allée des veuves of the champs elysées, they would find something to their advantage. they accordingly hunted at the place indicated and found the regent and a valuable agate vase. all the rest of the booty, however, the thieves made off with after having thus eased their consciences of the weight of the great diamond. we lose sight of the regent in the black gloom that hangs over the reign of terror. there is however a persistent tradition, impossible now either to prove or disprove, that on the occasion of the marriage of napoleon bonaparte with josephine beauharnais in the former wore a most superb diamond in his sword hilt. could this perchance have been the regent? it is certainly difficult to imagine how napoleon could have become possessed of the regent at this date. yet it is also difficult to imagine how the young man who was then an unknown and a poor general without an army although full of high expectations, could have become the owner of any diamond of such splendor as to attract the attention of at least two contemporary historians. it is just possible it may have been the peerless regent already shedding its rays upon the blade of that sword destined to flash through europe and to leave behind it so bloody a trail. however this may be, it is certainly a fact that in napoleon, then first consul, pawned the regent to the berlin banker trescow. with the money thus obtained he set out on that famous campaign beyond the alps which ended at marengo and which began his career of unexampled success. thus once more the regent may be said to have founded the fortune of a great house, but more aspiring in its second attempt it succeeded less effectually than in the case of pitt. however in the house of bonaparte had not fallen upon its ruin and it is some idea of this fact that gives color to the extraordinary revelations of the man called "baba." in several men were tried for having forged notes on the bank of france, and one of them who went by the nickname of "baba" made a full confession of how the forgeries were accomplished, and then, to the vast astonishment of the court, he delivered this theatrical speech: "this is not the first time that my avowals have been useful to society, and if i am condemned i will implore the mercy of the emperor. without me napoleon would not have been on the throne; to me is due the success at marengo. i was one of the robbers of the garde meuble. i assisted my confederates to conceal the regent diamond and other objects in the champs elysées as keeping them would have betrayed us. on a promise that was given to me of pardon i revealed the secret; the regent was recovered and you are aware, gentlemen, that the magnificent diamond was pledged by the first consul to the batavian[a] government to procure the money which he so greatly needed." [a] evidently a mistake on baba's part, as the regent was pawned to a banker in berlin. there must have been some truth in baba's statement, or at least the tribunal considered there was, for he was not sent with his companions to the galleys, but was confined in the bicêtre prison where he was known as "the man who stole the regent." napoleon did not set the regent in his imperial crown. having redeemed it from the hands of trescow for three millions of livres he mounted it in the hilt of his state-sword. there was something very fitting in this bestowal of the diamond. that the great soldier who had carved out his way to the throne with his sword should use the famous stone to ornament that blade was eminently appropriate. the emperor seems to have considered that the regent, whose name he most properly did not alter, belonged to him in an especially personal manner. in his confidences with las casas when at st. helena he particularly complains of the manner in which the allies defrauded him of this diamond, saying that he had redeemed it out of the hands of the jews for three millions of livres and therefore that it belonged to him in his private capacity. on the first of april, , the regent was called upon to add its glory to the gorgeous scene in the long gallery of the louvre on the occasion of the official marriage of napoleon with marie louise. the emperor who was very fond of splendid pageants was attired in the most magnificent apparel contained in the imperial wardrobes. but he seldom had the stoical patience demanded of those who pose as kings. he never could acquire the deliberate stateliness of louis xiv. who was born and brought up within the narrow limits of regal etiquette. indeed the emperor was frequently known to divest himself of his costly robes in a very expeditious manner going so far as actually to kick--unholy sacrilege!--the imperial mantle out of his way. on the day of his marriage with the archduchess the regent was used to decorate the cap of the bridegroom. madame durand, one of the ladies-in-waiting to the new empress, has left an account of the ceremony in which occurs the following passage:-- "he (napoleon) found his black velvet cap, adorned with eight rows of diamonds and three white plumes fastened by a knot with the regent blazing in the centre of it, particularly troublesome. this splendid headgear was put on and taken off several times, and we tried many different ways of placing it before we succeeded." like poor louis xvi. at his coronation napoleon found that his sparkling top-hamper hurt him. there was little opportunity for the regent to appear fittingly after this event, although no doubt it was present at that kingly gathering in dresden in the spring of , when napoleon in the plenitude of his power was starting upon the russian campaign. but in the crash of a falling throne the imperial diamond is lost to view. when marie louise escaped from paris in , flying before the advancing allies she took with her all the crown jewels, and specie to the amount of four millions. these valuables the fugitive empress kept with her until she reached orleans, where she was overtaken by m. dudon a messenger from the newly-returned bourbon king. this gentleman demanded and obtained the restoration of the money and the jewels. thus the regent was forced to abandon the fallen dynasty and to return to paris to embellish the cap of the new king. in the scrambling restoration of louis xviii. it was impossible to have a coronation. indeed the court of this returned bourbon was of the quietest, being under the dominion of madame d'angoulême, an austere bigot, of a temper very different from that of her gay and pleasure-loving mother, marie antoinette. it was not until may, , that there was anything like a fitting occasion for the regent to appear. it was in that month the most delightful of all the months of the year in france, that the youthful bride of the duke of berri arrived from naples. louis xviii. resolved to have the young princess met in the forest of fontainebleau, and thither accordingly the whole court migrated on the previous day. it was the king's wish that the meeting should take place in a tent pitched in the stately forest. perhaps he dreaded the imperial memories that still haunted the chateau, napoleon's favorite residence where he had given his splendid hunting fêtes. the king arrayed himself sumptuously in a velvet coat of royal blue embroidered with seed pearls, and the regent was placed in the front of his kingly cap while his sword was decorated by the less brilliant sanci diamond. thus regally adorned the king, too fat and gouty to stand in a royal attitude, was majestically seated in his arm-chair where he was discovered by the youthful caroline when she tripped lightly into the tent. charles x. was destined to enjoy the regent but for a few brief years. having succeeded to the throne on the death of his brother in september, , he made his state entry into his capital in the first days of october. this charles, now an old man, is the youthful count d'artois who figured at the coronation of louis xvi. half a century before. hardly was the late king laid to his rest in the sombre vaults of st. denis when his successor laid his hands upon the regent. the grand diamond sparkled upon the hat of the elderly monarch when bowing and smiling he made his entry into paris as king of france. he was very fond of display, the vrai chevalier of the olden time, and spent months devising the most perfect and complete of coronations. everything was to be conducted according to the strict old court etiquette; even the dresses of the ladies were designed from fashion plates of the time of marie de médicis. this was the last king of france crowned at rheims, none but the elder bourbons having dared to face the legitimate traditions of the sleepy old town. a crown splendidly garnished with diamonds was made especially for charles who was duly anointed. but it all availed not to keep him on his infirm throne. he abdicated in when at st. cloud and proceeded with royal slowness to quit the kingdom. he retained however his hold over the crown jewels while relinquishing the crown itself, for he carried the regent and all the rest of the diamonds off to rambouillet. as soon as the municipal government in paris became aware of this fact they sent two agents to receive the precious objects from the hands of the ex-king. but his dethroned majesty would not give them up, whereupon a column of six thousand troops marched upon rambouillet, and charles was convinced by the irresistible logic of their flashing bayonets. he surrendered the regent and other gems which were instantly appropriated by his "good cousin of orleans," louis philippe. he again in turn was obliged to fly and leave his diamonds behind; so that the regent was found by louis napoleon amongst the other treasures of the country when he laid hold of the vacant crown of france. the late emperor had it set in the imperial diadem.[b] it is a thick, square-proportioned diamond about the size of a claude plum with a very large top surface, technically the table, and it gives forth even in daylight the most vivid rays. one authority on precious stones observes that the regent is not cut to rule, being too thick for its size, but he quaintly remarks that such a diamond is above law. the regent may do as it likes, but smaller stones should beware how they imitate peculiarities which in them would be called defects. [b] it was shown to the world at large in the two french exhibitions, where, in , the present writer had the gratification of beholding it. on the outbreak of the franco-prussian war in the regent and its glittering companions in glory were safely lodged in a sea-girt fortress. but napoleon never returned to redeem them. from the day when this peerless diamond first came to france it has always been a sovereign gem in the strictest sense of the term. it has never been used to adorn any one but the reigning monarch, and has never condescended to deck the brow of a woman. during the present republic the regent has dwelt somewhat in obscurity. it lies snugly put away along with the other crown jewels in the vaults of the ministère des finances. but when the chamber some two years since decreed that crown jewels should be sold by auction, they exempted the regent. republican france will not sell the regent. this is a very remarkable fact, and would have eased the mind of the old duke of orleans could he have foreseen it. this sparkling gem, which he dreaded to buy fearing the censure of his people, has now sunk so deeply into their affections that even after the final extinction of the race of bourbons which it was bought to adorn, the same people, now being sovereign, cannot bring themselves to part with it. ii. the orloff. "diamonds," says an old writer, "have ever been highly valued by princes. to a sovereign," he argues, "who can command the lives and property of his subjects by a word, the ordinary objects of human desire soon lose that stimulating interest which rarity of occurrence and difficulty of acquisition can alone keep. the gratification of the senses and of unrestricted sway soon palls upon the appetite, and war and diamonds are the only objects that engross the attention; the former because it is attended with some hazard and is the only kind of gambling in which the stake is sufficiently exciting to banish the ennui of an illiterate despot; the latter because the excessive rarity of large and at the same time perfect specimens of this gem supplies a perpetual object of desire while each new acquisition feeds the complacent vanity of the possessor." according to this philosophy we should expect to find that the most despotic princes would be the most addicted to the vanities of war and diamonds. whether this conclusion be true as regards war may be open to doubt. russia, without contention, is the most despotic monarchy of europe, and yet the one which can show the shortest list of wars. with regard to diamonds, however, the deduction holds in all its force. the russian regalia is richer in precious stones than that of any other asiatic country. besides numberless sapphires, rubies and pearls it possesses an immense quantity of diamonds. this passion for gems which characterizes the russians was early observable among them. it is no doubt an inherited asiatic taste, brought with them from the steppes of siberia and the plains of thibet, just as they brought thence their high cheek-bones, their flat noses, their dull skins, and the strong tendency to long hair and flowing beards. as early as the time of peter the great the diamonds were a notable feature of the russian crown. but it was in the reign of catharine ii. that the most splendid gems which russia now possesses were added to her treasures. first and foremost stands the orloff. with the exception of the very dubious braganza of portugal the orloff is the largest diamond in europe. it outweighs the regent by more than half a hundred carats, reaching as it does the astonishing weight of one hundred and ninety-three carats. the origin of this gem is absolutely lost and its early history is involved in obscurity and contradiction. it appears a stone of ancient date. it was known in india for generations before it was transferred to europe. three fates--a slave, a ship captain, and a jew--seem destined to preside over the advent of each great diamond into our western world. nor were they wanting in this instance--except that a soldier was substitute for the slave. [illustration: the orloff.] the date, however, is not so easy to discover as the circumstances of its entrance into european history. it was, at all events, at some time prior to that a grenadier belonging to the french army which garrisoned the french possessions of pondicherry deserted from his flag and became a hindoo. this conversion was not the result of deep inward conviction, but of far-sighted craft. the frenchman had heard of the great sringer[=i]-matha, the most holy spot in all mysore. this temple, situated on an island at the junction of the cavery and the coleroon, was one of four especially sanctified monasteries founded in the eighth century by sankar[=a]cárya. this man, a strict brahmin, restored the glories of the old religion somewhat dimmed by buddhism, and planted a monastery in each of the four extremities of india to keep alive the faith of brahma. the one at srirangam was noted, and the resort of pilgrims. it consisted of seven distinct inclosures, many lofty towers, and a gilded cupola, besides which it was furnished with a perfect undergrowth of dwellings for the many brahmins who served at the altar. now the object of the grenadier's metamorphosis was that he might be received into these sacred precincts and become a priest of brahma. and why? because brahma had a diamond eye. as the french historian puts it, "the soldier had become enamored of the beautiful eyes of the deity." european heretics were not allowed to penetrate further than the fourth inclosure. if the grenadier was to gaze at the eye of the god it must be as a hindoo. being, then, externally a hindoo, the frenchman proceeded to gain the confidence, and even the admiration of the priests by the extraordinary fervor of his devotion. the ruse succeeded, and he was eventually appointed guardian of the innermost shrine. one night, on the occasion of a great storm, the hindoo-grenadier believed the moment propitious for his grand enterprise. being alone with the god he threw off his disguise, climbed up the statue, gouged out the wonderful eye, and made off with it to trichinopoly. here he was safe for the moment among the english troops encamped at that place. but soon he journeyed on to madras in search of a purchaser for the eye. he of course met an english sea-captain, the middle figure of the indispensable trio of fates, and to him the grenadier sold the diamond for two thousand pounds ($ , ). after this the grenadier falls back into obscurity. the sea-captain went to london and there speedily fell in with the jew, the third fate. the name of this fate was khojeh raphael, and his character was that of "a complete old scoundrel." he seems to have traveled all over europe in his character of jew and merchant and to have left a not altogether immaculate record of himself. khojeh raphael paid twelve thousand pounds ($ , ) for the stone and then in his turn set about hunting up a purchaser. but this proved no easy matter. the splendid catharine of russia, it is said, rejected it though fond of diamonds and not slow to spend money, because the price asked was too high for her. it remained for a subject to buy it and present it to her as a gift. this then is the history of the orloff diamond in india according to the most trustworthy accounts. having brought the diamond to europe we no longer deal vaguely, but are instantly face to face with an exact date. "we learn from amsterdam that prince orloff made but one day's stay in that city where he bought a very large brilliant for the empress his sovereign, for which he paid to a persian merchant the sum of , , florins dutch money." so says a gossipy letter dated january , ; and as further we are informed of the value of the "florins dutch money" in english pennies, we learn that the price paid to the "complete old scoundrel" of a khojeh raphael was one hundred thousand pounds ($ , ). the prince orloff mentioned in the letter is no other than gregory, the favorite of catharine ii., a man of such singular fortunes that a few words may well be spared to him. orloff's grandfather first came into notice in an extraordinary manner. in , when peter the great barely escaped assassination at the hands of his body-guard, the renowned strelitz, he resolved to destroy the corps altogether. this he performed effectually by cutting off their heads by scores and hundreds. the czar aided in this bloody work with his own hand and decapitated many of his mutinous soldiers on a big log of wood. one young fellow, jan nicknamed orell (eagle), annoyed at finding the severed head of a comrade exactly in the spot where he had decided to lay his own neck, kicked it aside with the remark, "if this is my place i want more room." the czar, delighted with the congenial brutality of the observation, pardoned the soldier and gave him a post in his new regiment of guards. slightly altering his nickname "orell" into "orloff," the respited victim founded a family destined to become renowned in russian history. his son was taken into the ranks of the nobles, and his famous grandson gregory, born in , became a soldier early in life. gregory orloff was a man of ability, but his fortune was undoubtedly due to his personal beauty. he was tall and handsome with a well-earned reputation for audacious courage, always alluring to the mind of a woman. his first appearance in the world of fashion reflects little credit upon him and still less upon the russian society in which he lived. he was on the point of being sent to siberia to think over his misdeeds at his leisure, when a hand was extended to him which afterward raised him almost to the summit of human greatness. the grand duchess catharine interested herself on his behalf and rescued him from siberia. orloff rapidly advanced in her favor, and it may have been he who first inspired her with the boundless ambition which he afterwards aided her in gratifying. at all events gregory orloff and his brothers were the prime movers in that military insurrection which overthrew peter iii., a feeble, drunken imbecile, and set up in his place his wife catharine, a handsome imperious strong-willed woman. the revolt took place on july , , and the new empress instantly ordered her vanquished husband into confinement. let us trust that she ordered not his death. catharine ii., often called the great, and sometimes the holy, has enough for which to answer without the addition of the deliberate murder of her husband to swell the account against her. be this as it may, the fact remains that a fortnight later peter iii. was strangled by alexèy orloff, brother of gregory the favorite of catharine. thus left in undisturbed possession of the throne the czarina loaded with riches and titles the brothers who had aided her. but nothing was sufficient for the ambition of gregory orloff. not content with the position of first subject he aspired to that of master. catharine, who seemed unable to refuse him anything, was several times on the point of recognizing him officially as her husband, and he had reason to suppose himself on the verge of grasping the great prize of his ambition when it was snatched away. in , being then absent upon a mission to the turks, orloff's credit with catharine was utterly destroyed by his rival potemkin. hurrying back in such desperate haste that he had not a coat for which to change his traveling cloak, in hopes of repairing his evil fortunes, orloff was met by an order to travel abroad. it was thus that catharine always relieved herself of the presence of favorites whose company had become irksome. orloff, maddened with rage, set out on his travels and wandered all over the north of europe. it was during his exile that he heard of the wonderful diamond that khojeh raphael had for sale. knowing how fond catharine was of all jewels and especially of diamonds, he hoped to propitiate her by a unique gift of the kind. catharine took the gift, but refused to receive the giver back into her favor. her fickle affections were engaged by another handsome face, and gregory orloff spent the remaining years of his life in aimless journeyings varied by an occasional visit to st. petersburg. he died mad in . he used sometimes to address the empress, calling upon her by the pet-name of "katchen"; or again he would taunt her with her unkindness. such was the life and death of gregory orloff. the diamond to which his name was given although accepted by catharine seems not to have been worn by her as a personal ornament. it was mounted in the imperial sceptre where it has ever since remained undisturbed. in its latter state of tranquil splendor it differs signally from the regent whose european career, as we have seen, has been a singularly stormy one. as the sceptre is used only at coronations the history of the orloff becomes one of long repose and seclusion, diversified by transient re-entrances into grandeur as successive czars appear upon the scene to be crowned. the most singular coronation which has ever been performed was probably that which followed the death of catharine and preceded the consecration of her son and successor. catharine died in after a reign of thirty-five years. but before she could be buried there was a ceremony to be performed, the like of which had never been seen. her son paul, a taciturn individual who seems never to have forgotten his father's miserable death, performed an expiatory coronation in his honor, seeing that that ceremony had been neglected in peter's life. for this purpose the body of the long-dead czar was disinterred and was dressed in the imperial robes. the ornaments of the coronation which had been fetched expressly from moscow for the purpose were then disposed about the mouldering figure. it must have been a grisly sight--the crowned skeleton of the murdered peter lying beside his wife's body with orloff's diamond banefully glittering on his bony hand. nor was this all. with a genius for grim appropriateness the new czar summoned the two surviving murderers of his father to attend as chief mourners. these were prince baratinsky and alexèy orloff. the former overcome by the horror of his recollections fainted away many times; but orloff, with iron indifference, stood four hours bearing the pall of the man he had strangled with his own hands thirty-five years before. after performing this public penance both men were banished from russia. the coronation of a sovereign is always a stately ceremony; but the installation of the czars of russia is elaborate almost beyond description. the ceremonial invariably followed is that used at the coronation of peter the great and his empress. the ritual is largely religious, as the czar is head of the church as well as emperor. the sceptre of course plays an important part and is taken up and put down a bewildering number of times. the following extract from a work entirely devoted to the explanation of the many comings and goings and uprisings and downsittings will give a slight idea of what a performance the coronation is: "the metropolitan having received the sceptre from the hands of the noble bearer carries it to the emperor who takes it in his right hand. the metropolitan says, 'most pious, most powerful, and very great emperor of all the russias, whom god has crowned, upon whom god has shed his gifts and his grace, receive the sceptre and the globe. they are the symbols of the supreme power which the most high has given thee over thy peoples, that thou mayest govern them and obtain for them all the happiness they desire.' and the emperor takes the sceptre and sits upon the throne." but this is not nearly all. the sceptre, which is graphically if somewhat grotesquely called the triumph-stick, is held only for a brief time. the emperor at the end of the prayer, lays it upon a velvet cushion and upon another he places the globe or empire-apple as it is termed. then he calls to himself the czarina and crowns her with his own imperial diadem. but the consort is not invested with any imperial power, therefore she does not receive either the sceptre or the globe. after having crowned his wife, the czar again seats himself upon his throne holding his stick and his apple in either hand. cannons roar, bells clang and multitudes shout "long live the father!" while all present bow low before the monarch in adoration. then the new czar and czarina receive the communion with more stately movings about from place to place. finally the _te deum_ is sung, the crowned emperor, sceptre in hand, walks forth, and the intricate ceremonial is thus brought to a close, having been in continuance some four or five hours. the regalia, which includes seven or eight crowns, is kept in the kremlin in an upper room "where," says a traveller, "they [the crowns, etc.] look very fine on velvet cushions under glass cases." the czars are always crowned in moscow, the ancient capital of russia. paul, having performed the weird ceremony already described, then had himself duly and solemnly crowned. his reign was a short one however, and in he gave place to his successor alexander, in the orthodox russian manner--that is to say he was strangled. in the orloff and its magnificent companions had to fly from moscow. in the beginning of september in that terrible year, finding that the mountains of slain on the bloody field of borodino could not stop napoleon, the russians sullenly retired before him. on the third of the month the regalia was carried out of moscow and lodged in a place of safety in the interior. this flight was followed by that of everybody and everything that was portable. when napoleon entered on the fourteenth it was to find an absolute desert in moscow, only a few stragglers, prisoners and beggars having been left. alexander i., strange to say, died peacefully in , leaving the throne to his brother nicholas. nicholas has been aptly called "the iron czar." he was the third son of his father, but his elder brother, constantine, having no taste for the perilous glory of a crown renounced his rights in favor of nicholas. there was some delay in crowning the new czar owing, says the court circular with decorous gravity, to the illness and death of the late emperor's widow who survived her husband but five months. in reality, however, the delay was caused by events more serious to the peace of mind of the new sovereign. a revolution, which seems an indispensable accompaniment to a change of rulers in russia, exploded after the accession of nicholas and came near to costing him his life. this event seems to have further hardened a nature that was already sufficiently severe, and when nicholas went to moscow in august, , his coronation progress was not meant to gladden the people but to make them quake. when the czar left the cathedral of the assumption, his crown upon his head and his sceptre in his hand, "his face looked as hard as siberian ice." so wrote of him an eye-witness, who further says the people were too frightened to cheer--they dropped on their knees with their faces in the dust. it was a gloomy coronation notwithstanding all the diamonds and glitter of the pageant. there was but one redeeming incident that spoke of human kindliness and affection. when the czar had been crowned his mother, the widow of the murdered paul, advanced to do homage to him as her sovereign, but the czar knelt before his mother and implored her blessing. after the empress mother came constantine, the elder brother, who had waived his rights to the crown, and he was in turn affectionately embraced by nicholas. this exhibition of fraternal affection in russia, where brothers had been known to strangle each other in order to grasp the much-coveted sceptre, was considered as something quite unprecedented. the court chronicler of the day speaks of it with emotion as a sight to move the hearts of gods and men. nicholas died in the middle of the crimean war and alexander ii. reigned in his stead. the extraordinary pomp of his coronation has never been surpassed. he in his turn held in his hand orloff's great diamond as the symbol of absolute power. yet he, who could deal as he chose with the lives of all his subjects, had not power to save his own from the hand of the assassin. the murder of alexander ii. by nihilists in march, , is fresh in memory as also the succession of the present czar. the orloff was then once more taken from its repose in the sumptuous privacy of the kremlin to enhance the splendors of an imperial coronation. within a short time the orloff has served to grace yet another splendid ceremony. on the occasion of the recent installation of the czarevitch as hetman of the don cossacks, the sceptre as well as the crown and globe, were exhibited to the admiring multitudes of novo tcherkask. such is the career of the imperial diamond given by gregory orloff to his empress. in appearance the gem differs materially from the regent. it is essentially an asiatic stone, presenting all the peculiarities of its eastern birthplace. it is variously described as of about the size of a pigeon's egg or of a walnut. one writer expresses disappointment at it, remarking that the sceptre resembles a gold poker, and the mountain of light (a name sometimes given to the orloff) "which we had pictured to ourselves as big as a walnut was no larger than a hazel-nut!" never having seen this diamond the present writer cannot speak of its apparent size; but if the drawings are reliable it is certainly a monstrous "hazel-nut" of a diamond. the cutting of the orloff is purely in the eastern style, being what is known as an indian rose. asiatic amateurs have always prized size above everything in their gems. the lapidaries therefore treat each stone confided to them with this object mainly in view. a stone is accordingly covered with as many small facets as its shape will allow, and no attempt at a mathematical figure, such as that presented by our european diamonds, is ever ventured upon by them. cardinal mazarin was the first who intrusted his indian rose-diamonds to the hands of european cutters in order to have them shaped into brilliants. the fashion thus set by him has been generally followed throughout western europe. russia, however, true to her asiatic traditions, keeps to indian roses, most of her imperial diamonds being of that cut. the orloff is now back again safe in the kremlin, where let us hope it may long rest undisturbed either by rumors of invasion or a demand for a new coronation with its probable attendant assassination, universal terror and judiciary retribution. iii. la pelegrina. from time immemorial pearls have competed with diamonds for the first place as objects of beauty. in some countries indeed, notably in persia, the post of honor has been awarded to them in spite of the brilliant flashes of their more showy rivals. pearls differ in one essential respect from other precious gems in that they require no aid to enhance their beauty. they need only to be found, and the less they are handled the more perfect do they appear. unlike diamonds, pearls were known to greeks and romans, while the area over which they are found comprises a large portion of the globe, extending from china to mexico and from scotland to egypt. a certain pearl of astonishing magnitude formed the chief treasure of ancient persia, while every one is familiar with the persistent myth of cleopatra's ear-ring and the cup of vinegar. people for centuries have wondered over the insane extravagance of the draught; but they might have spared their wonder, for no acid which the human stomach can bear is powerful enough to dissolve a pearl. the various notions relative to the origin of pearls have done credit to the fertility of man's imagination. some writers have affirmed that they were the product of "ocean dew," whatever that may be, and were accordingly affected by atmospheric conditions. thus they were large and muddy during the season of the monsoon, becoming clear and lustrous again in hot dry weather, while thunder and lightning had a fatal effect upon them. these ideas were prevalent in the ceylon fisheries, which at one time were most prolific in their precious crop. another idea was even still more quaint. according to it, the oyster was looked upon as affecting the habits of the feathered tribe. the pearl was an egg which the oyster laid after the manner of hens. modern science, more exact if less imaginative, has decided that the pearl is due to an accident, and an inconvenient accident which frequently befalls the parent oyster. a grain of sand, or some such minute foreign substance, gets within the jealous valves of the mollusk and causes great irritation to the soft body of the pulpy inhabitant. accordingly it endeavors to render the presence of the intruder less irksome by coating it with exudations from its own body. in other words the grain of sand is "scratchy," so the oyster smooths it over. why, then, after once coating the objectionable grain of sand and thus making it a comfortable lodger, the oyster should go on for years adding layer after layer of pearl-substance remains is truly a mystery. but such is its habitual practice, and to this apparently aimless perseverance we owe the existence of pearls. long before america was discovered by columbus, pearl-fishing had been largely carried on by the inhabitants of the islands in the gulf. when the spaniards arrived in the south sea they were charmed to find the dark-red natives decorated with strings of pearls. montezuma was at all times bedecked with these glimmering little globules, and in florida de soto was shown the tombs of the chiefs profusely ornamented with the same gems. the mortuary shields were in some instances closely studded with thousands upon thousands of pearls; and many stories have come down to us of weary soldiers flinging away bags of these gems which they had in vain tried to exchange for food or water. pearls vary very much in size, ranging from the seed-pearl no bigger than a mustard grain, to the pelegrina as large as a pigeon's egg; and they vary also in shape. the most prized are the round pearls which besides their extreme rarity are supposed to have an especially delicate lustre; the pear-shaped pearl generally retains the greatest size. the pelegrina is a pear-shaped pearl weighing one hundred and thirty-four grains, and at the date of its arrival in europe and for a century afterwards was the largest known pearl. it came across the water in , for the pelegrina is an american prodigy. in that year, philip ii., king of spain, was in a very festive mood. he had the year before lost his uncongenial although royal wife, mary of england, and he was looking out for another bride. his choice fell upon elizabeth of france, a pretty girl of sixteen who had been betrothed to his son don carlos. she arrived in spain early in the following year, and he expressed his delight at her beauty. he lavished all sorts of presents upon her and amongst others a "jewel salad." in this quaint conceit the _rôle_ of lettuce was played by an enormous emerald, ably seconded by topazes for oil, and rubies for vinegar, while the minor but essential part of salt was assigned to pearls. philip, whose one redeeming characteristic was a love for the fine arts, spent a considerable sum upon the purchase of jewels. he acquired a very large diamond just about this time, but the pelegrina pearl was given to him. garcilaso de la vega, that gossipy historian who incorporated every possible subject and all sorts of anecdotes into his history of the incas, saw the pelegrina. of course so interesting a fact was immediately set forth at length in the _royal commentaries of peru_, where it belongs at least with as much reason as the account of the writer's drunken fellow-lodger in madrid. he says: "in order more particularly to know the riches of the king of spain one has but to read the works of padre acosta, but i will content myself with relating that which i did myself see in seville in . it was a pearl which don pedro de temez brought from panama, and which he did himself present to philip ii. this pearl, by nature pear-shaped, had a long neck and was moreover as large as the largest pigeon's egg. it was valued at fourteen thousand four hundred ducats ($ , ) but jacoba da trezzo, a native of milan, and a most excellent workman and jeweller to his catholic majesty, being present when thus it was valued said aloud that it was worth thirty--fifty--a hundred thousand ducats in order to show thereby that it was without parallel in the world. it was consequently called in spanish _la peregrina_ which may be translated, i think, into "incomparable."[c] people used to go to seville to see it as a curiosity. "at that time there chanced to be in that city an italian who was buying the finest pearls for a great nobleman in italy, but the largest gems he had were to it as a grain of sand to a large pebble. in a word, lapidaries and all those who understand the subject of pearls said in order to express its value that it outweighed by twenty-four carats every other pearl in the world. it was found by a little negro boy, so said his master. the shell was very small and to all appearance there was nothing good inside, not even a hundred reals worth, so that he was on the point of throwing it back into the sea." [c] the pearl was doubtless "incomparable" as de la vega says, but at the same time it must not be supposed that such is the correct rendering of the word peregrina or pelegrina which means, originally _stranger_, hence our word "pilgrim." fortunately he thought better of it and kept the insignificant shell. the lucky slave was rewarded with his liberty, while his master was given the post of _alcalde_ of panama, and the king kept the pearl. the pelegrina was found off the small island of santa margareta, about one hundred miles distant from san domingo. pearl-fishing, as then carried on by the natives, was a simple affair, although at the same time rather dangerous. the method was as follows: the negroes having proceeded in their fragile canoes to the rocky beds inhabited by the oysters, the divers then attached heavy stones to their feet to expedite their sinking. carrying a basket, a knife, and a sponge dipped in oil, they plunged into the sea holding fast to the rope which was to bring them to the surface again. their noses and ears were stuffed with wool, but the pressure of the water frequently caused apoplexy, while sharks abounded in the vicinity. however, if the diver escaped both these perils, he proceeded as fast as possible to scrape off the shells with his knife and to put them into his basket. occasionally he put the sponge to his mouth and sucked a little air from it, while the oil prevented him from swallowing any water. when he could bear it no longer he kicked the stones from off his feet, rattled at the rope, and was hauled up as rapidly as possible. sometimes the divers remain "a quarter of an hour, yea, even a half" under water, placidly observes the padre in conclusion. considering that he purports to have been an eye-witness, he should have been more careful of his written statements. from three to five minutes is the limit assigned by more cautious writers, and probably even this is an over estimate, as two minutes is now considered a long time for a good diver to remain under water without a diving bell. philip ii. appears to have retained the pelegrina for his own personal adornment and to have worn it as a hat-buckle. it looped up the side of his broad hat or cap according to the spanish fashion. the black velvet and other sombre hues which he affected could hardly have given to the delicate gem the soft background which its beauty demanded. but if it is true, as has been asserted by poets, that pearls are emblematical of tears, then this great pearl was the most fitting ornament for a king who put his son to death, poisoned his nephew, burnt his subjects and devastated the netherlands during quarter of a century. philip's son and successor, likewise philip of name, made little use of the pelegrina; but his wife margareta wore it on the occasion of a grand ball which was given in madrid in to celebrate the conclusion of peace between england and spain. james i. was very eager for the alliance of his son with the royal house of spain. to effect this purpose he sent the prince of wales and his favorite buckingham on a romantic mission to madrid to make love to the infanta. this was considered a very remarkable proceeding, and great was the astonishment of all the crowned heads throughout europe who were in the habit of doing their courting by means of ambassadors, envoys, and other plenipotentiaries. the prince of wales was received with great pomp. balls, jousts and bull-fights in profusion were ordered for his benefit, and the king, queen and infanta loaded their visitor with kind attention. at the same time it must have been rather an irksome visit to all concerned. charles spoke to the queen once in french, she being a french princess, whereupon she advised him to do it no more as it was customary to kill any man who spoke to queens of spain in a foreign tongue! on the departure of the english prince gifts to a fabulous amount were exchanged amongst the royalties. one pearl in particular was declared by the court chronicler to be so fine that it might "supply the absence of the pelegrina." the splendid pearl, thus highly rated by the spanish courtier, was given by charles to the cardinal-infante along with a pectoral of topazes and diamonds. the pelegrina appeared at most of the court pageants of madrid, serving to deck either the kings or the queens during several generations. when, for example, in the summer of , philip iv. of spain brought his daughter maria theresa to the frontier to be married to the young king of france, louis xiv., the beautiful pearl appeared on the scene to lend its splendor to the occasion. mademoiselle de montpensier, the fantastic lady who was known in her day as _la grande mademoiselle_, speaks thus of the pelegrina and its wearer: "the king (philip iv.) had on a gray coat with silver embroidery: a great table diamond fastened up his hat from which hung a pearl. they are two crown jewels of extreme beauty--they call the diamond the mirror of portugal, and the pearl the pelegrina." on this occasion the two courts of versailles and madrid vied with each other in splendor, and their doings have rendered famous the little boundary river of the bidassoa with its isle of the pheasant. a modern traveler whisking past in the train sees but little to recall the once famous spot; a half dried-up river and a marshy reed-covered swamp are all that now remain. the island is gone, so also are the royal houses whose meeting there was so great an event. there is one occasion upon which the pelegrina served to deck a bride so young and fair that it deserves more than a passing notice. the bride was marie louise d'orléans, the first wife of charles ii. this poor sickly king, the last descendant of the mighty charles v., was a very shy boy and extremely averse to the society of women. when he was about seventeen his mother and the royal council decided that he must be married, and they cast their eyes upon the neighboring house of france, into which spanish monarchs were in the habit of marrying when not engaged with it in war. the only suitable lady was "mademoiselle"--for such was in ancient france the distinctive title of the eldest niece of the king. mademoiselle, besides being niece to louis xiv., was furthermore pretty, vivacious, and only sixteen. her portrait was sent to spain, and what was the amazement of the court to see the shy young king, who could scarcely look a woman in the face, fall violently in love with this portrait. he kept it always beside him and was observed frequently to address the tenderest expressions to it. such being the satisfactory state of the king's feelings the match was rapidly concluded, and marie louise set out from versailles to go to her unknown husband. on his side charles ii. went forward to meet her as far as burgos, and there they first saw each other in . when the king was unexpectedly announced, mademoiselle was observed to blush and look agitated which made her all the prettier. as charles entered her apartment she advanced in order to kneel at his feet, but the boy-king caught her by both arms and gazing at her with delight cried, "my queen, my queen!" although she arrived in madrid in the autumn of , the young queen did not make her state-entry into her capital until the following january. in the meantime she was kept in the closest seclusion. not all the power of the king of spain joined to the love which charles bore to his wife was sufficient to break down the adamantine wall of etiquette which long usage had built around the queens of spain. like a moorish slave in a harem, the gay young french girl was shut up alone with her lady of the bedchamber and was permitted to see no one except the king. she was not allowed to write to her own family nor receive their letters. she was even refused permission to read a letter from paris which a compassionate friend sent her in order that she might hear a little news. she was a prisoner indeed, although the prison was gilded. it needed something to atone for two months of such a life, and if a grand display could sweep away the recollection of it that consolation was not withheld. on january , , the bride-queen at last entered madrid. madame la mothe, whose keen french eyes saw everything and whose sharp french pen chronicled it, has left a minute account of the ceremony. she says: "the queen rode upon a curious andalusian horse which the marquis de villa magna, her first gentleman-usher, led by the rein. her clothes were so richly embroidered that one could see no stuff; she wore a hat trimmed with a plume of feathers and the pearl called the pelegrina which is as big as a small pear and of inestimable value, her hair hung loose upon her shoulders, and upon her forehead. her neck was a little bare and she wore a small farthingale; she had upon her finger the large diamond of the king's, which is pretended to be the finest in europe. but the queen's pretty looks showed brighter than all her sparkling jewels." there is a picture still extant of this queen which proves her to have been pretty in spite of the disfigurement effected by some of her sparkling jewels. madame la mothe does not mention what the picture shows, namely, that the queen's ears were weighted down by a pair of ornaments as large as saucers which the queen-mother had presented to her. above the ear-rings moreover were a pair of huge jewelled rosettes fastened to the hair in such a way as to make one almost fancy that the ears were being dragged out by their enormous pendants and had to be nailed up by the rosettes. marie louise lived but a few years to enjoy the love of her husband and the splendor of her rank. it was said that she died of a broken heart caused by the torments of court jealousies and intrigues against which the king, her husband, in vain tried to shield her. charles ii. died in , and being childless he bequeathed his crown to philip of anjou, grandson of louis xiv. and cousin to the wife of his youth whose memory was still dear to him. of course other claimants arose to grasp so splendid an inheritance, so that the funeral torches of charles may be said to have set fire to europe. at all events, a vast conflagration soon burst forth known as the war of the spanish succession, which included ere long within its fiery embrace spain, france, england. austria, italy, germany and holland. after all their fighting however philip still remained king of spain, and the house which he founded is now, in the person of the baby-king of spain, the last reigning example of that mighty tribe of bourbons which at one time ruled over so large a portion of europe. during the first years of his reign philip v. had to fight for his throne, nor was he invariably successful. at one time he was so hard-pressed by his rival, the archduke charles, that he had almost to seek rufuge in france. by the urgent entreaty of his ministers the king and queen did not actually quit the soil of spain, but the pelegrina did do so. the invaluable pearl, along with the rest of the crown jewels, was entrusted to a french valet named susa, who crossed over the frontier into france, kept his treasures safe until the danger was passed, and then when the tide of success began to flow for philip brought them back again to madrid. this is the last authentic appearance of the pelegrina in spanish history. after this date, , its story becomes confused and oftentimes contradictory. it is alleged to have been given first to one favorite and then to another, while finally as a climax of confusion another pearl in spain, one in sardinia, and one in moscow, impudently assume its name and masquerade as the true and veritable pelegrina. our own inquiries both in madrid and st. petersburg have failed to supply the links that are missing in its history. we cannot say when it finally passed away from the crown of spain, for there have been many clearances of the royal jewels to meet the exigencies of various kings. at all events, for the last thirty years it has been in the hands of a russian family. the oussoupoffs belong to the ancient nobility and they are extremely wealthy; but how and when the princess oussoupoff became possessed of the pelegrina we do not pretend to say. the friend who made the inquiries for us said significantly that it was impossible to ask many questions in russia. questions, however innocent, are looked upon with great suspicion and any questioner is liable to repent of his inquisitiveness. it is a pity that so historic a gem as the pelegrina should be practically lost to us in a russian lady's jewel casket. any other large pearl would have served her purpose equally well for mere ornament, and had the pelegrina remained in western europe we should probably know something more about it or at all events we should be able to ask what questions we like without incurring the suspicion of treason and of being desirous of hurling the romanoffs from their throne. iv. the koh-i-nur. the koh-i-nûr is the most ancient, the most illustrious, and the most traveled of all our diamonds. it is what is called a white diamond, but its color would be of the deepest crimson, if only one thousandth part of the blood which has been shed for it could have tinted its rays. it looms through the mist of ages until the mind refuses to trace further backwards its nebulous career. it is to an emperor that we owe the first contemporary account of the imperial gem. in baber, the mogul conqueror, speaks of it as among the captured treasures of delhi. but that was by no means the first time that it mingled in the affairs of men. it was already "the famous diamond" in baber's time, and a wild tradition would have us believe that it was found no less than five thousand years ago. if it were found then, and if it has been ever since the contested prize of adventurers, thieves and all sorts of marauders, we cannot be too thankful that forty-seven of those fifty centuries are mercifully hidden from us. sultan baber was a great man, a mighty conqueror and a good writer. he has left full and minute journals of his long adventurous life, which take the panting reader through such a series of battles, sieges, conquests, defeats, royal pageants and hair-breadth escapes, that at last one cries out with wonder, "can this man have been mortal to have lived through all this?" baber came from good old conquering stock. his father was sixth in descent from tamerlane the tartar, and his mother stood somewhat nearer to jenghis khan. following in the footsteps of his fierce ancestors, baber invaded india, or as he himself complacently remarks: "he put his foot in the stirrup of resolution and went against the emperor ibrahim." rushing down like a devastating whirlwind from his mountain fastnesses around cabul, baber fell upon the punjaub, first striking down all that opposed him and then writing about it in his memoirs. on the twenty-first of april, , he encountered the army of ibrahim on the field of paniput. "the sun was spear-high when the contest began, and at midday they were completely beaten and my men were exulting in victory," says baber. the indian emperor was killed and his head was brought to the victorious mogul. immediately after the battle, the conqueror sent forward two flying squadrons to agra and delhi respectively to seize the treasures of the fallen king. the troop which went to agra was commanded by humayûn, the favorite son of baber. it is with this troop and its doings that we are concerned, but what was found in the hindoo treasury had best be told by the conqueror himself: "sultan sekandar had made agra his residence during several years while he was endeavoring to reduce gwalior. that stronghold was at length gained by capitulation in the reign of ibrahim: shemsabad being given in exchange to bikermajet the hindoo who was rajah of gwalior for more than a hundred years.[d] in the battle of paniput he was sent to hell. [incisive mohammedan expression which signifies the death of an unbeliever.] when humayûn arrived (at agra) bikermajet's people attempted to escape, but were taken by the parties which humayûn had placed upon the watch and put in custody. humayûn did not permit them to be plundered. of their own free will they presented to humayûn a _pesh kesh_ (tribute) consisting of a quantity of jewels and precious stones. among these was _one famous diamond_ which had been acquired by the sultan ala-ed-din." [d] baber's meaning is obscure; probably he should have said "_whose family_ were rajahs, etc." we may reasonably doubt how much of free will there was in the gift from a defeated hindoo prince to his afghan conqueror. let us question this as we may, there is little doubt as to what diamond it was, although baber gives it no name. the sultan ala-ed-din, to whom the imperial memoir-writer here refers, flourished a couple of centuries previously, and it is generally believed that he obtained "the famous diamond" in when he conquered the rajah of malwa in whose family it had been for ages. how it eventually came into the hands of bikermajet is not explained. but in the wild whirl of revolution and insurrection, which form the main staple of indian history, many things get hopelessly mixed, and a diamond might easily turn up unexpectedly and be quite unable to account for itself. baber goes on to relate that the great diamond--we will antedate its name by two centuries and call it henceforward the koh-i-nûr--was valued by a competent judge of diamonds "at half the daily expenditure of the whole world"--an expression which for grandiloquent vagueness can scarcely be surpassed. fortunately the same competent judge had not the weighing of the stone, or we should be befogged by some further oriental hyperbole. [illustration: upper surface. under surface. koh-i-nur, as re-cut.] the emperor however says distinctly that the diamond weighed about eight mishkals, which being interpreted means about one hundred and eighty-six carats of our weight, or a little less than the orloff and fifty carats more than the regent. it is mainly on the evidence of the weight thus carefully recorded by baber, that we identify the koh-i-nûr, and can trace its subsequent career. on its arrival in england its exact weight was found to be one hundred and eighty-six and one-sixteenth carats, which agrees with the figure given by baber as afterwards computed by dependable authorities. when we consider the extreme rarity of these great diamonds, coupled with the fact that no two stones are of exactly the same weight, we may feel pretty safe in concluding that baber's "famous diamond" and our koh-i nûr are one and the same stone, especially as henceforward its history is tolerably consecutive. [illustration: koh-i-nur, indian cut. ( _carats_.)] this magnificent gem the emperor gave to his beloved son humayûn, who had very dutifully offered it to his father as tribute. it is somewhat painful to learn that humayûn rewarded this generosity by base ingratitude. the very next year we find baber making this complaint: "i received information that humayûn had repaired to delhi and had there opened several houses which contained the treasure and had taken possession by force of the contents. i certainly never expected such conduct from him, and, being extremely hurt, i wrote and sent to him some letters containing the severest reprehension." it was surely not a comely action in the man who had received the koh-i-nûr as a gift from the hands of his father, to plunder that father's treasure houses. baber was at all events in full possession of his health and power and was abundantly able to enforce the obedience of his son. he again admitted humayûn into favor, and four years later, namely in , we find this fondly-cherished son languishing in mortal illness. the father was in despair, and sent him down the ganges one hundred miles to agra in hopes of benefiting him, but apparently to no purpose. a man of great piety was appealed to for his opinion, and he declared that in such cases the almighty sometimes deigned to receive a man's most valuable possession as a ransom for the life of his friend. baber declared, that next to the life of humayûn, his own was what he held most precious in the world, and that he would offer it up as a sacrifice. his courtiers, aghast at the purport of such a vow, begged him to offer up instead "that great diamond taken at agra," and reputed to be the most valuable thing on earth. but the koh-i-nûr, almost priceless as it was, baber esteemed at a lower figure than his own existence. the self-devoted emperor walked thrice around the bed of his son, saying aloud: "i have borne it away, i have borne it away." immediately thereafter he was observed to sink into illness, while humayûn as steadily regained his health. so all eastern historians of the time declare, devoutly believing in the miracle. perhaps we, more sceptical, may account for it by suggesting that both men, father and son, were suffering from indian fever, and that the elder died, while the younger was able to live through it. humayûn must have retained possession of the koh-i-nûr during his adventurous life, for his son, the celebrated akbar, appears to have bequeathed it in turn to his son and successor, jehangir. this jehangir was the most magnificent of all the mogul emperors, or indeed it might be safely added of all the emperors of the world. he was a great admirer of diamonds of which he possessed a vast quantity. he must have inherited an immense number of jewels from his father akbar, for in his memoirs he describes his crown, which he valued at a sum equivalent to ten millions of dollars, and which was composed exclusively of the diamonds and other jewels which akbar had purchased. this seems to establish the fact that the koh-i-nûr was not incorporated in the imperial crown. it may possibly have been one of those magnificent diamonds which he used so lavishly in the adornment of his renowned peacock throne, the value of which amounted, according to his own estimate, to the unheard-of figure of forty millions of dollars. some writers indeed go so far as to assert that the koh-i-nûr was one of the eyes of that stupendous peacock, which was entirely composed of precious stones, and whose out-spread tail overshadowed the throne of the moguls. according to them, too, the orloff diamond was the other eye. but this is clearly a mistake; we have already seen where the orloff came from--a thousand miles and more from delhi. it seems most probable that the peerless stone was worn as a personal ornament. there is extant an interesting contemporary print, which represents jehangir decked out with a profusion of large pearls, in addition to which he wears around his neck a long string of various jewels. in the center of this chain hangs one stone of such exceptional size that it may well be the koh-i-nûr. this however is only conjectural. terry, the author of the print, chaplain to sir thomas roe, who was sent on an embassy from james i. to the grand mogul, does not mention the koh-i-nûr by name. he merely observes that the emperor was in the habit of wearing around his neck "a string of all his best jewels," and since the koh-i-nûr was undoubtedly the finest diamond then known, and was apparently in his possession, it is more than probable that it would figure in the necklace. jehangir's empress was the celebrated nûr jehan (light of the world), a princess famous alike for her beauty and her wisdom. the emperor says in his autobiography that she had the entire management of his household and of his treasure, whether gold or jewels. he might have justly added that she had the entire management of himself also, for he was completely under her influence. this beautiful light of the world must have been uncommonly fond of jewels, as the emperor says that he had to give her thirty-five millions of dollars at their marriage to buy the needful jewels. also nûr jehan is said to have invented the now world-famous perfume, attar of roses. toward the end of jehangir's life the koh-i-nûr and all his other diamonds, we are told, ceased to charm, and he no longer desired to possess them. even of diamonds, it appears, one may have a surfeit. shah jehan, son of jehangir, ascended the throne of india in , and was if possible more addicted to jewels than his father. he caused basins of diamonds to be waved over his head in order to avert evil. this sort of incantation seems to have failed of its purpose in his case for he was dethroned and imprisoned by his rebellious son, aurung-zeb, who kept him in confinement during the last seven years of his life. his diamonds and his daughter, jihanira, were left with him to keep him company and amuse him during these tedious years. aurung-zeb, who, for an eastern potentate, was rather short of jewels, sent one day to his father to get some of his diamonds in order to adorn his turban which could boast of but one great ruby. the imprisoned shah jehan exclaimed in his wrath that he would break all his gems to atoms sooner than let his undutiful son touch one of them. he further intimated that the hammers were kept in readiness for this purpose. his daughter prevailed upon him to spare his glittering pebbles, and so the koh-i-nûr escaped an ignominious death. the same princess offered a basin full of diamonds to aurung-zeb when he came to see her in her palace prison after the demise of their father, and thus the koh-i-nûr came to adorn the brow of another emperor. for nearly a century after the koh-i-nûr dwelt tranquilly in delhi, adding the lustre of its rays to the turbans of the mogul empress until the year . mohammed shah, a feeble irresolute man, was appointed by fate to hold the sceptre of india at the moment when she was to meet her fiercest foe. thamas kouli khan, better known as nadir shah, had raised himself to the throne of persia and, like all usurpers, felt the need of strengthening himself at home by a successful foreign war. he accordingly invaded india, at the head of a small force of hardy fighters, who, in the words of nadir's grandiloquent persian biographer, "threw the shadow of their sabers across the existence of their foes." in short they killed all before them and entered the punjaub early in the year , by pretty much the same route as that followed by baber, the ancestors of the moguls. but the moguls were changed since the days of baber. mohammed shah was completely defeated the moment he encountered nadir shah. however, booty, rather than territory, was the object of the invader, so he did not dethrone mohammed, but only levied tribute from him. the defeated mogul gave an unheard-of quantity of jewels to nadir shah "who was at first reluctant to receive them, but at length consented to place the seal of his acceptance upon the mirror of his request." such reluctance is very foreign to the generally rapacious and grasping character of nadir shah, and probably existed only in the flowery imagination of the writer of his life. having become aware that the koh-i-nûr was not among the treasures he had already sealed with his acceptance, nadir shah set about hunting for it, and at last a traitor was found who betrayed the secret of its hiding-place. a woman from the harem told the persian king that the coveted diamond lay hidden in the folds of mohammed's turban, which he never took off. nadir accordingly one day invited his helpless friend, mohammed, to exchange turbans with him in sign of their everlasting friendship. as in the time of the first free-will offering to baber two centuries before, the koh-i-nûr was once again to pass from the conquered to the conqueror, from the weak to the strong. it is said that nadir shah, overjoyed at the beauty of the gem he had thus cleverly filched from his ally, called it "koh-i-nûr" (i.e. the rock of light) the first time that he laid eyes upon it. if this is really a fact it is very singular. it is indeed strange that jehangir, who was so fond of descriptive names compounded with light, should have left it to the enemy of his race to endow one of his favorite diamonds with this poetical title. one would prefer to think that he had called his diamond the rock of light just as he had called his wife the light of the world. upon the retreat of the conqueror the diamond was carried off with other booty. the koh-i-nûr therefore went from delhi into persia, and eventually it descended to shah rokh, the hapless son of the mighty nadir shah. but he who would wear the great diamond in peace must himself be strong, and shah rokh was weak. the wretched prince was unable to hold the throne, usurped by his father, against the usurpations of his own lieutenants. in he was dethroned and his eyes put out by aga mohammed, who endeavored by the most frightful tortures to force him to give up his diamonds and other treasures. shah rokh however, in spite of all, still retained the koh-i-nûr and his tormentor thereupon devised for him a diadem of boiling pitch and oil which was placed on his unhappy head. but even this expedient failed to make him give up his priceless gem. a powerful neighbor, the lord of kandahar, an old friend of his father, now came to shah rokh's assistance, put his tormentor to death, and once more placed the forlorn prince upon his tottering throne. in reward for this timely service, the persian gave to his deliver the koh-i-nûr in whose rays his sightless eyes could no longer rejoice. shortly afterwards he died from the effects of his injuries. the koh-i-nûr was now in afghanistan, the birthplace of baber, while baber's descendants on the throne of delhi helplessly mourned its loss. it went from father to son safely enough for two generations in the land of the afghans, and then its evil spell began to work once more. in , just after its rival, the regent, had been lost and found in the midst of the french revolution, the koh-i-nûr passed by inheritance into the hands of taimûr shah, the king of cabul. he left it along with his crown and his kingdom to raman shah, his eldest son. raman had enjoyed the triple inheritance for only a few years when his brother rose in arms against him, and being successful, as most rebels are in afghanistan, followed the old established etiquette of the cabul royal family:--the messengers of shah shuja, the triumphant rebel, met their deposed sovereign on his way to the capital, and they put out his eyes by piercing the eyeballs repeatedly with a lancet. this done, shah shuja sat himself down to enjoy the sweets of asiatic power. the koh-i-nûr was not immediately his, however, for it was some time before it came to light, and then by the merest accident. an officer, happening to scratch his finger against something that protruded from the plaster in the walls of the prison of poor blinded shah raman, turned to examine the cause of the wound. to his amazement he discovered it to be the corner of the great diamond, which the unlucky prisoner fancied he had securely hidden away. shah shuja wore the koh-i-nûr in a bracelet during the brief splendor of his reign, and it was on his arm when english eyes first saw it. mountstuart elphinstone, the pioneer of the weary throng of englishmen who have trod the road to cabul, thus speaks of the koh-i-nûr and its possessor to whom he was accredited as ambassador in : "at first we thought the afghan was clad in an armour of jewels, but on closer inspection that appeared to be a mistake. his real dress consisted of a green tunic with large flowers in gold and precious stones over which were a large breast-plate of diamonds shaped like two flattened fleurs-de-lis, and an ornament of the same kind on each thigh; large emerald bracelets on the arms above the elbows and many other jewels in different places. in one of the bracelets was the koh-i-nûr, known to be one of the largest diamonds in the world. there were also some strings of very large pearls put on like cross belts, only looser." shah shuja met with the fate he had meted out to his elder brother, and in his turn was blinded and dethroned by his younger brother, shah mahmûd. the two blinded shahs, united by a common misfortune, escaped together over the border and were doubly welcome at the court of runjeet singh, the fierce ruler, who goes by the name of the lion of lahore. the unhappy brothers did not come empty handed. shah shuja had managed to bring away with him an immense amount of jewels; hence the joy of runjeet singh, who had a passion for diamonds. on the second day after his entrance into lahore, shah shuja was waited upon by an emissary from runjeet, who demanded the jewel in the name of his master. the fugitive monarch asked for time to consider the request, and hinted that after he had partaken of runjeet's hospitality he might be disposed to listen to his demands. but the lion of lahore was in too great a hurry to lay his hands upon shuja's diamond to think of hospitality. on the contrary he treated the shah as a prisoner, separated him from his wife, and acted with extreme harshness towards the latter. he even tried to starve the poor begum into giving up her diamonds. he fancied that he had succeeded, and, in great delight, spread out before some knowing persons, the gems which his cruelty had extorted from the luckless queen, asking them which was the koh-i-nûr. great was runjeet's disgust when he was told that the famous diamond was not among the lot. shah shuja speaking of the final transaction says: "after a month passed in this manner confidential servants of runjeet at length waited on us and asked again for the koh-i-nûr, which we promised to deliver as soon as the treaty was agreed upon between us." a couple of days after this interchange of preliminaries, runjeet appeared in person, and was full of friendship and promises. he swore by all manner of things to maintain inviolable a treaty to the following effect: "that he delivered over certain provinces to us and our heirs forever, also offering assistance in troops and treasure for the purpose of again recovering our throne. he then proposed himself that we should exchange turbans (ominous precedent!) which among the sikhs is a pledge of eternal friendship, and we then gave up to him the koh-i-nûr diamond." after which, let it be remarked, runjeet broke all his promises. the actual ceremonial of the delivering up of the koh-i-nûr is graphically described by an eye-witness of the scene, who says that the behavior of shah shuja throughout the entire proceeding was dignified and impressive. on the appointed day (namely, june , ) the rajah accompanied by several experts--he was determined there should be no mistake this time--proceeded to shadera where shuja was residing. the two potentates sat in profound silence for one whole hour, neither being disposed to speak first. runjeet singh was consumed with impatient desire to see the koh-i-nûr, so at length he hinted to an attendant, who in turn hinted to shah shuja the purpose for which they were all thus solemnly assembled. shuja, silent still, nodded to a servant, who speedily placed upon the carpet a small casket. then again a tremendous silence ensued which runjeet bore as long as he could, and at last he nodded to a servant to open the casket. the koh-i-nûr lay revealed, and was recognized by the experts as the true gem. runjeet, for the first time speaking, asked, "at what price do you value it?" shuja, answering from out of his woeful knowledge, said: "at good luck; for it has ever been the associate of him who has vanquished his foes." shah shuja seemed to imagine the diamond to be a bearer of blessings. this is the common belief in india with regard to large diamonds, which are supposed to possess magic virtues; but edwin arnold, than whom there exists no better authority about indian legends, distinctly states that according to a hindoo tradition "a baleful influence" was ascribed to the koh-i-nûr. "the genii of the mines, as it declared, enviously persecuted with misfortunes the successive holders of this treasure." rapidly glancing over the history which we know he draws the conclusion that the tradition sprang up after the event. to runjeet singh, at any rate, the koh-i-nûr brought no misfortune. he wore it as a bracelet and it glittered on the old king's arm at many a sikh durbar. on his deathbed, the brahmans who surrounded runjeet tried to induce him to offer up the great diamond to the image of juggernaut. the covetous priests were willing to run the risk of any amount of baleful influences, provided they could secure the koh-i-nûr as a forehead jewel for their idol. runjeet nodded his head, so the brahmans averred; and on the strength of this dubious testamentary bequest they claimed the stone. the royal treasurer, however, less fearful of the wrath of the god than of that of the succeeding rajah, refused to give it up. kurruck singh wore this symbol of royalty for a brief space and then died of poison to make way for a usurper, shere singh. this unlucky monarch was killed in a durbar as he sat on his throne in lahore, and the koh-i-nûr was flashing in his turban at the very moment when the assassin aimed the treacherous shot. and now, last of all the indian owners of the wonderful gem, we come to dhuleep singh, the infant son of runjeet the lion. it has been said that the koh-i-nûr belonged ever to the strong; it was scarcely probable therefore that it would remain for any length of time in the feeble grasp of this child. indeed, his elevation upon the throne of lahore was a signal for all sorts of intrigues and machinations on the part both of those who were in power and wished to keep it, and of those who were out of power but wished to acquire it. in the midst of all this turmoil a new and hardier race appears upon the scene. lord dalhousie annexes lahore, and the english flag floats for the first time over the koh-i-nûr. in march, , the king of lahore was formally deposed. the scene was short and business-like, very different from the stately oriental silence between runjeet singh and shah shuja on the occasion of the last change of allegiance made by the fickle diamond. a crowd of natives, without arms or jewels, a few english officers, a man reading the proclamation in hindustani, persian and english, the boy-king affixing his seal to the paper with careless haste--that was all. the ancient kingdom of the five rivers ceased to exist, and its last king became an english gentleman with a large income. as a token of his submission, the deposed prince was to send the koh-i-nûr to the queen of england. this was accordingly done, and the imperial gem of india passed to the crown of england, thus once more vindicating its traditionary character. again it has passed from the weak to the strong, from the conquered to the conqueror, but we may hope that it has left behind it in india all those baleful influences with which it has been credited. when it came to england in the koh-i-nûr was distinctly an indian stone. it had a large flat top, irregular sides, and a multitude of tiny facets, besides which there were three distinct flaws. it was, moreover, lacking in light; being scarcely more brilliant than a piece of gray crystal. yet, notwithstanding all these defects, it was a deplorable want of taste and of historic sympathy which dictated the re-cutting of this unique gem. professor king, an unimpeachable authority on diamonds and the proper mode of treating them, says with reference to this stone: "as a specimen of a gigantic diamond whose native weight and form had been as little as possible interfered with by art, it stood without rival, save the orloff, in europe. as it is, in the place of the most ancient gem in the history of the world, older even than the tables of the law, and the breast plate of aaron, supposing them still to exist, we get a bad shaped, because unavoidably too shallow, modern brilliant; a mere lady's bauble of but second water, for it has a greyish tinge, and besides this, inferior in weight to several, being now reduced to one hundred and two and one half carats." the operation of re-cutting the koh-i-nûr was a very delicate and dangerous one. a special engine and mill had to be erected for it and a special workman, mr. woorsanger, was brought for it from amsterdam. the work was executed in the atelier of the crown jewels and superintended by the garrard brothers. much interest was excited by the process and many people of distinction visited the workshop. one of these visitors asked mr. garrard what he would do, supposing that the koh-i-nûr should fly to pieces during the cutting--a contingency that some had feared likely. mr. garrard answered: "i would take my name-plate off the door and bolt." the prince consort placed the diamond on the mill, and the duke of wellington gave a turn to the wheel. thus launched, the work went on steadily, and at the end of thirty-eight days mr. woorsanger handed the new brilliant to his superiors. the cutting of the regent took two years by the old handmill process, and it had no deep flaws to eradicate, as was the case with the koh-i-nûr. to grind out these flaws the wheel made no less than three thousand revolutions per minute. the koh-i-nûr still retains its oriental name, though it has so unfortunately been forced to abandon its oriental shape. it is now set in a brooch which the queen wears upon all state occasions. it is kept at windsor, so as to be at hand when wanted, and considerable interest in high quarters is required to get a sight of it. an exact model of it reposes in the jewel case of the tower, alongside of the crown, in order to gratify the curiosity of her majesty's subjects. v. the french blue. the diamond variously known as the "french blue," or the "tavernier blue," has had a singular destiny. smaller by nearly eighty carats than the orloff, and younger by three centuries than the koh-i-nûr, it is in some ways as remarkable as either of those famous stones. so far as is known, it was never the worshiped orb of an idol, nor the hardly-less worshiped bauble of an eastern prince. wars were not waged for it, nor were murders committed to obtain its possession. indeed, its quaint commercial _début_ into history is somewhat tame, as is also its uneventful life of a century and a half in the treasure-chambers of the crown of france. in fact, were it not for its strange color, its strange loss and its yet stranger recovery, the french blue would scarcely deserve a place among these "stories about famous precious stones." jean baptiste tavernier is a name familiar to everyone who has studied the history of precious stones. he was the son of an antwerp geographer settled in paris, and early in life he evinced an ardent love of travel. born in , he had at the age of twenty-two traveled over most of europe, and was acquainted with most european languages. in his own account of his travels he speaks entertainingly of the various reasons which at different times prompted him to journey. having entered the service of the duke of mantua as captain of a company of soldiers, he attended that prince during the siege of mantua. he was struck by two bullets which, though inflicting a troublesome wound, failed to kill him--thanks to the excellent temper of his cuirass; whereupon he observes that "he found a longer stay at mantua did not agree with his desire to travel." he made his way to the east carrying with him a vast quantity of cinque-cento[e] enamel work and jewelry, which he sold to the asiatic sovereigns, and bringing back a number of precious stones which he sold to the kings of europe. jean baptiste tavernier was, in fact, a sort of peddler among princes. [e] during the visit of the prince of wales to india a few years ago it was observed that some curious old jewels of italian make appeared at the gorgeous pageants which the native princes ordered for the benefit of their future emperor. it is thought that these were heirlooms dating from tavernier's time. he made in all six journeys to india during the space of forty years, and amassed great wealth. although a protestant, he was ennobled by louis xiv. on account of the services he had rendered to french commerce, and he thereupon bought the barony of aubonne in switzerland which he afterwards sold to duquesne the great navigator. louis xiv. was one of his best customers and bought from him jewels and rich stuffs to the enormous amount of three millions of francs; about six hundred thousand dollars. it was on his return from his last voyage, namely in , that tavernier sold the blue diamond to louis xiv. unfortunately he does not give any particulars of the purchase of this stone, which is singular as he was a very chatty writer and filled his book with a quantity of delightful little passages beginning "i remember once." he describes at great length the eastern manner of buying and selling diamonds. their methods seems greatly to have impressed him, accustomed as he was to the noisy bartering of european markets. he says: "'tis very pleasant to see the young children of the merchants (at the diamond mines) from the age of ten to sixteen years, who seat themselves upon a tree that lies in an open space of the town (raolconda, a diamond region near golconda). every one of them has his diamond-weight in a little bag hanging on one side and his purse with five or six hundred pagods in it. there they sit waiting for any one to come and sell them some diamonds. if any one brings them a stone they put it into the hand of the eldest boy among them who is, as it were, their chief; who looks upon it and after that gives it to him that is next him, by which means it goes from hand to hand till it returns back to him again, none of the rest speaking a word. after that he demands the price so as to buy it if possible, but if he buy it too dear it is upon his own account. in the evening the children compute what they have laid out; then they look upon the stones and separate them according to their water, their weight and their clearness. then they bring them to the large merchants who have generally great parcels to match, and the profit is divided among the children equally. only the chief among them has four per cent. more than the rest." it may have been from some such sedate children that tavernier bought the blue diamond. at the same time he mentions the coleroon mine as the only one which produces colored diamonds, from which we may infer that "the blue" hails from that locality. as tavernier was well-known as a diamond-buyer who gave good prices, it is probable that he would get many proffers of stones from private persons. with regard to another large diamond which he bought in india, he has given a minute account of the transaction which may be taken as a fair sample of asiatic bartering: "one day towards evening a banian badly dressed, who had nothing on but a cloth around his loins and a nasty kerchief on his head, saluted me civilly and came and sat down beside me. in that country (india) no heed is given to the clothes. a man with nothing but a dirty piece of calico around his body may all the same have a good lot of diamonds concealed. on my side, therefore, i was civil to the banian and after he had been some time seated he asked me through my interpreter if i would buy some rubies. the interpreter said he must show them to me, whereupon he pulled a little rag from his waist-cloth in which were twenty ruby rings. i said they were too small a thing for me as i only sought for large stones. nevertheless, remembering that i had a commission from a lady in ispahan to buy her a ruby ring for a hundred crowns, i bought one for four hundred francs. i knew well that it was worth only three hundred, but i chanced the other hundred in the belief that he had not come to me for that alone. judging from his manner that he would gladly be alone with me and my interpreter in order to show me something better, i sent away my four servants to fetch some bread from the fortress. being thus alone with the banian, after much ado he took off his turban and untwisted his hair which was coiled around his head. then i saw come from beneath his hair a scrap of linen in which was wrapped up a diamond weighing forty-eight and a half carats, of beautiful water, in form of a carbuchon,[f] two thirds of the stone clear except a small patch on one side which seemed to penetrate the stone. the fourth quarter was all cracks and red spots. as i was examining the stone the banian, seeing my close attention, said: 'don't amuse yourself with looking at it now. you will see it to-morrow alone at your leisure. when a quarter of the day is passed,' 'tis thus they speak, 'you will find me outside the town, and if you want the stone you will bring me the money.' and he told me the sum he wanted for it. i did not fail to go to him and bring him the required sum, with the exception of two hundred pagods which i put aside, but which after a dispute i had to give him also. at my return to surat i sold the stone to a dutch captain out of whom i had an honest profit." [f] this is probably a misuse of the word, as "carbuchons," namely polished globules, are never made of diamonds; a rose is what was meant and one of tavernier's editors made a mistake. this last remark suggests the reason why tavernier did not mention the sum demanded by the banian for his diamond. possibly the long-headed peddler feared that had he stated the amounts his readers might not have deemed his profit quite so honest. can this be the reason, moreover, of his total silence regarding the purchase of the blue diamond? it seems the fate of this stone to come from out of the unknown in a mysterious fashion. we shall meet it, appearing suddenly and without a history. tavernier gives three drawings of this blue diamond, which was, he said, clear and of a lovely violet hue, and its weight in the rough was one hundred and twelve and one quarter carats. there is no other example of a blue diamond of this deep tint known--a fact which went far to establish the identity of the blue diamond in aftertimes. diamonds of all the colors which belong of right to other precious stones are occasionally found. thus they are red, green, yellow, and blue. the first and last named tints being the rarest, while the yellow is decidedly common. the true diamond, however, no matter what may be its hue, has an iridescent brightness which no other gem can counterfeit. this iridescence, coupled with its hardness, forms the test of the diamond; and its absence never fails to reveal the nature of an impostor. if anything can scratch a stone, that stone is not a diamond. the writer, in common with all her schoolmates, once bestowed a great deal of admiration and no small portion of envy upon a young companion on the strength of that young companion's diamond, a lustrous gem of most remarkable size. alas! our admiration was undeserved and our envy misplaced. that splendid diamond had upon its upper surface three deep scratches! [illustration: tavernier's blue diamond.] [illustration: the "hope blue" diamond.] but to return. when louis xiv. bought from tavernier at, we will say, an "honest profit" to the seller, that three millions' worth of precious stuffs and stones, he became possessed of the blue diamond. this was in when the king was in the full tide of his glory, and also of his extravagance, conquering provinces, building palaces and buying gems. there seems to be no record of the first cutting of the blue diamond, if indeed it was cut at all during the reign of the "grand monarque." and what is still more strange, it seems to have attracted very little attention, its heaven-blue tint being perhaps somewhat dimmed by the more striking splendor of the regent which ere long was to attract all eyes and absorb all attention. in , fourteen hundred and seventy-one diamonds belonging to the french crown were sold, and the money thus obtained was used in re-cutting the remainder besides adding sundry other jewels to the regalia. in february, , the antwerp gazette makes known to the world that there had just been completed in that city a work of great magnitude. this was the re-cutting into brilliants of all the rose-diamonds belonging to the king of france. the reader will remember that "roses" are diamonds covered over with facets, such as the orloff, while the brilliant properly so-called is a double pyramid, a highly refracting figure, of which the regent and the koh-i-nûr are examples. diamond cutting was a lost art in france; hence the reason of sending the gems to antwerp. cardinal mazarin, a great diamond fancier, had endeavored to stimulate diamond-cutting in paris. he had imported workmen and wheels and then had caused his own stones and those of the king to be cut. when this was done, and further diamonds not being forthcoming, in order to still encourage his pet industry he had the same stones cut a second time! such expensive encouragement of the diamond-cutting trade has probably never been heard of before or since. the antwerp artists having accomplished their task to the satisfaction of louis xvi., "he rewarded with presents, magnificent and really worthy of a king of france, all those who had a hand in it." the blue diamond came forth from the hands of the cutter an irregularly-shaped brilliant of a drop form weighing sixty-seven and one half carats. in , it was entered in the inventory of the crown jewels, which was drawn up by order of the constituent assembly, at the high valuation of six hundred thousand dollars. it will be thus seen that it had enormously increased in value since its "rough" days, for then the blue diamond as well as all the other diamonds and precious stuffs were bought from tavernier for that precise amount. [illustration: "brunswick" blue diamond.] in the story of "the regent" an account was given of the robbery of the garde meuble in september, , when the french jewels were stolen. the blue diamond shared the fate of all the rest. it was stolen, but unfortunately it was not found in that mysterious allée des veuves where the regent lay hidden. in fact, tavernier's blue diamond, weighing sixty-seven carats, never again re-appeared as such. men had something else to think of in france besides diamonds during the forty years which followed the great robbery, so that the very existence of a blue diamond was pretty nearly forgotten. true that john mane, a fairly reliable authority on diamonds, says that "there is at this time ( ) a superlatively fine blue diamond of above forty-four carats in the possession of an individual in london which may be considered as matchless and of course of arbitrary value." this is a most important statement, and in the light of subsequent investigations it would point almost conclusively to the fact that the french blue, already metamorphosed, was in alien hands, except for the fact that the same writer a little further on makes the announcement of a blue diamond, weight sixty-seven carats, being amongst the crown jewels of france at the same moment. however this may be, suddenly, in , the small world of diamond-worshipers was startled by the appearance in the market of a unique stone. a deep blue diamond, forty-four and one fourth carats, which mr. daniel eliason had for sale and about which he could give no details. it sprang suddenly upon the world without a history, unless indeed it be the same as that mentioned by mane some eighteen years before--and yet it was a cut and polished brilliant. its form was irregular, for it had one very flat side. mr. henry philip hope bought it for ninety thousand dollars; and it henceforward became known as the "hope blue." as a notable gem in a famous private collection the hope blue enjoyed for years a quiet distinction. it was set round about with pearls and white diamonds to enhance its azure and had a beautiful pearl-drop for pendant. altogether it was a neat and delightful trinket; price one hundred and fifty thousand dollars. little or nothing was thought about it until the death of the duke of brunswick, the mad diamond-miser who used to sleep surrounded with mechanical pistols which were warranted to go off with such fatal facility that it is a marvel they did not shoot his grace in mistake for a burglar. in , the brunswick diamonds came to the hammer and amongst them a blue stone of six carats weight. mr. streeter, than whom there exists no better authority on diamonds, had this stone and the hope blue put into his hands together. he found that they were identical in color and quality, that the sides of cleavage matched as nearly as could be determined after the cutting, while the united weights plus the calculated less from re-cutting amounted to the weight of the french blue. he immediately drew the very natural conclusion that both these stones were once united and formed the blue diamond brought from india by tavernier. he, it will be remembered, called it of a "lovely violet" and as only very few other blue diamonds are known to be in existence, and they are all of a pale blue tint, we must admit that the weight of evidence hangs strongly in favor of mr. streeter's reasoning. [illustration: "hope blue" diamond, as mounted.] the collection of the late mr. hope was a very large and valuable one. of course the blue diamond was its chief glory, but it contained other gems of value. a portion of these were recently offered for sale consisting of diamonds, sapphires, opals and pearls, set and unset, and of rings, crosses and bracelets, of all sorts of shapes and patterns. the display reminded one of a jeweller's show-case except for this remarkable difference. there were no two objects alike, and all showed the refined taste of an amateur rather than the massive showiness of the mere commercial jewel. mr. hope engaged an eminent jeweller, mr. hertz, at an eminent fee (five thousand dollars) to catalogue his jewels. this gentleman performed his task with business-like succinctness, using no unnecessary words to describe the numerous precious objects. but when he reached the blue diamond he launches out into unbridled enthusiasm. he says: "this matchless gem combines the beautiful color of the sapphire with the prismatic fire and brilliancy of the diamond, and on account of its extraordinary color, great size and other fine qualities it certainly may be called unique, as we may presume there exists no cabinet nor any collection of crown jewels in the world which can boast of the possession of so curious and fine a gem as the one we are now describing, and we expect to be borne out in our opinion by our readers. there are extant historical records and treatises on the precious gems which give us descriptions of all the extraordinary diamonds in the possession of all the crowned heads of europe as well as of the princes of the eastern countries. but in vain do we search for any record of a gem which can in point of curiosity, beauty and perfection be compared with this blue brilliant, etc." mr. hertz was no doubt a good jeweller and a clever expert, but he was not very learned in the history of precious stones or he could never have made this astonishing statement. he had only to search in the records of france to find the account of a wonderful blue diamond of even greater size. with regard to the value of the diamond, he declares his inability to fix any sum, saying: "there being no precedent the value cannot be established by comparison. the price which was once asked for this diamond was thirty thousand pounds (one hundred and fifty thousand dollars) but we must confess for the above stated reason that it might have been estimated at even a higher sum." there was a precedent for estimating its value; but of that mr. hertz was ignorant. the french blue was valued at three millions of livres (six hundred thousand dollars) when it weighed sixty-seven carats. according to this calculation one hundred and fifty thousand dollars was not an excessive price to put upon the hope blue of forty-four carats. the hope blue still remains in the possession of the family which has given it that name, while the other fraction of the dissevered french blue is likewise in private hands. this is much to be regretted from the historian's point of view, for famous diamonds acquire a great deal of their value and all their interest from the persons who have owned them. for a gem which has graced the royal festivities of versailles as the blue diamond has done, or enhanced the stately ceremonials of the escurial as was the case with the pelegrina, to sink into obscurity in the collection of a wealthy mr. unknown or in the jewel casket of a princess nobody is a sad decadence. jewels, from their value and indestructibleness, are among the few objects used by the illustrious dead which can and do remain unaltered in appearance, therefore it is contrary to our sense of the fitness of things for a historical gem to cease to be such by belonging to a person without a history. vi. the braganza. if the stone which is known by the name of the "braganza," or the "regent of portugal," is a diamond, it is undoubtedly the largest that was ever found in either ancient or modern times. but then it is by no means certain that it is a diamond at all. it would be quite easy to establish the fact by submitting the stone to the examination of experts, but apparently the royal house of portugal holds that the braganza, like cæsar's wife, should be above suspicion. at all events the fact remains that this monster diamond has never been seen by any independent expert whose judgment would be accepted without appeal. when the learned are in doubt it would ill become us to decide; therefore, without offering an opinion, we shall, provisionally at least, class the braganza among the diamonds of this series; and when its true character is established beyond dispute we shall know whether to call it the monarch of diamonds or only a vulgar impostor. the stated weight of the braganza reaches the astounding figure of one thousand six hundred and eighty carats. of course this is in its rough state, for the giant gem has refused to trust itself to the hands of any cutter however skillful. yet this weight exceeds by more than double the weight, in the rough, of the next largest diamond known to history, namely, the great mogul. when we think of the price of the regent--over six hundred thousand dollars, while weighing only four hundred and ten carats in the rough--and then turn to the braganza with its sixteen hundred carats, the mind staggers before the money-value thus suggested. all the other famous diamonds of which we have treated have been asiatic; but the braganza, like the pelegrina pearl, hails from the new world. consequently its history does not reach back into those misty past ages whither we went groping after the orloff and the koh-i-nûr. the braganza is a diamond of yesterday, hence the account of its finding is clear, minute and accurate. here it is. the speaker is joseph mawe, a geologist, merchant and traveler who visited brazil in the first decade of this century and whose book on the countries which he saw is our best authority on that part of south america. "a few leagues to the north of the rio prata is a rivulet named abaité, celebrated for having produced the largest diamond in the prince's possession, which was found about twelve years ago (namely ). it may be allowed me in this place to relate the particulars as they were detailed to me during my stay at tejuco. three intelligent men having been found guilty of high crimes were banished into the interior, and ordered not to approach any of the capital towns or to remain in civilized society on pain of perpetual imprisonment. driven by this hard sentence into the most unfrequented part of the country, they endeavored to explore new mines or new productions in the hope that sooner or later they might have the good fortune to make some important discovery, which would obtain a reversal of their sentence and enable them to regain their station in society. they wandered about in this neighborhood, making frequent searches, in its various rivers, for more than six years, during which time they were exposed to a double risk, being continually liable to become the prey of the _anthropophagi_, and in no less danger of being seized by the soldiers of the government. at length by hazard they made some trials in the river abaité at a time when its waters were so low, in consequence of a long season of drought, that a part of its bed was left exposed. here while searching and washing for gold they had the good fortune to find a diamond nearly an ounce in weight.[g] "elated by this providential discovery which at first they could scarcely believe to be real, yet hesitating between a dread of the rigorous laws relating to diamonds and a hope of regaining their liberty, they consulted a clergyman, who advised them to trust to the mercy of the state, and accompanied them to villa rica where he procured them access to the governor. they threw themselves at his feet and delivered to him the invaluable gem, on which their hopes rested, relating all the circumstances connected with it. the governor astonished at its magnitude could not trust the evidence of his senses, but called the officers of the establishment to decide whether it was a diamond, who set the matter beyond all doubt. being thus by the most strange and unforeseen accident put in possession of the largest diamond ever found in america, he thought proper to suspend the sentence of the men as a reward for their having delivered it to him. the gem was sent to rio de janeiro, from whence a frigate was dispatched with it to lisbon, whither the holy father was also sent to make the proper representations respecting it. the sovereign confirmed the pardon of the delinquents and bestowed some preferment on the worthy sacerdote." [g] "this is either a misprint or a gross mistake. for as there are one hundred and fifty carats to the ounce it would be more correct to say 'nearly a pound in weight.'" such was the finding of the braganza about ninety years ago. the prince referred to in mawe's account, was john vi., who, in , was declared regent owing to the mental derangement of the queen maria isabella, his mother. he was a great diamond-collector, not so much from love of the glittering gems themselves as for the wealth they represented. as brazil was rich in diamonds, and as all the proceeds from the mines were submitted to his highness before being sent out of the country, he had ample opportunity of forming an extremely good collection. according to mawe it was the regent's practice to retain for himself all the large stones, with the result that his treasure-chests contained the most splendid collection of diamonds known in modern times. in , napoleon, by one of those pithy orders of the day which so delighted his armies, declared that "the house of braganza had ceased to reign," and the house of braganza forthwith proceeded to give truth to the declaration by withdrawing itself from portugal. on november , john vi., the former regent, who had become king upon his afflicted mother's death, sailed for rio janeiro. and he remained there until , when the clamors of his european subjects compelled him very reluctantly to come back to them. it is probable that in this not over-valiant flight to safer climes king john carried the braganza back to its native land. but whether in lisbon or rio janeiro the braganza was more a wonderful legend than an actual stone, for it was always kept secluded in the strongest safe of the treasure chamber. the prince showed some of his diamonds to mawe, but the latter in an emphatic foot-note says "i did not see this diamond (the braganza) when in brazil." on gala days john wore the royal gem around his neck, and for the purpose of suspension it had a small hole drilled through the top. a large rough diamond nearly a pound in weight, hanging from the neck by a string of gold, would seem to our thinking to be rather a barbaric ornament for a civilized monarch to wear. the diamond mines of brazil, which were discovered in , yielded an extraordinarily rich harvest during the first years of tillage. in , no less than eleven thousand ounces of these precious stones were shipped from rio to lisbon. but this influx of diamonds created something like a panic among the merchants of europe, and to save their precious goods from a disastrous fall in price they formed a league of defamation. all kinds of reports were circulated about the new comers--that they were defective, that they were ill-colored and finally that they were not diamonds at all. these reports gained belief, and purchasers refused to buy the brazilian gems. the malicious libels of the european merchants were cleverly defeated by the crafty portuguese. since europe would have none but indian diamonds brazil must needs furnish none other. the diamonds from sierra do frio were secretly conveyed to the indo-portuguese settlement of goa; then they were sent inland, made up in the recognized indian style as parcels of oriental gems, and thus doctored they appeared in paris and london. there a credulous public eagerly bought them up at the high prices due to undoubted indian diamonds. once the western gems were fairly accepted, the portuguese threw off the mask, no doubt laughing heartily at the stupidity of the out-witted merchants, and brazilians are now treated as fair and honorable diamonds. all that is to say except the tremendous braganza which is persistently sneered at and doubted by many writers. mawe describes at great length the diamond diggings of his day, and as human nature varies little, it is probable that his picture would be recognized even now as a truthful likeness of those localities and their inhabitants. he says that, notwithstanding the rich produce of the ground the inhabitants are mostly poor and wretched. many of them drag out their lives in misery and idleness in the hope, which is never realized, of one day finding a great diamond which shall make them rich and happy forever. the actual work is done by slaves under the eye of overseers, who are supposed to be of unimpeachable integrity and sleepless vigilance. the traveler gives some astonishing details by which the measure of the former quality may be taken. he observes that as the produce of the mines was all government property and there being the severest laws against smuggling, he expected to see (at the mining district) no gems except those in the official treasury. this expectation however was quickly dispelled, for he found diamonds to be the current coin of the place. even the mere word _grimpiero_ (smuggler) seemed to throw the inhabitants into a sort of fit; they writhed about, smote their breasts, called upon the virgin and all the saints to bear witness to their horror of this the greatest sin possible to a human being. yet they all smuggled diamonds, from the slave at the washing-trough to the priest officiating at the altar. mawe, who had considerable influence at court, was the first mere traveler who ever visited the mines, and it is probable that he was the only person who ever went there without smuggling. he remarks that he found it safer to see nothing of that which passed under his very nose. in order to encourage honesty among the slaves, the finders of large diamonds were rewarded in different degrees according to the size of the stone. the finder of an octavo (seventeen and one half carats) was crowned with a wreath of flowers and carried in procession to the administrator who gave him his freedom and two new suits of clothes. the fortunate negro, moreover, then received permission to work in the mines on his own account. during mawe's stay at tejuco a negro found a very large diamond, which with much eagerness he took to be weighed. "it was pleasing to see the anxious desire of the officers that it might prove heavy enough to entitle the poor negro to his freedom, and when on being delivered and weighed it proved only one carat short of the requisite weight all seemed to sympathize in his disappointment." even now after all these years one cannot help feeling regret for the high hopes of that humble slave so sadly blighted. but those who build their fortunes on diamonds are sometimes bitterly disappointed. harken to this anecdote from the pen of the same traveler in brazil. he was waiting for an escort to the mines and had meditated taking a couple of soldiers, when a singular occurrence furnished him with two miners who were appointed to attend him, and whose conduct he pleasantly says deserved every commendation. a free negro from villa do principe, some mine hundred miles from rio janeiro, wrote to the prince regent that he had in his possession an amazingly large diamond which had been bequeathed to him by a friend. the negro was desirous of personally offering it to the prince whose fondness for diamonds was pretty well known. the prince commanded the negro to come to the capital immediately, and as the recognized owner of an immense diamond must not travel meanly, he had a carriage and escort given to him. after twenty-eight days of traveling, during which time he was the envied of all beholders, he arrived at rio janeiro and was straightway brought to the palace and speedily thereafter into the presence of the regent. his highness, well accustomed to large gems, since he used to wear the braganza around his neck, was nevertheless astonished at the size of this new diamond. everybody stood with bated breath to hear what he would say, while a few clever ones estimated its value in unheard-of millions. a round diamond was of itself an almost miraculous thing, nobody having ever heard of the like before. however, it was sent under guard to the treasury, and the next day mawe was invited to inspect the great novelty and to give his opinion upon it as a geologist. armed with letters and permits the distinguished stranger went to the treasury and was solemnly introduced into its innermost recesses. he was politely received by the treasurer who explained everything to him, showing him the jewel-chests each fitted with three locks, the three keys of which were held by three different officials. "one of these chests being unlocked an elegant little cabinet was taken out from which the treasurer took the gem and in great form presented it to me. its value sunk at the first sight, for before i touched it i was convinced that it was a rounded piece of crystal. it was about an inch and a half in diameter. on examining it i told the governor it was not a diamond, and to convince him i took a diamond of five or six carats and with it cut a very deep nick in the stone. this was proof positive. a certificate was accordingly made out stating that it was an inferior substance of little or no value, which i signed." then the geologist went home and wrote a letter setting forth this unwelcome fact as delicately as he could, for he knew that his letter would be shown to his highness, and it is at all times an uncomfortable task to tell disagreeable news to a king. however the prince regent was high-minded enough not to be angry with him. but great was the disappointment of the unlucky negro. for years he had been building hopes upon that round diamond, and now to see them vanish before the geologist's "deep nick" was trying indeed. instead of being fêted and feasted and loaded with rewards, he returned home unescorted and empty-handed to be possibly laughed at by those very persons who had formerly envied him. as a set-off to the deep disappointment suffered on account of this supposed diamond we may mention the finding of another south american stone which was attended with far different results. a negress working at the mines of minas-geraes in picked up in her trough a stone two hundred and fifty-four and one half carats in weight, which proving to be an undoubted diamond obtained freedom for the woman, and afterwards a life-pension. her master sold the diamond for fifteen thousand dollars, and the buyer immediately obtained one hundred and fifty thousand dollars for it. after being cut by voorsanger, the same workman who manipulated the koh-i-nûr, it proved to be a white stone of uncommon beauty and lustre. under the name of the estrella do sud[h] (star of the south) it attracted much attention from amateurs and was eventually bought by an indian rajah for one hundred and forty thousand dollars. [h] the naming of diamonds is an art wherein there may lie fitness as well as unfitness. historic stones frequently bear the name of their first well-known owner, as for example the "regent," the "orloff," the "braganza," and many others. again they may bear names indicative of their character as "austrian yellow," "dresden green," "french blue," or yet again their names may be purely fanciful. of this latter class there are numerous examples. the above "estrella do sud" is one, the "koh-i-nûr" is another. when fanciful names are given we hold emphatically that they should always be in the language of the person who bestows it. as a historian we protest against needlessly confusing the already intricate annals of diamonds by giving to american gems fine names fetched from persia. the largest diamond found in the united states weighed in the rough twenty-three and three fourths carats and rejoices in the appellation of oninoor (sea of light.) notwithstanding the lofty attitude of judicial impartiality which we endeavored to assume at the beginning of this article, a lurking suspicion remains in our mind that had the braganza, like the round stone before described, been subjected to the keen scrutiny of mawe's scientific eyes, it would no longer be classed among the most remarkable diamonds of europe. considerable difference of opinion exists as to the fate of the braganza after king john's death. did he give it to don miguel his second son? or was it a crown jewel and as such did it devolve upon don pedro the eldest along with the kingdom of portugal? don pedro preferred the young empire of brazil to the old kingdom of portugal, which he gave to his little daughter donna maria da gloria for whom he contracted that unnatural marriage with his own brother. the house of braganza was divided against itself for many years during the first quarter of this century and very nearly came to destruction thereby. the diamond which goes by the family name did not meddle in these politics, but lived in modest retirement, wherein it differs remarkably from the other diamonds with which we have already become acquainted. indeed the braganza stone leads so secluded a life that its very form is not distinctly known, but is said to be octahedral, a type of crystallization frequently met with in diamonds and topazes. its color is likewise subject to variation; some writers declare it to be white, and others again aver that it is deep yellow. as to its valuation--that is mere guess-work under the circumstances of ignorance in which we all flounder. romé delisle raises his estimate to the enormous figure of fifteen hundreds of millions of dollars, while jeffries lowers his to the more modest sum of twenty-five millions. even this latter amount is a good deal to be locked up in so small an article as a stone eleven ounces in weight. vii. the black prince's ruby. to give a full account of this precious stone would almost involve the writing of the history of england from the reign of edward iii. down to the present time. we shall therefore limit ourselves to a few of the most striking scenes in which the ruby figured. though differing much in appearance--the one being red and the other blue--the ruby and the sapphire are, chemically speaking, the same, _viz._ pure alumina. the perfect ruby is very rare and more valuable, size for size, than the diamond. it is tested in a curious manner. if it exactly agrees in tint with the fresh blood of a pigeon dropped upon the same sheet of white paper on which it lies, it is pronounced perfect. a stone of such beauty and rarity was of course supposed to be endowed with miraculous powers and affinities by the ancients; as, for instance, "the osculan," dedicated by the lady hildegarde to st. adelbert of egmund. of this stone, says a sixteenth-century writer: "in the night-time it so lighted up the entire chapel on all sides that it served instead of lamps for the reading of the hours late at night, and would have served the same purpose to the present day, had not the hope of gain caused it to be stolen by a runaway benedictine monk, the most greedy creature that ever went on two legs." the black prince's ruby is only by courtesy called a ruby. it is in reality a "spinel," a stone of inferior hardness and less intense color and brilliancy than the true ruby. all the large historic stones which are called rubies are declared by mr. king to be undoubted spinels. there is yet another class of rubies of an inferior type known as "balais," a name probably derived from the place in india whence they came. the inferior ruby is found in all parts of the world; but burmah is the home of the true ruby, a region that has just been added to the widely-spreading empire of the british queen. in the middle of the fourteenth century spain was ruled by a number of petty kings whose wars, assassinations and executions leave a general impression of bloodiness upon the mind by which all distinct detail is engulfed. it is essential however to remember that granada was ruled by a moorish prince, mohammed by name, and castile owned for lord don pedro, the cruel by title. the moorish mohammed, an easy-going personage, was dethroned by his brother-in-law abu said. flying for his life, he escaped to seville and threw himself upon the mercy of this pedro the cruel. this monarch espoused the cause of his kingly neighbor, and after several defeats the usurper thought it best to come to seville and arrange a peace with his foe. abu said accordingly repaired to the capital of don pedro accompanied by a numerous and most magnificent suite. he was politely received, but the next day, by don pedro's order, abu said and all his attendants were set upon and murdered. this was done for the sake of the moorish prince's jewels which were many and valuable. among the treasures thus evilly acquired was the ruby now set in the crown of england. though enriched by this spoil, don pedro soon felt the instability of human greatness, and in his turn had to fly for his life. his adversary was his own brother, henry, the son of the beautiful and unfortunate leonora de guzman. this henry raised a goodly army for himself composed for the most part of gascon mercenaries, and he had for counselor and captain the famous french knight, bertrand duguesclin. against such a foe don pedro could make no stand, so he hurried to bordeaux, where the black prince along with his wife joan, called the fair maid of kent, was keeping his christmas in right royal style. this was in . don pedro promised untold treasures to the black prince if he would come to his aid. tempted by such bait, the black prince led his troops into spain, fought for don pedro and conquered henry for him at the battle of najera on april , . this was the first, but unhappily not the last, battle-field on which english and french slaughtered each other for the sake of a spanish tyrant. overjoyed at this success don pedro presented to his deliverer then and there the splendid ruby in order to get which he had murdered abu said. immediately afterwards he went off to seville to collect the rest of the promised treasure. so he said at least, but the treasure never came, and the black prince, after losing half his army from sickness, was obliged to quit spain without other payment than the ruby. he wore the gem in his hat, as an original and contemporaneous picture of him which walpole saw testifies. it is said that in the fever-stricken plains of the peninsula the black prince inhaled the germs of the disease which a few years afterwards carried him to the grave. the ruby, large and splendid though it be, was dearly bought at such a price. don pedro was stabbed to the heart a few years afterwards by his victorious brother henry, as he knelt before him praying for mercy. here the curtain falls upon the first scene in the drama of our ruby. it rises again on the field of agincourt, october , . henry v. of england, with his army reduced to fifteen thousand men, was falling back upon calais from harfleur when at agincourt he encountered the french king and his nobility followed by an army of nearly fifty thousand men. the night before the battle henry spent in disposing his forces to the best advantage, and on the morning he arrayed himself with a gorgeousness which has been commented upon by all contemporary writers. it was the fashion for kings to go splendidly into battle, and for a handsome young king of twenty-five like henry it was only natural that he should follow such a fashion to the fullest. his armor was gilt-embossed, but his helmet was the theme of especial praise. the useful iron head-piece was surmounted by a rich crown garnished with rubies, sapphires and pearls valued then at six hundred and seventy-five pounds.[i] in this glittering ornament the black prince's ruby was a conspicuous feature. during the fight the king and his shining crown were to be seen in all parts of the field where the battle raged hottest. he fought like a lion for his life, unlike the kings of modern times who, if present at all, sit afar off and view the battle-field safely through telescopes. [i] it must be remembered that the money value of the pound sterling in henry's time was three or four times what it is now. henry's crown and stout iron casque did him good service on that eventful day, for it is related how the french prince, the duke of alençon, struck it a heavy blow with his battle-axe, which came near finishing henry's career on the spot. again several frenchmen, excited by the blood-red glitter of the ruby perhaps, swore to strike henry's crown from his head or perish in the attempt. they accordingly rushed upon him in a body, and one of them knocked off a part of the crown, but the king defended himself bravely until supported by some of his own knights. the sequel of this broken fragment of the crown is not so picturesque or heroic. one of the prisoners taken in the fight, a person named gaucourt, declared after he was brought to england that he knew where the jewels were which had been struck from the crown. on promise of his liberty without ransom if he restored them, he went to france and got the lost gems, returning with them to london. it is a sorry thing to have to record of the hero of agincourt that he appears to have taken the recovered jewels and then neglected to liberate gaucourt. the identical helmet worn by henry, now shorn of all its jewels and only decked with the dust of four centuries, hangs high aloft in westminster abbey where it is never seen without causing interest in the mind of even the most unimaginative visitor. the two deep marks, one made by the battle-axe of the duke of alençon and the other by the sword of the nameless frenchman, are plainly visible, enduring evidence of the fierceness of the fighting on the stricken field of agincourt. henry vi. followed his father's example in carrying his crown to the battle-field, but further than that the parallel cannot lie, for instead of winning a kingdom the luckless henry lost his crown at hexam ( ) and only saved his life by the fleetness of his horse. the crown which probably mounted our ruby, was borne by a page who was killed, and the regal bauble was instantly carried off to edward iv. who had himself forthwith crowned with it at york. in that long and bloody struggle the honors of which are somewhat concealed in its graceful and poetic name, the wars of the roses, the ruby adhered to the winning side. when lancaster was bowed in the dust, it gleamed on the head of york, and so we bring it down to the youthful days of bluff king hal. at his coronation henry viii. is thus described by a contemporary: "he wore a robe of crimson velvet furred with ermine, his jacket of raised gold, the placard (tabard?) embroidered with diamonds, rubies, emeralds and great pearls, and other rich stones, a great bauderike (collar) about his neck of great balasses, while as for his beautiful features, amiable visage and princely countenance, with the noble qualities of his royal state, they are too well known by everybody to need mention by me." from which comment we must perceive that the estimate entertained of henry viii. has altered decidedly for the worse. this bauderike, or collar of rubies, was a famous jewel and one which appeared at all the great pageants of the pleasure-loving king. it was entirely broken up by charles i. and sold to raise funds for his army. we are disposed to conjecture that it included our ruby either as pendant or other portion of the collar. it was worn at the field of the cloth of gold where henry and francis i. outdid each other in splendor. notwithstanding all this display of gold and jewels, they were but half civilized at the court of henry, as the following quaint incident proves. at a certain splendid pageant the king and some of his nobles attired themselves in fanciful costumes upon which their chosen names such as "true-love," "good cheer" and the like were written in large letters of bullion. after the mask the king intimated that the court-ladies might take for keep-sakes those gold letters, and they, delighted, proceeded instantly to snatch them from the dress of the king and his courtiers. the crowd which was witnessing this show from afar rushed in to share the spoil, and in a twinkling had stripped the king to his jerkin and hose; they then attacked the queen and her ladies and "worse would have befallen" if the royal guards had not opportunely arrived and driven off these grabbing subjects. henry's daughter, elizabeth, was even more extravagantly fond of jewels than he was himself. the numerous well-known pictures of the queen are more especially portraitures of her highness's dresses and jewels than anything else. elizabeth did not set the ruby away in her state-crown but kept it by her, no doubt for the frequent bedecking of her royal person. she showed it upon one occasion to the scotch envoy, sir james melville, under circumstances of peculiar interest. it was in when elizabeth and mary stuart were both young women, the one comely, the other beautiful, and both were eagerly sought by every unmarried prince in europe. elizabeth had rejected all her offers. mary had done the same. the english queen was lavishing honors upon her handsome master of the horse, robert dudley, and was generally understood to be preparing him for a seat on the throne beside herself. at this juncture she astonished the world by announcing that she had found a husband for mary stuart. this husband was robert dudley. the scottish queen was considerably amazed at this proposal, and not a little annoyed at being offered for her consort a subject of such mean descent as the handsome robert. however she did not say nay, and melville was sent to london to negotiate the marriage. he stayed nine days at the court of elizabeth and has given most vivid pictures of that great queen. he found her intensely jealous of mary's superior personal attractions and pressed the envoy hard to say which had the most beautiful hair. she also resorted to a childish trick to show him how well she could play on the virginals. she likewise danced for him, detaining him two whole days for the purpose, and his comment upon this performance is historic: "i said, 'my queen danced not so high or disposedly as she did.'" all this and much more the canny scotsman tells us about what he saw and said and did during his nine days visit. one evening the queen took him into her bed-chamber to show him some of her most precious belongings. she first opened a lettroun (cabinet) where he beheld a number of little pictures wrapped up in paper, with its name on each one written by her own royal hand. the first one was thus labelled: "my lord's picture." it was leicester's portrait, and melville holding the candle begged to see it, but elizabeth made difficulties about it; then the envoy pressed her to let him carry it back with him to show to his own queen, thinking apparently that the sight of the handsome face would move her to the marriage more than all political considerations. elizabeth declared that she could not give it up as she had but that one, upon which melville retorted that she had the original. "she shewed me a fair ruby, great like a racket-ball. i desired she would either send it to my queen or the earl of leicester's picture. she replied 'if queen mary would follow her counsels she would get them both in time and all she had, but she would send a diamond as a token by me.'" it was the black prince's ruby for which the envoy begged, but the poor queen of scots was fated never to get either the jewel or the earl. this ruby was pierced at the top with a small hole to enable it to be worn suspended from the neck, a frequent occurrence with oriental gems which are worn without setting. the hole is now filled up by a small ruby, but this fact proves it to have been among the jewels with which james i. adorned his state-crown. the earl of dorset made a careful inventory of the royal treasures, which is signed by the king himself. the description of the imperial crown, after reciting a bewildering number of diamonds, pearls, rubies and sapphires, winds up thus: "and uppon the topp a very greate ballace perced." this is manifestly the ruby in whose fate we are concerned. charles i. seems to have used his father's crown at his own coronation in , a ceremony which was marked by two incidents afterwards found to have been ominous. there being no purple velvet in london charles was robed in white velvet, which is an unlucky color it seems, and the queen, henrietta maria, a silly and obstinate girl, refused to be crowned with him, owing to their religious differences. fortunately the great ruby was not left in the jewel-house at the time of charles' execution, for had it been there we should have heard no more of it. every thing which was found there was either melted down or sold by order of the commonwealth. amongst other things thus treated was the gold filigree crown of edward the confessor, which was broken up and sold for its weight of bullion. such vandalism is almost enough to make one a jacobite. with the return of the stuarts the ruby came back and ascended once more to its proper place in the crown of england. all the appliances of a coronation had to be made anew for charles ii., so that the ceremony was in consequence somewhat shorn of its impressiveness. charles' crown was, according to an old writer, "especially praiseworthy" for an enormous emerald seven inches in circumference, a large pearl and a ruby set in the middle of one of the crosses. this ruby although not particularized is sure to be the one we have traced thus far. it is so very much larger than any other ruby belonging to the crown of england that whenever we find a pre-eminently large one mentioned in english history we may safely take it to be the black prince's ruby. it could be mistaken for no other stone by any one who had ever seen it. a shining ball of blood-red fire slightly irregular in shape, "great like a racket-ball," is not so common an object that it could pass unnoticed by writers who take it upon them to describe crowns and other royal ornaments. during the reign of charles ii. the crown of england had a narrow escape of being stolen. this singular adventure happened as follows: the regalia then as now was kept in the tower and was shown to visitors as still is the case. the person in charge was an old man named edwards who was in the habit of locking himself in with his visitors when showing the treasure. one day a gentleman, apparently a parson, and a lady, apparently his wife, called and saw the crown which they particularly admired, of course. the parson was colonel blood, a notorious irish desperado. the lady became suddenly faint and was accommodated with a chair and other restoratives in the keeper's sitting-room where quite a friendship was struck up. the _soi-disant_ parson cultivated the friendship assiduously, and finally proposed to cement it by a marriage between his nephew, apparently a soldier, and the daughter of the keeper. blood came with the nephew who it is needless to say was merely an accomplice, and another friend. they asked to see the regalia and the unsuspecting old man led them into the strong room and locked himself in as usual. the moment he had done so he was set upon by the three ruffians, beaten, thrown down, gagged, stabbed in the body and left for dead. then they managed to force open the case containing the crown jewels. blood hid the crown under his cloak, the other two took the scepter and the globe, and then they opened the door intending to steal away. just as they did so, young edwards, a soldier, who by a singular chance arrived at that moment from flanders, entered. in a moment after the tower rang with the cry of "treason! treason! the crown is stolen!" the young man gave chase, aided by the guard at the gate, and eventually they succeeded in capturing blood after a "robustious struggle" during which some pearls and diamonds were knocked out of the crown. "it was a gallant attempt for a crown," observed blood, as they led him to prison. he was condemned, but charles pardoned him, and even admitted him to favor, though blood was a known ruffian who had nearly succeeded in hanging the duke of ormonde on the public highway not long before. it is suggested that he terrified the king into liking him owing to the boast that he had five hundred friends who would do anything to avenge his death. blood was constantly seen at court and eventually he obtained a pension of five hundred pounds a year, while poor old edwards was never recompensed and died in the greatest want and misery. truly the ways of princes are inscrutable! james ii. gave his whole soul to the glories of his coronation, reviving ancient ceremonies and doing every thing with exactness, much in the same way as did charles x. of france, and they both succeeded in losing the crowns thus elaborately set upon their heads. james used the crown made for his brother charles whose head was somewhat larger. the result was what might have been expected--the crown did not fit, and was with difficulty kept in its place. indeed, it wabbled so much that henry sidney put forth his hand to steady it saying: "this is not the first time, your majesty, that my family have supported the crown." james fled and the ruby remained to greet william and mary at their double coronation, and then it descended peacefully to the house of brunswick, in whose service it has ever since remained. the coronation of george iv. on july , , was probably one of the most gorgeous pageants of this century. the king spent an immense sum upon his adornment ($ , , ), and not only that, but he gave close attention to the fashion of his clothes, spending days and weeks in anxious consultation over the length, size, shape, and material of all the garments that he was to wear. at last, having got all ready to his perfect contentment, the trappings were all brought to the palace, and the king dressed up one of his servants in his own royal clothes and then put him through the paces of a coronation while he looked critically on. public feeling was very much excited at the time over the divorce proceeding between george iv. and his queen, caroline of brunswick. when, therefore, it became known that the queen was not to be crowned along with him, her partisans were very indignant. the king was in the abbey in the middle of the gorgeous ceremony when amid the frantic cheers of the multitude queen caroline drove up to the entrance attended by lord hood. the doorkeeper however refused her admittance, and after a long parley the queen was obliged to turn away. meanwhile george iv. was going through the fatiguing fooleries which he had insisted upon reviving for his own glorification. six long hours the ceremony lasted, and as the day was very hot and the king very fat, he spent most of the time wiping his streaming face with dozens of pocket handkerchiefs which were constantly passed along to him for that purpose. [illustration: the crown of england. (_by kind permission of messrs. cassell & co._)] the crown for this occasion was large, costly and very heavy. it weighed nearly seven pounds and was made by messrs. rundell & bridge. it was a mass of precious stones. at the back of the lower band was a large sapphire, one of the stuart relics, and in front gleamed the fire-red stone which had looked down in agincourt from the helmet of henry v. the last coronation although it occurred half a century ago is familiar to us owing to the revivifying process of the queen's jubilee. the crown, which was also made by messrs. rundell & bridge, is less heavy than that of george iv. by three pounds and more. we will not enumerate its thousands of diamonds, its hundreds of pearls, and its scores of rubies and sapphires. the ornaments consist of fleur-de-lys and maltese crosses done in diamonds. in the center of the lower band of the crown is placed the large sapphire already mentioned and just above it, in the middle of a superb cross composed of seventy-five diamonds, gleams the famous ruby. it stands out in bold relief and the red flash of its rays gives the needful touch of color to the sparkling mass of diamonds. the french say that the crown is heavy and without elegance, being in short altogether in the english taste. the criticism may be just, for it is difficult to see how $ , , worth of precious stones, exclusive of the ruby, could be packed on to the gear for the small head of a small woman with any great attempt at elegance. the queen was crowned on june , , and dean stanley tells of a sudden ray of sunlight which streamed down upon the youthful sovereign as she sat in the coronation chair with the crown upon her head, producing an effect which was beautiful in the extreme. a queen has always been popular with the english, and we can well imagine the enthusiasm which victoria's girlish gracefulness must have aroused in people who contrasted her with the heavy uninteresting kings who had preceded her. this was the last great occasion upon which the black prince's ruby appeared before the nation whose sovereigns it had so long adorned; and viewing the beneficent reign of the gracious lady whose coronation it then attended we can only say we hope it may long continue its uneventful existence at the top of the glittering pile in the wakefield tower. in october, , the crown, and all that therein is, had a narrow escape of perishing unromantically by fire. the tower being then used as a military storehouse the fire rapidly spread, and it was thought advisable to remove the crown. the keys of the strong case where the regalia is kept are in the hands of three different officials, all at a distance. there was no time to be lost, as the place was getting very hot, so police inspector pierse with a crowbar burst through the iron bars, forced himself in and handed out the precious articles whose value is estimated at five millions of dollars. soldiers and policemen ran with the coronation baubles to a place of safety, and everything was eventually saved, though not before inspector pierse had been well-nigh roasted. this is the last adventure that the black prince's ruby has met with, and when we last looked upon it peacefully glistening in the sunlight it seemed hard to imagine that it had passed through so many dangers by fire and sword and had looked down on so many great scenes of royal splendor. viii. the sanci. the diamond which is known as "the sanci," or, as it is sometimes written, "sancy," has been not inaptly termed a sphinx among stones. until recently writers have been accustomed to begin the story of this diamond with charles the bold duke of burgundy and, with numerous variations of detail, to derive it from him. now charles the bold had three diamonds which were famous throughout europe as well for their size as for the fact that they were cut by a european lapidary. louis de berquen, who flourished in the fifteenth century, discovered by chance the true principle of diamond-cutting. he rubbed two diamonds together and found that one would bite upon the other, and that a high polish could thus be effected. the duke confided his three great diamonds to the hands of this cutter and was so delighted with the result that he rewarded the clever lapidary with three thousand ducats. of the diamonds thus cut, one was presented to pope sixtus iv. and another to louis xi. of france. this latter diamond was set heart-shaped in a ring between clasped hands, a symbol of truth and faithfulness, and as such was a singularly inappropriate gift to one of the most perfidious monarchs who ever sat on a throne. the third stone the duke kept for himself and wore it on his finger. this is the one writers have been pleased to call the sanci, but they agree in no other detail of its history. the description of the sanci--an almond-shaped stone covered all over with facets--does not agree with the description of the duke's diamond; but this awkward fact has been easily got over by not mentioning it. still on making the sanci belong to charles the bold a history had to be furnished for it. accordingly we learn that it was lost at the battle of morat in --and also at nancy in the following year; that it was found by a swiss soldier under a cart--and that it was taken from the frozen finger of the corpse of charles; that it was sold for two francs to a priest--and that it was sold to a french nobleman; and so on through a maze of absurdity and contradiction. the diamond known as the sanci and once an ornament of the crown of france never belonged to charles the bold. it is an indian-cut diamond, and it was first brought to western europe in the reign of henry iii. of france by his ambassador at constantinople, the seigneur de sanci. this person deserves a word or two. nicholas harlay de sanci was born in and filled many posts of importance during the reigns of henry iii. and henry iv. he was a huguenot, but being immensely wealthy he was held in favor even by the son of catherine de medici. his magnificence and his jewels were the admiration and envy of his contemporaries. he changed his religion backward and forward three or four times and finally under henry iv. settled into catholicism. for this reason, if for none other, he was hated most cordially by sully who mentions him with dislike in his memoirs. according to sully he was clever but arrogant; not very clear-headed for business, yet sometimes hit upon expedients which would escape more phlegmatic minds. we shall see further on how this estimate was borne out. henry iii. in a state of chronic war and equally chronic poverty turned in his distress to his wealthy subject, and de sanci responded as a wealthy and loyal subject should. the king needed troops to enable him to cope with the league. they must be faithful--therefore they must be swiss, who would only come upon certain payment of their wages. in order to raise the money for these troops de sanci offered to pledge a great diamond, worth twenty thousand crowns, which he had bought from the portuguese pretender, dom antonio, who on flying from lisbon had carried off the crown jewels. the king gratefully accepted the offer and the diamond was sent for. a trusty valet was the person deputed to carry the precious freight, but the valet was waylaid and murdered. dismayed at the probable consequences of this disaster, the king roundly abused de sanci for having trusted his diamond to a servant, but the latter persistently declared his belief that the diamond was not irretrievably lost. after much difficulty and a considerable lapse of time the body of the murdered valet was found, upon which de sanci ordered it to be dissected, when the missing diamond was discovered in the body. this must have been one of those happy expedients which de sanci's ready wit enabled him to hit upon. few "phlegmatic" people would have thought of looking for a diamond in such a concealment in the days when de sanci lived. in our enlightened times diamond-swallowing is largely practised by the thieves who infest the mining regions of south africa. the police accordingly are supplied with emetics and purgatives as well as rifles and ball cartridges. quite recently a notorious thief was captured and put under medical treatment. the first day's doctoring produced three diamonds, the second brought to light eight more, and the third day gave fourteen; and after all the debilitated patient triumphantly declared, "there's plenty more to come, baas." it has been thought advisable to give in detail the story of de sanci's valet and the diamond because the adventure is usually attributed to the diamond which forms the subject of this article. upon careful examination it has appeared to us probable that it really happened to the diamond bought from dom antonio and that this diamond was a distinct stone from the sanci proper. both gems however seem to have had the same fortunes and their histories for a century and a half run in parallel lines. [illustration: the sanci: top and side views.] de sanci, whose extravagance was unbounded, gradually became embarrassed and from time to time no doubt disposed of his gems in order to raise money. the date of the purchase of the sanci is fixed about , when elizabeth who was inordinately fond of jewels added it to the crown of england. in , sully received an order from henry iv. to buy up all the jewels of monsieur de sanci, whose affairs had come to a crisis. neither the sanci nor the portuguese diamond were among these valuables thus bought in for henry. in the reign of james i. of england there appears amongst his majesty's personal jewels one of particular note called the "portugal" whose name does not appear in previous inventories of the english jewels, and this we are inclined to believe was the diamond which de sanci purchased from dom antonio, and which had so many adventures. in the absence of direct proof however this identification should be accepted only provisionally. shortly after his accession james caused a number of jewels to be reset, and one ornament, known as the "mirror of great britain," was considered to be the master-piece. it is thus described in the official inventory of : "a greate and riche jewell of golde, called the myrror of greate brytagne, contayninge one verie fayre table diamonde, one verie fayre table rubye, twoe other lardge dyamondes cut lozengewyse, the one of them called the stone of the letter h of scotlande garnyshed wyth small dyamondes, twoe rounde perles fixed, and one fayre dyamonde cutt in fawcettes bought of sancey." that this was the diamond subsequently known as the sanci there can be no doubt. the description "cut in facets" almost establishes the fact without the mention of the name of its recent owner. the diamond called the "stone of the letter h" belonged to mary, queen of scots, and was greatly valued by her. it was a present from henry viii. to his sister margaret on her marriage with james iv. of scotland. in her will the queen of scots bequeaths it to the crown, declaring that it should belong to the queen's successors, but should not be alienated. when in charles, the prince of wales, went on his love-trip to madrid along with buckingham to woo the infanta, he had an enormous amount of jewels sent out to him in order to make friends for himself at court. as was already mentioned in the paper about the pelegrina, these magnificent gifts were valued at no less a figure than one and a half millions of dollars. buckingham, who did not lack for audacity, had the impudence to write to king james asking for the "portugal" itself; but the over-indulgent monarch, though he scarcely ever refused anything to his beloved favorite, did not comply with this request. the spanish marriage fell through, and charles and buckingham returned to england. a couple of years afterwards, charles being king, the stately duke was sent to paris to bring back the king's bride, henrietta. on this occasion buckingham seems to have exceeded himself in splendor. he was provided, says madame de motteville, with all the diamonds of the crown and used them to deck himself. possibly this may be merely an expression to indicate the profusion of buckingham's jewels, and diamonds should not be read literally. be this as it may, it is a fact that the duke appeared at a ball at the louvre in a suit of uncut white velvet, sewn all over with diamonds. these diamonds moreover, were sewn on very loosely, so that whenever the wearer passed a group of ladies he particularly wished to honor, he shook himself, and a few of the diamonds fell off. this senseless extravagance was resorted to in rivalry of the duke of chevreuse, the most profuse of the french nobles, who at the ceremony of the betrothal had appeared in a suit embroidered with pearls and diamonds, it being contrary to a sumptuary law to embroider with gold or silver. charles did not long enjoy the tranquil possession of his diamonds. by the time he and henrietta had ceased to quarrel he and his parliament had begun to do so. the queen pledged a large number of the crown jewels in holland in order to raise funds for her husband, but these consisted mostly of pearls and did not include either the sanci or the portugal whose connection with the crown of england was not yet to be severed. in the court jeweler of france, robert de berquen, whose writings have already been alluded to, says: "the present queen of england has the diamond which the late monsieur de sanci brought back from the levant. it is almond-shaped, cut in facets on both sides, perfectly white and clean, and it weighs fifty-four carats." berquen was likely to be well-informed both from his profession and from his position. his book is highly interesting and contains some very quaint passages. thus, when writing of diamonds he assumes a critical attitude in surveying past writers and their deductions, and rejects with scorn and as utterly unworthy of belief the statement that a lady, having two large diamonds, put them away in a box and found, on again examining the box, that they had produced several young ones. the expression "the present queen of england" has considerably puzzled many writers, since at that date there were two queens of england, namely the dowager henrietta and the consort of charles ii., catherine of braganza. it seems most probable that the expression refers to the latter, for some years previous to the restoration we find henrietta disposing of the diamond to the earl of worcester. the following letter is in her hand: "we henrietta moria of bourbon, queen of great britain, have by command of our much honored lord and master the king caused to be handed to our dear and well-beloved cousin edward somerset, count and earl of worcester, a ruby necklace containing ten large rubies, and one hundred and sixty pearls set and strung together in gold. among the said rubies are also two large diamonds called the 'sanci' and the 'portugal,'" etc. after the restoration charles ii. made strenuous endeavors to collect the scattered jewels of his crown. how or when he recovered the sanci and the portugal we cannot now tell. it would be very like the devoted worcester who ruined himself for the stuarts to have given them back to charles without stipulation, and it would be very like a stuart to have accepted them and never to have paid for them. worcester died in and two years later, as we have seen, the sanci was in the hands of the "present queen of england." along with the crown, the sanci descended to james ii., and no doubt figured at the extraordinarily fine coronation which inaugurated his disastrous reign. the queen had a million's worth of jewels on her gown alone, and "shone like an angel," says a contemporary, who was so dazzled by her splendor that he could scarcely look at her. when james lost his crown he managed to keep hold of the sanci and also, presumably, of the portugal. indeed the jewels of england for a long time served to keep the famished court of the stuarts around james and his son. gradually they were sold to meet the exigencies of the various pretenders till nothing of value was left for the last stuart, the cardinal of york, to bequeath to the english king. among the first to go was the sanci which james ii. sold to louis xiv. for twenty-five thousand pounds about the year . from this date for one hundred years the sanci ranked third among the french jewels, being valued at one million of francs ($ , ). the first and second on the list were respectively the regent, valued at twelve millions, and the blue, at three millions. at the coronation of louis xv. in , the sanci bore a distinguished part. the little king, aged thirteen years and a half, was crowned at rheims with all the splendor and tediousness of ceremonial for which the french court had become renowned. louis, previous to the imposition of the crown, was dressed in a long petticoat garment of silver brocade which reached to his shoes, also of silver. on his head he wore a black velvet cap surmounted on one side by a stately plume of white ostrich feathers crested with black heron's feathers. this nodding head-dress was confined at the base by an aigrette of diamonds, among which the sanci was chief. at the coronation of louis xvi. in , the sanci had the honor of surmounting the royal crown in a fleur-de-lis, which was united to the rest of the diadem by eight gold branches. just beneath the sanci blazed the royal regent with the portugal, the sanci's old companion and fellow diamond. pity that a head once so gorgeously bonneted should roll in the bloody sawdust of the guillotine! the sanci shared the fate of the regent in being stolen in , but it did not share its luck in being found again. as early as february in that eventful year rumors began to circulate of the intention of the royalists to lay violent hands upon the crown jewels, but the commissioners ordered to make the inventory for the national assembly declared such rumors devoid of truth. the fact remains however that all the diamonds were stolen, and all, except the regent, disappeared completely for many years. in the sanci comes to light once more. a respectable french merchant sold it in that year to prince demidoff, grand huntsman to the czar, for a large sum, apparently one hundred and eighty thousand dollars. one would like to know where the above respectable merchant got the diamond, but unfortunately he seems not to have furnished any history with it--perhaps because it might have made him appear less respectable. four years later the sanci went to law. prince demidoff, it seems, agreed to sell it to a monsieur levrat, director of forges and mines in the grisons, for one hundred and twenty thousand dollars, and monsieur levrat agreed to pay the price. afterwards he contended that the diamond had been spoiled by being re-cut, which was very likely, and that it was worth only twenty-five thousand dollars. to this remarkable reduction in price prince demidoff seems to have assented, and he delivered over the stone to monsieur levrat who was to pay by instalments. instead of paying, he pawned the stone, and the defrauded prince sued him, won his case, and got back the diamond. this was all the more lucky for the demidoffs, since in they were able to sell it for one hundred thousand dollars. while in the hands of prince demidoff the sanci is reported to have had some strange adventures of which the following is an example: it was in the shawl of the princess one day, when, finding it hot, she handed the shawl to a friend to carry for her. the friend was a very absent-minded scientific personage; he put the sanci pin into his waistcoat pocket for safety and forgot all about it when returning the shawl to the princess. she forgot the pin also (a likely incident this). next day the sanci was missing. consternation! scientific friend hurriedly interviewed. he remembered the incident. where was the waistcoat? gone to the wash (of course). o, horror! washerwoman frantically sought. where was the waistcoat?--in the tub? was there anything found in the pocket? yes; a glass pin. where was it? had given it to her little boy to play with (of course). where was the boy? playing in the gutter! despair! the little fable ends nicely, as a little fable should, and there is joy all around. the person who gave the demidoffs one hundred thousand dollars for the sanci was sir jamsetjee jeejeebhoy the great bombay merchant and millionaire. and thus after many wanderings the sanci at length returned to the orient whence, to judge from its cutting, it had originally come. however its stay in india was but brief. it came back to paris for the exhibition of , where it found itself once more beneath the same roof as the regent. it was nevertheless not in the same show-case as that imperial exhibit, for it belonged to messrs. bapst who were willing to sell it for the sum of one million of francs, the exact amount at which it had been valued previous to the revolution. some one rich enough to buy it and fond enough of diamonds to spend such a sum on a jewel was found again in india. this time it was a prince. the maharajah of puttiala became its owner. when on the first of january, , the prince of wales held a grand chapter of the star of india at calcutta, he beheld, in the turban of one of the rajahs, the diamond of his ancestors. the maharajah, says the _london times_ correspondent, wore five hundred thousand dollars worth of the empress eugénie's diamonds on his white turban, and the great sanci as pendant. these were supplemented by emeralds, pearls and rubies on his neck and breast. of all the diamonds whose history we have followed this one certainly carries off the palm for the variety of its adventures. the koh-i-nûr is an older stone and has belonged to many kings, but the different countries in asia are, to our minds at least, much less clearly distinguished from one another than our european states. for a diamond to pass from the hands of an afghan chief to a persian shah seems less of a change than for it to go from the treasure-room of the tower of london to the garde meable of paris. now that the sanci has been found and is so widely known it is to be hoped that it will be kept always in view. diamonds and heads are often unaccountably lost in the seraglios of asiatic princes, but we must only hope that oriental potentates are now sufficiently enlightened to understand that we, of the western world, wish to be informed of everything that happens, whether it be the fall of a dynasty, or the sale of a diamond. ix. the great mogul. if the sanci be the sphinx of diamonds the great mogul may not inaptly be called the meteor among them. like those brilliant visitants in the skies, it flashes suddenly upon us in all its splendor and as suddenly disappears in total darkness leaving not a trace behind. so utterly has it vanished from our ken that some writers deny its independent existence. and this they do in the face of the minute description of the greatest diamond-merchant and expert of his century, who actually held the stone in his hand! the hard-headed practical tavernier was not likely to have dreamed that he saw the great mogul, nor is it likely that a diamond-merchant of his experience could have made any gross mistake as to its weight or its character--for some go so far as to suggest that the great mogul was a white topaz! the fact that we now cannot find the diamond is no sufficient reason for denying its former existence. in the account of queen victoria's diamond, the koh-i-nûr, we made acquaintance with the court of delhi; to its complicated records we must return for the great mogul. it is scarcely needful to state this name is a fanciful one bestowed on the lost gem by european writers; tavernier gives it no distinct name in his description. shah jehan (lord of the world) who reigned in the middle of the seventeenth century was, as we have already seen, the husband of the beautiful nûr jehan (light of the world) who bore him four sons and two daughters. as the king grew older his sons grew stronger, and fearing that they would not be able to dwell together in amity at delhi the old monarch gave distant governments to three of his sons, in order to keep the young men apart from one another, and at a safe distance from himself. in this way he vainly hoped to escape the destiny of indian emperors--jealousies and mutinies during his life and fratricides after his death. but his plan failed. shah jehan saw one son put a brother to death and he himself lived for seven years as the captive of the murderer. a contemporary of shah jehan was emir jemla, or mirgimola, as tavernier calls him. he was a man of great ability and singular fortunes, being, so to speak, the cardinal wolsey of his king abdullah kutb shah, lord of golconda. proud, ambitious, skillful and rich, he at length aroused the suspicions of his sovereign, as was the case with regard to wolsey. emir jemla was not, however, a priest, but a soldier, and commanded the king's armies. a persian by birth and of mean origin, he had raised himself to be general-in-chief by means of his military talents and his vast wealth. emir jemla sent ships into many countries, says tavernier, and worked diamond-mines under an assumed name, so that people discoursed of nothing but of the riches of emir jemla. his diamonds, moreover, he counted by the sackful. in the year , being sent by the king to bring certain rebellious rajahs to reason, he left as hostages in his master's hands his wife and children, according to the usual practice among the suspicious and not over-faithful asiatics. while he was absent upon this expedition the king's mind was poisoned against the powerful favorite by the courtiers jealous of his success. having only daughters, the king was made to believe that emir jemla intended to raise his own son to the throne, and the unruly, ill-mannered behavior of this son lent color to the tale. the king took fright at the idea and laid hands upon the hostages using them sharply. the son sent word to his father, emir jemla, and the latter enraged at the indignity resolved to avenge himself. he invoked the aid of the imperial suzerain, shah jehan. uncertain of his success at headquarters, he applied in the meantime to two of the emperor's sons who were nearer at hand than far-off delhi, for they were then at the head of their respective governments to the north and west of golconda. one of them refused emir jemla's offer of adding his master's dominions to the empire of shah jehan in return for the loan of an army, but the other accepted the proposition. the name of him who accepted was aurungzeb, third son of shah jehan, and the most perfidious prince within the four corners of india. the allied chiefs did not waste time, but arrived before golconda so unexpectedly that abdullah had barely time to save himself by retiring to his not far-distant hill-fortress. indeed the king himself threw open his gates to the enemy, for aurungzeb gave out that he came as ambassador from the emperor shah jehan, and the king was within a hair-breadth of falling into the hands of the treacherous ambassador when he received timely warning and saved himself by flight. with a courtesy which tavernier finds passing graceful the fugitive king sent back to his rebel vassal the wife and children whom he had held as hostages. notwithstanding their war there remained a good deal of kindly feeling between emir jemla and the king, his master. for example: one day his majesty being straitly besieged in his fortress was informed by his dutch cannonier that emir jemla was riding within range. "shall i take off his head for your highness?" asked the dutchman. the king, very wroth, replied: "no; learn that not so lightly is esteemed the life of a prince." the cannonier, not to be balked of his artillery practice, cut in twain the body of a general who was riding not far from emir jemla. on his side also emir jemla was anxious not to reduce the king to extremities and refused to prosecute the siege to the uttermost, which much disgusted his ally aurungzeb. rather he would treat with his ancient master, who gladly accepted the chance of deliverance, appealing to shah jehan himself against his son. the emperor was easy on his former ally, and eventually a family alliance was arranged between a daughter of king abdullah and a son of aurungzeb. emir jemla set off to delhi to confer with shah jehan upon the subject. it is an axiom of asiatic etiquette that no one ever comes before a king without laying a gift at his feet. emir jemla, anxious to obtain the favor of shah jehan, took care not to stand before him empty-handed, but presented him with "that celebrated diamond which has been generally deemed unparalleled in size and beauty." so says franzois bernier, a frenchman, physician to aurungzeb, who lived many years in delhi and whose familiarity with the court enabled him to speak accurately of recent occurrences. after emir jemla had presented his matchless diamond to shah jehan, who was a man of taste in gems, he gave the emperor to understand that the diamonds of golconda were quite other things from "those rocks of kandahar," which he had seen hitherto. this was a rather contemptuous phrase to use to an emperor who already possessed the koh-i-nûr. however, the stone which emir jemla gave to shah jehan so far exceeded everything that had been hitherto dreamed of in the way of diamonds that he might be excused if he exaggerated somewhat. it will be well here to quote tavernier's account of the great mogul diamond, even though something out of the chronological order. the occasion is tavernier's departure from delhi on his sixth and last return from india to europe. "the first of november, , i was at the palace to take leave of the king (aurungzeb) but he said i must not go without seeing his jewels since i had seen the magnificence of his fête. next morning very early five or six officers came from the king and others from the nabob jafer khan, to say the king was waiting for me. as soon as i arrived the two courtiers who had charge of the jewels accompanied me to his majesty, and after the customary salutations they took me into a small chamber situated at the end of the hall where the king was sitting on his throne, and whence he could see us. i found in this chamber akel khan, the chief keeper of the jewels, who as soon as he saw me commanded the four eunuchs of the king to go and fetch the jewels which were brought on two wooden trays lacquered with gold-leaf, and covered with cloths made on purpose, one of red velvet and one of green velvet embroidered. after they were uncovered and had been counted, each piece two or three times, a list was drawn up by the three scribes present. indians do all things with much care and deliberation, and when they see any one acting with precipitation or getting angry they look upon it as a thing to laugh at. "the first piece which akel khan put into my hands was the great diamond which is a round rose, cut very high on one side. on the lower edge there is a slight crack and a little flaw in it. its water is beautiful and it weighs - ratis which make of our carats, the ratis being - of our carat. when mergimola (_i.e._ emir jemla) who betrayed the king of golconda, his master, made present of this stone to shah jehan to whose court he retired, it was rough, and weighed then ratis which make - carats, and there were several flaws in it. if this stone had been in europe it would have been differently treated, for several good slices would have been taken off, and it would have remained heavier instead of which it has been entirely ground down. it was hortenzio borgis, a venetian, who cut it, for which he was sufficiently badly recompensed, for when it was seen, he was reproached with having ruined the stone, which should have remained heavier, and instead of paying him for his work, the king fined him ten thousand rupees and would have taken more if he had possessed it. if sieur hortenzio had understood his business well he would have been able to get several good pieces from this stone without doing any wrong to the king, and without having the trouble of grinding it down, but he was an unskillful diamond-cutter." tavernier held this great stone in his hand for some time and contemplated it at his leisure. it must have been a great day for him, the connoisseur, to see and examine the finest diamond in existence. it is well he looked long and keenly at it, for it was never again to be seen by european eyes. on this second of november, , the great mogul was seen for the first, last and only time by one able to tell us anything about it. this was its meteor-flash into history and fame. it was seen by the man best able to appreciate it and then never seen again. the accompanying illustration is taken from tavernier's drawing of the great mogul. incidentally we learn something more of the monster diamond from the pen of the same writer. speaking of the coulour or gani diamond-mine, tavernier says: "there are still found there large stones, larger than elsewhere, from ten to forty carats and sometimes larger, among them the great diamond which weighed nine hundred carats (an evident slip for ratis) before being cut, which mirgimola presented to aurungzeb (another slip for shah jehan) as i have said before." to explain these slips of tavernier's pen it will be well to state that the great frenchman, though speaking all european and many asiatic languages, was yet unable to write in any, not even in his own. he therefore borrowed the pen of two different persons to write his delightful travels which give us such a living picture of indian life two centuries ago. the coulour mine, here spoken of, was discovered about a century before tavernier's time, in a very singular manner. a peasant when preparing the ground to sow millet, unearthed a sparkling pebble which excited his attention. golconda was near enough for him to have heard of diamonds, so he brought his prize to a merchant at the latter place. the merchant was amazed to see in the peasant's pebble a very large diamond. the fame of coulour quickly spread, and it soon became a great mining center, employing thousands of workmen. tavernier objects that the mine yielded stones of impure water. the gems, he declares, seemed to partake of the nature of the soil and tended to a greenish, a reddish, or a yellowish hue as the case might be. [illustration: the great mogul.] this defect was not apparent in the great mogul which was, he distinctly says, perfect, of good water and of good form, having but one little flaw on the lowest edge. taking this flaw into consideration, the value of the diamond, according to tavernier's scale of estimation, was , , livres which being reduced to present coinage yields the goodly sum of $ , , . being permitted to weigh it, he found the exact weight to be - carats. then after looking at the diamond as long as he wanted, for akel khan did in no wise hurry him, tavernier was shown a multitude of other gems of lesser note, and among them a pearl perfectly round, weighing thirty-six and one half ratis of beautiful luster, white, and perfect in every way. "this is the only jewel which aurungzeb who reigns now has bought on account of its beauty, for all the others came to him in part from dara, his eldest brother, to whose belongings he succeeded after having cut off his head, and in part from presents from his nobles." this slight remark opens to our view one of the saddest chapters of the gloomy family history of shah jehan's sons. and as dara was once the possessor of the great mogul, we may be allowed to give his pitiful story in a few words. prince dara (david) the eldest son of shah jehan and the light of the world, was destined by his father to succeed him on the throne of delhi. having, as we have already seen, disposed of his other three sons in the furthest corners of india, the old king thought he was safe. but one of those sons, aurungzeb, was a man of restless ambition. not content with his appointed province of the deccan, aurungzeb pretended to the imperial crown itself. in shah jehan fell sick, and aurungzeb, attended by a large army, which included a contingent under emir jemla's command, hastened toward delhi. the aged emperor, dreading the filial solicitude which arrayed itself in so formidable a manner, sent orders to his son to return to his province. aurungzeb not only did not return, but persuaded another brother to come up from his province, likewise attended by an army, and together they marched upon their father's capital. the course of asiatic intrigue is too complicated and subtle for any but the merest antiquary to track it. suffice it to say that after much lying and many protestations of obedience, matters came to a crisis, and dara was sent by shah jehan to oppose aurungzeb by force. dara was overthrown and returned humiliated to his father's palace. recollecting that his own path to the throne lay through the blood of his nearest relatives, shah jehan, no longer able to defend his eldest son against the undutiful aurungzeb, gave him two elephant-loads of gold and jewels, and bade him escape. the great mogul diamond was apparently among the jewels thus despairingly bestowed upon his son by the enfeebled old king. at all events dara escaped and fled from friend to friend for the space of one year, and it was during this time that he was seen by bernier, the famous french surgeon, who was afterwards attached to the service of aurungzeb. meantime that successful traitor dethroned and then imprisoned his father, whose grandiloquent title of shah jehan (lord of the world) became a bitter mockery when designating the prisoner of agra, and then he awaited the treachery of some of dara's so-called friends. in the course of a twelvemonth, his patience was rewarded. the chief of jun, who had reason to be grateful for many favors from dara, gained an infamous notoriety by delivering the fugitive prince over to his usurping brother. aurungzeb caused prince dara to be publicly paraded through the streets of delhi with his little seven-year-old grandson by his side, while the executioner stood ominously behind him. this pitiful spectacle was witnessed by all delhi, and many tears were shed over the fall of dara, but "no one raised a hand to aid him," remarks bernier, who was one of the spectators. after a mock trial the unhappy prince was sentenced to death, and a slave with several satellites was sent to the prison of gevalior to dispatch him. dara was engaged in cooking some lentils for himself and his little grandson, for this was the only food he would touch, lest they should be secretly poisoned. the moment the slaves entered, he cried out, "behold, my son, those who are come to slay us!" and snatching up a small knife he tried to defend himself and the child. it was an unequal fight which could but end in one way. the boy was quickly made an end of, and dara being thrown down was held by the legs while one of the slaves cut off his head. the head was then immediately brought to aurungzeb, as a certificate that his orders had been duly executed. the king desired the face to be washed and wiped in his presence and then, when he saw that it was the veritable head of dara, his brother, he fell a-weeping and cried aloud: "o, dara! o, unhappy man! take it away! bury it in the tomb of humaiyun." such was the fate of dara, the second owner of the great mogul. in conclusion tavernier says of the treasures belonging to aurungzeb: "these then are the jewels of the grand mogul which he showed to me by a particular grace granted to no other foreigner, and i held them all in my hand and considered them with so much attention and leisure that i can assure the reader that the description which i have given is very exact and faithful, as also of the stones which i had time enough to contemplate." here absolutely ends the history of this magnificent gem. what became of it no one knows. whether it was lost in the sack of delhi, or carried off by nadir shah along with the koh-i-nûr, it is impossible to say, or even to conjecture with any degree of plausibility. no account of this grand diamond, however, would be complete without some reference to the extraordinary myths which have gathered around it. there is scarcely another large diamond of no matter what size, or what color, or what shape, that has not sometime, or by somebody, been declared to be the great mogul. its subsequent history seems to be the happy hunting-ground of the foolish theories of writers on precious stones. men who write carefully enough about other diamonds, launch out into the wildest conjectures about the great mogul. they apparently cannot bear the thought of losing so precious a gem and therefore they find it somewhere, no matter to what inconsistency and absurdity they may be reduced in the process of identification. take a few examples. it has been maintained that the great mogul is the orloff; that it is the koh-i-nûr; that it is both together; that it is the orloff, the koh-i-nûr and a third beside, now lost, which hortenzio borgis obtained by cleavage--the precise thing which tavernier distinctly says he did not do, preferring to grind it down; that it was not a diamond at all, but a white topaz--as if tavernier, the greatest expert of his times, would not have detected that fact. even mr. streeter, in general a most reliable authority on diamonds, is dazzled into inconsistency when he comes to treat of the great mogul. in his work, _precious stones and gems_, published in , he says under the head of celebrated diamonds: "the diamond known as the great mogul has received an amount of attention beyond any other. _under the name of the koh-i-nûr (mountain of light)_ it played an important part in the exhibition of ," etc., etc. now harken to mr. streeter writing in : "if this description (tavernier's) be compared with the models both of the koh-i-nûr and of the great mogul itself in our possession, all doubts will be at once removed as to the essentially different character of the two crystals." again: "the two differ absolutely in their origin, history, size and form!" the mr. streeter of is wisely ignorant of the lucubrations of the mr. streeter of . unable to offer the slightest hint as to the fate of the great mogul we can only hope that some future day may reveal it, and until then we must put up with our ignorance as best we may. it came and went in a flash of glory, the meteor of diamonds. x. the austrian yellow. the subject of this article is, as its name sets forth, a diamond of a yellow hue. after the orloff it is the largest cut diamond in europe, weighing one hundred and thirty-nine and a half carats. tavernier, who first mentions it, says "it has a tinge of yellow which is a pity." king declares, "on the highest authority," which he does not further particularize, that this tinge is a very strong one, almost destroying its brilliancy. yellow diamonds are not necessarily devoid of brilliancy, as we can bear witness from personal knowledge. there was recently offered for sale at a public auction in london a very large specimen known as the orange diamond, of one hundred and ten carats weight, which we carefully examined. the circumstances were decidedly adverse to the beauty of a diamond, for it was in the half-light of a london fog that we saw it, yet the stone seemed literally to shoot tongues of yellow fire from its facets. it was a round brilliant, and being set in a circle of about a score of white diamonds its tawny complexion was shown to admirable advantage. the jewel was supported on a delicate spring which vibrated with each step upon the floor, so that there was a constant coruscation of light around it. it is difficult to establish the early history of the austrian yellow. tavernier saw it in florence somewhere about , but he does not say whence it came. its appearance proves it to be an indian-cut rose, but that does not help us much with regard to its private wanderings in europe. a good authority on diamonds, de laet, who flourished shortly before tavernier's time, declared that the largest diamond then known weighed seventy carats, which would clearly indicate that he knew nothing about the much larger yellow diamond. tradition relates that it was bought for a few pence in the market at florence, under the impression that it was a piece of glass! if this is so, one would be glad of some particulars of the moment when the happy possessor found out his mistake. [illustration: the austrian yellow--top and side.] tavernier says that "the grand duke (of tuscany) did him the honor to show him the diamond several times." he made a drawing of it, as he did of nearly all the large diamonds he saw, and his estimation of its value is two millions of livres (about four hundred thousand dollars)--a low price considering the size of the stone; but no doubt its yellow tinge had something to say to it. the grand duke of tavernier's time was ferdinand ii., who reigned from to --a man of considerable enlightenment, a protector of galileo and an encourager of literature. if there is any truth in the popular belief to which we shall presently allude, that diamonds promote the mutual affection of husband and wife, then indeed the great yellow stone had need of its charm in the case of ferdinand's son and successor, cosimo iii. this luckless prince was married to marguerite louise d'orleans, niece of louis xiv., a young lady of flighty fancies and obstinate willfulness. being deeply attached to her cousin of lorraine, she was only induced to give her hand to the heir of tuscany on the threat of imprisonment in a convent. she was married in and made her state entry into florence amid unparalleled splendor. immediately afterwards the courts of europe rang with the quarrels of the newly-wedded pair. the pope of rome, the king of france, mother, sisters, aunts, ambassadors, bishops, cardinals, lady's maids, each in turn interfered with the object of restoring harmony, and each in turn ignominiously failed. here surely was work for the diamond had it been possessed of its reputed power. during this time and for many years afterwards, the diamond about which we write was known as the "florentine" or "grand tuscan." it was the chief jewel in the treasure-house of the medici, and no doubt filled a conspicuous place in the pageants of the grand-ducal court. the florentine sovereigns were not wealthy, but upon state occasions they made extraordinary displays which sometimes deceived foreigners visiting among them into a false idea of their affluence. a wedding was always a favorite occasion upon which to show off their finery. for example, at the marriage of violante de bavière with the son of cosimo iii., a magnificence was displayed such as was never before seen even in florence. the bride sat on a car studded with gems. her father-in-law with his crown, no doubt containing the great diamond, upon his head, met her at the gate of san gallo and escorted her to the palace. this princess dying childless, the throne was occupied by giovan-gaston, another son of cosimo iii. and the flighty marguerite. he likewise left no heirs, so with his death in terminated the great house of medici. giovan-gaston was succeeded on the grand-ducal throne by francis stephen of lorraine, who was forced much against his inclination to change his paternal duchy of lorraine for that of tuscany. he was married to maria theresa, archduchess of austria, afterwards so famous as the empress-queen who fought valiantly against frederick the great. by the will of giovan-gaston dei medici all the statues, books, pictures and jewels of his palace were "to remain forever at florence as public property for the benefit of the people and the attraction of foreign visitors," and none were to be removed from out of the grand duchy. francis stephen and maria theresa entered their new capital, remained there four months, and then departing carried away with them the great tuscan diamond. so much for the respect paid to the wills of dead princes! henceforward the yellow diamond became known as the austrian yellow in recognition, we suppose, of the royal thief who carried it off from florence. at the coronation of francis stephen as emperor of germany at frankfort-on-the-main, on the fourth of october, , the pilfered diamond was used to decorate his majesty's imperial diadem. maria theresa had been extremely anxious for her husband to be emperor, both because she was fondly attached to him, and because she wanted him to hold a title equal at least to her own as queen of hungary. she stood on a balcony at the ceremony and was the first to salute him with the cry of "long live the emperor!" when the crown had been placed upon his head. our readers will of course be aware that the imperial dignity was an elective one. it remained, it is true, in the hapsburg family, still it did not descend from father to son like the other crowns of europe, and the ceremony of a fresh election was gone through at the death of each emperor. napoleon, who upset most things in europe, failed not to upset the throne of charlemagne. the holy roman empire ceased to exist in , and francis i., the elected emperor, abdicated the old german throne to mount the brand-new one of austria. we return to our diamond. francis stephen, although emperor and reputed owner of the yellow diamond, was quite overshadowed by the fame and splendor of his wife maria theresa. it is on record that one day being present at some high ceremony, he left the circle around the throne and went to sit in a corner beside a couple of ladies. they rose respectfully at his approach. "oh! don't mind me," he said, "i am only going to sit here and watch the crowd until the court is gone." "as long as your imperial majesty is present the court will be here," replied the ladies. "not at all," said francis stephen. "the court is my wife and children. i'm nobody." and such indubitably was the fact the empress adored him, but he was nobody and has left but little trace in history. he was very fond of money and sometimes resorted to singular means in order to turn an honest penny. when his wife was engaged in that long struggle with the king of prussia which goes in history by the name of the seven years' war, he made a good sum by supplying the enemy's cavalry with forage. another strange though somewhat less crooked means of augmenting his riches is related concerning his diamonds. he employed himself for a considerable time in a series of experiments which had for their object the melting down of small diamonds with the view of making a large one. no doubt francis stephen would have been very pleased to smelt up a good number of diamonds if he could thereby have produced a match for his great yellow gem; but it is easier to burn diamonds than to fuse them. the storms and revolutions which nearly shook the house of austria to the ground have left its diamond untouched. it was carefully preserved in the hasty flights from vienna which occurred during the effervescing period of when all europe was in an uproar. and now it reposes peacefully as a hat-button for the emperor francis ii. in appearance the diamond is a nine-rayed star, and is all covered with facets, according to the true indian fashion. it may possibly interest the reader to hear what the austrians themselves think of their diamond. the following extract is made from the official account furnished to mr. streeter: "this jewel was once the property of charles the bold, duke of burgundy, who according to the custom of the day carried all his valuables in the battlefield, first to have them always in sight, and secondly on account of the mysterious power then attributed to precious stones. charles lost this diamond at the battle of morat, on the twenty-second of june, . tradition relates that it was picked up by a peasant who took it for a piece of glass and sold it for a florin. the new owner, bartholomew may, a citizen of berne, sold it to the genoese, who sold it in turn to ludovico moro sforza. by the intercession of the fuggers it came into the medici treasury at florence. when francis stephen of lorraine exchanged this duchy against the grand-duchy of tuscany he became owner of the florentine diamond." of this extraordinary tale the concluding sentence alone is the only one worthy of the slightest attention; all the rest is mere legend. contemporary accounts show that charles the bold had no diamond at all similar to the austrian yellow either in size or shape; two very important factors in establishing the identity of a diamond. * * * * * we have now reached the last great diamond which it is our purpose to chronicle, and it is hoped that the reader has become sufficiently interested in these sparkling pebbles to bear with equanimity a few technical details concerning their nature and the processes which they undergo before becoming ornaments for the crowns of kings or the brooches of queens. [illustration: diamond in the rough.] that the diamond depends for its beauty almost entirely upon the labor of man is sufficiently known. the rough diamond is seldom a beautiful object, being usually coated with a greenish film which gives it the look of an ordinary pebble. it requires the eye of an adept to recognize any potentiality of sparkle in so dull a lump. the ordinary rock-crystal is infinitely more beautiful until the royal gem has been transformed by human skill. but after the touch of the magic wheel there is no substance which can compare with the diamond for luster, brilliancy and iridescence. certain indian diamonds finished by the hand of nature and known as "naifes," are an exception to the rule that rough diamonds are dull looking. they are seldom or never found now, but were greatly prized by the natives in olden times and considered superior to the artificially polished stone. they were octahedral in form, with polished facets. the primary crystalline form of the diamond is the octahedron, or a figure of eight sides; but it by no means confines itself to this form alone. it sometimes assumes twelve-sided shapes, or is merely a cube, or yet again variations of these figures. the atoms composing the diamond tend to place themselves in layers, and the discovery of this fact facilitated the cutting of the stone, as by finding the grain a skillful manipulator was able to cleave off protuberances at a blow. the accompanying diagrams represent a certain large diamond both in the rough and after it was cut into a brilliant, and they will help to explain the process of diamond-cutting, which is briefly as follows: the first process is to make lead models of the stone in its actual state and also in the ideal, namely, after it is cut. by this means is found out the most economical way to shape it. the next step is to cleave it toward that shape as far as possible. cleaving is performed in two ways; by a steel saw strung on a whalebone and coated with diamond dust which saws off the required amount; or by scratching a nick with a diamond point in the direction of the grain and splitting it off with one blow. this latter process, observes an old writer, requires great strength of mind as well as dexterity of hand, for by an unlucky blow a valuable stone may be utterly ruined. supposing however that the cleavage has been safely performed, the diamond is next fixed into a handle and is so imbedded in a soft cement as to leave exposed only that portion which is to be ground. by means of another diamond similarly imbedded in a handle it is worked down to the requisite shape. the dust from the two grinding diamonds is carefully saved and is used for polishing them. this process is effected by means of a disk of soft iron about a foot in diameter, coated with the diamond dust mixed with olive oil, and made to revolve very rapidly in a horizontal position. the portion of the diamond to be polished is then pressed against the revolving wheel and a high state of polish is thus attained. the grinding of the facets is entirely governed by eye, and such is the dexterity and accuracy attained by good manipulators that perfect roses are cut so small that fifteen hundred of them go to the carat; and when we remember that one hundred and fifty carats go to an ounce we shall have some faint idea of the minuteness of the work.[j] [j] the carat is the seed of a kind of vetch common in india, and is of such uniform weight that it naturally suggested itself as a standard measure, just as in our country the barley grain was taken as the unit. in europe the brilliant is the usual form to give to the diamond, and the one most admired. the invention of this particular method of cutting is due to vincenzo peruzzi, a venetian, who seems to have introduced the fashion in the latter half of the eighteenth century. he discovered that the utmost light and fire could be obtained by reducing the diamond to the shape of a pair of truncated cones, united at the base with thirty-two facets above and twenty-four below the girdle or largest circumference. [illustration: diamond after cutting, top, bottom and side.] reference to the illustrations will explain the following technical terms: _a_, the upper surface, is called the _table_; _b_, its sloping edge, the _beasil_; _c_, the girdle; _d_, the lower pointed portion, is called the _pavilion_, and the bottom plane, the _collet_. of the thirty-two top facets only those are called _star-facets_ which touch the table; all the rest, as well as those below the girdle, are called _skill-facets_. the old "table diamonds," once so highly prized, may be described as having the table and collet greatly enlarged at the expense of the beasil and pavilion. the rose diamond is covered with equal facets, either twelve or twenty-four in number, the base of the stone being flat. this rule holds only for european roses; the orientals covered their diamonds with irregular facets following exactly the shape of the stone, as with them the one object was to preserve the weight of the stone as far as possible. chemically speaking, the diamond is almost pure carbon, and may be said to be first cousin to ordinary coal and half-brother to the smoke of an oil lamp. if the lordly gem should refuse to acknowledge such mean relations it can always be confronted with the "black diamond," which though an undoubted diamond, looks so very like a piece of coal that the kinship is evident. the present writer once saw a very costly _parure_ belonging to the countess of dudley, composed entirely of black diamonds set heavily in gold. being a very little girl she considered it a great waste of the precious metal to employ it to set such ugly stones. she is of the same opinion still. in ancient times the diamond was credited with a vast number of occult virtues. thus it was said by the romans to baffle poison, keep off insanity and dispel vain fears. the italians believed that it maintained love between man and wife, but we have already seen one notable instance in which it signally failed to render this useful service. one is at a loss to imagine how such a belief became common, seeing the number of diamonds which belonged to royal personages, and the state of affairs prevalent in their domestic life. in england, at the same period, diamonds were looked upon as deadly poisons. the murder of sir thomas overbury in the tower of london during the reign of james i. was said to have been attempted by means of these gems ground to powder. overbury certainly died, and presumably by foul means, but modern science has acquitted diamonds of having any share in the crime. there is a certain rule for estimating the price of a diamond, and singular to say it is the old indian rule by which tavernier was guided in his purchases, and which modern commerce has been content to let stand. the current market price of a good cut diamond, one carat in weight being ascertained, the square of the weight of the diamond to be valued is multiplied by that figure. the present selling price in london of a clear and faultless cut diamond one carat in weight is one hundred dollars, one of three carats therefore would be worth Ã� Ã� =$ . were our advice asked with regard to the purchase of these valuable pebbles whose history has so long occupied our attention, we should refer our interlocutor to that chinese philosopher who on being asked why he kept bowing and saying, "thank you, thank you," to the gem-bedecked mandarin, replied: "i am thanking him for buying all those diamonds and undertaking the trouble and anxiety of keeping them safe that i, undisturbed, may look at them and admire them at my leisure." xi. a famous necklace. that the human neck is a suitable pillar to hang ornaments upon is so obvious a fact that it must have presented itself to the most rudimentary savage; and that it did thus occur to the early human mind we have abundant evidence. the prehistoric graves of europe give up a greater quantity of necklaces to the antiquarian searcher than almost any other article, with the exception of implements of war. these necklaces are differently composed of beads of glass and of amber, colored pebbles and small gold plaques, while the white teeth of various animals and sea-shells seem to have been as general favorites with the prehistoric as with the contemporary savage. it is not our intention to give an account of the many types of necklaces which have found favor in the eyes of humanity. to do so would be quite beyond the scope of these stories. we propose on the contrary to select but one--one especially notable amid the necklaces of the past. we may mention that the first diamond necklace ever known in europe was one composed of rough stones which was given by charles vii. of france to agnes sorel. the fair lady's soft neck was so irritated by the sharp corners of the necklace that she said it was her pillory (_carcan_), hence the term _carcanet_ which means a diamond necklace. the term fell into disuse about the time of the revolution, and the proper name in france for a string of diamonds at that period was _rivière_. nowadays they have restored the _carcanet_ and kept the _rivière_ as well, both terms being in common use. of all the necklaces in all countries and all times, incomparably the most famous was that one with which marie antoinette's name was so unhappily associated. this trinket is still disputed about even in our own times. it has a literature of its own and it is emphatically the necklace of history. we will endeavor to make clear its singular career and ultimate fate. in , louis xv. in the full tide of his infatuation for the worthless madame dubarry determined to make her a present that should be unique. it was to be a diamond necklace the like of which had never been seen before and which was to cost two millions of livres. accordingly in the november of the same year he gave the order to his jewelers, messrs. böhmer & bassenge, who set about the job with glee. but it took both time and money to get together such a lot of diamonds. of time there seemed enough, for the king was healthy and not old, and as for money friends were ready to supply it in ample store upon such fair security as the beauty and influence of madame dubarry. but fate in the guise of small-pox intervened and upset all these calculations. in may, , louis xv. died and louis xvi. reigned in his stead. by this time the necklace was complete, and what it was in its completeness let the pen of carlyle tell us: "a row of seventeen glorious diamonds as large almost as filberts encircle not too tightly the neck a first time. looser gracefully fastened thrice to these a three-wreathed festoon and pendants enough (simple pear-shaped multiple star-shaped or clustering amorphous) encirle it, enwreathe it a second time. loosest of all, softly flowing round from behind in priceless catenary rush down two broad threefold rows, seem to knot themselves round a very queen of diamonds on the bosom, then rush on again separated as if there were length in plenty. the very tassels of them were a fortune for some men. and now lastly two other inexpressible threefold rows also with their tassels will when the necklace is on and clasped unite themselves behind into a doubly inexpressible sixfold row, and so stream down together or asunder over the hind neck--we may fancy like a lambent zodiacal or aurora borealis fire." such being the doubly inexpressible description of this marvelous jewel we are not surprised that an awful difficulty should now arise to confound the luckless jewelers. who would buy it? not the young queen marie antoinette, who when offered it answered that being on the eve of war with england they needed frigates more than diamonds. besides she had just bought, and not yet been able to pay for, two expensive diamond ear-rings. this disappointed jeweler traveled all through europe offering his trinket to the different queens and princesses, but none were rich enough to tie four hundred thousand dollars in a glittering string around their necks, so he returned to paris with bankruptcy staring him in the face. [illustration: "the necklace of history." (_less than one fourth the natural size. by permission of mr. henry vizetelly_.)] in , when marie antoinette's first son was born, the jeweler very nearly succeeded in selling it to louis xvi., who wanted to make his wife a fine present upon so auspicious an occasion. the queen, however, refused to touch the jewel when the king handed it to her as she lay in bed, and being very weak and ill, so that the least thing excited her dangerously, the doctor forbade mention to be made of this truly fatal necklace. the little dauphin, happily for himself, died while still a royal baby in his father's palace, and was succeeded by another boy less fortunate in his destiny. the luckless jeweler, who became almost a monomaniac on the subject of selling his necklace to marie antoinette, used always to attend with the glittering jewel at each happy event, so that the witty courtiers used to say whenever he appeared at versailles: "oh! here's böhmer. there must be another baby born!" one day after about ten years of fruitless solicitation he threw himself at the queen's feet and declared that utter ruin was come upon him through the necklace, that he would drown himself if she did not buy it, and that his death would be upon her head. her majesty, much incensed, replied that she had not ordered the necklace and was therefore not bound to buy it, and ended by commanding him to leave her presence and never more let her hear about the jewel again. she thought the matter was finally ended. poor marie antoinette! she was destined to be haunted through life by those terrible diamonds and to be asked about them at her trial and to be taunted with the theft of them by the mocking crowds who surrounded her scaffold. such being the state of the case in , we shall leave the queen and the jeweler to follow the fortunes of two other persons who were made famous and infamous by the necklace. the first was louis de rohan, cardinal grand-almoner of france and a prince in his own right. this person had been ambassador at vienna where he had ridiculed maria theresa, marie antoinette's mother, and afterward a courtier at versailles where he had criticised the dauphiness, marie antoinette herself. by these double deeds he was cordially detested by the queen who, like young people generally, was extreme in her likes and dislikes and vehement in the expression of her sentiments. since the accession of louis xvi. the cardinal had been in disgrace, and as royal favor is as the breath of life to the nostrils of a courtier, he was morbidly anxious to re-establish himself in the queen's good graces. so much for the cardinal. the fourth and by far the most important character is yet to appear on the stage. this is the countess de la motte. this individual was of the vampire type of idle good-for-nothings, who lived at the french court, and whose rapacity eventually caused such havoc in the most exalted circles. madame de la motte pretended to royal descent through a natural son of henry ii. accordingly she added de valois to her name, that being the family name of the reigning house which immediately preceded the bourbons. she had been a roadside beggar when a child, but her great plausibility of manner, which later on became so fatal, had won for her the good graces of a lady about court who befriended her and had her educated. she grew up, was married to the count de la motte, and henceforward used all her talents to push the fortunes of her family. a small pension only excited her appetite for more. she made the acquaintance of the cardinal de rohan. the cardinal, a man of about fifty years of age, seems to have been perfectly infatuated with the countess who, though not beautiful, was witty and very taking in her manners. at length madame de la motte began to throw out hints about her acquaintance with the queen and to suggest that she might be the means of restoring the cardinal to the royal favor. the cardinal believed implicitly in her intimacy with marie antoinette and built high hopes upon it, and not only the cardinal but many others likewise believed in it, and besought the adventuress's favor at the hands of her majesty. this may appear strange, seeing that the queen and countess never exchanged a word in their lives; but at court where nothing is ever known exactly, but all things are possible, it is not easy to learn the precise facts about anything. an adventuress in the days of madame de maintenon is said to have made her fortune by walking through that lady's open door into the empty drawing-room and appearing for a few moments at the balcony. the courtiers saw her there, immediately concluded that she must be in favor with the unacknowledged wife of louis xiv., and flocked about her with presents and flattery, hoping in return to profit by her influence. by an equally simple device madame de la motte obtained the reputation of intimacy and influence with marie antoinette. she made the acquaintance of the gate-keeper of the trianon and was frequently seen stealing away with ostentatious secrecy from the favorite haunt of the queen. it was enough. people believed in her favor, and she was a great woman. then she took another step. she confided to the cardinal de rohan that the queen longed for the diamond necklace, but had not the money to buy it, and feared to ask the king for it. here was a chance for a courtier in disgrace. the cardinal, acting upon the hint, offered to conduct the negotiation about the necklace and to lend the queen some of the money for its purchase. the queen apparently accepted his offer, and wrote to him little gilt-edged missives mysteriously worded and of loving import. the cardinal was exalted with joy. to be not only redeemed from disgrace, but to be in possession of the haughty queen's affections was beyond his wildest hopes or aspirations. still acting upon the suggestions of the countess the cardinal bought the necklace, and, for the satisfaction of the jewelers, drew up a promissory note, which was intended to be submitted to her majesty and was in fact returned, approved and signed, _marie antoinette de france_. this letter came through the hands of madame de la motte in the same mysterious fashion in which the correspondence had hitherto been conducted. the cardinal thereupon brought the necklace to madame de la motte's house at versailles, delivered it over to the supposed lackeys of the queen, and went away rejoicing. madame herself was feasted sumptuously by the grateful jewelers, who were profuse in their thanks for her aid. they even pressed her to accept a diamond ornament as a slight token of their gratitude! madame de la motte dining with her dupes, graciously receiving their thanks and magnanimously declining their presents, was certainly a spectacle for gods and men. the cardinal, not content with his _billets-deaux_ from the queen, was to be further gratified by a midnight interview with her majesty in the gardens of the trianon. a lady dressed in the simple shepherdess costume affected by marie antoinette did indeed meet him in a dark-shadowed alley of the garden, and as he was ecstatically pressing the hem of her garment to his lips she did present to him a rose which he clasped to his breast in speechless rapture. the lady of this scene and the queen of the cardinal's fancy was a common girl off the streets, who bore a striking resemblance to marie antoinette. she was dressed up by the clever countess and was told to act according to certain instructions, but strange as it may seem she did not in the least suspect who it was she was representing--so skillfully was it all arranged by the astute madame de la motte who never let one tool know what another was doing for fear of spoiling her web of iniquity. the cardinal was totally ignorant of the imposture, and this although he knew the queen well; but the night was dark and madame de la motte executed a sudden surprise by means of her husband, so that the pair were separated before the superstitious queen had occasion to use her voice, the sound of which might have aroused the suspicions of even the blinded cardinal. in possession of four hundred thousand dollars worth of diamonds, madame de la motte's next difficulty was to sell them. this appeared to be impossible in paris, for when she commissioned her friend villette to sell a dozen or so, he was at once arrested as a suspicious person, and anxious inquiries were made as to whether there had been any diamond robbery of late. but no--there had been nothing of the kind. nobody complained of having been robbed; court jewelers and cardinal were still in the happy anticipation of coming favors. the man villette was the writer of the queen's letters to the cardinal, he was also the lackey who had taken charge of the necklace for the writer of those letters. he was a very useful friend to madame de la motte until at last he turned king's evidence and explained the whole fraud. the count de la motte next proceeded to london and there sold several hundreds of diamonds. some stones he disposed of to mr. eliason the dealer who in after years it will be remembered had the blue diamond in his possession. upon the proceeds of these sales the la mottes lived in oriental splendor both in paris and at their country seat at bar-sur-aube. this was in the spring of , and until the first installment, due in july, became payable they seemed to live on absolutely oblivious of the danger ahead. "those whom the gods wish to destroy they first make mad," is the classic proverb which must be resorted to in this case. on no other supposition can their remaining in paris be explained. madame used diamonds for her pocket money and tendered them for everything she wanted, exchanging one for a couple of pots of pomade. the first payment not having been made, and the queen having never addressed the cardinal in public nor ever worn the necklace, both prelate and jeweler began to be surprised. the latter wrote to the queen an humble but mysterious letter expressive of his willingness to await her majesty's convenience if she could not pay up punctually. marie antoinette read the letter, but not understanding it, twisted it up into a taper and lighted it at her candle. she then bade madame campan find out what "madman böhmer" wanted. madame campan saw the jeweler, heard his explanation, told him the queen never had had the necklace at all, and that it was some dreadful mistake, and then in the greatest distress besought her royal mistress to inquire carefully into the story, as she greatly feared some scandal was being effected in the queen's name. hearing a rumor of trouble madame de la motte visited the jewelers, warned them to be on their guard (as she feared they were being imposed upon!) and then inexplicably remained in paris, instead of escaping beyond the reach of the bastile. the cardinal heard the rumor also; he was disturbed, but relied though with dawning doubt upon these letters from the queen signed _marie antoinette de france_. the fifteenth of august was and is a great day in all catholic countries. it is the feast of the assumption, an occasion upon which prelates don their most splendid robes and appear in all their dignity. during the reign of louis xvi. it was an especially honored day, being besides a religious festival also the name day of the queen. on this day in at versailles, cardinal de rohan in his purple and scarlet vestments was suddenly placed under arrest, and thus humiliated was conducted from the king's cabinet through the crowd of amazed courtiers who thronged the oeil de boeuf into the guard-room. the scene in the king's cabinet had been brief. the cardinal, summoned to the royal presence, found louis, marie antoinette, and the first minister of state awaiting him, all in evident agitation. "you have lately bought a diamond necklace," said the king abruptly. "what have you done with it?" the cardinal glanced imploringly at the queen who turned upon him eyes blazing with anger. "sire, i have been deceived," cried the cardinal, becoming suddenly pale, "i will pay for the necklace myself." more angry questions from the king, more faltering confused answers from the cardinal, and meanwhile the stern implacable face of the incensed queen turned towards him. the door opens, a captain of the guard enters: "in the king's name follow me!" says the officer, and grand-almoner of france, the cardinal-prince of rohan is led off under arrest. thus far the action of every one concerned is comprehensible enough, but after this it becomes so extraordinary that it is no wonder if the enemies of the queen pretended there was a dark mystery behind which had yet to be revealed. the unrelenting hatred of marie antoinette, which made her demand the cardinal's head in vengeance for his audacity in aiming at her affections, seems to have blinded her to every other consideration but that of ruining her enemy. madame de la motte was, it is true, arrested and thrown into the bastile, but so bent were the royal party upon destroying the cardinal that they held out hopes of acquittal to the adventuress herself if she would accuse the cardinal. nay, more, they offered to pay for the hateful jewel if böhmer would give damaging evidence against the cardinal. having thus completely put themselves in the wrong the case came on for trial before a bench of judges, who seem to have acted with perfect uprightness and impartiality. and this, too, when public feeling was running very high in paris and the reign of terror only five years off. all the perpetrators of the crime, except madame de la motte, confessed to their share in it; so the whole series of gigantic cheats and trickeries was exposed. the forger confessed to his forgery, and the girl confessed to the scene she had acted in the gardens of the trianon. at length the cardinal had to admit to himself that the woman la motte, who had bewitched his senses to the detriment of his fair fame, had also cheated his purse to an almost fabulous extent and had involved him in the crime of high treason which in days of more absolute power would undoubtedly have cost him his head. the cardinal was acquitted of the capital crime, but was condemned to lose his post of grand-almoner, to retire into the country during the king's pleasure, and to beg their majesties' most humble pardon--a sufficiently severe sentence one would suppose for having been made a fool of by a designing woman. marie antoinette heard of the cardinal's "acquittal," as she called it, with a burst of tearful rage which transpires through her letters to her sisters at the time. she laments in them the pass to which the world had come when she could do nothing but weep over her wrongs and was powerless to avenge them. the rest of those concerned were variously dealt with. the count de la motte was condemned to the galleys for life, but he had already escaped to london, so the sentence did not much matter in his case. the forger villette was banished. in his case the decree of the court was carried out in the old-fashioned way: he was led to the prison gate with a halter round his neck, where the executioner gave him a loaf of bread and a kick and bade him begone forever. the sentence on madame de la motte was sufficiently rigorous. she was to be whipped at the cart's tail, branded, and then imprisoned for life. the whipping was but slightly administered, but a large v (_voleuse_-thief) was marked with a red-hot iron on her shoulder: a fact which caused the jocose to say that she was marked with her own royal initial, v standing for valois as well as for _voleuse_. after a couple of years in prison the authorities connived at her escape, in pursuance it was believed of orders from versailles. marie antoinette's unpopularity was, if possible, increased by the affair of the necklace, and the cardinal became a hero for a short time until others more conspicuous arose to overshadow him. even yet, however, the unhappy necklace continued to work for evil towards the queen. safe in england madame de la motte wrote her memoirs, which are nothing but a mass of libels and a tissue of falsehood all directed against the queen. for private political purposes it suited the duke of orleans to spread them as much as possible, for the great aim of his life was to discredit the queen. madame de la motte died miserably in london from the effects of a jump from a second story window which she took to escape from bailiffs who were arresting her for debt. all the money she obtained from the diamond necklace was not able to save her from want and misery. she was only thirty-four years old at the time of her death. the count de la motte lived on into the reign of charles x. and begging to the last also died in want. the cardinal de rohan became an émigré after his brief hour of parisian popularity and died in exile. the jewelers became bankrupt and the firm sank into oblivion. and marie antoinette? ah well, she had nothing to say to the direful necklace. she never probably so much as touched it with a finger-tip during the whole course of her life, but she was taxed with its theft on her way to the scaffold, and a generation ago her memory was again loaded with the crime by m. louis blanc. marie antoinette has had every possible and impossible crime cast upon her by writers who sought in her person to degrade the idea of a monarchy, but slowly history is removing this dirt from the garment of her reputation. she was silly and headstrong in her youth and did harm by her thoughtlessness, but she was neither so silly nor so headstrong as many of the queens, her predecessors, nor did she do one tithe of the mischief that some of them attempted. she chanced, however, upon troublous times, and therefore everything she did was reckoned a crime, as also many things which she did not do, such as the stealing of the diamond necklace. xii. the tara brooch and the shrine of st. patrick's bell. the two jewels which it is now our intention to describe differ essentially from all those with which we have made acquaintance. they are not enriched with stones of any great value, but the setting of such pebbles as have been used is of a kind to render them unique. the most careful illustration conveys but a poor idea of the splendor and delicacy of the metal-work which literally covers these masterpieces of the goldsmith's art. we have nowadays a firm and in the main a well-founded conviction of our superiority in all things over the men of primitive ages. but in the presence of the tara brooch the most skillful jeweler of modern times is obliged to admit his inferiority. with all our skill it is impossible to imitate the delicacy of the workmanship and the wonderful grace and variety of the design displayed upon this truly royal gem. its history is of the meagerest. it was found in the month of august, , on the strand at drogheda, washed up from the deep by some especially generous tide, and left there for two little boys to pick up. the mother of the children carried their find to a dealer in old iron, but he refused to buy so small and insignificant an object. she then tried a watchmaker, who gave her eighteen pence (thirty six cents) for the brooch. the watchmaker cleaned it up and then beheld what he conceived to be a jewel of silver covered with gold filagree. he thereupon proceeded to dublin and sold it to messrs. waterhouse, the jewelers, for twelve pounds (sixty dollars), which it must be admitted was a very fair profit upon his original outlay. messrs. waterhouse exhibited far and wide this jewel which was by them called the royal tara brooch--a name which serves well enough to distinguish it from other brooches, but which cannot be said to have any historical appropriateness. whatever truth there may be in the legendary magnificence of "tara's halls," there is no reason to suppose that this brooch was ever displayed within its walls. these walls, whatever their nature, were represented by green mounds and grassy rath-circles, such as may be seen to-day, when the so-called tara brooch left the hands of the craftsman who made it. after a time the tara brooch was sold to the royal irish academy for two hundred pounds (one thousand dollars) which, though by no means an exorbitant price, was again a very fair profit for messrs. waterhouse. [illustration: the tara brooch.] the form and workmanship of the brooch are of an early celtic type, and it is believed by competent authorities to be extremely ancient, dating probably from before the eighth century. at any rate, it may with confidence be placed before the eleventh century, for a certain design known as the divergent-spiral or trumpet-pattern, which though common before disappeared from irish art about that period, is to be seen among its intricate ornamentation. the groundwork of the jewel is not silver, as was at first supposed, but white metal, a compound of tin and copper. it is however the beautiful gold tracery laid upon this white metal which renders it so famous. no description can give an idea of what it is. the tara brooch must be seen to be understood. if the tara brooch appeals to our imagination by reason of the mystery of its past, saint patrick's bell has a contrary but even stronger hold upon us. it seems really to be an authentic relic of the saint to whom it is ascribed, and at any rate it can be shown to have undergone a long and varied career. in the course of these narratives we have met with many kings and queens; it is now our intention to introduce the reader to a saint. as it seems to be decreed by inscrutable destiny that no statement concerning ireland shall ever be made without its being at once contradicted, we shall endeavor to shelter ourselves behind the wisdom of competent authorities. as saint patrick was an irish saint it would be in the usual course of things for his very existence to be vehemently denied. it is thus denied by some writers who have been at pains to indite learned books upon the subject. the following details concerning him are taken in the main from dr. todd's _life of saint patrick_, and from the saint's own works as edited and translated by the reverend george stokes, professor of ecclesiastical history in dublin. not being learned in irish nor yet in latin, we accept the translations of these able scholars. as in the case of many great men the honor of being the birthplace of saint patrick is claimed on behalf of several places in england, ireland, scotland and france. the reader may choose which country he likes and he will find clever and ingenious arguments to support his theory. the saint himself says that his father's name was calpornius and that he dwelt in the village of bannaven tabernia, and the learned, if agreed upon no other point, are at least at one upon this--that they don't know where that village was. saint patrick's father had a small farm and seems to have been of noble birth, but the saint invariably speaks of himself as the rudest of men, and deplores his want of learning. "i, patrick a sinner, the rudest and the least of all the faithful and most contemptible to very many," is the beginning of his confession, a work written by himself and containing most of the few facts known about his life. at the age of sixteen he was taken captive, whether from armorica in brittany, or from dumbarton on the clyde, it is impossible to say, and carried "along with many thousands of others" into barbarous ireland. this evidently occurred in one of those predatory expeditions of the irish, or scots as they were then called, which under the chieftainship of niall of the nine hostages extended to all the neighboring coasts. dumbarton suffered repeatedly in this manner, a fact evidenced by the numbers of roman coins found all along the coast of antrim in ireland. dumbarton, an important military position, was the western limit of the roman wall constructed by agricola, a. d. , to cut off the ravaging picts from the rest of britain, but the romans, although so near, never set foot in ireland. having been thus carried off to ireland saint patrick became the slave of milchu who dwelt in dalaradia in a place now identified with the valley of the braid, in the very heart of the county antrim. as a slave the saint's duty was to tend sheep, and six years he spent in this humble occupation. the fervent zeal and burning piety which were destined to exalt him among men began to show themselves even in his youth. he used to pray both day and night, he tells us, even in the frost and snow never feeling any laziness. at the end of six years he escaped, made his way to the seacoast, and finding a vessel ready to start was at length suffered to embark. they sailed for three days and then wandered twenty days in a desert. this item does not help us as to the locality, for the coasts either of brittany or scotland, suffering as they did from the frequent visits of the irish, were likely enough to be deserts. patrick's first converts seem to have been the crew of this ship, for being on the point of starvation they appealed to the christian to help them, and the saint prayed, whereupon a drove of swine appeared, the grateful sailors "gave great thanks to god, and i" [patrick writes] "was honored in their eyes." after a brief stay with his parents the young man impelled by his zeal set out again for ireland, determined to bring its pagan inhabitants into the light of christianity. there is some variety of opinion as to the date of the saint's arrival in the home of his choice, but is the date commonly received, at which time he appears to have been something under twenty-five years of age. he first went to the north with the intention of seeking out milchu his master. but this individual burnt up both himself and his house on the approach of the saint in order not to be converted. so at least ancient annals declare. it must be confessed that this paganism was of the most robust type. having failed in this quarter he then proceeded to the boyne. this is one of the most picturesque of rivers winding about among its wooded banks. both sides of the river are now dotted with handsome and carefully-kept parks where ornamental trees and cows stand in pleasing and picturesque groups, while the smoothly-mown grass rolls like green velvet down to the water's edge. the water itself is limpid and clear as crystal, and in the deep pools the silvery salmon leap high into the air after heedless flies who come within reach. it looks very different from the days when saint patrick paddled up in his wicker and bull's-hide canoe. probably the holy man himself would not recognize it; nothing is the same except the salmon, the flies, the limpid, clear water. at slane, a hill on the riverside about eight miles from its mouth, saint patrick built a beacon-fire. he was in consequence of this immediately summoned to appear before king laoghaire who held his court on the neighboring height of tara to answer how he dared light a fire, when according to ancient custom as well as by royal mandate all fires were to be extinguished. the interview between the saint and the king ended if not in the latter's conversion at least in his tolerating the new comer, and eventually this occasioned the change in the religion of the whole tribe. thus began the apostleship of saint patrick, who in the course of his long ministry traversed most parts of ireland undeterred by the dread of starvation or the fear of murder. he baptized many thousands of the natives, planted churches in numerous places, founded schools and established monasteries. his most famous foundation is undoubtedly that of armagh, the legend about which is preserved in a celebrated old irish manuscript known as the book of armagh. the saint begged of a certain rich man some high land upon which to build him a church, but the rich man refused him the hill, offering in its stead a lower piece of ground near ardd-machæ, and "there saint patrick dwelt with his followers." upon all the churches which he founded saint patrick is said to have bestowed bells, several of which under distinctive names have become famous in history. one of these venerable relics, a small hand-bell made of two iron plates, something over seven inches high and three pounds ten ounces in weight, is known especially as the bell of the will of saint patrick. it is with this small rude object, not unlike the sheep-bell of to-day, that we have to deal. sixty years after the death of saint patrick another irish saint, columkill, obtained this bell from the tomb of the former where it had ever since lain on the saint's breast, and by columkill it was bestowed on armagh as a most precious relic. this bell is mentioned under the date by the compiler of the annals of ulster. a poem of a later date, though still far back in the dark ages, speaks fondly of the bell, saying "there shall be red gold round its borders," and many shall be the kings who will treasure it, while woe is to be the portion of the person or house or tribe that hides it away. armagh suffered much and frequently from fires, as was indeed natural in a village built entirely of wood as seems to have been the case during the first centuries of its existence. in it was burnt to the ground, all except the library alone. the steeple or round tower was burned with its bells. and again in , on the tuesday after may day, it was burnt with all its churches and all its bells. but among these bells was not the clog-phadriug (the bell of saint patrick). that was confided to the custody of a maer (keeper) whose honor and emolument depended upon the safety of the trust reposed in him. the keeper of the bell was the head of the o'maelchallans. the ancient poem already quoted refers thus to the elected keepers: "i command for the safe keeping of my bell eight who shall be noble illustrious: a priest and a deacon among them, that my bell may not deteriorate." the bell of saint patrick was regarded as more and more holy as the centuries rolled on, and by the middle of the eleventh century any profanation of its sanctity was visited with the severest penalties. under the date there stands this emphatic entry in the annals of ulster: "a predatory expedition of niull son of maelsechlainn, king of ailech, against ui-meith and against cuailgne in which he carried off twelve hundred cows and a multitude of captives in revenge for the violation of the bell of the will." besides the extraordinary high price set upon the bell as evidenced by the number of cattle taken in revenge for the slight offered it, the record is interesting as showing the relative values of cows and men. it will be remarked that the horned cattle are carefully numbered as being precious, while the human cattle are roughly lumped together as a "multitude." this raid was followed later on by another in which "cattle-spoil and prisoners" were carried off in revenge for another violation. during the episcopacy of donell macaulay who occupied the see of armagh from to , the sacred bell was inclosed in the gorgeous shrine which, though mutilated, still excites our admiration and envy. an inscription runs around the shrine; it has been managed with such skill that the letters seem to form an ornamentation rather than a break in the general design. the illustration which we offer our readers is that of the front of the shrine, showing also a portion of the side. the framework is of bronze fastened at the corners with copper fluting, and the gold and silver work is fixed to this foundation by means of rivets. the front is divided into thirty-one compartments, several of which have lost their ornamentations. a central decoration comprises an oval crystal while a little lower down appears another and a larger crystal. this latter object has been unaccountably introduced by some ignorant person, for it is manifestly out of place. it occurred to the present writer when inspecting the shrine last summer that it belonged to the center of a neighboring shrine with which its setting agrees, and where its shape would enable it to fit exactly. on the side, below the knot and ring by which it is suspended, there are eight of those quaint irish serpents, whose elegant tails curve and infold each other so intricately that it is almost as difficult to make out each particular snake as if they were in very truth alive and wriggling. their eyes are of blue glass. the stones which still remain in their setting are of little or no value; glass, crystal and amber appear to have been the only objects used. [illustration: st. patrick's bell.] but the beauty of the gold tracery is beyond expression. the photograph but poorly represents it, and the engraving falls still further below the original. it must be seen to be understood, and as the shrine may be examined in its case at the royal irish academy any day, we can only hope that no visitor will ever leave dublin without seeing it, no matter what else he may leave unseen. we return now to the history of the shrine. the inscription according to the general usage of irish inscriptions begs a prayer first for domhnall o'lachlainn, lord of ailech (king of ulster), secondly, for domhnall the bishop of armagh, and thirdly for chathalan o'maelchallan the keeper of the shrine, and finally a prayer is also asked for cudulig o'inmauien the artificer who did the work. as long as the shrine lasts and as human beings possess a love of the beautiful the request of cudulig will be answered in the admiration which all beholders will freely give to the work of his hands. domhnall the king is famous in the annals as being "the most distinguished of the irish for personal form, family, sense, prowess, prosperity and happiness, for bestowing of jewels and food upon the mighty and the needy." he died after a reign of twenty-seven years--a splendid personage evidently, and one who might have caused the beautiful shrine to be made. the o'maelchallans appear to have kept their trust for generations; but from some reason now undiscoverable in the bell of saint patrick was kept by solomon o'mellan after whose death it again reverted to the former keepers. these enjoyed certain lands by right of their charge which were situate in the county of tyrone near stewartstown and were called ballyelog, _i.e._, the town of the bell. in the o'mulchallans were exempted from an interdict laid upon their diocese by the primate, and this was done out of veneration for the sacred bell of which they were the custodians. once more the bell migrated into the family of the o'mellans and once again came back to the o'mulchallans, whose name was undergoing a softening process, it will be observed. in the keepers having become powerful and wealthy began naturally to be arrogant. they usurped the "firstlings of flocks," and got into trouble with the primate in consequence. and now there comes a great gap in the history of the bell. from to there are no annals in ireland which deal with it. perhaps the inhabitants were too busy with their newly-arrived english neighbors and all their advent entailed to remember the bell. it continued, however, during all those generations in the same family of keepers whose name had become further toned down and was now mulhollan. in bernard mulhollan died and edmond his son kept the bell in his stead. his son henry was destined for the priesthood but became a schoolmaster instead. his school at edenduffcarrick was attended by adam macclean, a boy for whom he felt a great tenderness, and who returned his affection with gratitude. in the disastrous rebellion of henry mulhollan became implicated, and when that rising was put down he would have suffered for his rashness had it not been for the interference of his former pupil now become a wealthy belfast merchant. all through life mr. macclean showed kindness and gave assistance to his old schoolmaster. when the latter came to die he accordingly left to his benefactor what he held most precious in the world. we give mr. macclean's own account of what henry mulhollan said to him on his death-bed: "my dear friend, you were an old and valued scholar of mine: on one occasion you were the means of saving my life, and on many subsequent occasions of providing for its comforts. i am now going to die. i have no child to whom i might leave the little i possess, nor have i any near of kin who might prefer any claim to it; in either case the treasure i possess and which i hold dear as life should not have left the family of mulholland, in which it has been for ages and generations handed down. but i am the last of my race and you are the best friend i have. i therefore give it to you, and when i am gone, dig in the garden at a certain spot, and you will find a box there: take it up and treasure its contents for my sake." mr. macclean dug in the place indicated and found an oak box within which lay the bell and its shrine and beside them a worn copy of bedell's quarto irish bible. mr. macclean had the precious relic in his possession for a number of years, but unhappily he did not at first keep it under lock and key. the result was what might have been foretold by any one acquainted with the depredations committed by the enlightened vermin known as "relic-hunters." priceless bits of gold tracery were stolen by the servants and visitors until the cruelly denuded panels aroused mr. macclean to a sense of his danger. he then locked up the shrine. mr. macclean willed the bell and its shrine to dr. todd, the great irish authority on saint patrick, and by him in turn it was bequeathed back to the nation at large, who leave it to the care of the royal irish academy as its keepers. we have now traced the history of this bell back through the long vista of fourteen centuries. during most of that time it was venerated as a relic of great sanctity and the humanizing influence of this feeling must have helped these poor benighted savages of ireland whom saint patrick came to teach and save. the religious sanctity of the bell is gone, but its mission is not thereby ended. the worship of the beautiful has also its humanizing and elevating influence. * * * * * transcriber's notes: . passages in italics are surrounded by _underscores_. . images have been moved from the middle of a paragraph to the closest paragraph break. . footnotes have been renumbered and moved from the end of the page to the end of the paragraph in which they appear. . the phrase "oeil de boeuf" uses oe ligature in the original. . macron over a vowel is indicated using equality sign followed by the vowel itself within square brackets. for instance, vowel i with macron is represented by [=i]. transcriber's note: minor typographical errors have been corrected without note. irregularities and inconsistencies in the text have been retained as printed. words printed in italics are noted with underscores: _italics_. on the development and distribution of primitive locks and keys. by lieut.-general pitt-rivers, f.r.s. _illustrated by specimens in the pitt-rivers collection._ [_the materials for this paper, together with the rest of the museum, have been in course of collection since the year , and some of the specimens illustrated have been exhibited to the public at bethnal green and south kensington for some years._] london: chatto and windus, piccadilly. . london: harrison and sons, printers in ordinary to her majesty, st. martin's lane. on the development and distribution of primitive locks and keys. etymology of words for locks and keys:--"klu," the greco-italian base, to lock (fick), from the sanskrit "klu," to move (benfey and monier williams); "klavi," key (fick); "[greek: kleis]," greek, a key; "[greek: kleistron]," greek, a bolt or bar; "claustrum," latin, a lock, bar, or bolt; "claudo," latin, to close or shut; "clausum," latin, an enclosed space; "clausura," latin, a castle; "clavis," latin, a key; "clavus," latin, a nail; "clef," french, a key; "clou," french, a nail; "clo," gaelic, a nail, pin, or peg; "clo," irish, a nail or pin; "glas," irish, a lock; "clo," welsh, a lock; "clar," bourguignon, a key; "clau," french provincial, a key; "clav," old spanish, a key; "chiave," italian, a key; "chave," portuguese, a key; "close," english, to shut. from the same root, "klu," to move, comes also "sklu" (skeat), from which is derived the teutonic "slut," to shut, and from thence the dutch "slot," a lock, and also a castle, from "sluiten," to shut; old friesic "slot," from "sluta," to shut; low german "slot." thus also the english provincial word "slot," a bolt; "schloss," german, a lock, and also a castle; "schlüssel," german, a key. from the latin "sero," to put, comes "sera," latin, a movable bar or bolt; "serrure," french, a lock; "serratura," italian, a lock. the french word "verrou," a bolt; wallon "verou" or "ferou;" bourguignon "varullo;" provincial "verroth," "berroth," and "ferroth;" portuguese "ferrolho." the forms in "f" appear to indicate a derivation from the latin "ferrum," iron. the english word "lock" is derived from the teutonic base, "luck," to lock (fick); "loc," anglo-saxon, a lock; "lock," friesic, a lock; "lukke," danish, a lock; "loca," icelandic, a lock or latch, or the lid of a chest; "lock," swedish, a lid; "loke," wallon; "luycke," flemish; "loquet," french, a catch. in early english it was pronounced "loke" (skeat). the english word "latch" is probably the same as the danish "laas," a lock; "las," swedish, a lock; "luchetto," italian, a latch. skeat derives it from the anglo-saxon word "loeccan," to seize; in early english it was pronounced "lacche," and he suggests the probability of its being derived from the latin word "laqueus," a snare, but this is doubtful. "hasp," english, is derived from the teutonic base, "hapsa;" "hæpsa," anglo-saxon; "hespa," icelandic; "haspe," danish; "haspe," swedish; "haspe," german. "moraillon," the french word for "hasp," is of uncertain origin, but littrÉ supposes it to be derived from the provincial "mor," a muzzle, probably the french word "mors," a bit; "morsum," latin, a bit or a little piece; "morsus," latin, a bite, as well as the english "muzzle" and "nozzle," are all derived from the same root. "clef bénarde," a key that is not piped (forée) (hamilton and legros) or furnished with grooves, and which can be opened from both sides, is from "bernard," which in old french signifies a fool, hence a "clef bernarde" or "bénarde" is an inferior kind of key (littrÉ). the english word "key" was derived from the anglo-saxon "cæg" by the change of "g" into "y;" old friesic "kai" and "kei." the english word "bolt," which is now applied to the most primitive form of the mechanism, and probably the one from which the others took their origin, appears to have been obtained from the anglo-saxon word "bolt," a catapult. thus we have the danish "bolt," an iron pin; "bout," dutch, a bolt or pin; "bolz," german, and it appears to have been adopted from its resemblance to the bolt or arrow used with the catapult. crabb ('technical dictionary of arts and sciences') thinks it comes from the latin "pello," to drive, and the greek "ballo," to cast, and that it has thus been applied to anything shooting, as a bolt of a door, or a bird bolt, whilst skeat supposes it to have been named like "bolster" from its roundness. the word "padlock" is important in relation to our subject. this kind of lock is especially suitable as a fastening for baskets and saddle bags; being a hanging lock, less liable to injury from knocks than a fixed lock, it is used in preference to this day for travelling purposes. the word "pad" is a provincial norfolk word used for "pannier" (halliwell and skeat). it hangs about all words relating to early modes of travelling, thus we have, "pad," a stuffed saddle for carrying a pannier on horseback; "pad-nag," a road horse; "pad," a thief on the high road; "pad," dutch, a path, "pæth," anglo-saxon, a path; "pfad," german, a path, which latter english word is also itself cognate with pad; "pod," a bag carried on horseback; "pedlar," a travelling hawker. the word "padlock" therefore means "road lock," and it is significant in relation to the way in which padlocks of like form may have become distributed over wide areas in early times. the french word "cadenas," a padlock, comes from the latin "catena," a chain, and the connection is obvious; "catenaccio," italian; "candado" and "cadena," spanish; "cadenat," french provincial; berry "chadaine," a cord; picard "cagne" and "caine;" hence also the french word "chaîne," and the english "chain." we see from this, that, as is usual in like cases, the words have followed lines of their own, and afford but little evidence of the forms of the objects to which they have been applied, excepting in so far that the common word "klu" or "clo" for lock and pin, and its connection with the base "klu," to move, implies that the earliest form consisted of a movable bolt. but, in any case, whether we take the latin word "sero", to put, or the sanskrit "klu," to move, as independent origins of words for locks, we are carried back to a time when it consisted of a simple bar or bolt put up or slipped through staples to close a door. the passage in the 'odyssey,' so often quoted in relation to the construction of greek door locks, does not in reality throw much light upon the subject so long as it is unassisted by archæological discoveries. it has been variously translated,[ ] and we are left very much to conjecture for the forms of the most primitive kinds of locks which preceded those of which the relics are to be found in our collections of antiquities. it is noteworthy, however, that the earliest vestiges of apparatus connected with door fastenings in metal, that are discovered, consist of keys, which leads to the inference that the locks themselves may have been made of wood, and have therefore perished. but we have survivals of primitive wooden locks in use at the present time in different countries, which show us, with great probability, the uses to which the keys were put, and it is to these that we must turn in any attempt to trace back the history of the mechanism from the commencement. the process is one, the merits and demerits of which have been too often discussed to need comment here. in the absence of direct archæological evidence we have no alternative but to avail ourselves of survivals as far as possible. the materials, however, in the case of locks are so abundant that it will not be necessary to tax our imagination unduly in order to fill in the links that are found wanting. [ ] 'odyssey,' xxi., - . see translations by pope, and by butcher and lang. i put aside all mention of knots and strings which as mr. syer cuming has observed ('journal of the british archæological association,' vol. xii., p. ) must have formed the fastenings employed by dwellers in tents, and of which the gordian knot was a complicated example. in early times seals must often have served as substitutes for locks, as we know was frequently the case in ancient egypt and assyria. the wooden door must have given rise to a totally different contrivance. it is possible, however, that something analogous to the japanese book fastening, represented in fig. , plate i., may have been employed under both systems. of the bar, whether of wood or iron, used for fastening up the door on the inside, little need be said, nor are we at a loss for a commencement in the common door bolt. figs. and , plate i., represent the inside view and section of a wooden bolt now in use on barns and outhouses at gastein, in austria, and like many of the ordinary appliances which in most countries are now made of metal, it is there constructed entirely of wood, and is such a bolt as might have been used in the most primitive state of society. it is intended to open from the outside, where the handle, consisting of a flat oblong piece of wood (fig. , _a_, plate i.), communicates, by means of a neck of wood, with the bolt _b_ on the inside, and when shoved home to fasten the door, the neck moves along a slit in the door shown by the dotted line, fig. , _c c_, plate i. such a bolt can of course be opened by any one whether from within or without, and it has the further insecurity of being liable to be forced open accidentally by anything that might catch the handle, there being no fastening within to keep it securely in its place when shut. the simplest contrivance for remedying this latter defect would be to insert a peg or pin into the bolt, which might be left hanging by a string fastened to a staple when the door is open, and when bolted, inserted vertically into a hole in the top of the bolt in front of the upright guide or staple through which the bolt slides, as represented in figs. and , plate i., and it could be got at from without through a hole in the door. by this means the bolt would be kept securely in its place when shut, but it would require two motions both in opening and shutting the door. anything calculated to save time in a process of such ordinary occurrence as the opening and shutting of a door would be speedily adopted, and it would soon be found that by fixing the pin vertically in a slide, so as to fall freely, and making the lower end smooth, so as to slide along the upper surface of the bolt as the latter was drawn back, it might easily be so contrived that when shut it should fall by its own weight into the hole in the bolt, as represented in figs. , , , plate i.; in the former of which it is shown open, and in fig. , shut, with the pin down in the hole, so as to secure it from being drawn back until the pin is raised, which might be done from the outside by means of a hole in the door, through which the string might be made to pass, as shown in the section, fig. . by this contrivance the bolt would only require one motion to shut it securely, and it might also be placed in the inside; but to open it again two motions would be necessary as before. still, however, the fastening would be accessible to everyone, and in a condition of society in which property must always have been insecure, it would become a great desideratum to construct a bolt which could be drawn back only by the use of a key, which the owner might carry about with him, and thereby secure his goods and chattels whilst he himself was absent in the fields, or in the hunting grounds. so necessary a requirement of every day life must have forced itself upon the notice of the greater part of mankind, and it is not surprising, therefore, to find that this stage of the development of the lock forms the point of trifurcation of three separate branches of improvement. two of these are of the nature of tumbler locks, and consist of apparatus for raising the pin or pins by which the bolt is secured when they fall into the holes provided for them on the upper surface of it. it was for this reason that they were termed _tumblers_, because they tumble into the holes when the lock is closed. the third branch led off in another direction. in order that the mind may not wander from the lines of continuity whilst i treat each of these three branches separately, i shall class them as a, b, and c in the diagrams, at the same time allowing the numbers of the figures to run on continuously from this point of departure. by this means i shall be best able to show the ramifications into which this mechanism, like all similar contrivances to which these papers relate, separate as they increase in complexity. the common door bolt (figs. and , plate i.) having continued to be available as an inside fastening, in addition to more complex contrivances for securing doors, has continued to be universally employed up to the present time, and may be compared in nature to those fossil species, which, having never become unsuited to their environment, have survived throughout successive geological periods, whilst the forms represented in figs. to , plate i., being makeshifts, have disappeared as soon as they were superseded, and thus they constitute the "missing links" of our developmental series. the two great desiderata in the stage of the lock that we are now considering were security and rapidity, both of which must have forced themselves on the notice of the primeval householder each time he crossed the threshold of his door. i shall begin with branch a in which security only appears to have been aimed at, and then proceed to those in which security and rapidity were combined. the first idea which suggested itself was to put a bolt in a box, so that no one could get at it to lift the tumbler without a key especially adapted to enter the box and raise it, but as long as only one tumbler was used it must have been very easy to pick such a lock by raising the tumbler with any sharp-pointed instrument that might be introduced into the hole. by using two tumblers, it would be impossible to raise them both at once, except by a key constructed with projections or teeth to fit into notches or holes in the tumblers, which teeth must necessarily be at the same distance apart as the notches, and as the tumblers were hidden in the box, no one unacquainted with the contrivance could make a key to fit the lock, which by this means afforded to some extent the security that was requisite. scandinavia appears to have been the headquarters of this class of locks, or at any rate the part of the world in which they have chiefly survived at the present time; one of the simplest of which is represented in figs. a, a, and a, plate i., from the faroe islands. _e_ is the wooden block into which is cut a horizontal groove for the bolt _a_, and two vertical grooves in which the pins or tumblers, _d d_, play, and when the bolt is shut to, they fall of their own accord into the holes _f f_. the key, _c_, is passed horizontally into another groove cut for it in the block, above and parallel to the one for the bolt. two notches are cut in the tumblers to enable the key to pass, and when pressed in horizontally as far as it will go, the teeth of the key, _b b_, coincide exactly with the notches in the tumblers, so that when the key is afterwards raised vertically, it raises the tumblers, by means of the notches, out of the holes, _f f_, on the upper surface of the bolt, and the bolt can then be drawn out by the hand. it will be seen that this lock requires as many motions as the bolt (figs. , , and , plate i.). it requires only one motion to shut it, when the two tumblers fall into the holes and keep it fast, but to open it, it is necessary to use both hands, one to raise the key and the other to draw out the bolt. it may therefore be termed for distinction a hand-drawn lock. no time is saved by this process, but the lock, for such we must now begin to call it rather than bolt, is rendered more secure. different kinds of these locks, but all on the same principle, are in use in out of the way parts of scotland. figs. a to a, plate i., similar to the last but having a slight difference in the shape of the notches, is a scotch wooden lock in the patent museum at south kensington, a facsimile of which is in my collection. figs. a to a, plate ii., is another, also in the patent museum, in which three tumblers instead of two are raised by the same key, as shown in the sections, figs. a and a, plate ii. mr. romilly allen, who has written a paper on scotch tumbler locks in the nd volume, new series, of the 'proceedings of the society of antiquaries of scotland,' figures several others of the same class. one from north ronaldsay has four tumblers in line; another from the faroe islands has three tumblers in line; another from snizort, in skye, has six tumblers working independently of each other but raised with the same key, and consists simply of two ordinary locks put face to face with the bolt between them; another from harris is still more complicated in its construction, and is formed by five tumblers in line with two holes running through the whole of them, and the key has two limbs, one for each line of holes. it is unnecessary for my present purpose to describe all these locks in detail. though varying in character they are all constructed on one principle. as with the more complicated contrivances in metal, hereafter noticed, variety is an element of security, the greater the variety, the greater the difficulty of making a key which will fit them all; and this is another point in which the processes of the arts resemble the processes of nature, variety adapts the mechanism to a wider sphere of utility, and by encouraging change, promotes improvement. in the one, as in the other, variation is a necessary element of progress. i see no reason to suppose that this class of locks was confined to scotland or to scandinavia. they may probably have existed in other parts of europe, where, being made entirely of wood, they have long since decayed, and their representations may have survived only on the outskirts of civilisation. the law of geographical distribution is inexorable--nothing can make the north of scotland or of norway or the west of ireland centres of the arts, and it is to such places we must look for the survival of primitive contrivances. a precisely similar key to those here described, but of iron, was found with roman remains near gloucester, and is figured in lysons's 'magna britannia,' vol. ii., plate , showing that a wooden lock of this kind must have been in use in england at that time. figs. a to a, plate ii., is a similar lock used in norway, and copied by me from a specimen in the hazilius museum at stockholm.[ ] figs. to a, plate ii., is another in the museum at kew gardens, copied by permission of sir joseph hooker; it was made by the negroes in jamaica. figs. a to a, plate ii., is a similar one from british guiana, in the christy collection. one is tempted by the presence of these locks in the west indies to suppose that they may have been carried by the negroes from their african homes, and the resemblance commonly attributed to them to the egyptian wooden lock, constructed on nearly the same principle, might lead to the inference that they may have passed in that way to the west indies; but it will be seen hereafter that they differ in detail from the egyptian pin-locks. they are of the scotch or scandinavian type, and in all probability were imported into the new world by scotchmen rather than negroes. [ ] mr. john chubb in a paper read before the institution of civil engineers, april , , quotes a work by l. molinus, "de clavibus veterum," the date of which is, however, not mentioned, in which that author states that the use of keys was in his time still unknown in many parts of sweden. it is now necessary to return to figs. and , plate i., which represent the bolt with the single pin or tumbler, in order to trace the origin and development of class b. whilst in scandinavia and the north of europe, the key was applied to the upper part of the tumblers, above the bolt, as shown in the preceding examples of the hand-drawn lock; in egypt, asia, and probably in parts of europe also, another system combining rapidity with security was introduced. a key with a single tooth was inserted beneath the bolt, and by raising the tooth vertically and applying it to the lower end of the tumbler, the latter was pressed out of the hole and raised clear of the bolt, and the tooth occupying its place in the hole, the key itself was made to hook back the bolt, so that the whole operation was performed with one hand holding the key. fig. b, plate ii., represents this kind of lock, which may be termed a key-drawn, as distinct from a hand-drawn lock. as with the tumbler locks of the north of europe so with the southern variety, security was obtained by multiplying the number of tumblers and varying their position. figs. to b, plate ii., are drawings of a wooden pin-lock and key obtained by myself in egypt, which is of the kind habitually in use there at the present time. it has two tumblers in line. in fig. b the lock is represented with the key, a, in it and the tumblers raised, preparatory to drawing the bolt b. fig. b is the key, and in fig. b the lock is shown shut, with the tumblers down and the key lowered preparatory to withdrawing it from the lock. mr. romilly allen, in the paper already referred to, gives an illustration of one precisely similar which he obtained in persia. figs. b and b, plate iii., shows an exactly similar lock in the india museum, obtained by sir douglas forsyth at yarkand, a facsimile of which is in my collection. this kind of lock is also used in turkey; their identity throughout the region here spoken of is such as to leave no doubt of their having been copied from one another, and indicates the area of their distribution, about which something will be said further on. it appears doubtful whether or not this pin-lock was known to the ancient egyptians. rhind[ ] states that he discovered one on a door in the interior of an ancient egyptian tomb, but its date, from the description given in the text, appears doubtful. the tomb had certainly been opened in roman times, if not later. denon also says that he saw one sculptured in the temple of carnac, but he took no drawing of it, and the evidence of the existence of this kind of lock in ancient egyptian times certainly requires confirmation.[ ] sir gardner wilkinson is of opinion that the earliest example of a key with pins such as might be used with the pin-lock, is of the roman period, in the reign of trajan, a.d. , and the earliest known mention of any key at all is in the third chapter of judges, viz., b.c.[ ] if the pin-lock was in use in ancient egypt it was certainly exceptional, as all the sculptures represent the doors as being fastened by simple bolts. [ ] 'thebes, its tombs and their tenants,' by a. h. rhind, f.s.a., london, , p. . [ ] mr. bonomi states that he found a similar lock in one of the palaces at khorsabad. the word used for lock in the scriptures, 'muftah,' he says is the same in use in the east at the present time. ('nineveh and its palaces,' by joseph bonomi, f.r.s.l.) [ ] wilkinson's 'manners and customs of the ancient egyptians,' vol. i., p. . the date of this passage in judges is open to question. inman ('ancient faiths,' vol. ii., p. ) puts the earliest introduction of locks amongst the jews at about b.c. whether the modern egyptian lock is a survival of an ancient egyptian form, or whether it is of roman origin, it is certain, from the relics of roman bronze and iron keys and bolts found in various parts of europe, that the roman lock was constructed on the same principle. figs. b to b, plate iii., may be taken as illustrations of the roman lock when put together. it is a reproduction from original fragments preserved in the museum at mainz. fig. b is the bronze key; it has four teeth which, besides being at variable distances apart, are also of different forms, some being triangular and others square. fig. b is the bronze bolt, made with apertures to fit the key, and also to admit of similarly formed tumblers, shown in fig. b. the way in which these are put together is represented in the section of the lock, figs. b and b. the key _a_ is put into the keyhole _d_, fig. b, with the bar of the key containing the teeth in a vertical position, as represented by the dotted line _a_, fig. b. it is then turned round, and the teeth brought up beneath the bolt _b_. when pressed up vertically, the tumblers are driven up out of the bolt, and replaced by the teeth of the key, which hold the bolt so that it can be forced back by moving the key to the right. when the bolt is withdrawn, it releases the hasp _e_, fig. b. of such hasps, fig. b is a drawing of an original in my collection, found at hetternheim. by reference to fig. b, it will be seen that the tumblers, _f f_, are vertical, and would therefore fall into their places in the bolt, like those of the egyptian and scandinavian specimens; but being so small, and being probably made of wood, their weight would be insufficient to secure certainty of action, if dependent on weight alone; they are therefore pressed down by a flat plate _h_, figs. b and b, acting under the influence of a spring _g_, figs. b and b. this is an important addition, for it is evident that as soon as the spring comes into use, the tumblers can easily be made to press into the bolt horizontally, by means of a spring at the side, thereby enabling the lock to be used in any position in which it may be required; and there seems to be little doubt that some of the bolts and tumblers were so constructed in roman locks. the existence of a spring in roman locks is determined by the discovery of one with the spring in it, which is figured in m. liger's work 'la ferronnerie.'[ ] [ ] 'la ferronnerie, ancienne et moderne,' par f. liger, paris, , tome i., p. , fig. . the teeth of the key of the roman lock described above, it will be seen, are made to fit exactly the holes in the bolt; and this may perhaps have served to give the first idea of the ward system, which was so greatly depended upon for security in later times; but the same fallacy attaches to the use of these fitting teeth which attached to the ward system generally, for it is evident that any form of tooth small enough to go into the holes, and of the proper length, would have sufficed to lift the tumblers and draw the bolt; and accordingly we find that, in the roman key usually discovered, the teeth are merely round pins, and have no particular form given to them for fitting purposes. the distribution of this class of lock may be determined by the localities in which the keys and bolts have been found. fig. b, plate iii., is a bronze bolt of this description in my collection, from oppenheim, and obtained by me at mayence. fig. b, plate iii., is another of bronze, also in my collection, from heddernheim. similar ones have been found repeatedly in france, italy, germany, switzerland, and england. the keys with teeth are even more widely distributed, and have been found in all those countries which have been occupied by the romans. fig. b, plate iii., is a large iron key of this description in my collection, found in the rhine, at mayence. the earliest known example of a key with teeth, according to m. liger, is one represented on a coin of the papia family, dating about the end of the nd century b.c.[ ] [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome i., p. , fig. . but the ward system appears to have developed itself still further in connection with these locks and before the revolving key was introduced. fig. b, plate iii., is a specimen of a class of keys frequently discovered with roman remains, in which a plate is attached at right angles to the pins. this plate is pierced with slits of various forms, apparently intended to admit of the passage of wards placed vertically beneath the bolt to prevent any but the proper key from rising to lift the tumblers. the direction in which these keys were raised is shown by the flat part of the handle of the key being always at right angles to the pins and in the same plane as the ward plate. besides the bolts with several tumbler holes in them, others adapted for single tumblers have been discovered. of these fig. b, plate iii., drawn from m. liger's work, and found in the forest of compiègne, is an example, and fig. b, plate iii., from the same work, and found at nonfous, in switzerland (bonstetten) is a key adapted to fit such a bolt. other iron keys are found in england and france, the application of which is more doubtful. they are found chiefly in connection with celtic remains, and by some have been supposed to be keys for opening doors fastened with a simple latch on the inside.[ ] such latches were certainly employed amongst the earliest systems of door-fastenings, and the keys in question might have served the purpose of opening them, but they might also have been used to open locks with a single wooden tumbler; the simpler kinds resemble somewhat our modern pick-locks, of which fig. b, plate iii., is a specimen. fig. b, plate iii., in my collection is from a germano-roman tomb near niderolm, and was obtained at mayence; its possible use, in the manner represented in fig. b, plate ii., is obvious. figs. b and b, plate iii., are two anglo-saxon keys found at sarr, in kent.[ ] figs. b, b, plate iii., are two keys of the iron age from bornholm, in the baltic,[ ] attributed by m. videl to the rd or th century of our era. fig. b, plate iv., is a somewhat similar one from caerwent, in wales.[ ] it has a flat handle and appears to be adapted to be pressed downwards as if for opening a latch. figs. b, b, plate iv., are nearly similar ones, and were discovered in the roman villa at hartlip, in kent.[ ] [ ] ibid., p. . [ ] paper by john brent, esq., in the fifth volume of 'archæologia cantiana,' p. . [ ] 'mémoires de la société royale des antiquaries du nord,' - , plate viii., figs. and . [ ] 'isca silurum,' by john e. lee, f.s.a., plate xxxvi., fig. . [ ] c. roach smith's 'collectanea antiqua,' vol. ii., plate vi., figs. and , p. . figs. b and b, plate iv., are from drawings taken by me in the musée de saint germain, and were found at st. pierre-en-chastre, oise; others are figured in m. liger's 'la ferronnerie.'[ ] fig. b, plate iv., is in the british museum, and was found within the entrenchments at spettisbury, near blandford; it was presented to the museum by mr. j. y. akerman. figs. b and b, plate iv., are two found by me in pits in the interior of mount caburn camp, near lewes.[ ] fig. b is of large size, inches in length, and sickle-shaped. all the objects discovered in this camp proved it to be of the late celtic period; the tin coins found associated with these remains, the bone combs, pottery, and other objects belong to an age anterior to the roman conquest. fig. b, plate iv., is a similar one found by mr. park harrison in similar pits in the neighbouring camp of cissbury,[ ] in sussex, which has been shown to have been occupied by people of the same age as mount caburn, viz.: the late celtic period. it will be seen that some of these keys, all of which are of iron, have a small return or pin at the end, which is adapted to fit into a hole, and in the cissbury specimen this end is flattened, as if to enable it to fit an aperture of special dimensions. [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome i., p. . [ ] 'archæologia,' vol. xlvi., plate xxiv., "excavations in mount caburn, conducted by general pitt-rivers, f.r.s., in september and october, , and july, ." [ ] 'journal of the anthropological institute,' vol. vii., p. , plate xi., fig. . but for whatever purpose these crooked keys were used, whether as latch-keys, as keys for single-tumbler pins, or as hooks to pull back a plain iron or wooden bolt, the large size of some of them, especially that from caburn, fig. b, and sickle shape, corresponds with remarkable accuracy to the description of a greek key given by eustathius, and quoted in parkhurst's 'hebrew lexicon.' he says that they were "in the shape of a sickle, and that not being easily carried in the hand on account of their inconvenient form they were carried on the shoulder, as we see our reapers carry on their shoulders at this day their sickles, joined and tied together." callimachus, in his hymn to ceres, says that the goddess, having assumed the form of nicippe, her priests carried a key, [greek: katômadios], that is, fit to be borne on the shoulder.[ ] this also explains, i presume, the passage in isaiah, "and the key of the house of david _will i lay upon his shoulder_; so he shall open, and none shall shut; and he shall shut, and none shall open."[ ] it will be seen that the specimen found by me in mount caburn corresponds exactly with the description given in the above quotations, the curved portion of the key being - / inches in diameter, a bundle of them tied together would exactly fit the shoulder, as represented in fig. b, plate iv. as we know from the researches of mr. evans and others that imitations of the coins of greece spread throughout gaul and britain, some of which, of very debased form and cast in tin, were found in the camp at caburn in association with the sickle-shaped keys, and others have been found in connection with relics of the same period elsewhere, there is no inherent improbability in the supposition that the keys may have followed a like route.[ ] should further discoveries tend to confirm this connection, it would be a remarkable testimony to the value of archæological investigation if the well-known passage in the 'odyssey' about the key of penelope were to find its definite interpretation on the shores of sussex.[ ] [ ] this passage is quoted from a paper "on the construction of locks and keys," read before the institution of civil engineers by mr. john chubb, april , , and is extracted from parkhurst's 'hebrew lexicon,' th edit., p. . london, . [ ] isaiah xxii, . it has been suggested that this passage in isaiah was introduced subsequently to the rest of the book, and dates from a period when keys came into general use amongst the jews. [ ] since the discovery that these objects were keys, i have reason to think that other things found in the same place and represented in the same plate, as for instance figs. and , may have been door fastenings. 'archæologia,' vol. xlvi., plate xxiv. [ ] mr. bonomi gives an illustration of the way in which the modern egyptian keys are carried by merchants at cairo on the shoulder at the present time; these keys however are straight, and are hung to a stick over the shoulder, and are not sickle-shaped as described by eustathius. we must now return to fig. , plate i., in order to trace the third class, c, of locks and padlocks fastening with a spring catch. it seems probable that fixed locks may have preceded hanging ones, although, on the other hand, the want of some contrivance for securing property must have been felt in connection with saddle-bags, panniers, and other appliances of nomadic life, and in a condition of society which preceded the use of fixed abodes. be this as it may, it seems possible to trace the employment of spring locks by means of survivals from the common door-bolt. the origin of the spring padlock, in the present state of my knowledge on the subject, is doubtful. the sequence which i here assume is only tentative, and it is probable that connecting links with more primitive contrivances may be supplied hereafter. the defect of the common bolt, as i have already shown, was its insecurity as an outside fastening; in fact it afforded no security at all, and to remedy this defect and make it inaccessible, except by means of a key, several different contrivances appear from the first to have suggested themselves; amongst others, one of the simplest was adopted in connection with the scandinavian bolt, a specimen of which, probably a modern survival of an ancient form, was exhibited in the scandinavian section of the exhibition of , and is figured in m. liger's work.[ ] we must suppose the handle in fig. , plate i., and its neck connecting it with the bolt, to be removed, leaving only the slit in the door along which the neck of the handle slid, and that a similar slit was made in the bolt also. the key, which was of iron, was t-shaped; it was inserted from the outside through the slit in the door, and in the bolt, with the arms of the t in a horizontal plane; it then received a quarter turn so that the arms of the t were brought into a vertical plane, and it was then pulled back, when the returns of the t were made to fit into two holes provided for them on either side of the slit in the bolt, on the inside, figs. c and c, plate iv. by this means the key obtained a grip of the bolt, and it was only necessary to press it to one side in order to shoot it. this bolt, which is taken from m. liger's work, so closely resembles the next one to be described, that if he had been a less careful writer one might suppose that it was the same lock, and that he had omitted to represent the spring which alone constitutes the improvement shown in figs. c, c, and c, plate iv., which was presented to me by dr. engelhardt, at copenhagen. it is still in use on barn and outhouse doors in norway, and was first brought to notice by professor o. rygh, of christiania. the key, which is of the same form as the last, enters the slit in the same manner, and after receiving the quarter turn is pressed home into the holes on the inside surface of the bolt like the last. in so doing, when firmly pulled back, it presses down a straight flat steel spring, the fixed end of which is attached to the door between it and the bolt, and the free end of which, when released, catches in a notch in the bolt so as to keep it securely in its place when shut. when the free end of this spring is pressed down by the returns of the key, it clears the edges of the notch, and the bolt can then be drawn back by pressing the key sideways. both these specimens are therefore key-drawn as in class b. assuming this modern norwegian lock to be a survival of an ancient form, one might naturally expect that the wooden portions of the ancient locks would have perished. the springs, which are the only metallic portions of this lock, would certainly become detached from the wood; their uses, when discovered separately, would not be recognised, and nothing to identify the mechanism with a door fastening would remain but the iron keys. [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome ii., p. . we must therefore judge of the distribution of this class of lock by the localities in which keys of this form are found. they are of two kinds, one t-shaped as in the preceding examples, and the other, serving the same purpose, but having the two teeth on one side of the shank; both are found together mainly in northern countries, which have been subject to scandinavian influence. notwithstanding which, however, the evidence is insufficient to establish the fact of their being of scandinavian origin. they appear certainly to have been used in roman times in england and elsewhere, and the influence of southern civilization upon the scandinavian arts of the iron age is well established. it is always necessary to be on one's guard against inferring that forms originated of necessity in the regions in which they are most widely distributed, for, as we have seen, and have reason to believe, the wooden scotch lock was carried to the west indies and used by negroes on account of the facility with which it was constructed and the materials of which it was composed, so in all ages the more simple forms of contrivances must have found acceptance and survived longer on the outskirts of civilization than in those countries in which they were quickly superseded by new improvements. figs. c, and c, plate iv., are iron keys of these two kinds obtained by me at clermont-ferrand, in auvergne, france. figs. c, and c, plate iv., are two similar specimens from colchester, which are figured in wright's 'uriconium,' where he supposes them to be latch keys, and he says that two similar ones were found at wroxeter.[ ] fig. c, plate iv., another in my collection from jordan hill, near weymouth. fig. c, plate iv., was discovered in a roman building at caudebec-les-elbeuf, by the abbé cochet, in ,[ ] together with an iron lock plate, fig. c, plate iv., showing the slit through which the key entered, and which is similar to the modern scandinavian specimen above described. figs. c, and c, plate iv., are two similar specimens discovered in a roman villa at hartlip, in kent, and are taken from roach smith's 'collectanea.'[ ] figs. c, c, and c, plate iv., are similar keys found in anglo-saxon graves at sarr, in kent, where the presence of these keys on the left side of the skeleton usually denoted a female grave.[ ] a similar occurrence of keys in the graves of females has been noticed in the island of björkö. according to an old scandinavian custom they were the badges of the lady of the house, who was said to be married to lock and keys, and from certain law texts of the middle ages, it appears that two of them were suspended from the girdle.[ ] keys of this shape of both bronze and iron were found at sarr, corroded together. it is worthy of remark that in these saxon graves some fragments of roman pottery were found, pointing to the influence of the earlier roman period. fig. c, plate iv., is a bronze key from gotland, and is taken from mr. montelius's 'antiquités suédoises,'[ ] where it is described as being of the late iron age, perhaps as late as the th century. figs. c, and c, plate iv., are from björkö, in the gulf of bothnia, found in association with relics of the th century of our era. [ ] 'uriconium,' by t. wright, p. ; see also 'archæologia cambrensis,' vol. vi., , p. . [ ] 'la seine inférieure,' by m. l'abbé cochet, p. . [ ] 'collectanea antiqua,' vol. ii., plate vii., figs. and . [ ] paper by j. brent, 'archæologia cantiana,' vol. vi., p. , vol. vii., plate xiii. [ ] 'scandinavian arts,' by hans hildebrand, p. . amongst the romans also keys were regarded as the symbol of the wife's authority in her husband's household. [ ] 'antiquités suédoises,' p. . whether or not the lock which has been described in the preceding paragraph was the origin of the spring padlock, constructed entirely of metal, may perhaps be doubtful; but it is evident that the principle of its construction was the same. in both systems the bolt was secured by the end of a spring catch. it is only necessary to transfer the fixed end of the spring from the door to the bolt, and the notch from the bolt to the door, to make it resemble the spring catch of the roman padlock about to be described. the roman iron padlock and key represented in figs. c to c, plate v., which is put together from specimens in my collection obtained partly from jordan hill, near weymouth, and other sources, consisted of a square box, having a bar, _d_, on the top, and parallel to it, which was attached to one end of the box by means of a curved portion. the bolt _a_ was provided with two perpendicular bars, _b b_, at the end of which were rings, _c c_, which slipped on to the parallel bar _d_. at the end of the bolt were two or more catch springs, _e_, put on like the barbs of an arrow. these, being placed into the hole of the tube _f_, at the same time that the rings were slipped along the bar, collapsed and sprung open again, after having passed the opening, thereby fixing the bolt in the tube. to open the lock, a pin or key, _g_, having a return at the end, in which was a slit made to fit the springs, was pressed in at the opposite end, so as to close up the springs, after which the bolt could be drawn out of the box. this action is better shown in the succeeding examples of modern spring locks of the same kind. the case of a similar padlock to the above was found with roman remains at irchester, near wellingborough, northampton, by the rev. r. baker, in , and is figured in the associated architectural society's reports, vol. xv., plate iv., . this padlock was therefore a hand-drawn, and not a key-drawn, lock. its origin is at present uncertain, but it is here no doubt represented in its more complete and developed state, after having already undergone prior modifications. the absence of simpler contrivances of the same kind suggests the inference that its forerunners may have been made of perishable materials. be that as it may, its progress onward from this point of perfection can be traced with some degree of certainty. already in roman times it had undergone changes. amongst the roman antiquities discovered in by the honourable richard neville (since lord braybrooke), at great chesterford, in essex,[ ] were two kinds of this padlock: one, represented in fig. c, plate v., is of the form already described; the other (figs. c and c, plate v.) was constructed on what, judging by those which succeeded it, must probably have been regarded as an improved form, or it may have been merely adapted to a different purpose. the bolt _a_, instead of having perpendicular bars and rings to slip over the parallel bar, was simply a plain straight bolt with the catch springs attached to it. the horizontal parallel bar of the lock, after passing along the top of the box or tube, was curved down over the mouth of the lock, at a short distance from it, and terminated in a ring, leaving a space between it and the mouth of the tube to admit of the passage of the chain or staple, or whatever was intended to be secured by means of the padlock, as shown in fig. c, plate v. the bolt was slipped through this ring, and on into the tube, the barbed springs flying out and catching after they entered the box, so as to fill up this space and secure the bolt, which was opened and withdrawn in the same manner as before, as shown in fig. c, plate v. [ ] 'archæological journal,' vol. xiii., p. , plate ii., figs. to . a further modification of this takes place in the swedish padlock, figs. c and c, plate v., in which the parallel bar _d_, instead of being a fixture, is made to turn upon a hinge at _h_. when shut, the other end of the bar, instead of coming down over the mouth of the tube, and at a distance from it, as in the preceding example of a roman padlock, is made to enter the side of the tube at _j_, and the bolt passes through the ring of the bar, after entering the mouth of the lock and inside, instead of outside of it. by this means we arrive at the ordinary hinge of the padlock which with further modification of form and mechanism is in use on carpet bags in this country at the present day. this swedish spring padlock was in use in scandinavia until towards the end of last century. there is one in the museum at kiel, which was found with iron spear-heads of the th century; others are attributed to the th century in that country. figs. c and c, plate v., is a specimen of an english fetterlock of the same construction as the swedish one, obtained at epping, near london, and we have evidence that a lock constructed on this principle continued in use throughout the middle ages. in a fragment of an iron padlock, consisting of the tube or box with its parallel bar attached to it, was found in association with some extended skeletons at lagore, near dunshaughlin, in the county of meath, in ireland. it is figured in the sixth volume of the 'archæological journal,' where it is described as an iron pipe, its use being apparently unknown to the writer. it was found in connection with iron leaf-shaped spear heads, broad double-edged swords, bronze pins, and enamelled ornaments, and the post-roman period of the find is attested by the presence of the fallow deer amongst the associated animal remains. figs. c, c, c, plate v., is a russian bronze padlock, believed to date between the st and th centuries, greatly resembling the oriental ones to be hereafter described. it is in the museum of st. petersburg, and is copied from m. liger's work. fig. c, plate v., is a fragment of one containing the springs and curved bar, found by me in excavations made in the norman camp at folkestone. it was discovered in the body of the rampart, and in a position to prove that it was of the age of the construction of the camp, or of the period of its early occupation.[ ] fig. c, plate v., is a later example very much resembling the russian padlock, fig. c, plate v., and of the same kind as the last. the curved bar of the bolt fits into a socket in the parallel bar, in which respect it resembles some of the indian ones to be hereafter described. it was found at swanscombe, in kent, and is probably of the th century. it is extracted from the 'archæological journal.'[ ] part of a padlock similar to this was lately found by mr. james wilson in the ditch of bedford castle, and was exhibited at the society of antiquaries. another similar one was found near devizes, and is figured in dean merewether's 'diary of a dean,' fig. . both of these last, like the russian bronze one, represented in fig. c, are ornamented on the outside of the case with lines of zigzags, resembling norman tracery; and coupled with the precise resemblance in the construction of the locks, this ornamentation appears to prove an eastern connection during the first four centuries of our era. the fetterlock figures as the badge of the family of the longs of wraxall, dating from the th century, and it is at the present time the badge of the th company of the grenadier guards, an illustration of which is given in the accompanying woodcut. it was one of the badges assumed by edward iv., and an account of it is given in sir f. hamilton's history of that regiment.[ ] [ ] 'archæologia,' vol. xlvii. [ ] 'archæological journal,' vol. xxxi., , p. . [ ] 'history of the grenadier guards,' by lieut.-general sir f. hamilton, k.c.b., vol. i., p. . [illustration: badge of the th company grenadier guards.] all the spring padlocks hitherto described have the defect of being in two parts; the bolt, being entirely detached from the tube when open, was liable to be lost, and to remedy this defect, modifications were introduced by which the bolt became a fixture in the tube and was opened by means of a key. fig. c, plate v., is a lock which i found attached to one of my gates at rushmore, in south wilts. externally, it exactly resembles the spring fetterlock, but within, the bolt which fixes the semicircular bar in its position when locked, is retained there by a spiral spring. to unlock it, a key with a female screw is put in at the end in the same position as the key of the roman lock, and after seizing the male screw within, the bolt is screwed back against the spring, thereby releasing the semicircular bar or staple, which is then turned upon its hinge and drawn out of the opening on the side of the tube. fig. c, plate v., is a precisely similar lock from paris. fig. c, plate v., is another from germany. our modern handcuffs retain the form of the fetterlock, having the tubular case for the lock, which otherwise is not precisely the form most suitable to fit the human wrist. fig. c, plate v., is a section of an old handcuff obtained in wiltshire, the bolt of which is forced out of the eye, not by means of a screw, but by a key of the ordinary form of a door key, inserted in the side of the tube, which when turned forces the bolt back against the spiral spring and releases the semicircular bar. whilst in some of the more modern contrivances the external form of the roman spring padlock was retained, the interior mechanism having undergone changes, in others the interior mechanism is retained, the external form having adapted itself to the more modern uses. figs. c, c, and c, plate vi., is an old padlock which i obtained in paris, the date of which i have been unable to determine, but a precisely similar one is attached to the iron chest of the royal society, which was presented to the society in the year , and for the knowledge of which i am indebted to dr. john evans, f.r.s., the treasurer of the society. externally it resembles the modern padlock, but both ends of the semicircular staple are provided with springs on the principle of the roman padlock. it is opened by means of a revolving key of modern form, which is inserted into the side of the padlock, and which, when given a quarter turn presses back the three springs upon the bolts, and the staple is then withdrawn bodily from the body of the lock. in this case, the staple, being quite separate from the lock, would be liable to be lost, as with the spring of the roman padlock; so to remedy this defect we see in figs. c and c, plate vi., obtained at clermont-ferrand, in auvergne, an improvement in which one of the arms of the staple passes down through the padlock and out at the bottom of it, where it terminates in a button, intended to prevent its being drawn entirely out and separated from the lock. the other arm is furnished with a spring as in the last example and, like it, is opened by a revolving key. when the spring is pressed back it is drawn out and merely turned upon its longer arm as a pivot. up to this point i have endeavoured to trace the gradual development of the european padlock from the earliest contrivance of roman times up to the present time. in order to show its distribution and the varieties it has undergone in other parts of the world we must now return to the spring padlock in its earliest form. figs. c, c, and c, plate vi., represents an iron padlock from the gate of moultan, in india, now in the india museum. it is in all respects similar to the roman lock shown in figs. c to c, plate v., and needs no further description. figs. c and c, plate vi., is a padlock obtained by me of a vendor of old iron in the streets of cairo in . it is constructed on precisely the same principle as the last, and is opened by a key thrust in longitudinally at the end of the tube, like the roman key, but the opposite end of the bolt instead of being guided by a ring slipping along the parallel bar of the lock is curved round and inserted into a tube or socket in the parallel bar, like the russian specimen and that from swanscombe, in kent. figs. c and c, plate vi., is another specimen obtained by me at cairo; it also resembles the roman lock in its construction, except that the key instead of being thrust in at the end of the tube is put in underneath at right angles to the tube, and having enclosed the springs by means of an opening cut in the side of the key, in order to compress them, it is thrust sideways along the tube, the neck being guided by a slit along the bottom of the tube. figs. c and c, plate vi., shows another specimen in my possession from india, which so precisely resembles the last that one is tempted to suppose they must both have been made in the same place, were it not for certain peculiarities which identify it as indian. the key in closing on the springs is guided by two slits along the bottom of the tube instead of one, and beneath the tube is a projecting piece in the form of a greek cross which fits into corresponding slits in the key so that none but the proper key can pass by it to compress the springs. this contrivance is therefore of the nature of a ward. figs. c, c, and c, plate vi., is another from india, now in the india museum, the locality of which, viz., myhere, is attached to it. figs. c and c, plate vi., is an egyptian manacle in my collection fastened in the same manner. figs. c, c, and c, plate vii., is a similar lock from abyssinia, now in the british museum, affording additional evidence that the key, with the lateral movement inserted at right angles to the lock, is african as well as indian. two padlocks precisely similar to this are in my collection from mogadore, on the west coast of africa, having on them the peculiar moorish ornamentation in brass which is characteristic of that country. we have now to go to china for evidence of the continued distribution eastwards of this particular kind of spring padlock with the lateral key. figs. c, c, and c, plate vii., is a brass chinese padlock and key in my collection. to the north of india we have figs. c, c, c, c, plate vii., representing a padlock from yarkand obtained by sir douglas forsyth, and now in the india museum. it has also the key with the lateral action. mr. thomas wright says that he possesses a similar padlock, given him by the british vice-consul at jacmel, and obtained from hayti, which he says was probably a century old, and either made in one of the spanish colonies or imported from spain.[ ] sir gardner wilkinson also mentions one from meroe island, in egypt,[ ] and mr. h. syer cuming speaks of one as having been obtained in western africa, but the locality is not stated.[ ] [ ] 'excavations at wroxeter and uriconium,' by t. wright, f.s.a., p. . [ ] 'caillaud, voyage à meroe,' plate lxvi., sir g. wilkinson, vol. i., p. . [ ] "history of keys," by h. syer cuming, esq., 'journ. british archæological association,' vol. xii., p. . the keys of this description mentioned in the paper as having been found at thebes are in all probability modern, judging by their entire resemblance to modern forms. in order to show the modifications that this lock has undergone during its eastern migrations, i have represented (figs. c, c, and c, plate vii.) a steel lock from indore, india. it is furnished with a staple with two arms like the european specimen, fig. c, plate vi., one of which only has springs attached to it; it is now in the india museum. figs. c, c, c, c, plate vii.--also in the india museum: the bolt with its springs is attached to plates forming an outside casing to one side of the lock, by which means the opening is concealed, and the opening for the key is also concealed in a casing for the other side, and opens also with a catch spring released by the pressure of a straight pin or wire introduced through a hole beneath the lock. figs. c, c, and c, plate viii., is another variety, from burmah; the key is introduced at the end of the tube by means of a male screw, formed somewhat like the propeller of a screw steamship. this screw is merely for the purpose of introducing the key into the tube by a half-twist; once in, it is pressed straight forward, and compresses the springs in the usual manner. fig. c, plate viii., is the opening and key of a similar lock obtained by me in nuremberg. it is constructed precisely on the same principle as the last, and with a similar object; it has all the appearance of being european, but i have no certain evidence that it may not have been imported from india. in figs. c, c, and c, plate viii., from indore, india, we see the screw principle developed. whether this originated in a lock of the last-mentioned form--and the screw, from having at first been used as a ward, was ultimately employed to release the bolt by a screw motion--i know not; but it exactly resembles in its construction the lock shown in fig. c, plate v., from the gate at rushmore, wilts, and those of like form from france and germany already figured and described. the bolt is retained in its place when locked by a spiral spring, and withdrawn by a screw key inserted at the end. whether this is an independent growth in the two hemispheres, or copied the one from the other, i have no present means of determining. unfortunately, when the objects in the india museum at south kensington were transferred from the old india museum their history was lost; but i have figured none except those which have the localities attached to them. figs. c, c, and c, plate viii., is a steel lock from india of similar external form to fig. c, plate vii.; but the screw principle appears here to have entirely superseded the spring, which is altogether wanting, and it is dependent for its action entirely on a screw key inserted at the end, and by means of which the bolt (which itself formed the staple) is screwed up or screwed back again as required. as a parallel to this, the specimen in my collection represented in figs. c, c, c, c, and c, plate viii., may be given. it was obtained by me in brussels, and resembles the tubular lock only in external form. the staple is secured to the tube at each end by eyes let into the side of the tube, through which a pin is passed, and screwed up or unscrewed by a key put in at the end of the tube. when unscrewed the pin is withdrawn and the staple taken out bodily. in this, as in the indian specimen last described, the original spring mechanism has entirely disappeared; but, although resembling each other in this respect, there is nothing analogous in the two systems, which, from differences in the details of their construction, appear to be quite independent contrivances. figs. c, c, and c, plate viii., represent a padlock and key from toomkoor, mysore, india. it is a barbed spring padlock of the ordinary kind, but the springs are closed preparatory to being withdrawn by means of a common revolving key inserted in the side and having a broad slit in the middle of the revolving plate. by giving the key a quarter-turn the slit in the key-plate compresses the springs, and they are then withdrawn from the lock. the action of the key in this specimen resembles exactly that of the padlock from paris (fig. c, plate vi.) and that of the royal society chest, except that in the paris and royal society specimens two springs are compressed by means of a solid plate, whilst in the toomkoor example a single-barbed spring is compressed by the action of a slit in the key. barbed tubular spring locks of precisely the same form as the chinese ones are also used in japan, of which figs. c, c, c, and c, plate ix., represent a specimen in my collection. of these, some of the keys entered at the end of the tube; others are put in at the side, as shown in fig. c, plate ix. the key, which, like the lock, is of brass, is placed in a handle, which shuts up like the handle of a knife (as shown in fig. c, plate ix.) for convenience of transport. another specimen from japan (represented in figs. c and c, plate ix.) resembles exactly the toomkoor specimen from india, the springs being compressed by means of a revolving key. this must certainly be regarded as the first stage of improvement upon the original roman lock, and its employment in europe, india, and japan is noteworthy. amongst the specimens of these tubular spring locks, which appear to show evidence of connection over wide areas, are those which are constructed in the forms of animals. figs. c and c, plate ix., is a representation of a bronze padlock in the form of a fish, now in the louvre, at paris, figured by m. liger. it is there described, though not without hesitation, as an egyptian lock; if so, it is probably of the romano-egyptian period: the springs enter at the mouth of the fish, and are released by a key put in at the tail. figs. c, c, c, plate ix., represents a precisely similar fish-shaped padlock of iron from india, and now in the india museum. figs. c and c, plate ix., is a roman bronze lock in the form of a lion or horse, in the possession of dr. john evans, f.r.s., and here copied by his permission; a similar one is in the british museum. figs. c, c, and c, plate ix., is another, also in the form of a lion, and about the same size, from china, in the collection of mr. chubb, the well-known locksmith. in all these the springs enter at the stern of the animal, and the other end of the bolt turns up and back in the form of a tail, and enters the neck of the animal behind the head. the key in the chinese specimen has a peculiar secret contrivance to prevent its being inserted in the hole for it by anyone not acquainted with its construction. the head of the key will not enter the keyhole unless the handle end is put in first and slipped along the shank of the key, as represented in the drawing, fig. c, plate ix. mr. romilly allen, whose work on scotch wooden tumbler locks i have already quoted, refers incidentally in his paper to spring locks, and says that he has himself seen them used in persia in the forms of animals. we are thus led to infer that the practice of making them in these forms may have existed, or may still exist, continuously throughout the region referred to, and that, like the mechanism itself, and like many other articles of commerce, they may have passed by traffic from place to place, and been copied and adopted in the localities in which they are found. fig. c, plate ix., is a padlock obtained by me at cairo; similar ones are in common use on out-houses at naples, the long bar at the top denoting its descent from the roman padlock, although the construction of the lock is different. we now come to the principle of the revolving key in common use at the present time. it has been already shown that in using the roman lock (figs. b to b, plate iii.) the part of the key containing the pins had to be put in vertically, and then turned a quarter circle, so as to bring the teeth horizontally beneath the tumblers previously to lifting them. it is possible that this may have suggested the first idea of employing the twist thus given to the key to the shooting of the bolt. fig. iii, plate ix., taken from m. liger's work,[ ] represents a roman key found in london; it has a plate furnished with teeth, evidently intended to raise tumblers, and the stem of the key is piped for the purpose of fitting into a broach or pin, so that the plate with the teeth, when the key is turned round on its pivot, may fit into its proper place beneath the bolt and raise up the tumblers. fig. , plate ix., is a drawing of another key similarly formed, having two teeth and a piped stem; it was found in lothbury, in london, feet beneath the surface, and is figured in mr. syer cuming's paper on keys in the 'journal of the archæological association.'[ ] these keys appear hardly to admit of any doubt as to their mode of use, and may therefore be regarded as the earliest specimen of revolving keys, although applied to a different purpose from the revolving key of our own time. the most primitive kind of lock with a revolving key that i have met with is one represented in figs. , , , , plate x. it is from india, and is in the india museum. the key is applied to a square vertical tumbler of the scandinavian type with two arms to fit into two notches in the bolt; the lower end of the tumbler terminates behind the bolt, in a semicircular form; the key, when turned upon its broach or pin, as the case may be, impinges upon the sides of the semicircular portion and raises the tumbler out of the notches on the top of the bolt, and afterwards the end of the key-plate passes into one of a series of notches on the under side of the bolt and moves it, whilst the tumbler is, at the same time, raised clear of the bolt. the key being turned several times continues the movement, pushing the key forward notch after notch, until the tumbler again falls into other holes provided for it, and keeps the bolt secure. all here is of wood, except the key, which is of metal, and it is provided with slits to pass the wards, adjusted to them in the revolution of the key-plate upon its pivot. it might be supposed from this that it was a modern adaptation to an ancient system of vertical tumblers, had not a very similar, but simpler, lock existed in china. the drawing (figs. , , , , , plate x.) of a chinese lock was kindly sent me by mr. romilly allen. in this specimen the bolt is shot in nearly the same manner as the last specimen, but the tumblers are raised independently by means of a t-shaped key (fig. , plate x.), similar to that used with the scandinavian lock (fig. c, plate iv.). the key from the outside is put into the vertical slit between the tumblers, when it is turned a quarter circle so as to bring the arms of the t in a horizontal plane. it is then pressed back, when the returns of the t enter notches provided for them in the tumblers. the tumblers are then raised, and the key or handle, _a_, turned. from the inside the tumblers are raised with the two fingers before shooting the bolt. [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome ii., p. , fig. . [ ] 'journal of the archæological association,' vol. xii., p. , plate xiv., fig. . m. liger supposes that the lifting key of the roman lock was of asiatic origin, and that the revolving key came into use amongst the romans about the commencement[ ] of our era, and many of the keys from pompeii are constructed on this principle having slits for the passage of wards. fig. , plate x., is a roman key of this kind in my collection. the ward system came into general use afterwards and was much relied upon to the exclusion of others in the middle ages. the ward system may be defined as a system of lock in which obstructions are placed to prevent any but the proper key from entering to turn the bolt; as such it is distinct from the tumbler system, in which security depends on obstruction introduced to prevent the bolt from being drawn by the key. the tumbler is, in fact, a bolt of a bolt. reference to fig. b, plate ii., representing the egyptian lock, will show that besides the two pins with which the key is provided for lifting the tumblers, there is a pin attached to the under side of the lock opening, which enters a hole in the key. this is of the nature of a ward, since none but a key with a hole in the proper place could be raised up high enough to lift the tumblers clear of the holes in the bolt. mr. romilly allen also mentions that in one of the scotch locks from snizort, a notch is placed in the key and a corresponding pin in the lock, to prevent the lock from being picked, and that the key-hole is divided by a thin iron plate which is the only thing approaching a ward that appears in any of the wooden locks of scotland. the peculiar shape of the tumblers and tumbler-holes in the bolts of the roman lock, already described, with teeth made especially to fit them, must be regarded as a kind of ward, although applied to tumblers, since their object is to prevent any but the proper form of key from entering. [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome i., p. . the further development of the ward-system in the roman tumbler-locks, though it certainly existed, is involved in uncertainty, since none of the wards appear to have been preserved, but the fact of some kind of ward having been used is evident from the slits in the keys represented in fig. , plate x., which are of common occurrence. the cross-shaped wards beneath the indian spring padlock already described in connection with figs. c, c, and c, plate vi., must certainly be considered to be wards, although open to view, and not concealed beneath the lock-plate. there are also found in association with roman remains, keys of which fig. , plate x., from chalons, fig. , plate x., from the museum at saumur, and fig. , plate x., from the museum at saint germain, are examples.[ ] these keys so greatly resemble the asiatic keys used with the spring padlock, that it is difficult to believe they were not employed in the same way, but as they also resemble the roman perforated plates of the tumbler-lock keys that are provided with teeth, it is probable they may have been intended for raising tumblers in some way not yet explained. no tubular spring lock adapted to be opened with a key inserted underneath, and opened with a lateral movement like the indian and egyptian ones, has to my knowledge been found amongst roman remains. fig. , plate x., is a modern english latch-key of similar form, furnished with a ward-plate and used for raising a common latch: they are now generally disused, from being unsafe. with the revolving keys resembling the modern form, found at pompeii and elsewhere, slits for fixed wards are common, and show that the roman keys of the commencement of the present era resembled our own. during the middle ages reliance was placed almost entirely on the ward system, and many complicated contrivances were introduced, of which fig. , plate x., is a specimen, until the close of the last century, when their insecurity led to the re-introduction of tumbler-locks. [ ] 'la ferronnerie,' tome ii., plate lv., e, g, k, p. . it is not known exactly when this took place, but probably at some time during the th century, and possibly earlier. this time, the tumblers instead of being vertical (as was the case during what may be called the early tumbler period) were horizontal, resting on a pivot above the bolt and kept down by a spring. figs. , , and , plate x., is a tumbler lock in the possession of mr. chubb, found whilst repairing an old house at funtley, hants, said to be years old. if so it must be regarded as the earliest specimen of the second tumbler period. the tumbler moves on a pivot, and is kept down by a spring, the revolving key raises the tumbler by pressing up the curved bar attached to it, which raises the stud of the tumbler out of the notch provided for it on the upper side of the bolt, thereby freeing the bolt, so that by further turning the key it is enabled to shoot the bolt. the tumbler, it will be seen, cannot be raised too high. if the plate of the key is long enough to raise the stud of the tumbler out of the notch, a key with a longer plate will answer the same purpose. to remedy this defect and necessitate the employment of a key of exactly the proper size, mr. barron, about the year , introduced an improvement known by his name, represented in fig. , plate x., in which the bolt is provided with a slit along the middle just wide enough to allow the stud to pass; the slit has notches both above and below, so that if the stud is raised too high by a key with too long a plate it is forced into the upper notch and the bolt continues immovable. he also introduced two tumblers requiring to be raised to different heights in order to coincide with the slit in the bolt by means of different projections on the edge of the key plate, so that the bolt could only be shot by means of a key with a plate expressly constructed to fit the lock, and having two projections of the requisite length. this principle of employing two or more tumblers is the one on which nearly all subsequent improvements have been effected. those who desire to prosecute the subject further will find a variety of modern tumbler locks in my collection introduced during the latter half of the last and commencement of the present century. they are all, in the main, varieties of one principle, terminating in the chubb and hobbs locks of the present time. as this paper relates only to primitive locks i do propose to describe them here. the continuity which pervades all the ramifications of the modern lock is not less complete than in the earlier forms, and would well bear treating in the same manner as those which i have described. the bramah lock, though in external appearance differing from the others, is no less based upon the earlier forms, and may be described as a union between the _ward_ and the _tumbler_ systems. it is a ward system, because the obstructions introduced into the mechanism are intended to prevent the turning of the key to shoot the bolt by any but a key of the proper construction. it is a tumbler system because the impediments so placed upon the turning of the key are in fact tumblers packed round the cylinder of the key (retained by springs), and allowing the passage of the key-plate only when pressed down to the various depths to which each separate tumbler is adapted in order to provide an open passage for the key-plate all round. this union of ideas developed separately in different branches of the same trade, device or industry, corresponds to the crossing of individuals and breeds in nature, which is so necessary to reproduction. the analogy, as i have already intimated elsewhere, might be carried even further and closer if space permitted. it is a necessary condition of the absence of creative power in nature, and applies equally to all the processes of evolution whether of species or of ideas, but the subject requires broader treatment than can be given to it here. my object in writing this paper being to trace the development of particular forms rather than to generalise, i must leave the philosophy of the subject for separate treatment. from the foregoing description of the various kinds of primitive locks in use in different countries it will, i think, have been made evident that some of them most certainly have been derived from a common centre. the wooden key-drawn pin-locks have spread over the region extending from egypt to yarkand. the scandinavian wooden locks of the same kind, though differing in the details of their construction, we have seen are common to norway and scotland, and by some means have been carried to the west indies and british guiana, whilst the tubular spring padlock of the roman age in europe is the same that is found throughout the whole region extending from italy to china and japan on the east, northward into england and scandinavia, southward into abyssinia, and westward into west africa and algeria, spain, and on as far as the west indies. it is sometimes thought when simple contrivances such as weapons of stone and bronze, some of the simpler kinds of ornaments, and of tools obviously adapted to primeval life are found to extend over wide areas, and in places very remote from one another, that the few ideas necessary for the construction and use of them might easily have suggested themselves independently in different places. to the student of primitive culture who has become impressed with the persistency of art forms, this independent origin of such things does not appear so certain even in the case of the most simple contrivances. but when we come to a complex piece of mechanism, such as a spring padlock having several parts--the spring, the case, the parallel bar, and the key, in all of which the resemblance is maintained in distant countries, and which, with slight modification and continuously progressive improvements, are put together in the same manner in all parts of the world--such a supposition cannot be admitted, the necessity for a common origin is apparent, and the study of the periods and the circumstances connected with the distribution of it cannot be set aside as superfluous. assuming that the tumbler pin-lock and the spring padlock cannot be traced back earlier in europe than the commencement of our era, it is by no means certain that they may not have existed earlier elsewhere. the commerce carried on with the east in early times was of a nature to render it very probable that any contrivance for securing goods should have spread from place to place with the merchandise exported and imported between china, india, and europe. a brief survey of the trade relations between different countries will be sufficient to show this. the expedition of alexander gave rise to intercourse which was kept up by the greek kingdom of bactria, and recent indian discoveries both of coins and sculptures prove more and more the great influence which greek art exercised in india up to the commencement of our era. strabo says that, about b.c. , nicolaus damascenus fell in with three indian ambassadors at antioch epidaphne on their way to the court of augustus, and that their credentials were in the greek language. diodorus quoting iambulus speaks of king palibothra in the early part of the st century as a lover of the greeks. dio chrysostom mentions that the poems of homer were sung by the indians, and Ælian says that not only the indians but the kings of persia translated and sang them. if the travels of apollonius and damis are to be credited, the greek language was spoken in the punjaub in the first half-century of our era, and frequent intercourse appears to have taken place between that country and egypt.[ ] pliny in the st century a.d. says, on the authority of varro, that under the direction of pompey it was ascertained that it took seven days to go from india to the river icarus, believed to be the modern roscha, in the country of the bactri, which discharges itself into the oxus, and that the merchandise of india being conveyed from it through the caspian sea into the cyrus, might be brought by land to phasis in pontus in five days at most.[ ] the best steel used in rome was imported from china.[ ] arrian, in the nd century a.d., speaks of a frequented way, [greek: leôphoros odos], extending in the direction of india through bactria; after which four embassies from the east are noticed by ancient writers, one to trajan, a.d. ; another to antoninus pius, a.d. - ; a third to julian, a.d. ; and the fourth to justinian, a.d. . these are but scant memorials of an intercourse which must have been frequent between india and rome, and which reached its highest development during the reigns of severus and caracalla, in the commencement of the rd century a.d. [ ] 'the indian travels of apollonius of tyana,' by osmond de beauvoir priaulx. [ ] pliny, book vi., chap. . [ ] 'ancient bronze implements,' by john evans, d.c.l., &c., p. ; pliny's 'nat. history,' book xxxiv., chap. . turning now to the southern route of communication with india, pliny describes taprobane (ceylon), and mentions an embassy sent from thence to the emperor claudius. the discovery of the monsoons during the st century was the means of creating a great trade between india and alexandria. strabo says that in the time of the ptolemies some ships only ventured upon the indian seas, but that this traffic had so greatly increased that he himself saw at myos hormos, on the arabian gulf, ships destined for india. pliny gives in detail the route from alexandria to india in his time, and says that it was well worthy of notice because in each year india drained the empire of at least sestertii, estimated at £ , , of english money, giving back in exchange her own wares, which were sold at fully one hundred times their original cost, and he says that the voyage was made every year by the following route:--two miles distant from alexandria was the town of juliopolis, supposed to be nicopolis. the distance from thence to coptos up the nile was miles, and the voyage was performed with a favourable wind in days. from coptos the journey was made on camels to berenice, a seaport on the southern frontier of egypt, miles, in another days. here the passengers generally set sail at midsummer, and in about days arrived at ocelis, in arabia, now called gehla, or at cane, supposed to be cava canim bay. from hence, if the wind called hippaulus happened to be blowing, it was possible to arrive at muzitis, the modern mangalore, which was the nearest point in india, in days. this, however, was not a convenient port for disembarking, and barace was therefore preferred. to this place pepper was carried down in dug-out canoes made out of a single trunk from cottonara, supposed to be cochin or travancore. the return voyage was usually made in january, taking advantage of the south-east monsoon, by which means they were able to go and return the same year. but when pliny wrote, the trade with india was only in its infancy, afterwards greek factories were probably established at the indian seaboards, which accounts for the greek names for some of the towns on that coast. but the people of alexandria having become insolent in their prosperity, hadrian was led to encourage the route through palmyra, which was the most direct road to india. even in the nd century a.d. the trade between rome and india through palmyra must have been considerable, for it drew the attention of the chinese. their annals speak of it as carried on principally by sea; they mention roman merchants in relations of commerce with and visiting burmah, tonquin, and cochin china, and they have preserved the memory of an embassy from the roman emperor, which in the year a.d. was received by the chinese sovereign. arab or native vessels appear to have brought the produce of india up the persian gulf to the mouth of the euphrates. at teredon they discharged their cargoes, and the merchandise was then carried to vologesia by camels; at this place the merchants of palmyra took it up and it was here exchanged for the produce of europe. even as late as the th century, ships from india and china are mentioned lying at hira on the euphrates, a little to the south of babylon. through the influence of this trade palmyra grew rapidly into wealth and power until the widow of galberius threw off her allegiance to rome. this led to the destruction of the city by aurelian, a.d. , which put an end to the roman trade with india through the persian gulf. the alexandrian trade with india fell off about the same time, and the barbarians occupied coptos, the port of embarkation for india, about a.d. . after the fall of palmyra the indian trade was transferred to batne, near the euphrates, but it lasted only a short time, and in the th and th centuries may be regarded as having become extinct in so far as roman merchants were concerned. the trade, however, was still kept up by the arabs. epiphanius, about a.d. , gives an account of trade carried on through berenice, by which the merchants of india imported their goods into the roman territory, and there is also chinese authority for believing that a great trade between rome and india existed in the th century. ma-touan-lin, a.d. , in his researches into antiquity, affirms that in a.d. - india carried on a considerable commerce by sea with ta-tsin, the roman empire, and with the ansi the syrians,[ ] but arab and not roman vessels were employed. masoudi says that in the early part of the th century the indian and chinese trade with babylon was principally in the hands of the indians and chinese. the usual passage after rounding the point de galle was to creep up the madras coast during the s.w. monsoon and take a point of departure from masulapatam towards the leading opening of the ganges.[ ] meanwhile the overland trade between europe and india in the rd and th centuries was carried on by the sassanidæ, who in the th century entered into commercial relations with china, to which country they sent frequent embassies in the th century, and through this route silk was imported into europe. in a.d. sind was conquered by the arabs, and in addition to the kingdom of mansurah and multan, other independent muslim governments were established at bania and kasdar.[ ] there is also the evidence of the merchant sulamin and the researches of mr. edward thomas into the coins of the balhara to prove the continuance of arab intercourse with india during the th century. [ ] priaulx, p. . [ ] "the indian balhara and arabian intercourse with india in the ninth and following centuries," by e. thomas, f.r.s., 'numismata orientalia,' vol. iii., . [ ] "coins of the arabs in sind," by e. thomas, f.r.s., in the 'indian antiquary.' during all this time the relations between scandinavia and rome appear to have been scarcely less extensive. although the romans never succeeded in penetrating scandinavia, the discovery of coins, vases in bronze and glass, and other objects of art, is sufficient to prove that scandinavian art was greatly influenced by intercourse with rome during the first part of the nd century of our era. in the early stages of society, communication by sea offered greater facilities for traffic than land journeys, and for this reason the island of gotland, now so isolated and rarely visited except by antiquaries, appears to have served as a portal for the entry of roman and oriental goods and civilization into scandinavia.[ ] after the fall of the roman empire, scandinavia was left to its own resources, aided by occasional intercourse with byzantium, until in the later iron age, extending from the th century to the middle of the th century, another line of communication was established with the east, still entering scandinavia mainly through the island of gotland. mr. hildebrand records the discovery of , arab coins in sweden and gotland, and traces the channel of their transmission by russian finds from the states near the caspian, through russia to the shores of the baltic, and thence, thanks to the commerce established by the inhabitants of gotland, over to that island. from gotland, and probably also by direct intercourse with russia, the mahomedan coins were spread over scandinavia, being more common in the eastern provinces of sweden than in the west or in norway. the greater part of these coins appear to have come into sweden between the years and , but the latest belongs to the year . on the line of communication here indicated, iron keys of the kind adapted both to the tumbler lock and the spring padlock have been discovered in the governments of vladimir and jaroslav, in the graves of the neriens,[ ] dating about the th century a.d., showing that in all probability it was by this line that the use of these locks were imported into sweden. the key of the padlock found here was of the form of the roman key, (fig. c, plate v.), the indian one (fig. c, plate vi.), and the modern one from cairo (fig. c, plate vi.). it also resembles that of the swedish lock (fig. c, plate v.), and belongs to the most primitive form of the mechanism. [ ] 'la suède prehistorique,' by o. montelius. [ ] "antiquités du nord finno-ougrien," par j. r. aspelin, 'age du fer,' iii., figs. , , . whilst this traffic was being carried on between scandinavia and the east, the intercourse of the vikings was kept up with britain, ireland, and the coasts of the english channel, commencing in and continuing to the th century. these western relations, like those with the east, appear to have taken place chiefly through gotland; and the number of anglo-saxon coins found in that island and the east of sweden greatly exceed those discovered in norway and the west. the foregoing summary of the evidence of commercial relations between southern europe and the east and north during the early part of the christian era is sufficient to show that ample facilities existed for the spread of early forms of locks and keys. the padlock, more especially--which, as i have said when referring to the etymology of the word "pad," was the class of lock associated with portable merchandise--must have been carried into all those parts of the world between which commercial relations had been established. at what time and through what particular channels the various kinds of locks were distributed can only be determined after more extended inquiry into the archæology of padlocks. some points may, however, i think be considered to be more or less established by the evidence i have adduced. the particular form of padlock represented in fig. c, plate vi., from india, and fig. c, plate v., from the roman period of europe, must in all probability have been communicated in roman times, as i am not aware that this precise form of padlock was in use in europe later than the roman age, having been superseded by the more modern improvements which have been described in this paper. the use of padlocks in the forms of animals in egypt, persia, and china, must also very probably belong to the same period. the chinese and japanese padlocks appear to belong to a more advanced stage of the development of the mechanism, and correspond to the form used in europe in the middle ages; whilst the use of the revolving key in europe, india, and japan, to compress the springs, as shown in figs. c, plate vi., c, plate viii., and c, plate xi., must date from a still later phase in the art; and unless they are to be regarded as improvements introduced independently in those countries, the idea must have spread by means of arab traders, if not still more recently. in like manner, the adoption of the screw principle with these locks must either have been conveyed by traders, or applied independently in different countries to the form of padlock already in use. the hinge of the staple, as seen in figs. c and c, plate v., though derived from the earlier form of the parallel bar, which has a wide distribution, has not been universally adopted, but is used chiefly in sweden and europe, and is an improvement introduced, no doubt, in modern times. further information is needed to enable us to trace the distribution of all these different varieties more continuously, before any satisfactory judgment can be formed as to the date of connection. in scandinavia we find the padlock in use in gotland, in björkö, and in sweden; and hans hildebrand, in his work on 'the industrial arts of scandinavia,'[ ] published by the south kensington museum, says that they were already known in that region in pagan times. it is to be hoped that this announcement may be only a prelude to some more detailed publication of his researches into a subject to which the present paper can only be regarded as a first introduction--not previously attempted, that i am aware of, in its ethnological and commercial bearings. local archæologists must work out the rest. enough has, i trust, been said to show that a large field lies open to the student of the archæology of locks and keys, and that whenever the history of this mechanism is traced in scandinavia, persia, india, and china, in the same way that i have endeavoured to trace it in europe, much light will thereby be thrown on the ramifications of trade and the commercial relations of distant countries in non-historic times. [ ] 'the industrial arts of scandinavia,' by hans hildebrand, . [illustration: plate i. fig. . japanese book fastening derived from the common pin. figs. and . common wooden bolt used at gastein, in austria, at the present time. fig. . front view. fig. . transverse section on a b. _a._ handle. _b._ bolt. _c c._ slit for handle, _a._ figs. and . wooden bolt with pin fastening (supposed form). fig. . front view. fig. . transverse section on a b. figs. to . wooden single tumbler bolt (supposed form). fig. . front view (open). fig. . front view (closed). fig. . transverse section on a b. figs. a to a. wooden double tumbler lock from the faroe islands. fig. a. front view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section. _a._ bolt. _b b._ teeth of key, _c._ _d d._ tumblers. _e e e._ block. _f f._ holes in bolt. figs. a to a. old scottish wooden tumbler lock (patent museum). fig. a. front view. fig. a. side view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section. fig. a. section through a b. fig. a. section through c d.] [illustration: plate i. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate ii. figs. a to a. old scottish treble wooden tumbler lock (patent museum). fig. a. front view. fig. a. side view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section. fig. a. section through a b (fig. a). figs. a to a. wooden tumbler lock from norway (hazilius museum, stockholm). fig. a. front view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section on a b. figs. a to a. wooden tumbler lock made by negroes of jamaica (museum, kew gardens). fig. a. front view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section on a b. figs. a to a. wooden tumbler lock from british guiana (christy collection). fig. a. front view. fig. a. longitudinal section. fig. a. transverse section. fig. b. probable use of fig. b, plate iii., as a key for a single tumbler lock. figs. b to b. modern egyptian wooden tumbler or pin-lock in use at the present time. fig. b. longitudinal section showing pegs raised by key a preparatory to withdrawing the bolt b. fig. b. key a. fig. b. longitudinal section showing pegs down and bolt locked.] [illustration: plate ii. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate iii. figs. b and b. modern wooden tumbler or pin-lock from yarkand (india museum). fig. b. longitudinal section showing pegs raised by key a preparatory to withdrawing the bolt b. fig. b. longitudinal section showing pegs down and bolt locked. figs. b to b. reproduction of roman tumbler lock (mainz museum) (lindenschmit). fig. b. front view. fig. b. longitudinal section. fig. b. transverse section on c d. fig. b. section through a b. fig. b. bolt (top view). fig. b. key. _a._ key. _b._ bolt. _c._ block, _e._ hasp. _f f._ tumblers. _g._ spring. _h._ plate of spring. fig. b. ancient hasp from hetternheim, roman. fig. b. bronze bolt from oppenheim, roman. fig. b. bronze bolt from heddernheim, roman. fig. b. iron key found in the river rhine at mayence, roman. fig. b. key for tumbler lock with ward plate, roman ('la ferronnerie'). fig. b. bolt for single tumbler found in the forest of compiègne, roman ('la ferronnerie'). fig. b. key to raise single tumbler lock found at nonfous, switzerland, roman ('la ferronnerie'). fig. b. modern pick-lock. fig. b. key found in germano-roman tomb at niderolm (probable use shown in fig. b, plate ii.). fig. b. } anglo-saxon keys found at sarr, in kent ('archæologia fig. b. } cantiana'). fig. b. } two keys from bornholm, in the baltic ('mémoires fig. b. } de la société royale es antiquaries du nord').] [illustration: plate iii. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate iv. fig. b. key found at caerwent, in wales ("isca silurum"). fig. b. } two keys found in roman villa at hartlip, kent fig. b. } ('collectanea antiqua'). fig. b. } two keys found at st. pierre-en-chastre, oise. gaulish. from drawings taken by gen. pitt-rivers, fig. b. } in the musée de saint germain. fig. b. key found at spettisbury, near blandford. british. (british museum.) fig. b. } two keys found in mount caburn camp, near lewes, fig. b. } by the author. british. ('archæologia.') fig. b. key found in cissbury camp, sussex. british. ('journal anthropological institute.') fig. b. represents the ancient mode of carrying keys on shoulder, adapted to the british key found in caburn. (fig. b.) figs. c and c. modern scandinavian bolt and key ('la ferronnerie'). fig. c. front view. fig. c. transverse section on a b. figs. c to c. modern scandinavian bolt and key, with spring a. from a model presented by dr. engelhardt, and used in norway. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. transverse section. fig. c. view showing keyhole. fig. c. } two iron keys from clermont-ferrand, auvergne, fig. c. } france. fig. c. } two iron keys from colchester, essex, ("uriconium"). fig. c. } fig. c. iron key from jordan hill, near weymouth. fig. c. iron key from caudebec-les elbeuf ('la ferronnerie'). fig. c. iron lock-plate found with above (fig. c). fig. c. } two iron keys from roman villa, at hartlip, kent fig. c. } ('collectanea antiqua'). fig. c. } three keys from anglo-saxon graves at sarr, kent fig. c. } ('archæologia cantiana'). fig. c. } fig. c. bronze key from gotland, iron age ('antiquités suédoises'). fig. c. } two keys from björkö, in the gulf of bothnia, th fig. c. } or th century a.d.] [illustration: plate iv. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate v. figs. c and c. portions of roman padlock found at jordan hill, weymouth. fig. c. side view of lock-case and parallel bar. fig. c. side view of bolt with spring catch. _a._ bolt. _b b._ perpendicular bars of bolt _c c._ rings to slip over parallel bar _d._ _e._ catch springs. _f._ hole in tube through which bolt is passed. _g._ key. figs. c to c. roman padlocks found at great chesterford, essex ('archæological journal'). fig. c. side view of supposed original form. fig. c. improved form showing bolt, _a_. fig. c. improved form without bolt. figs. c and c. old swedish padlock. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. side view of bolt and springs. _d._ parallel bar turning on hinge at _h_, and entering tube case at _j_. figs. c to c. old russian bronze padlock, st. petersburg ('la ferronnerie'). fig. c. side view of bolt and springs. fig. c. side view of tube case. fig. c. end of case showing aperture for springs. figs. c and c. old english fetterlock, from epping, near london. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. side view of bolt and springs a. side and end views of key shown above. fig. c. fragment of bolt with springs, found in rampart in excavations at the norman camp, folkestone ('archæologia'). fig. c. iron padlock found at swanscombe, kent, th century ('archæological journal'). fig. c. longitudinal section (with key) of modern padlock, from rushmore, wiltshire, spiral spring action. fig. c. side view of modern padlock, from paris, spiral spring action. fig. c. side view of modern padlock, from germany, with spiral spring action. fig. c. longitudinal section of modern handcuff, from wiltshire, with spiral spring action, unlocked by a revolving key.] [illustration: plate v. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate vi. figs. c to c. padlock, from paris, probably th century, spring lock, unlocked by a revolving key. fig. c. front view. fig. c. transverse section. fig. c. longitudinal section. figs. c and c. old iron padlock, from clermont-ferrand, france. fig. c. front view. fig. c. side view. figs. c to c. iron padlock, from the gate of moultan, india, of similar construction to the roman padlock (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of springs. fig. c. side view of key. figs. c and c. modern iron padlock, from cairo; the bolt entering a socket in the parallel bar. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end and side views of key. figs. c and c. modern padlock from cairo; key with lateral action. fig. c. side view. fig. c. end view. figs. c and c. modern padlock from india; key with lateral action and ward; the bolt entering a socket in the parallel bar. fig. c. side view. fig. c. end view. figs. c to c. modern padlock, from myhere, india (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. transverse section. figs. c and c. old egyptian manacle. fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section.] [illustration: plate vi. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate vii. figs. c to c. modern padlock, from abyssinia (british museum), the bolt entering a socket in the parallel bar. fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of bolt and springs. fig. c. front view of key. figs. c to c. modern brass chinese padlock. fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of bolts and springs. fig. c. transverse section. figs. c to c. modern brass padlock, from yarkand (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of bolts and springs. fig. c. transverse section. fig. c. longitudinal section (looking down). figs. c to c. modern steel lock, from indore, india (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view (showing keyhole). figs. c to c. modern steel lock, from india (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view. fig. c. end and side view of key.] [illustration: plate vii. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate viii. figs. c to c. modern padlock from burmah, with screw ward (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view (showing keyhole). fig. c. portion of modern padlock from nuremberg, with screw ward. end view, showing keyhole, with side and end views of key to same. figs. c to c. modern steel lock from indore, india, with spiral spring action (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view. figs. c to c. modern steel lock from india, with screw action (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view. figs. c to c. modern iron lock from brussels, with screw action. fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. side view of staple. fig. c. end view of staple. fig. c. side view of key. figs. c to c. modern padlock from toomkoor, mysore, india, with spring action compressed by a revolving key (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section (looking down). fig. c. side view of key.] [illustration: plate viii. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate ix. figs. c to c. modern japanese brass padlocks. fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of bolt and springs. fig. c. end view (showing keyhole). fig. c. side and end view of key. fig. c. side view (showing keyhole). figs. c and c. modern japanese brass padlock, the springs compressed by a revolving key. fig. c. side view (showing keyhole). fig. c. end view, with side view of key. figs. c and c. ancient bronze fish-shaped padlock ('la ferronnerie'), believed to be from egypt, in the louvre, at paris. fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. figs. c to c. modern steel fish-shaped padlock, from india (india museum). fig. c. side view. fig. c. longitudinal section. fig. c. end view of key. figs. and . ancient roman bronze lock, in the form of a horse, belonging to dr. john evans, f.r.s. fig. c. side view. fig. c. end, showing apertures for springs. figs. c to c. modern brass chinese padlock in the form of a lion, the springs entering behind, belonging to mr. chubb. fig. c. side view. fig. c. side view of bolt and springs. fig. c. front view, showing method of inserting the key. fig. c. front view of iron padlock from cairo, also in common use in naples at the present time. fig. . revolving key for raising tumblers, found in london ('la ferronnerie'). fig. . revolving key for raising two tumblers, found in lothbury, london ('archæological journal').] [illustration: plate ix. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] [illustration: plate x. figs. to . modern wooden tumbler lock, adapted to a revolving key, from india (india museum). fig. . front view. a, bolt. fig. . longitudinal section. fig. . transverse section. fig. . key. figs. to . modern wooden chinese tumbler lock, the tumblers raised by a t-shaped key; the bolt shot with a revolving key, or handle, _a_. fig. . front view. fig. . transverse section, a b. fig. . longitudinal section. fig. . top view of bolt. fig. . top view of key. fig. . roman iron key, found in london. fig. . key from chalons ('la ferronnerie'). fig. . key from museum at saumur ('la ferronnerie'). fig. . key from museum at saint germain ('la ferronnerie'). fig. . modern english latchkey. fig. . lock with complex wards, used in the middle ages. figs. to . modern tumbler lock found at funtley, hants, belonging to mr. chubb. fig. . longitudinal section. fig. . end view and section. fig. . top view of bolt. fig. . barron's tumbler lock (tomlinson 'on locks and keys').] [illustration: plate x. _wyman & sons, printers, gt. queen st. london, w.c._] transcriber note emphasized text is displayed as _italic_. except in tables where the characters ¼ and ½ were used, whole and fractional numbers are shown like: - / . the silversmith's handbook by the same author, uniform with the present volume. _ninth impression, price s. net, cloth._ the goldsmith's handbook, containing full instructions for the alloying and working of gold. including the art of alloying, melting, reducing, colouring, collecting, and refining; the processes of manipulation, recovery of waste; chemical and physical properties of gold; with a new system of mixing its alloys, solders, enamels, and other useful rules and recipes. _crown vo, price s. d. net, cloth._ the hall-marking of jewellery, practically considered. comprising an account of all the different assay towns of the united kingdom, with the stamps at present employed; also the laws relating to the standards and hall marks at the various assay offices; and a variety of practical suggestions concerning the mixing of standard alloys, and other useful information. crosby lockwood & son, , stationers' hall court, ludgate hill, e.c. the silversmith's handbook containing full instructions for the _alloying and working of silver_ including the different modes of refining and melting the metal; its solders; the preparation of imitation alloys; methods of manipulation; prevention of waste; instructions for improving and finishing the surface of the work together with other useful information and memoranda by george e. gee goldsmith and silversmith author of "the goldsmith's handbook," "the hall-marking of jewellery," etc. etc. fifth edition [illustration] london crosby lockwood and son , stationers' hall court, ludgate hill printed by william clowes and sons, limited, london and beccles. preface. the object of this treatise is to supply a want long felt in the silver trade, namely, a work of reference from which workmen, apprentices, and manufacturers, employing the material upon which it treats, may find information which will be of assistance to them in the performance of their daily duties, and by which their operations may be rendered more successful. the author was led to undertake the present work from having had many opportunities, during his lengthened experience in the art of silver-working, of observing the difficulties and stumbling-blocks that are constantly to be met with in the manifold branches of this important trade, by those _practically_ engaged in it, and also by those persons who are desirous of acquiring a _thorough_ knowledge of the mechanical and manipulative details belonging to it. to assist his object, numerous illustrations have been prepared for this treatise, with the view of rendering the various processes of the art more readily comprehensible, and to save a lengthened or detailed description of them. the different modes of alloying and melting silver; its solders; the preparation of imitation alloys; methods of working; the prevention of waste; instructions for improving and finishing the surface of the work, together with other useful information and memoranda--all these have been carefully collected and placed in order in the body of the work. the author has endeavoured, throughout, to present the contents (which he has with some little difficulty and labour brought together) in as practical and readable a form as is compatible with accuracy and efficiency. g. e. gee. preface to the second edition. since the publication of the first edition of this work important changes have taken place in the commercial value of silver, its present cost in the best markets being sixpence per ounce lower than it was when this volume first appeared in . this depreciation in value has, of course, necessitated a thorough revision of the former prices of the various alloys, solders, and other substances mentioned throughout the work; and this has been done in order to render it the more complete as a work of general reference, conveying correct and useful information to the reader. the author trusts that his endeavours in this direction will be appreciated. , tenby st. north, birmingham. _february, _. preface to the fourth edition. in issuing the present edition, a few introductory remarks are necessary to explain that numerous revisions have been made in chapters vi. and vii. (by means of the tables referred to below) regarding the cost prices of the different alloys, solders, etc., which i trust will increase the value of the book. through the repeal of the silver duty in the year , a great impetus has been given to the silver industry of this country, and notwithstanding the length of time that has elapsed since this book was first published, a steady demand has continued for its possession by workers in the precious metal trades--a fact which is gratifying to the author, not only because a reprint is again called for, but as showing that the work has held its position, and may now justly claim to be a standard authority on the subject of which it treats. it has not been found necessary to interfere with the general processes embodied in the book, as they are practically the same as formerly; but as regards the commercial value of silver, there is again a considerable depreciation[a] to record on the prices prepared for the second edition in , and it becomes imperative that this depreciation should be dealt with in this new edition, in order to bring the work up to date. [a] _s._ _d._ in fine silver cost per ounce. " " " " " " " " the market price of silver has for many years been of a very variable nature, almost each day's prices showing a difference, so that it would be impossible to provide the reader with an unvarying fixed price per ounce. the best and most practical thing to do under the circumstances, it seemed, was to carefully revise the different cost prices of the alloys and solders specified in chapters vi. and vii. and give them by way of approximate tables, compiled for each chapter separately. these two tables follow this preface (making pp. ix. and x.) and will serve as a ready reference for present workers in the silver trades. thus, by bringing the figures down to date, the work may still retain its reliable character as a practical guide to the silversmith's workshop. g. e. gee. , tenby st. north, birmingham. _january, ._ publishers' note to fifth edition. in february silver was quoted at - / _d._ to - / _d._, and it is therefore sufficient to note that the prices at that date correspond approximately to those current in . it should be noted that the melting of british gold and silver is prohibited, as well as their export. table of revised and up-to-date cost prices of the different alloys in chapter vi. +-----+----------------------+-------------------+---------------------+ |page.| no. and quality of | cost price . | cost price | | | alloy. | | and . | +-----+----------------------+-------------------+---------------------+ | | old standard alloy | _for_ / per oz. | _read_ / ½ per oz.| | | new standard alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " /- " | | | no. , silver alloy | " /- " | " / " | | | no. , silver alloy | " / " | " / " | | | french coinage alloy | " / " | " / " | | | french plate alloy | " / " | " / " | | | french · alloy | " / " | " / ½ " | | | german coinage alloy | · standard | " / " | | | german silver wares | | | | | alloy | · st standard| " / ¼ " | | | ditto | · nd " | " / ½ " | | | ditto | · rd " | " / ½ " | +-----+----------------------+-------------------+---------------------+ this table is based on the market price of fine silver being /- per ounce. table of revised and up-to-date cost prices of the different solders in chapter vii. +-----+---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------+ |page.| quality of solder. |cost price . | cost price | | | | | and . | +-----+---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------+ | |hardest silver solder |_for_ / per oz.|_read_ / ½ per oz.| | |hard silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |easy silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |best silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |medium silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |easy silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |common silver solder | " /- " | " / " | | |enamelling silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | | ditto | " / " | " / ½ " | | |filigree solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |quick-running silver solder| " /- " | " / " | | |silver solder for chains | " /- " | " / " | | |easy solder for chains | " /- " | " / " | | |common silver solder | " / " | " / " | | |common easy solder | " / " | " / " | | |arsenic silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | | ditto | " / " | " / ½ " | | |easy silver solder | " / " | " / ½ " | | |common easy silver solder | " / " | " / " | +-----+---------------------------+-----------------+-------------------+ this table is based on the market price of fine silver being /- per ounce. contents. introductory chapter. page silver a precious metal economy of treatment working silversmiths english and foreign workmen technical education pure silver plate and ornamental wares chapter i. _silver._ silver, characteristics of silver for filigree work indian filigree workers malleability of silver ductility of silver test for pure silver silver known to the ancients silver currency polished silver tarnishing of silver density of silver fusibility of silver heating power of silver action of silver under great heat hardness of silver nitrate of silver silver resists aqua-regia chief places of filigree manufacture chief uses of silver price of silver, commercial ores of silver dissolution of silver caustic alkalies nitre vegetable acids chapter ii. _sources of silver._ silver-mining great britain british isles' yield of silver spain america native silver european supplies of silver american supply of silver the richest mine state of the jewellery trade yield of silver foreign silver currency chief sources of british silver state in which it is found chapter iii. _the assay of silver ores._ silver and mercury assaying of silver ores crucible assay fluxes for crucible assay assay of genuine silver ores carbonate of soda dimensions of crucible litharge preparation and charge for assay treatment in the furnace casting-mould scorification process fusing cup or scorifier special form of scorifier scorification assay the reverse of crucible assay charge for scorification assay advantages of the process anthracite and its object separation of the silver from the slag borax, use of, in assaying continental method of assaying flux and charge for crucible details of the process , skittle-pot cupellation cupel, its mode of manufacture cupel-mould assayer's muffle cupel-tongs brightening sprouting weighing of silver assay chief alloy of silver chapter iv. _the cupellation of silver ores._ test-ring preparation of bone-ash defects in bone-ash cupel currents of air to the furnace withdrawal of the silver from the cupel removal of the litharge, manner of quantity of alloy per cupel purity of silver after cupellation ancient method of assaying dr. lamborn on assaying scriptural testimony , english system of assay chapter v. _the alloys of silver._ silversmith's alloys filigree work alloy amalgam metals employed in the industrial arts metals, their various characteristics principal alloys of silver copper characteristics of copper protoxide of copper action of acids on copper bean-shot copper for alloying chemical name for copper nickel cronstedt density of nickel ductility of nickel malleability of nickel fusibility of nickel nickel coinage nickel alloys electro-plate zinc spelter zinc in silver solder annealing of zinc specific gravity of zinc spelter used by jewellers tarnishing of zinc malleability of zinc ductility of zinc tenacity of zinc tin ancient workers in tin density of tin christianity and tin fusibility of tin dissolving of tin tin alloyed with gold tin alloyed with silver tin in silversmith's solders vapours of tin injurious to gold malleability of tin ductility of tin tenacity of tin scientific name for tin table of metallic elements melting-points of the principal metals physical properties of the principal metals chapter vi. _various qualities of silver._ mechanical uses of silver filigree work birmingham london indian chief places of filigree manufacture continental cheap labour hand-made articles process of workmanship maltese filigree chinese and japanese filigree filigree of norway and sweden filigree working, necessity for pure metal old method of making filigree twisting of the wire lathe, use of flattening of twisted wire for filigree new method of preparing filigree wire english standards for silver english coinage standard silver alloy alloy for hall-marking standard alloy of the highest quality standard alloy for hall-marking alloy commonly used in england qualities used by english silversmiths drawbacks to hall-marking method of calculating the qualities of silver silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated " no. , cost _s._ per oz. " no. , differently calculated instructions in the preparation of alloys copper for alloying french standards silver ware coinage french alloy for coinage french alloy for plate french alloy for silver ware instructions in the preparation of these alloys german standards silver ware coinage silver alloy for the german coinage alloy for plate alloys for silver wares , law on the manufacture of silver wares remedy allowed in fineness government exports guarantee marks chapter vii. _silver solders: their uses and applications._ the act of soldering cause of inferior manufactures tin in solders filed solders zinc in silver solder solders made with copper and silver hard silver solders medium solders easy solders connections for soldering flux for soldering fusibility of silver solders hardest silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated medium silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated easy silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated remarks on silver solders composition for solder best hard solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated medium solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated easy solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated common solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. ditto, differently calculated directions on the melting of solders solder for enamelling, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. " " cost _s._ _d._ per oz. easy solder for filigree work quick running solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. silver solder for chains, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. easy solder for chains, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. common silver solder, cost _s._ per oz. common easy solder, cost _s._ per oz. arsenic solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. silver solder with arsenic, _s._ _d._ per oz. easy silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. common easy solder, cost _s._ per oz. another common solder very common solder directions in the preparation of solders drossy solders mode of soldering gold and silver pallion solder blowpipes solder-dish and charger soft solder art in soldering solder for filigree lemaille solder english filigree workers sprinkle borax special soldering flux boiling-out pickle chapter viii. _on the melting of silver._ directions on melting weighing metal for the crucible crucibles best crucibles to employ fluxes: their action on crucibles fluxes employed in melting testing the soundness of a crucible mixing various metals for melting zinc a fusible metal charcoal bad working material plumbago crucible for melting tongs for melting ingot-mould flux and the pouring of molten metal protoxide of zinc scrap silver carbonate of soda dissolving impurities lead and tin in silver sal-ammoniac lemel mixture prepared for crucible burning of lemel skittle-pot for lemel melting of lemel another mode of melting lemel crucible for lemel pouring of lemel from crucible chapter ix. _on the working of silver._ rolling silver annealing silver irregularities in rolling-mills messrs kemp's mill , table of the cost of silver-rolling slitting rollers breaking-down rollers wire-rolling wire-drawing draw-plate draw-bench , draw-tongs drum used by wire-drawers fine wire-drawing , wire-drawer's punch and hammer wrought work sparrow-hawk raised work cement for chasers snarling-tools for raising art in the silver trade burnished silver work silver filigree work stamped or struck-up work press plain solid work chain bracelets present state of silver trade silver, liability to become tarnished enamelling galvanic ring mode of preparing ring , hollow silver work stamping-press spinning , polishing water-of-ayr stone polishing-lathe washing-out mixture chapter x. _enriching the surfaces of silver._ production of the best and richest surface oldest method for whitening east indian silversmiths indian mode of whitening silver another mode of whitening boiling-out pan boiling-out mixture , our mode of whitening surface refining of silver brown colour on silver goods common articles of silver whitening powder or mixtures nitrate of silver mixture improving the colour of electro-plate electro-plating discoverer of electro-plating , constant battery best battery for plating strength of battery solution bunsen's battery exciting mixture for battery zinc amalgamation conducting wires preparation of plating solution cyanide solution black cyanide strength of plating solution , inferior plating solution recovery of silver from plating solutions scratch-brushing scratch-brush lathe burnishing silver work , oxidizing silver work solution no . solution no . solution no . producing various shades chapter xi. _imitation silver alloys._ melting imitation alloys common silver alloy another another another another another another another another another another another chinese silver imitation silver another another another another white alloy clark's patent alloy white alloy alloy with platinum alloy with palladium uses for imitation alloys characteristics of imitation alloys chapter xii. _economical process._ working loss lowest estimate real loss total working loss shop floors waste-saving precautions , treatment of waste burning of polishings treatment of waste liquids processes for the recovery of silver from waste waters , chloride of silver aqua-regia precipitating silver in waste waters solution for precipitation sediment in collecting-vessels chapter xiii. _licences and duties._ acts of the legislature george iii., c. george i., c. george ii., c. george ii., c. george iii., c. george iii., c. george iii., c. george iii., c. table of various duties manufactured plate remarks on the licence question , act of parliament in licences clause of act , tax or licence unjustly assessed , chapter xiv. _useful information for the trade._ silversmith's alloys silver wares cleaning plate imitation silver another removing gold from silver articles oxidizing silver dipping mixture silver powder for copper powder for silver to protect the polish of metals silver-stripping mixture stripping silver soft solder soldering fluid dissolving silver dissolving silver alloy dissolving copper dissolving soft solder dissolving silver solder dissolving sealing-wax resist varnish plate powder electro-plating soft solder another recipe testing silver wares another test perchloride of iron aluminium alloy new alloy removing gold from silver wares silver plating fluid plate-cleaning powder solder for aluminium chapter xv. foreign silver standards french work, duty on continental silversmiths french style of work german style of work indian style of work austrian style of work english style of work index the silversmith's handbook. introductory chapter. in reviewing the rise and progress of the silversmith's beautiful and interesting art, in its relation to the manufacture of articles of personal ornament and luxury at home and abroad, we may observe at the outset, that the material of which they are composed differs widely in character from that employed by the ordinary "metalsmiths" and the manufacturer of "electro-plated wares." silver, the material of which we are now treating, being a precious metal and of considerable value, it is essentially necessary that the most careful means be exercised in dealing with it from the commencement--that is, from the pure or fine state--and also that the utmost economy be observed in reference to the kind of mechanical treatment to which it is subjected in the production of the silversmith's work, in order to prevent too great a quantity of waste or loss of material. for it should be borne in mind that silver, like gold, begins to lose, in one way or another, every time it is touched; therefore, carefulness and economy will be the characteristics of our teaching, so far as regards the present subject. the vast majority of working silversmiths know very little of the physical and chemical properties of the metal they employ, and still less of the comparison it bears with other metals in the field of science; and this want of scientific knowledge is nowhere more apparent than in our own country, where the english workman, in art education, is much behind the foreigner; and yet we have some of the finest and best workmen, in their _special_ branches, in the whole world. the english workman believes that if the work is worth doing at all, it is worth doing well; and we have no hesitation in saying, that, if a good technical education were afforded, concerning the precious metal trades, he would scarcely have an equal, and certainly no superior, abroad, in art workmanship, both in respect to the display of good taste and judgment, combined with a knowledge of design, so far as the exercise of these qualities is compatible with the manufacture of articles specially designed for use and ornament. the object of the information we are about to supply is to enable the practical silversmith to become a perfect master of his art or profession; and such a condition, when once achieved, will be found of considerable assistance to him in the various kinds of manufacture that present themselves; so that he will know how to begin a piece of work and when to leave it off; be able to remedy a defect in the metal when required, as well as be in a position to form an opinion as to the relative treatment of its different alloys; all of which invariably require different treatment. we shall commence by describing the characteristics of _fine silver_, carefully narrating the distinctive features of its alloys; then give an account of the processes employed, mechanical and chemical, in the silversmith's workshop; and conclude by pointing out the difference between english and foreign work in regard both to style and workmanship. it may be thought by the reader, if uninitiated in the art, that the costly plate and other articles made from the precious metal are manufactured from entirely _pure_ silver, and therefore that they possess absolute freedom from alloy; but this is not the case. pure silver being far too soft to stand the necessary wear and tear of (metallic) life, it is mixed with some other metal, to give it increased hardness. in the manufacture of plate and ornamental wares the metal employed is always copper, in various proportions, thus forming different commercial qualities; and of these we shall speak hereafter. our first object is to treat of the chemical and physical properties of the pure metal. chapter i. silver. pure silver is, next to gold, the finest metal, but of a smoother and more polished nature. it may be said to be almost infinitely malleable, but it will not so easily yield or extend under the hammer as fine gold. as a malleable metal, however, it stands next to it in this respect. it is characterized by its perfectly white colour, being the whitest of all the metals. it is harder than gold, yet in a pure state it is so soft that it can easily be cut with a knife. on account of its extreme softness, when in a pure state, it is employed for filigree work, being utterly devoid of that elastic power which is found in the metal when alloyed. it is for this reason that the indian filigree workers, who are the finest in the world, are so very particular about the absolute purity of the metal before commencing the manufacture of their artistic work; all of which is exceedingly beautiful. it is reported that fine silver is capable of being beaten into leaves of less than one-hundred-thousandth part of an inch in thickness. for the accuracy of this statement we cannot vouch, never having had occasion to try the experiment; its employment in that form being unknown in the ordinary industrial pursuits. fine silver is extremely ductile, and may be drawn into the very finest wire without breaking, and almost without annealing. its purity can be partly ascertained by the latter process; for perfectly fine silver never changes colour by heat, whereas when it contains alloy it blackens if heated in contact with a current of air, and soon hardens in wire-drawing. silver was a metallic element known to the ancients, and it is repeatedly mentioned in the holy scriptures. in the time of the patriarchs we read of it as having been constantly employed in the transactions of nations, and that it was in use as a standard of value; thus forming a circulating medium for the purpose of exchange. this function it has always continued to fulfil down to the present day, except that since the year it has not been so employed in the english currency. however, as token money, it is everywhere recognised as a circulating medium of trade. the egyptian symbol for silver was represented by fig. , relating to the moon; in modern chemistry it is understood by _ag._ from the latin name _argentum_, denoting silver. [illustration: _luna._ fig. . egyptian mark for silver.] fine silver is capable of receiving a polish scarcely inferior in lustre to that of highly polished steel, and in this state it reflects more light and heat than any other metal, without any perceptible change of colour for some considerable time. it is chiefly on this account, as well as its resistance to oxidation in air and water, that it is used for such a variety of purposes, not only of ornament and luxury, but also in a domestic way. silver, unlike gold, cannot resist the influence of sulphuretted hydrogen, from the action of which it very soon becomes much tarnished if left exposed in damp rooms, &c. silver ranks next to gold in point of ductility and malleability. when pure, its density, or specific gravity, lies between . and . , taking water as , according to the degree of compression it has received by rolling and hammering. it is fusible at a full red heat, or about ° fahr. it is a metal having a very low radiating power for heat; hence silver wire of given dimensions retains and conducts heat better than a similar piece of another metal; for the same reason, a liquid contained in a silver vessel retains its heat much longer than if placed in one made of some other substance. silver volatilises when subjected to a very great temperature in the fire, emitting rather greenish fumes. it loses between / sts and / ths, in proportion to its impurity, of its absolute weight in air when weighed in water. in point of tenacity it occupies the fifth position among the useful metals. in hardness it lies between copper and gold; and a small addition of the former substance considerably increases this quality, in which state it is largely employed in the arts. nitric acid is the proper solvent for silver, as it dissolves it with the greatest ease and rapidity, forming _nitrate_ of silver, which is much used for medical purposes, and in art. sulphuric and hydrochloric acids act upon it but slowly in the cold. silver resists partially the best aqua-regia, probably on account of the dense chloride which forms on the surface of the metal, from the action of the hydrochloric acid in the mixture of aqua-regia. fine silver is largely used in the industrial and commercial arts, in the manufacture of silver lace and fine filigree work; the latter branch being more commonly practised in india, sweden, norway, and some parts of germany, where labour is cheap, than in england. this class of silversmith's work takes a long time to produce, and as labour forms the chief item of its cost, this, not unnaturally, acts as a great drawback in the extension of the art of very fine filigree working, in all its intricate variety, in countries where labour is dear. to this subject we shall subsequently refer again in detail. fine silver, with a small proportion of alloy, is largely used by all nations for purposes of coinage. it amalgamates with nearly all the metals, but is principally used in alloys suitable to the watchmaker's and silversmith's art. the purchasable price of fine silver for manufacturing purposes, which in was _s._ _d._ is now, , _s._ per ounce, troy weight, varying however in value according to the total amounts purchased; for which see refiners' and assayers' charge lists, to be procured at the offices of any bullion dealer. the silver ores of commerce have generally an intermixture of a small quantity of gold, and sometimes instances have occurred in which it has been employed in manufactures without a proper chemical investigation; and in such cases the loss resulting from the omission would have amply paid the expenses of the process. exposed to the action of hot and concentrated sulphuric acid, silver dissolves, setting free sulphurous acid. by the application of this process--which is one of the most advantageous methods--silver may readily be separated from gold, sulphuric acid having no action upon the latter metal. with the exception of gold, silver perhaps more perfectly resists the action of the _caustic alkalies_ and the powerful effects of _nitre_ (saltpetre) than any other metal, if we omit platinum from the list of elements at present known to metallurgical chemistry. for reasons such as these its superiority for the manufacture of utensils for culinary and other domestic purposes is at once apparent, and because it is a metal upon which _vegetable acids_ produce no effect. chapter ii. sources of silver. strictly speaking, silver mining does not exist as a distinct operation in great britain, for it can hardly be said that this country possesses any great quantity of silver ore. yet we must not disguise or leave unnoticed, in dealing with this subject, the positive fact that silver is found to some extent in our copper and lead mines, principally in the latter; but in no case, as far as we know, have mines been worked for the sake of the silver alone. it is almost always found in conjunction with lead, and it is from that source that we have a good supply of british silver. the average annual yield in the british isles for some years has been equal to , ounces--a position in regard to the quantity produced ranking second only to spain amongst the nations of the world, america, of course, being excepted. silver is found in a native state, the commonest ore being a sulphuret. the chief european supplies are derived from spain, in which country genuine silver ore exists; from saxony and prussia, where the ores are principally associated with lead, as in england; and from austria, where it is for the greater part found mixed with copper. silver is nearly always to be found in copper and lead mines, but generally in such small quantities that it is rarely worth the trouble and expense of separation. considerably more than three-fourths of the whole total supply of silver comes from america; and in fact nearly the whole territory of america is said to be more or less argentiferous. until lately mexico carried off the palm, as containing and yielding the largest percentage of silver; but through the discovery of another mine in the united states, at nevada, of considerable richness, which has yielded enormous supplies, we shall not be far wrong in pronouncing the silver mines in the state of nevada to be the richest in the whole world. the extensive production of these mines, combined with other causes, has led to a considerable depreciation in the value of silver, and probably this may yet lead to its more extensive employment in the arts and manufactures; and, in the midst of the very general depression of the jewellery trade, any change extending in that direction would be joyfully accepted by the thousands of workmen in the precious metal trades now standing idle. we are told that, since the year , the production of silver has increased from an average yield of eight or nine to fourteen millions per annum, or about per cent.; while, on the other hand, the foreign demand for the metal (formerly largely employed for the currency) has greatly diminished. the rise in cost of silver during the war years and those immediately following necessitated an act in great britain "to amend the law in respect of the standard fineness of silver coins current in the united kingdom and in other parts of his majesty's dominions." the chief sources of supply in the british isles, according to professor george gladstone, are as given below; and as all the silver found in this country is produced from lead ores, the average yield here given must be understood to exist in about that proportion to every ton of lead ore assayed:--isle of man, to oz.; cornwall, about oz.; devonshire, about oz.; cardiganshire, to oz.; montgomeryshire, to oz. thus, it will be seen the lead ores of the isle of man yield the greatest proportion of silver in the british dominions. silver is also found in the undermentioned counties, in all of which it is produced from lead ore:--cumberland, durham, and northumberland, denbighshire, flintshire, and derbyshire; but the percentage is much smaller than in the preceding cases. ireland also yields a fair percentage of silver. chapter iii. the assay of silver ores. a large proportion of the silver of commerce is extracted from ores (which are too poor to allow of their being smelted or fused) by a process called amalgamation. founded on the ready solubility of silver, &c., in metallic mercury, the ore is first crushed to powder, then mixed with common salt, and afterwards roasted. by the adoption of this plan the silver is reduced to a state of chloride. the roasting is done in a reverberatory furnace, in which the heat is very gradually raised, the ore being constantly stirred; the heat is then increased sufficiently to raise the ore to a good red heat. it is then put into wooden barrels, revolving on iron axles attached to the ends, and scraps of iron are then added to it; both are then agitated together by rotary motion, the effect of which is to reduce the chloride of silver to a metallic state. when this is effected, it is again agitated with mercury, and a fluid amalgam is formed with the metal, together with any other metallic ingredient that may happen to be present in the roasted ore. subsequently, to recover the silver, the mercury is driven off by heat, and the silver is thus left behind in an impure state. there are three ways of assaying silver ores; they are in the _test_ assay as follows:-- . melting in a crucible. . scorification. . cupellation. in the crucible assay the ore is commonly run down with a suitable flux, those most frequently employed being litharge, carbonate of soda, borax, and charcoal. these four substances are all that are required by the practical assayer in the treatment of the regular ores of silver. [illustration: fig. . fire-clay crucible.] the assaying of the genuine ores is performed in the following manner; that is, if they contain but little earthy matter. they may then be conveniently treated by fusing with carbonate of soda, on account of its cheapness, and borax, in a fire-clay crucible (fig. ). the dimensions of the crucible should be as follows: - / inches in height, and - / inches in its greatest diameter, which should be at the top. a quantity of litharge (a semi-vitrious substance, oxide of lead), more than is actually necessary to take up the whole of the silver in the ore, should be added, so as to promote fusion, and collect the ingredients into one mass at the bottom of the crucible. in preparing the ore for the crucible, it must be well pounded, and intimately mixed with the undermentioned chemicals:-- pounded silver ore grains. litharge " carbonate of soda " borax " charcoal " place two crucibles to warm during the time occupied in the preparation of the mixture, then put it into the warm crucible; take grains more of litharge, and powder it over the contents in the vessel. prepare in this manner a second mixture for the other crucible, place them both in the furnace, and put plenty of coke round them. the mixtures may be melted in an ordinary wind or melting furnace, such as is used by jewellers in the preparation of their material for art working. the fusion should take place very gradually at first, as silver in combination with lead is sensibly volatile at a high temperature: it may then be continued at a low heat for twenty-five minutes, and finally the operation may be completed with a full red heat for five minutes longer. during the process of fusing the contents of the crucible may be watched by removing one of the bricks from the top of the furnace, and when the whole mass has become quite liquid the crucible must be seized with a pair of suitable tongs, tapped once or twice very lightly against the side of the furnace to procure the settlement of the contents, and immediately poured into an iron mould, previously warmed and greased to prevent adhesion and spitting. allow the mould to remain for some time, in order to partially cool, and then plunge it into a vessel of cold water. on cooling, the metallic elements will be found incorporated into a button, the slag can then easily be removed by tapping with a hammer on the edge, and the plunging into cold water greatly facilitates this separation. the whole mass has then to be cupelled, in order to separate the silver from the lead and other metals. [illustration: fig. . fire-clay fusing cup.] silver ores, containing a large proportion of the sulphides (chemical combinations of sulphur with metallic substances) of other metals, may be easily assayed by the scorification process, which is, without exception, applicable to the assay of all kinds of argentiferous ores; and is one of the best, most simple, and most exact methods that can possibly be employed in the extraction of silver from its ores. this process, like that of fusion with litharge, already described, has the effect of producing an alloy, and subsequently requires cupellation. the ore is first well pounded, and then put into a small shallow vessel made of close-grained refractory fire-clay (fig. ), with an excess of finely granulated lead and some borax. the fusing cup or scorifier employed in this process should be about - / in. high and - / ins. in its greatest diameter; some assayers, however, use them deeper in proportion to their width, and representing in form the end of an egg. the object of this shape is to preserve the bath of molten metal at the bottom, and that it may always be well covered and protected by the slag on the top during the process of fusing. in the scorification method the principles are exactly the reverse of those of the crucible assay; for in the latter the object is to reduce the oxide of lead to a metallic state, whereas in the former the metallic lead added to the pounded ore in the scorifier is oxidized by being fused in contact with the air. the charge for this assay may be as follows:-- well pounded ore grains. finely granulated lead " borax anhydrous " powdered anthracite " the cups or scorifiers should be charged in the following manner: well mix the silver ore with grains of granulated lead; place this mixture in a scorifier, and add grs. more of granulated lead, and over the top of the whole put the burnt borax. the vessel may then be placed in an ordinary assay furnace or muffle, as many being introduced at one time as there is room for in the furnace, and submitted to the strongest heat for about thirty minutes; during the greater portion of this time the door should be kept closed, especially for the first fifteen minutes. on opening the muffle-door a current of air passes through the furnace, converting a portion of the lead into litharge; this enters into combination with the earthy portions of the ore, the other metallic sulphides, and also the borax, producing a fusible slag on the surface of the metallic bath, extending over the whole surface of the scorifier. the excess of lead is thus protected by this film or flux from the oxidizing effects of the currents of air admitted into the furnace, and remains united with whatever silver there may be in the ore, in a metallic state. the fusing should be continued longer than the thirty minutes--in fact until the slag or flux is reduced into a perfectly liquid state; stirring it well with a slender iron rod will facilitate the operation, as it will tend to mix with the mass any hard portions remaining undissolved and attached to the sides or other parts of the vessels. this condition of the flux is absolutely indispensable; when the slags are quite liquid, which with a strong fire will take place in from thirty to forty minutes, wrap up in a piece of paper the powdered anthracite, and drop it into the scorifier while still in the furnace or muffle. the object of adding the anthracite at the last moment is to reduce any minute portions of the metal that may exist in the slags, and remain separated from the bulk. when the anthracite has burnt off, which process usually takes about five minutes, this point is considered to have been attained, and the operation is then complete. the scorifier may be immediately withdrawn from the fire, and the contents poured into a suitable casting-mould, of the form represented in fig. , a button of silver lead being the result. when cold, the metallic mass is readily separated from the slag or flux by slightly tapping with a hammer; the former may then be passed on to the next operation, viz. to be purified of its lead by the process of cupellation, which will be presently described. when there is not enough borax present the assayer will observe an infusible skin floating upon the surface; should this be the case more borax must at once be employed, in order to dissolve such impurity. when a chloride of silver ore is to be assayed, carbonate of soda must be added to the mixture to prevent sublimation. the following method of assaying is adopted in several large continental establishments, where the ores have, beside the usual earthy matter and the sulphides of lead, an admixture of zinc, iron, and copper. the process is precisely similar to the crucible assay, in the case of genuine silver ores, as already described--with this exception, that no more lead is added than the ores then contain--that is, if we are treating _galena_ or _silver lead_; other ores require different treatment according to their known composition. in this process wrought-iron crucibles are employed having the form and shape as shown in fig. . they are made of thick iron plate, and are rendered secure by welding the edges firmly together. their dimensions are as follows: a depth of - / ins., with a thickness of iron at the bottom of - / in., and a / of an inch in the sides; the diameter at the top of the crucible should be about - / ins., and at the bottom between and - / ins. a mechanical mixture or flux is prepared to use with the ores to which we have referred, consisting of the following chemicals, all of which should be finely powdered and well mixed with the ore to be assayed:-- carbonate of soda parts. tartar " saltpetre " borax part. the furnace used for this assay is the ordinary one, having rather a high chimney, to insure a perfect draught. in effecting the reduction of the silver, the crucible is first placed as before on the fire, and allowed to become hot; when this is accomplished, take well powdered ore grains. prepared flux " these ingredients should be thoroughly mixed together, and put into the red hot crucible. fuse at a low heat for about twenty minutes, when the whole will be in a perfect state of fusion; then give about five minutes strong heat, and at the end of that time the crucible may be withdrawn, and its contents poured into an iron mould, as represented in fig. , having one or two conical holes for the reception of the fused mass. the silver and lead collect at the bottom of the mould by reason of its high specific gravity. it may be removed by reversing the position of the latter, when a gentle tap or two will deprive it of that slag or flux which is usually attached to it. a large quantity of silver can be readily collected from its ores by an alternate use of crucibles, in which case it is possible to make a regular number of fusions per hour. wrought-iron crucibles, when strongly prepared and carefully made, will stand about thirty of these fusions, giving way in the end on account of the action of the sulphur contained in the ores. [illustration: fig. . iron casting-moulds.] another kind of crucible, in addition to those already mentioned, is used by the trade, and is recommended by many assayers as superior to all others. fig. represents the form of it. it is about - / ins. high, and ins. in its greatest interior diameter, being in the form of a skittle. the charge consists of the following in this assay: finely powdered ore grains. small pieces of iron " black flux " common salt " put the powdered ore into the crucible, and place upon it the iron, which should not be in the form of filings or dust, but in small pieces; upon the ore and iron should be put the black flux, and lastly the common salt must be placed above all these substances as a protection against the air. the crucibles, as many as convenient, may now be introduced into the furnace, and slowly raised to a strong red heat, at which temperature they should be kept for about half an hour; at the end of that period they should be removed from the fire, slightly tapped to settle the contents, and then placed aside to cool. when this has taken place, a few blows with a hammer near the base of the crucibles, each in turn, will soon expose the button of silver attached to the undecomposed iron; the latter substance may, however, be easily detached by a few well-directed blows with the hammer. [illustration: fig. . iron crucible for assay.] [illustration: fig. . fire-clay crucible for assay.] in order to ascertain the exact amount of the precious metal--that is, the silver--contained in the buttons of lead obtained as the results of the foregoing operations, they are subjected to a purifying process by the metallurgist, called cupellation. by this means the lead and other impurities are driven off by heat in contact with a current of air, and the silver is left behind in a pure state. to perform this operation it is necessary to expose the buttons on some absorbing medium or porous support, and this support is commonly known as a _cupel_. no doubt many porous substances could be made available for the formation of cupels, but bone-ash is the best for all practical purposes, such as are required by the assayer. the bone-ash, in the condition of a very fine powder, is mixed with a little water in which has been dissolved a small quantity of potash, and moulded into the desired shape. the cupels are tightly consolidated by pressure in an iron mould of the form shown in fig. , which is the best in use, being well adapted for the manufacture of cupels. it consists of a slightly conical steel ring, ins. in depth, and about - / in. in diameter at the top internally; a steel die with a wooden handle (fig. ) is made to fit the mould. to make a cupel the space in the ring is nearly filled with the moistened bone-ash, and pressed down by the hand, and afterwards by the die, the latter being driven into the ring by the application of a wooden mallet (fig. ) to the handle of the die. it will be seen from the illustration that the die forms a cavity in the cupel capable of receiving the charge of metal for assay. when the bone-ash has been sufficiently compressed, the die is withdrawn, and the cupel removed from the ring. this is a delicate operation, as sometimes the edges of the cupel are liable to be injured; to prevent which and facilitate the removal a loose plate of iron, exactly fitting the bottom of the mould, should be introduced previous to putting in the bone-ash. the iron plate of course being removed with the cupel, it must be replaced before another can be made. by introducing a cylindrical piece of wood to the lower aperture of the steel ring, the cupel can be removed without difficulty. [illustration: fig. . cupel mould.] [illustration: fig. . die for cupel.] [illustration: fig. . wooden mallet.] the size of the cupel should always be regulated according to the quantity of foreign matter to be absorbed, it being generally understood that the material of which it is formed takes up double its weight of lead. the process of cupelling is conducted in the furnace of the assayer, an apparatus of peculiar construction, the most important part of which, however, is the muffle (fig. ), consisting of a small arched oven of fire-clay closed at one end, and furnished with perpendicular slits in the sides, in order to allow of a free access of air to the cupels inside. [illustration: fig. . assayer's muffle for cupels.] [illustration: fig. . cupel tongs.] [illustration: fig. . cupels, section and perspective views.] the position of the muffle in the furnace is so arranged that it can be readily heated on every side; and when it has become red hot, six or eight cupels, previously well dried, are taken and placed on the floor of it, which should be covered with a thin layer of bone-ash. the form of tongs required for this purpose is shown in fig. . when the cupels have been raised to the temperature of the muffle itself, the assays are put in by a very slender pair of tongs, the door of the furnace is then closed for a few minutes, when the metal will have become fused, and the litharge will begin to be taken up by the bone-ash of which the cupel is composed. the temperature of the furnace is now lowered as much as possible, although not to such an extent that it will retard the progress of oxidation and absorption. when nearly the whole of the lead has been thus absorbed, the bead remaining will have become very rich in silver, and, as the oxidation proceeds, will appear much agitated, assuming a rapid circular movement, and revolving with great rapidity. the silver gradually concentrates itself in the centre of the cupel, taking the form of a globule, and at this stage the fire should be made sharper, the operation being carefully watched. when the last particle of lead leaves the silver, the agitation will suddenly cease, and a beautiful phenomenon be witnessed, called by assayers the _brightening_. the button of silver then becomes brilliant and immovable, and the operation, when this takes place, is complete. the cupel must be cooled with very great care, in order to prevent the silver from _sprouting_; which if allowed to take place would result in considerable loss, besides destroying the accuracy of the assay. to prevent this sprouting it is a good plan immediately to cover the cupel by another, which has been heated for that purpose; the two are withdrawn together, and allowed to remain at the mouth of the muffle until the silver has become solid; the metal is then in a state of almost chemical purity, and may be detached and weighed. previous to the latter, however, it should be carefully cleansed from all foreign matter, and flattened on a smooth-faced anvil, this process greatly assisting in the removal of any oxide of lead, which not unfrequently attaches itself to the globule of silver. the weighing is conducted with a pair of scales having an extremely delicate balance; and where any commercial transaction depends upon the accuracy of the assay, it is always imperative to make several tests of the same sample, to avoid the consequences of any accident or mistake. the chief element in combination with silver on the large scale is lead. formerly the plan adopted in the separation of this metal was cupellation alone. this process on the large scale is somewhat different from that just described; and as it may appear to the reader interesting and instructive, a brief explanation of it may not be considered out of place. chapter iv. the cupellation of silver ores. this interesting process is performed in a reverberatory furnace of a very peculiar construction, the cupel employed on the large scale differing somewhat from the ordinary one, being considerably larger and varying also in form. it consists of a strong oval wrought-iron ring, with a part of the full shape omitted, as shown in accompanying sketch, in order to allow of the overflow of lead during the process, in the form of litharge. this iron ring, known as the _test ring_, contains the cupel, and in order to prepare the latter, the frame, which measures about ins. in its longest diameter, ins. in breadth, and ins. in depth, is strengthened by having a number of broad strips of iron seamed across the bottom by riveting to the sides of it. the cupel itself is prepared for use by taking finely ground bone-ash, together with a little carbonate of potash, and working them up with just sufficient water to make the mass cohere properly; the carbonate of potash may be advantageously dissolved in the water; the latter is then applied in small quantities at a time to the bone-ash until the proper coherency has been obtained; of the total quantity of bone-ash employed in the operation, per cent. of potash will be _quantum sufficit_ to mix with it. the iron frame, or test, is then filled with the mixture, and it is pressed down into a solid compact mass, the centre part being hollowed out with a small trowel, the sides sloping towards the concavity in the middle; the hollow should not however be extended more than within to - / in. of the bottom of the frame, and above the iron bars. the cupel forms the hearth of the furnace we have spoken of, and of which fig. is a sectional view; it is removable, and not a fixture in the furnace. it must be left for several days to dry, after having been constructed as described, when it is ready for use, and only requires firmly wedging in its place beneath the arch of the furnace. [illustration: fig. . cupels, section and perspective views.] the fire should be only very moderate at the commencement of the operation, and the furnace slowly raised in temperature, lest the cupel should crack by being too quickly heated. as the temperature increases, if without any apparent defects in the bone-ash cupel, or hearth, which it may now be termed, the wind or blast, generally driven by a fan, is thrown in through a nozzle, or an aperture in the furnace, which, for facilitating the immediate removal of the bone-ash hearth, is placed upon an iron car, and runs beneath the vault of the furnace on rails, so that it may thus be very readily withdrawn when found necessary. the admission of a current of air into the furnace oxidizes the excess of lead, in combination with the silver, producing litharge on the surface of the molten mass; the formation of the litharge takes place rapidly, and it is continually blown forward by the strength of the blast as fast as it is produced, running through a gap or channel specially made for the purpose in the mouth of the cupel into a movable iron pot which is placed for its reception. the continual oxidization and flow-off of the lead alters the respective proportions of the metals in the cupel. for this reason it is always kept full of lead ore, which is effected by taking it in its fused state from a kettle in which it is ready melted by means of a long-handled ladle; and thus about or lbs. of metal are constantly kept in this bone-ash cupel or hearth. as the silver necessarily increases in the hearth, it will require to be occasionally withdrawn, in order to make room for a further supply of lead ore. this process is adopted when it reaches about from to per cent. of silver to the ton (between , and , ozs.), and may be effectually performed by drilling a hole underneath the cupel, and letting the silver flow through it into a receptacle placed to receive it. of course the operations of the furnace are arrested while these manipulations are being carried on. after the withdrawal of the silver, the hole is closed up again with a plug of moistened bone-ash prepared as before; when the process may be continued a second time by giving or lbs. of fresh lead ore to the cupel. thus a single cupel will often last hours, and or tons of lead may be oxidized upon it. we have already observed that the prolongation of the cupelling process increases the richness of the remaining alloy, and this very rich silver-lead alloy is again subjected to a second operation in cupelling. this process of assaying or refining is similar in every respect to the former, and is often performed in the same furnace, the cupel being first of all brought to almost a bright red heat, when about lbs. of the silver-lead alloy are added, and a strong current of air given in order to oxidize the remaining lead in combination with the silver. in this operation the material under treatment, previous to its introduction to the cupel, should be melted in a kettle easy of access, and added in its fused state. the current of air in connection with the heat of the furnace immediately begins to purify the silver by oxidizing the lead, and forms litharge, which passes off through the channel provided in the mouth of the cupel; as this proceeds, fresh silver-lead alloy is added, to keep the level of the metal always at the same height. this is continued until some three tons of the alloy from the first cupellation have been put in, and when about or lbs. of silver are collected in the cupel. when the cupel has received the above proportion of metal, the addition of the alloy ceases, and the silver is allowed to purify. the litharge which passes off towards the close of this process will be richer in silver than in the former one; consequently it is found best in practical metallurgical operations to treat in a special manner the last part of silver cupelling on the large scale, for it needs very careful management indeed to secure all the silver, especially to do so in a fine state. towards the completion of the process the fire should be increased considerably, in order to keep the silver thoroughly melted, and also to oxidize and completely remove every trace of lead that is possible. as it begins to purify itself from the remaining lead a characteristic brightness will be perceived. when this takes place the fire must be lowered, the wind or blast stopped, and the metal left to cool gradually. this latter proceeding is of some importance, as a too sudden cooling of the surface causes the interior of the metal to expand and shoot, by which means little globules of silver may be lost; therefore it should be allowed to cool very slowly. the iron ring encircling the cupel with its contents may now be drawn from beneath the arch of the furnace, and the cake of silver taken from its bed in the bone-ash which formed the vessel, and cleaned of any impurity; when it may be re-melted in a plumbago crucible, and cast into ingot moulds. these moulds should be made of iron, and should always, when used for this purpose, be warmed and greased a little, previous to the introduction of the melted material, to prevent the metal from spitting and adhering to it. if skilfully treated during the process of cupellation, the desilvered lead seldom contains more than · to · per cent. of silver to the test assay of grs., or between six and ten pennyweights to the ton, beyond which point it is unprofitable to carry on the operation. the litharge which is formed and passes off during the process gradually grows richer in silver towards the end of the cupellation. it probably contains after concentration about thirty to forty ounces of silver to the ton of litharge. this is again subjected to the several operations of the same kind for the recovery of the silver. it is somewhat remarkable that the present method of recovering and purifying this metal bears a strong resemblance to that employed in ancient times, and which is spoken of in the holy scriptures by the prophet ezekiel (xxii. and ): "son of man, the house of israel is to me become dross: all they are brass, and tin, and iron, and lead, in the midst of the furnace; they are even the dross of silver." and also, "as they gather silver, and brass, and iron, and lead, and tin, into the midst of the furnace, to blow the fire upon it, to melt it; so will i gather you in mine anger and in my fury, and i will leave you there, and melt you." the celebrated metallurgist dr. lamborn says, "only those who have seen, beneath the glowing arch at the smelting works, flames surging wave after wave across the surface of the liquid metal, carrying all the substances, here called dross, from the pure silver; and only those who have heard the roar of the fiery blast, that ceases neither day nor night, until its task of purification is accomplished,--can appreciate the terrible force of the figure made use of by the prophet." according to the above scriptural passage it is evident that the ancients were in possession of the first rudiments of assaying, and understood to some extent the purification of metals; but scriptural testimony does not point out with what amount of skill and success these operations were performed. judging from the appliances which have been handed down from generation to generation, we are inclined to think they must have been practised somewhat rudely; for it has been left to the present school of scientific and practical metallurgists to found and develop the art in the direction of that commercial success to which it has at the present day attained. this plan of cupellation which we have just described is still adopted in many continental works in the assaying of silver-lead ores. in england the system has been almost entirely superseded by one invented by the late mr. pattinson of newcastle, and which is confidently stated to be far more convenient in practice. chapter v. the alloys of silver. fine silver enters freely into combination with nearly all the useful metals, but its most important alloys are those prepared from copper, the latter substance being more suitable for the production of silversmith's work than any other; whilst it produces a more pleasing effect, if not over-alloyed, in regard to finish. silver articles, especially of the _filigree_ kinds, if the designs are good, possess a very tasteful appearance. in treating of the alloys of silver, it is our intention, first, to give a cursory glance at the chemical and physical properties of the metals which form these alloys. such a description, although brief, will, we believe, prove of essential service, not only to working silversmiths and metalsmiths, but also to goldsmiths and jewellers, who are constantly manipulating with these inferior metals in precisely the same way as the silversmith. besides, such information cannot, we apprehend, fail to be useful, whether to the student, the theorist, or the practical worker. an alloy is the union of two or more metals by fusion, so as to form a metallic compound. it may consist of any number of the metallic elements, and in any proportion, provided they will chemically combine, always excepting mercury as one of the ingredients. in this latter case the mixture is called an _amalgam_. chemistry has made us acquainted with about forty-nine metals; of that number, however, not more than fourteen are employed to any considerable extent for industrial art purposes. they are as follow: gold, silver, copper, zinc, platinum, aluminum, nickel, iron, mercury, lead, tin, arsenic, antimony, and bismuth. some of these are occasionally employed for _special_ purposes in the arts in their pure state; but where hardness is to be a distinguishing characteristic, combined with certain variations in shades of colour, a union is effected of two or more of these metals in different proportions, by fusion and stirring, so as to form the requisite alloy. metals used in the pure state, that is, without any mixture of alloy, have very few applications in regard to industrial pursuits and the arts. the precious metals--gold, silver, &c.--would be much too soft, while, on the other hand, arsenic, bismuth, and antimony would be far too brittle to be employed alone for manufacturing purposes. it is quite possible to effect some thousands of alloys, but there do not appear to have been more than about three hundred practised successfully for commercial purposes. the principal alloy of silver, as we have already remarked, is copper; but, occasionally, nickel, and even zinc are employed in the case of the commoner qualities of silver. tin is also used in the preparation of solder for these qualities, in order to render it the more easy of fusion when used for soldering the work. of the distinctive features of these elements of silver-alloy we shall now speak with some amount of detail. silver will unite with copper in various proportions by melting the two ingredients together, and stirring them whilst in a fused state. a product will thus be formed differing physically in character from fine silver, caused by the loss of some little of the latter's ductility and malleability; but, on the other hand, a compound will be produced harder and more elastic, which is in every sense better adapted to the manufacture and also to the durability of the articles made by the silversmith. _copper_, like the precious metals, appears to have been known from a very early age, being one of the six metals spoken of in the old testament; and described by the historian as being also one of the seven made use of by the ancient philosopher. it is of a reddish colour, malleable, ductile, and tenacious. it is largely employed in alloying both gold and silver for the manufacture of jewellery and other articles. with regard to malleability, it stands next to gold and silver in the list of useful metals; in ductility it occupies the fifth position; and in tenacity one only is superior, viz. iron. it is not very fixed in the fire, for if subjected to a long-continued heat it loses a part of its substance; for this reason the alloys of silver and copper should be carefully watched in the crucible to prevent this loss when under the action of the fire. when struck copper gives only a feeble sound, and is easily abraded by the file. it fuses at a good white heat, or about ° fahr., although some authors have given it as ° fahr. its specific gravity varies between · for cast copper, and · when rolled and hammered. it loses between one-eighth and one-ninth, or / ths, of its weight in water. when exposed to a damp atmosphere a greenish oxide, called verdigris, is produced on its surface, and this is one of the reasons why silver articles containing a percentage of copper become so readily discoloured if left exposed to atmospheric influences; copper also, if heated in contact with the air, quickly becomes oxidized, and, on being touched, scales fall off: these form the _protoxide of copper_. if this process is frequently repeated under a great heat, each time the metal is operated upon it loses a part of its malleability and ductility, which are both eminent characteristics of the pure metal. most of the ordinary acids act on copper but slowly in the cold, but nitric acid very readily dissolves it, even if largely diluted. copper amalgamates with most of the metals, and its subsidiary alloys are very largely employed in the arts and manufactures of every kind. the bean-shot copper of commerce, costing about a shilling per pound avoirdupois weight, is quite good enough for all the practical purposes of the silversmith. [illustration: fig. . _venus._ egyptian mark for copper.] the name given to this metal by the alchemists was _venus_ (fig. ), which is one of the principal planets, whose orbit is situated between the earth and mercury. the scientific name of _cuprum_ for copper is derived from the isle of cyprus, where, it is said by pliny, the greeks discovered the method of mining and working it. copper is found distributed all over the world; a considerable portion, however, is found in the united kingdom. _nickel._--this metal is found chiefly in the hartz mountains. it was formerly called by the germans "kupfer nickel," or false copper, "nickel" being a term of detraction. it was first discovered about a century and a half ago by cronstedt. it has a greyish-white colour, and is slightly magnetic, _i.e._ it is attracted by the magnet in the same way as iron and steel, but it loses this property if heated to about ° fahr. its specific gravity varies between · and · , according to the amount of compression it has received, and it is rather brittle; it may, however, be drawn into wire, and rolled flat, or into sheets. it is considerably harder and less ductile than any of the other metals employed in jeweller's and silversmith's work. in hardness it nearly approaches iron, and on this account, when polished, a characteristic brightness is produced. the malleability of nickel is less than that of iron, standing tenth in the list of useful metals; and in ductility it also occupies the tenth position. nickel is very infusible, and does not so easily oxidize or tarnish at ordinary temperatures as copper does. several countries have tried to employ it in the manufacture of small coin for the currency, but its use has now been almost abandoned. nickel alloys are much used in the arts for manufacturing purposes, under the name of "german silver," there being large demand for this metal, as it forms the hard white alloy much used in making "electro-plate," and on which silver is afterwards deposited. it also is used in common silver alloys, in order to keep up the whiteness of the latter element, the addition of too large a proportion of copper maintaining the tint of the latter metal, in too strong a degree to be altogether employed by the silver-worker. nickel is sometimes _specially_ employed, in combination with other metals, to replace or imitate silver in the manufacture of commercial wares, while with copper, zinc, tin, &c., it forms very useful alloys, producing great hardness. _zinc._--this metal in its pure state is sometimes called _spelter_. at the present day it is not much used for alloying silver; but, as it is commonly employed in the preparation of silver-solder, it is necessary that the amateur and the student should know, as well as the practical mechanic, the distinctive characteristics of it, together with the qualities it imparts to others when in combination with them. as a metallic substance it was unknown until a long time subsequent to the discovery of the principal metals; and only since the commencement of the present century has its uses been thoroughly known and appreciated in the industrial world. in its pure state, zinc is a bluish-white metal, hard and highly crystalline; but, when raised to a heat of between ° and ° fahr., it is malleable, and may safely be rolled and hammered: it is in this way that the zinc of commerce is produced. zinc may be annealed by placing it for a time in boiling water. its specific gravity varies between · and · , according to the previous kind of mechanical treatment it has received. at ° fahr. it melts, and is quickly oxidized by exposure to a current of air, emitting white vapours, which rise into the air, and are not unlike cotton-flakes; oxide of zinc is thus formed by the burning away of the zinc. spelter or zinc is employed by jewellers in the manufacture of bright gold alloys, as it gives liveliness of colour to their wares not to be equalled by any other metal. (for the proportions and treatment of this composition see "the goldsmith's handbook.") it may be alloyed with most of the metals we have named; its uses in roofing, gutters, spouting, and chimney-pots being all well known. all the acids very readily attack it in the gold, and even when largely diluted; it speedily tarnishes, and becomes covered with a white oxide which protects the metal from atmospheric influences. in point of malleability zinc stands eighth among the metals, seventh in ductility, and as regards tenacity about seventh also. in chemistry it is represented by the symbol _zn_. its value when in a state of purity, commercially speaking, is about _d._ per. lb. _tin._--this appears to have been one of the oldest known metals, and was employed in the egyptian arts by the ancients, in combination with copper. its colour is white, with a shining lustre almost as brilliant as that of silver, but it tarnishes much more quickly than alloys of the latter metal. with the exception of aluminum and zinc, it is the lightest of all the metals, its density being between · and · , whether cast, hammered, or rolled. it is found in abundance in cornwall, where it was also obtained at a very early period by the ph[oe]nicians; and it is reported in soame's "latin church," p. , that it was through the medium of the trade in tin that christianity was first introduced into this country. tin is not of a fixed nature like gold or silver, but melts in a moderate fire long before it becomes red hot, or about ° fahr. it is rapidly oxidized when kept for a long time in a fire having a free access to the air; and it is dissolved by hydrochloric, sulphuric, and nitric acids, the latter acting on it most powerfully. tin should not be alloyed with gold or silver, as with either of these it easily enters into combination by fusion, rendering them extremely brittle, especially in the case of silver, which becomes by the least mixture of it so brittle that it is totally unfit for the work of the silversmith. however, for solder, for filing into dust, it may be advantageously employed to promote a quicker fusion; but even for this it should be avoided where it is possible to do so. the vapours of tin are also permanently injurious in the melting of gold, silver, and their alloys, as they render them very unworkable, and the operator being often at a loss to understand the cause of his misfortune; therefore, in melting silver alloys, it is advisable to avoid as much as possible the introduction of little bits of scrap tin into the furnace. if such a thing should happen, however, make the fire once or twice stronger in order that the tin may all be destroyed before the crucible containing the silver alloy is put in. [illustration: fig. . _jupiter._ egyptian mark for tin.] tin is very malleable, moderately ductile, and tenacious, being fifth on the list for malleability, eighth for ductility, and eighth for tenacity. the egyptian mark or symbol for tin (sign of "jupiter") was the same as is represented in fig. , and related to the planet of that name, one remarkable for its brightness. _in mythology_ it is understood as representing the supreme deity of the greeks and romans. the modern scientific name for tin is sn. tin loses over one-seventh, or / ths, of its weight in water from its absolute weight in air. in the next chapter we shall treat of the mixing of silver alloys, &c., and in order to make our information regarding the various metals so employed as complete as possible, we shall conclude this one with the following tables, each of which will no doubt be found useful:-- table of metallic elements. +-----------------------+----------+---------------------+ | names of elements. | symbols. | specific gravities. | +-----------------------+----------+---------------------| | platinum | pt | · to · | | gold | au | · " · | | mercury | hg | · " · | | lead | pb | · " · | | silver | ag | · " · | | bismuth | bi | · " · | | copper | cu | · " · | | nickel | ni | · " · | | iron | fe | · " · | | tin | sn | · " · | | zinc | zn | · " · | | antimony | sb | · " · | | arsenic | as | · " · | | aluminum | al | · " · | +-----------------------+----------+---------------------+ melting-points of the principal metals. +--------------------+--------------+-----------------+ | names of elements. | fahrenheit. | centigrade. | +--------------------+--------------+-----------------+ | platinum | { infusible, except by the | | | { oxyhydrogen blow-pipe. | | cast iron | ° | ° | | nickel | ° | ° | | gold | ° | ° | | copper | ° | ° | | silver | ° | ° | | aluminum | ° | ° | | zinc | ° | ° | | lead | ° | ° | | bismuth | ° | ° | | tin | ° | ° | | antimony | fuses a little below red heat. | | arsenic | volatilises before it fuses. | +--------------------+--------------------------------+ physical properties of the principal metals. +---------------+------------+-----------------+ | malleability. | ductility. | tenacity. | +---------------+------------+-----------------+ | gold | gold | iron | | silver | silver | copper | | copper | platinum | aluminum | | aluminum | iron | platinum | | tin | copper | silver | | platinum | aluminum | gold ½ | | lead | zinc | zinc ½ | | zinc | tin | tin ½ | | iron | lead | lead ½ | | nickel | nickel | [b] | +---------------+------------+-----------------+ [b] the above weights were lbs. sustained by · of a line in diameter, in wires of the various metals. chapter vi.[c] various qualities of silver. [c] see observations on depreciation of cost price of silver in preface to fourth edition (pp. vii, viii), and the new table of cost prices of alloys in this chapter, following the preface (p. ix). the chemical and physical properties of fine silver having been dealt with in a preceding chapter, we shall not refer to them again in detail; but, as we have already observed that it is sometimes employed in _its pure_ state for special purposes, it is desirable that we should point out the uses to which it has been applied, especially those of a mechanical nature. with reference to the latter part of the subject we will now proceed to describe the commercial utility of the metal. one of the greatest demands for pure silver--if not the greatest of all--is in the manufacture of fine filigree work, a branch of industry extensively practised on the continent. this kind of silversmith's work was attempted to be revived in this country during the years - , birmingham and london being the principal places where the manufacture was carried on; but the success of the undertaking as a staple industry must, at the most, have been only a partial one, for it soon declined, and the trade was thus virtually left, as before, in the hands of our eastern competitors; most of whom produce splendid specimens of the art of filigree and fine wire-working. in india this work is wonderfully performed, and it is truly marvellous to witness the beautiful handiwork of the natives who practise this craft. their productions are quite the work of the true artist, almost every article representing nature in some of her various forms, such as flowers, animals, serpents, &c., and these are so skilfully imitated that no one could possibly dispute either the faithfulness of the representation or the ability of the workman. this is all the more surprising, because in india the natives have not the modern mechanical appliances which we possess in this country. the jeweller there represents to some extent our travelling tinker, only with this difference, that the travelling tinker in this country is generally an inexperienced and unskilful workman, whereas the indian, if we are to judge him by his work, must be just the reverse. filigree wire-work is manufactured in italy, germany, norway, and sweden, and the secret of these countries maintaining the monopoly in this branch of the silversmith's trade is that labour there is cheap; and not in any sense because english workmen cannot make the articles in question. it is owing to this cheapness of labour and the inexpensiveness of living that our continental competitors can beat us by underselling us in the market; and to no other cause can the production of the foreign cheap article be assigned. in india the art of working in silver and gold has long been practised, and so particular are the workmen there about the absolute purity of the metals they use, that they refine them by melting five times, under a very strong blast heat, before commencing the work of manufacture. the principal places where these art-manufactures are carried on are in southern india and at trichinopoly; and in these districts the delicacy and intricacy of the workmanship are brought to the greatest possible perfection. the articles produced there are all "hand-made," and wrought entirely with a few simple tools, such as a hammer and an anvil (both of which are highly polished and burnished), a few fine pliers, blow-pipes, burnishers, scrapers, a pair of fine dividers, and some delicate scales and weights; these, with a few perforated steel-plates for drawing the wire through, comprise the chief appliances of the travelling native jewellers. the process of the work is very simple. it is commenced by hammering out the metal upon the anvil, and when it has assumed a certain degree of thinness the dividers are next brought into requisition to mark it into certain widths, which are subsequently cut into strips and drawn into very fine wire through perforated steel-plates, a pair of strong pliers being used for the purpose. the holes in the steel-plates consist of graduated sizes, and by this means the strips of metal are soon considerably reduced; and when the proper thinness has been attained the wire is ready for the exercise of the practical skill and dexterity of the artisan, who produces from it the best filigree work in the world. most of the native jewellers have books containing a variety of designs, but they more commonly work from memory, without any reference to patterns. the principal localities where this description of work is produced in the highest perfection are delhi, cuttack, and trichinopoly, in india; and genoa, paris, florence, malta, norway, and sweden. the indian filigree work is the finest and cheapest in the world. the maltese manufacture a very good kind, and their crosses are much admired; so also do the chinese and japanese, but the manufactures of these latter countries are not so tasteful as those of india, consequently they have not been so highly appreciated. norway and sweden produce filigree work of a very light weight; but still their productions in this art will not compare in regard to effect with the finest specimens from india. we have said that the silver employed by the filigree worker should be in every case absolutely pure; because, when it is quite fine, it is extremely soft and pliable, so that it will remain in almost any form the artist may choose to work it, without that springiness which is found in all alloyed metals. however small might be the amount of alloy contained in the metal, the least admixture of it would produce an elasticity in the wire when pressed into form which would make it unworkable for fine filigree purposes; and in this state it would be the utter bane of the workman, as his progress would be altogether impeded in the production of his work. it is of the greatest importance that the spirals, and all the various forms required in filigree working, should remain steadily in their places when pressed into shape, without that rebounding which happens in the case of metals of an elastic nature, and in consequence of which no really first-class work can be performed in connection with this art. for such reasons as these it will be at once palpable even to the ordinary reader that fine silver should always be used in preference to alloyed in the manufacture of filigree work. the various ornaments of the filigree kind are commonly enclosed in a rim of plain and somewhat stronger wire, which gives additional strength to each part; and, when put together, tends to compose an article of considerably greater durability. in england these outside rims consist exclusively of sterling or standard silver, whilst all the inner work is of the finer material. there are several methods of preparing the wire called "filigree." the oldest and the one almost invariably practised in india consists in the first place in drawing down the wire in a circular form until the very lowest possible thinness has been attained, and frequently annealing it during the process, which is done by heating it to a red heat in a muffle placed upon an iron or copper pan. when this process has been effectually performed the wire is taken (if of the proper degree of thinness) and doubled together; these two fine wires are then twisted into one cord, which should be of the fineness desired. the wire requires annealing more than once during the process of twisting, and when it is completed it has a corded appearance, it is then ready for the manufacture of the various articles comprised in this kind of work. the old plan of twisting was accomplished in the following manner. one end of the doubled wire being firmly secured in a vice or some other suitable instrument, so as to prevent it from turning round and so prevent the progress of the work, the other end of it was also firmly secured in a small hand machine or vice, which was made to revolve by turning a small handle with the right hand, the machine being held and regulated with the left, in order to keep the wire out at its full length so as to avoid knotting in the various parts of it; it was in this manner that fine filigree wire was in the first instance made. the second plan was somewhat different, and in regard to the last part of the process it was certainly a great advantage, especially in the saving of labour, as a greater quantity could be prepared in a much less time than by the old method, that being slow in its progress. here the lathe was made to supply the place of the small hand machine, the speed of which soon brought about the object in view. the flattening of this twisted wire has now commonly come into use, and is effected by passing it through small steel rollers, hardened and polished. the object of this is soon manifest, as the labour-saving process is brought prominently into play: the wire in the first place need not be so finely drawn, and secondly the same filigree surface can be made to appear upon the articles as before, by securing the edges of the wires which show the filigree uppermost; and this is always the case in manipulating with this kind of wire. this method is generally in vogue with most filigree workers. a third plan of preparing the material for the manufacture of filigree work is, we believe, due to the ingenuity of a celebrated birmingham firm, who extensively practised this kind of work some years ago. the secret is not now generally known to the trade, therefore a few observations bearing upon it will not be unacceptable to those for whose benefit we are writing. the process is commenced in the same manner as before, in the preparation of the round wire, though this need not be drawn so fine, because by this method we have no twisting. when the round wire has arrived at the proper size it is flattened in the manner already explained; and when this is done it should be annealed, but experience will dictate best when this particular process should be carried out. after this latter operation the wire is submitted to the action of very small rollers, and bearing the pattern required in small grooves of various sizes. the pattern takes effect upon the edges of the wires only, and resembles the milled or serrated edges of our coinage, only of course the latter bears no comparison with regard to fineness. lastly, the wire is again passed through the flattening rollers, and then it is ready to be worked up into the object desired. having gone through the general details of filigree working we shall next direct our attention to the component parts and commercial uses of the english standards, together with those of some other countries. in england there are two silver standards, called respectively the old and the new standards. they are as follows:-- fine silver per lb. troy. old standard, oz. dwts. = millims. new standard, oz. dwts. = millims. the older of these appears to have been always the legally recognised standard for the coinage, and also for the manufacture of plate. by a law passed, however, in the reign of william iii. ( ) it was raised to oz. dwts. of fine silver in the pound troy weight. the manufacture of silver articles from this standard was soon found to be not so durable as those made under the older one; consequently the silversmiths were permitted by a law passed in the reign of george iii. ( ) to manufacture from the former standard of oz. dwts., the use of the new one being likewise permitted for the benefit of those who chose to avail themselves of it; and to this day it remains an english standard, though hardly ever employed. by the silver coinage act ( geo. ), the fineness of the british coinage was reduced on account of the increased price of silver bullion; and the silver coinage now consists of one-half silver, one-half alloy, one troy pound of silver being coined into sixty-six shillings. the copper which composes the alloy in the silver coinage hardens the material employed, and it is found to wear better. in order to make the matter as simple as possible, we purpose giving a few practical alloys, as follows:-- old standard silver alloy, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ if it is intended that the above alloy should be for hall-marking, it will be advisable to add a little extra silver to the prepared composition, because fine silver purchased from the refiner or bullion dealer is never absolutely pure, consequently the work will not pass the hall; or better still alloy as follows:-- old standard silver for hall marking. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ the new standard silver is composed of - / - ths of fine silver and - / - ths of copper alloy; or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts; the remedy being as before · parts. new standard silver alloy, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ new standard silver for hall marking. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ quality commonly used in england. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ the qualities of the silver employed by the english silversmiths are invariably below the standard, the duties, assay charges, and loss of time in sending the work to the hall to be marked acting as a great drawback to the trade in the midst of the keen competition of the present day. silver chains, brooches, buckles, collarets, &c. are for the most part manufactured from inferior metal. in fact, some manufacturers positively refuse to make hall-marked goods, on account of the great drawbacks attending the marking. the alloys of silver are not calculated on the carat system, like gold, but by certain numbers, or other distinctive features, well understood by the particular firms which trade in silver wares. for our present purpose it will be sufficient to distinguish them by using the numerals, , , , , &c.; the alloy nearest approaching sterling or standard we shall call no. , and so on downwards until the lowest quality has been reached. we may state that silver does not lose its whiteness if not alloyed below equal quantities of the two metals; however, the alloys used in manufactures seldom reach so low a limit. silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper --------------- =============== silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper --------------- =============== silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper --------------- =============== silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper --------------- =============== silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , cost _s._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ silver alloy no. , same as before. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ the qualities of the silver alloys have been reduced in this list to various values, and the latter ones are as common as it is possible to make them, without a great and perceptible change of colour taking place in the prepared material. but if it be desired to work a still more inferior metal, then another ingredient must enter into its composition, in order to keep up the whiteness of the silver; and this other metal employed is nickel, the alloys with which we shall have occasion to refer to hereafter. suffice it to say, however, that these inferior alloys of silver, prepared with nickel, are not now much employed by silversmiths in their art-manufactures. it will be observed that we have recommended the employment of _shot_ copper in the manufacture of silver alloys: we do so for two reasons--first, because it can be purchased at a considerably cheaper rate than can the ordinary forms of copper, costing only one shilling per lb., whilst the ordinary prepared copper for alloying will cost double that amount; and, secondly, if proper attention has been given to the melting and casting process, the workable qualities of the metal will be found everything that could be desired. therefore an excellent material in all respects can be produced by the means suggested at half the cost of alloy. a considerable saving to a large firm might thus be easily effected by its employment. in france there are three silver standards--two to be employed by silversmiths, and one for the coinage, as follows:-- fine silver per lb. troy. silver ware, oz. dwts. = millims. coinage, oz. dwts. = millims. silver ware, oz. dwts. = millims. it will be seen from the above table that pre-war coinage in france did not represent the highest standard, and also that their principal one was inferior to our highest standard. french coinage contained - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper alloy, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal; the highest standard for silver wares contains - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper alloy, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal; the lowest french standard for silver wares contains - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper alloy, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal. the remedy is millesimal fineness · . french alloy for coinage, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ----------- =========== french alloy for plate, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ----------- =========== french alloy, lowest standard, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ----------- =========== in the preparation of these alloys with french silver it is undesirable to make any addition of fine silver, in order to enable goods manufactured from them to pass the hall in safety, because the former is assayed before it leaves the bullion dealers, and the bars of metal are marked with their various standards. such is not the case in england, and refiners' fine metal is sometimes two or three grams under what it is supposed to be; hence the necessity for the further addition of some fine metal as we have already pointed out, when the object in view is to have goods hall-marked; without which addition it cannot be effected. in germany there are four silver standards--one for the coinage, and three to be employed in the manufacture of silversmiths' wares; and in that country the various standards are severally applied in the production of fine filigree and other artistic work. the fineness of the standards is as follows:-- fine silver per lb. troy. silver ware, oz. dwts. = millims. coinage, oz. dwts. = millims. silver ware, oz. dwts. = millims. silver ware, oz. dwts. = millims. as regards the alloy to be employed in the manufacture of these various qualities, copper only must be used, all other metals being forbidden. these standards represent all home manufactured articles of silver having reference to the standards of that country, as lately appointed by law. german pre-war coinage was the same as french and contained - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal. the highest standard of all is used for silver wares, and contains - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal. the next german standard for silver wares contains - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal. the commonest german standard employed by the silversmiths of that country contains - ths of fine silver and - ths of copper, or millesimal fineness parts of fine silver and parts of copper per , parts of metal indicated. remedy · . silver alloy for the german coinage. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper --------------- =============== alloy for silver wares of the first standard. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ---------------- ================ alloy for silver wares of the second standard. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ---------------- ================ alloy for silver wares of the third standard. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver copper ----------------- ================= silver goods manufactured according to these standards in germany, which have recently become law, may be alloyed only with copper, and any foreign substance is not allowed to enter into their composition. the remedy permitted in the actual fineness of the silver must not be under three thousandths of the standard specified. the goods to be stamped with the number of thousandths and the name of the manufacturer of them, and the correctness to be certified by the firm named. experts are appointed by the government to test this correctness, and if the provisions of the law have been justly observed a government guarantee mark is applied to them. chapter vii.[d] silver solders: their uses and applications. [d] see observations on depreciation of cost price of silver in preface to fourth edition (pp. vii, viii), and the new table of cost prices of alloys in this chapter, following the preface (p. x). soldering as applied to silversmith's work is an art which requires great care and practice to perform it neatly and properly. it consists in uniting the various pieces of an article together at their junctions, edges, or surfaces, by fusing an alloy specially prepared for the purpose, and which is more fusible than the metal to be soldered. the solder should in every way be well suited to the particular metal to which it is to be applied, and should possess a powerful chemical affinity to it; if this be not the case, strong, clean, and invisible connections cannot be effected, whilst the progress of the work would be considerably retarded. this is partly the cause of inferior manufactures, and not, as frequently supposed, the want of skill in the workman. the best connections are made when the metal and solder agree as nearly as possible in uniformity, that is, as regards fusibility, hardness, and malleability. experience has proved, more especially in the case of plain and strong work (or work that has to bear a strain in the course of manufacture), that the soldering is more perfect and more tenacious as the point of fusion of the two metals approaches each other; the solder having a greater tendency to form a more perfect alloy with the metal to which it is applied than under any other conditions. the silver or other metal to be operated upon by soldering being partly of a porous nature, the greater the heat required in the fusion of the solder the more closely are the atoms of the two metals brought into direct relationship; thus greater solidity is given to the parts united, and which are then capable of forming the maximum of resistance. it is thus obvious that tin should not be employed in forming solders possessing the characteristics we have just described, for being a very fusible metal it greatly increases the fusibility of its alloys; but when very _easy_ solder is required, and this is sometimes the case, especially when zinc has been employed in the preparation of the silver alloy, its addition is a great advantage when it comes to be applied to the work in hand. solders made with tin are not so malleable and tenacious as those prepared without it, as it imparts a brittleness not usually to be found in those regularly employed by silversmiths; for this reason it is advisable to file it into _dust_, and apply it in that state to the articles in course of manufacture. the best solders we have found to be those mixed with a little zinc. these may be laminated, rolled or filed into dust; if the latter, it should be finely done, and this is better for every purpose. too much zinc, however, should not be added under any conditions, as it has a tendency to eat itself away during wear, thus rendering the articles partly useless either for ornamental or domestic purposes earlier than might be anticipated. solders thus prepared also act with some disadvantage to the workman using them, for they possess the property of evaporating or eating away during the process of soldering, leaving behind scarcely anything to indicate their presence; consequently the workman has to keep on repeating the process until the connection is made perfect, which is always done at the expense of a quantity of solder as well as loss to the workman as regards time. solders made from copper and silver only are, generally speaking, too infusible to be applied to all classes of silversmith's work. solders are manufactured of all degrees of hardness; the hardest of all being a preparation of silver and copper in various proportions; the next being a composition of silver, copper, and zinc; and the easiest or most fusible being prepared from silver, copper, and tin, or silver, brass, and tin. arsenic sometimes enters into the composition of silver solders, for promoting a greater degree of fusion; and we have heard of workmen actually refusing to work with any other solder. the employment of arsenic has, however, a tendency to slightly endanger the health of those persons using it in large quantities; and of late its employment has not been persevered in. in applying solder of whatever composition it is of the utmost importance that the edges or parts to be united should be chemically clean; and for the purpose of protecting these parts from the action of the air, and oxidation during the soldering process, they are covered by a suitable flux, which not only prevents oxidation, but has also a tendency to remove any portion of it left on the parts of the metal to be united. the flux employed is always borax, and it not only effects the objects just pointed out, but greatly facilitates the flow of the solder into the required places. silver solder should be silver of a little inferior quality to that about to be worked up. the various degrees of fusibility of the several solders are occasioned by the different proportions of the component parts of the elements which enter into their existence. for instance, a solder in which tin forms a component part will flow or fuse much sooner than one in which copper and silver alone enter into composition, or of one wholly composed of copper, silver, and zinc, or of silver and brass; therefore it must be understood that tin is the best metal for increasing the fusibility of silver solders, and for keeping up their whiteness. nevertheless it should always be used sparingly, and even then drawbacks will present themselves such as we have already alluded to. it is our intention to give a list of the various solders which have been usually employed with more or less success, so that the silversmith and the art workman will be enabled to select the one most suitable to the particular branch of his trade; and we contend, from experience in the craft, that success of workmanship mainly depends upon this point. hardest silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ hardest silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ---------------- ================ hard silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver brass ---------------- ================ hard silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver brass ---------------- ================ easy silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver brass ------------- ============= easy silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver brass ---------------- ================ the silver solders here given are not such as we can confidently recommend to the general silversmith, having proved them to be very unsatisfactory in certain classes of work. for example, the first solder, except in the case of plain strong work, would be far too infusible to be generally used by the silversmith; the second, although much more fusible, cannot safely be applied to very fine and delicate wire-work, because the brass in its composition is so uncertain: unless specially prepared by the silversmith, it probably, if purchased from the metal warehouses, contains lead; the latter is injurious, and in process of soldering it burns and eats away, much resembling the application of burnt sawdust to the work. no really effective work can be produced when the above symptoms present themselves. the same remarks apply to no. , which is the most fusible, and when free from lead or other base metal it may be classed as a tolerably fair common solder. in the preparation of the solders to which we are alluding, it is preferable to employ, instead of the brass, a composition consisting of a mixture of copper and zinc, in the proportion of two parts of copper to one part of zinc; the operator then knows of what the solder is composed, and if it should turn out bad he will partly know the cause, and be able to supply a remedy. the solders that we have found to answer our purpose best are composed of the following elements. the first is described again as _hard_ solder, but it is not nearly so hard as the one previously described. best hard silver solder, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= best hard silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= medium silver solder, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= medium silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= easy silver solder, _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= easy silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= common silver solder, _s._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= common silver solder, same as above. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper spelter ------------- ============= the whole of the above-named solders will bleach or whiten properly if applied to silver of the suitable quality for such purposes. we have used copper and spelter in our silver solders, because we have found from experience that the fewer number of times a solder is melted the better it is for all purposes. this result of our experience is in direct opposition to those authors who have professed to treat upon this subject, and who can have had but a small amount of real practical knowledge, for it is argued by them that the oftener a solder is melted the more properly does it become mixed, and, consequently, the more fit is it for the workman's use. to such arguments we are prepared to give a blank denial, and our reasons for so doing we will state further on in this treatise. there are various other silver solders used by silversmiths; some few of which it will be as well perhaps, while we are on the point, to enumerate:-- silver solder for enamelling, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ------------- ============= silver solder for enamelling, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper ------------- ============= easy silver solder for filigree work, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper composition ------------- ============= quick-running silver solder, cost _s._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition pure tin ------------- ============= silver solder for chains, cost _s._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper pure spelter ------------- ============= easy solder for chains, cost _s._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition pure spelter ------------- ============= common silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper pure spelter ------------- ============= common easy solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition pure spelter ------------- ============= silver solder with arsenic, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper yellow arsenic ------------- ============= silver solder with arsenic, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition yellow arsenic ------------- ============= easy silver solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition tinsel ------------- ============= common easy solder, cost _s._ _d._ per oz. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver tinsel arsenic ------------- ============= another common silver solder. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition arsenic ------------- ============= a very common solder. oz. dwts. grs. fine silver composition white arsenic ------------- ============= the solders here given will be found amply sufficient to select from, for every operation of the silversmith, and will answer the several purposes for which they have been described. when tin and arsenic are employed in the composition of solder, either together or separately, they should be withheld until the more infusible metals with which they are to be united have become melted; the tin or tinsel should then be added, and when this is well melted with the mass, fling on the top the arsenic, let it melt, stir it well together, and pour it out quickly into an ingot mould already prepared for its reception. when silver and brass, or silver and composition, alone form the component parts of the solder, these metals may be put into the melting-pot together, well fused, stirred, and poured out as before. solders into which volatile metals enter, upon repeated meltings, become hard, brittle, and drossy, and are therefore not so good as when the metal has received only one melting; it is for this reason that we have always preferred to manufacture our solders from metals which have not been melted before, or from those which have gone through the process as few a number of times as possible. the mode of soldering gold and silver is as follows: take the solder and roll it out thin between the flattening rollers, or file it into dust, according to the kind of work in hand. if filed into dust, it is all the better if done very fine; and if reduced to a flat state, which should be tolerably thin, cut it into little bits, or pallions, which may easily be performed with a pair of hand-shears, length-ways and afterwards cross-ways. when this is done, take the work which is to be soldered, join it together by means of fine binding-wire (very thin iron wire), or lay it upon the pumice so that the joinings can come close together, and will not be liable to move during the process; wet the joinings with a solution of borax and water, mixed into a thick paste, applying it with a small camel-hair pencil; then lay the bits or pallions of solder upon the parts to be united, and having placed the article upon some suitable object, take your blowing instrument (fig. ) and blow with it, through a gas-jet, a keen flame upon the solder in order to melt it; this will render the unification of the parts complete and compact. [illustration: fig. . blowpipes.] [illustration: fig. . solder-dish.] when filed solder is used, the process of charging the article is rather different from the above. in the latter case the filings are commonly put into a small cup-shaped vessel (fig. ), in most cases the bottom of a tea-cup, or some other similar vessel, being used for the purpose; a lump of borax is then taken and rubbed upon a piece of slate, to which a little water is occasionally added during the rubbing; when this solution attains the consistency of cream, it is put into the solder-dish and well mixed with the solder. this is then applied to the article to be soldered, by means of a charger, consisting of a piece of round metal wire, flattened at one end, and shaped for the purpose it has to serve. the joinings, when this kind is employed, require no boraxing with the pencil, as described under pallion solder; the borax being intermixed with the solder flushes with it through the joinings to be united, thus rendering any further application unnecessary. the process to which we are alluding is called "hard soldering," and cannot be applied to metals of a fusible nature; neither must it be attempted in the case of goods bearing the name of plated, which are put together with soft or pewter solder, similar to that used by tinsmiths and gasfitters. if there should be any soft solder about the article, to be soldered by the means we are describing, it would be almost certain to destroy it, the soft solder having such an affinity for entering into combination with metals more infusible than itself when overheated. there is an art in soldering greater than some people would believe. the heat required is of various degrees, some articles requiring a broad rough flame, others a smooth one, and others again a fine pointed one. all these circumstances connected with the process, together with others which we could detail, proving that it is an art only to be acquired by practice, must be considered enough; and we proceed to observe that the skilful jeweller in soldering a large piece of work will direct the flame of the gas jet to all parts of it, until it is tolerably hot, and then return to the spot to be soldered, and by a very dexterous movement of the flame, produced by the blow-pipe, increase the heat at that spot until the solder has flushed and the parts are rendered thoroughly secure. so far as some of the work of the silversmith is concerned, the process of soldering is a very delicate operation, and ought not to be undertaken by an unpractised hand. the method of preparing solder for filigree work is worthy of a passing notice. it is called by the germans lemaille solder. in the first place it is reduced to very fine filings, mixed with burnt borax powdered fine, and in this state it is sprinkled from a spouted grater over the work to be soldered. the english filigree workers commonly use clean filed solder, and by means of the camel-hair pencil apply a solution of borax to the work, and then sprinkle the dry solder upon it from the grater. in vienna a kind of powdered borax is employed, called _streu borax_, or sprinkle borax. it is composed of the following ingredients, which should be gently annealed to expel their water of crystallization, the whole well pounded and mixed together, and sprinkled over the parts to be joined from the spouted grater as before:-- oz. dwts. grs. calcined borax carbonate of soda common salt --------------- =============== the object of this mixture is to prevent the rising of the solder, and to facilitate its flushing. too much of it should not, however, be put with solder in the grater at one time, as it is as objectionable as too much borax applied in the ordinary way, but every workman will learn from experience concerning these matters. we have tried this mixture, prepared with filed solder in the ordinary way, and found it advantageous at first; but its greatest drawback is the turning of the solder yellow if not quickly used upon the work after mixing, thus rendering the solder permanently injured. for this reason we have had to abandon its employment in the wet state. but, in its dry state, to the silversmith for filigree purposes it is likely to be of advantage. it may be remarked that this preparation encumbers the work with a great deal more flux than borax does, and consequently it requires to be more often boiled out during the period of soldering together the component parts. this is effected by boiling in a weak pickle of sulphuric acid and water, composed of the following proportions: one part of acid to thirty parts of water. chapter viii. on the melting of silver. the processes of melting and properly mixing silver with its alloys in a crucible are among the first operations of the silversmith, and are, moreover, of great importance in the production of intimate and homogeneous alloys. in order to effect these, however simple they may appear, various precautions are necessary, and certain principles require carrying out to arrive at the best possible results, otherwise a great loss or waste of material may take place. to direct attention to those principles, which from very careful attention to the subject we have found to answer best, will first be our aim, and if we succeed in rendering some little service to our fellow-workers in the craft to which our toil and leisure have been devoted we shall feel highly gratified. the weighing of the component metals, the selection of the crucible, the charging of it, and the attention it requires whilst in the furnace are considerations to which we cannot too strongly call attention. the regulations with regard to weighing should be strictly and accurately carried out. the best and safest plan is, after the various metals have been separately weighed, to re-weigh them, this time collectively, in order to ascertain whether the total weight corresponds with the previous calculation; if it does, the mixture has been properly prepared. we have known both time and trouble saved by the adoption of this precaution, after mistakes had occurred which could not have been detected until the weighing of the bar of metal had taken place after melting. there are various kinds of crucibles manufactured for the use of the precious metal workers. crucibles were so-called from originally being impressed by the alchemists with the sign of the cross. they are calculated to bear very high temperatures, and consist of english, hessian, cornish, black-lead, and plumbago. the last two are by far the best; the plumbago, however, being the hardest, and capable of standing the highest temperature, is to be preferred before all others. it will also stand more frequent meltings than any of the rest. such crucibles have been known to withstand the heat of the furnace for upwards of fifty times without giving way. the wear of them is very strong and resisting, as they only _gradually_ become reduced in thickness, so that it is easy to distinguish their unfitness for use. fluxes act on earthern crucibles, particularly english at a high temperature, whilst nitre and carbonate of soda soon destroy them. fluxes are necessary in most cases of metallic reductions: they protect the metal from the air, and dissolve impurities. they are of several kinds, as follows:-- vegetable charcoal. carbonate of potash. carbonate of soda. common salt. sal-ammoniac. sal-enixum. saltpetre. borax. sandiver. yellow soap. black flux. white flux. crude tartar. brown potash. sub-carbonate of potash. all these fluxes have occasional duties to perform, and are therefore of great service to the metallurgist. to prevent the cracking or flying of the crucible, when newly employed, it should, before being charged with the precious metal, be well annealed; that is, heated to redness upon a very slow fire--one that is gradually going down, and in which there is no blaze is to be preferred, because the flame has a tendency, on the introduction of a new crucible, to make it fly to pieces. when it has become red hot, if a cold bar of iron be introduced it will soon show whether there are any cracks, and if so the crucible should be rejected; on the contrary, if it withstands this test it may be placed aside until required for use, when it may be employed with perfect safety in the melting of silver and its alloys. when copper and silver only form the alloys of the silversmith, they should both be added to the crucible at the commencement of the operation; and it is the best plan to put the copper at the bottom, because it is the most infusible metal. by doing so, it will receive the greatest degree of heat, which in jewellers' furnaces always comes upwards and the higher specific gravity of the silver has a tendency to force that metal downwards; consequently, when the two metals have become fused, upon well stirring--which should be done with an iron stirrer tapered at the point, and previously heated to redness--a perfectly homogeneous mass will be the result. when the more fusible metals of which we have spoken are to form the component parts of the mixture, different treatment with regard to them will be required. they should not be added at the commencement of the operation, but should be dealt with afterwards, in the following manner:-- zinc is one of the more fusible metals, and is sometimes employed by the silversmith in his alloys, for the purpose of imparting a greater degree of whiteness to them, as well as rendering inferior silver more easily bleached or whitened; thus assisting to bring back the natural colour of fine silver to manufactured articles, which have partially lost it by the addition of alloy of some other colour. zinc, when employed in silver alloys, should be cautiously used, and care should be taken not to add too much to a given quantity of material. the solder used with silver-zinc alloys should be far more fusible than that employed with the other alloys. if too much zinc be added in the preparation of these alloys, in the course of the work, particularly in the process of soldering, they have a tendency to _sweat_, and sometimes to _eat_ the metals into holes around the parts to be united; such alloys, therefore, render this process very difficult to perform, besides entailing more labour in the production of a clean and smooth finish. [illustration: fig. . plumbago crucible for melting.] in melting an alloy of silver, copper, and zinc, the silver and copper should first be melted in a plumbago crucible of the form shown in fig. , and well stirred together in order that they may become properly mixed. the zinc is sold in flat cakes under the name of spelter, and, when required, is usually cut up with a chisel into pieces of various weights suitable for the object in view. when the copper and silver have become well incorporated, the mixture should be protected from the air by a suitable flux, charcoal being the best for this purpose. the most suitable time to add it to the crucible in the furnace is when the metals are just beginning to fuse. this flux covers the whole of the surface of the molten mass, and so prevents the action of the air from destroying some of the baser metal. the charcoal should be perfectly pure and in a finely divided state, for if adulterated with any gritty matter (and sometimes such is the case) a very indifferent working material is produced, the evil results of which show themselves in every stage of manufacture. these instructions with regard to melting the more infusible metals having been carried out, the zinc is taken with a long pair of tongs (fig. ), and held within the furnace, over the mouth of the crucible, until the temperature has almost reached the melting point, when it should be carefully dropped into the fused mass below, quickly stirred, so that it may become intimately mixed with the other metals, and at once withdrawn from the furnace and poured into a suitable ingot mould (fig. ). the ingot mould should be clean and smooth inside, slightly greased, and dusted over with fine vegetable charcoal; this latter substance prevents the metal from adhering to the sides of the mould. it is, perhaps, almost unnecessary to state that the ingot mould requires heating to a certain temperature before the melted composition is poured in, otherwise serious spouting takes place, resulting in a great loss of metal. on the other hand, the operator should be cautious not to over-heat it, as the same evil consequences may result. [illustration: fig. . tongs for melting.] [illustration: fig. . ingot mould.] the bar of metal upon cooling should be weighed, and the difference--as most meltings show a little--noted. this is _loss_, but it will be very little, if the above instructions have been strictly adhered to from the beginning of the operation. with the charcoal flux we have referred to, very nice and clean bars of metal can be produced. this flux is always floating upon the surface of the mixture, and, with a little dexterity in the pouring, it can be prevented from coming out of the crucible with the metal; its proper place is at the end of the pouring. when tin is employed, either in alloys or solders, its treatment is similar to that described for zinc; such alloys should not be kept too long in the furnace after they have become fused, as they rapidly become oxidized, especially if brought into contact with the air. the waste in silver, and in fact of all alloys, is entirely dependent on the duration of the time of fusion. if it is prolonged after the addition of the fusible metals, the loss is greater in every case, than when once melted. the metals should be subjected to the beat of the furnace for the shortest possible period. the alloys of silver with zinc would lose more than the alloys of silver with tin, because zinc rapidly volatilises when heated above the temperature of its fusion, and this is especially the case when it enters into combination with silver and copper in the fused state; its vapours can be seen to rise and burn in the air, producing light and white flaky fumes, and, chemically speaking, forming the _protoxide_ of zinc. with care and manipulative skill during the process of fusion, the proportion of waste can be reduced to a minimum; and when this is exactly ascertained an allowance can be made in the preparation of the mixture for the crucible. from the above remarks it will be apparent that when both tin and zinc form component parts of a mixture, either to be used as an alloy or as solder, the tin should be added to the other metals, and well stirred, so as to obtain an intimate mixture, before the addition is made of the zinc. scrap silver should be carefully sorted before undergoing the process of re-melting, and if possible all foreign substances removed. it may, if preferred to work it in that way, be melted into a separate bar, or otherwise used as an addition to a new mixture. when, however, it is separately melted, a flux, such as carbonate of soda, may be employed, on account of its cheapness, in small proportions to the charcoal flux already alluded to. in brittle and troublesome alloys we have found charcoal and a small quantity of borax extremely effective. saltpetre is a very useful flux in dissolving impurities, but in some alloys its presence is injurious. sandiver will remove iron or steel from the mixture. corrosive sublimate destroys lead and tin. we have found the sub-carbonate of potash one of the best fluxes for silver, when matters have not been quite so straight as they should be in the working of the metal; it is used in melting the difficult alloy of -carat gold, and is considered a secret not generally known to the trade. sal-ammoniac is an excellent flux for producing clean and bright ingots and tough alloys. we invariably use it with all our alloys, mixed in small quantities with charcoal, and prefer it to all others. lemel, that is the filings and turnings produced during the process of manufacture, should have quite a separate method of treatment. it is best prepared for the crucible by passing it through a fine sieve, afterwards thoroughly burning it in an iron ladle, and then intimately mixing it with a flux of the following nature and proportions:-- silver dust parts carbonate of soda " common salt " sal-enixum " ---------- parts. ========== [illustration: fig. . fire-clay crucible for lemel.] the sal-enixum prevents the rising of the mixture in the crucible--which should be of the skittle shape (fig. )--and keeps it from overflowing; it also possesses a refining capacity the same as saltpetre, and is much cheaper. the burning of the lemel has a great tendency to destroy all organic matter that would be likely to cause the mixture to overflow during the period of fusion; but if such a thing should be at all likely to take place, the addition of a little dried common salt would remedy the evil, a small quantity of which ought always to be provided for the purpose. the common carbonate of soda is also a cheap and useful flux to the silversmith. five-sixths of the above flux should be well mixed with the stated proportion of lemel, then placed in the pot, and the one-sixth remaining placed upon the top of the mixture, when it may at once be transferred to the furnace. great heat is required in this operation, and it also requires careful supervision to prevent, if possible, waste of material. when the mixture has become perfectly liquid, the heat of the furnace should not be allowed to decrease, but continued for half an hour longer, and if the use of it be not further required, the fire may then be allowed gradually to die out. the mixture will require repeated stirrings during the period of fusion, in order to dissolve such portions as might otherwise not come immediately under the action of the flux. when the operation of fusion has been completed, the crucible is withdrawn and allowed to cool, the solidification of the metal is then perfect, and it may be recovered by breaking the pot at the base, when it will fall out in a lump corresponding with the shape of the crucible. the lump of metal should then be carefully weighed, the loss ascertained--which always varies in proportion to the amount of organic matter contained therein; it may then be sold to the refiner, or exchanged for new metal. in this process it will be observed that the crucible is broken every time a fusion takes place, consequently some little expense is incurred in providing crucibles for the purpose. to obviate which the following plan may be economically and successfully employed; and especially when the metal is sold to the refiner by assay, the method about to be described will be found most advantageous, for it should be borne in mind that the lump of metal from the previous fusion has to be again run down in another crucible and poured into an ingot mould before the refiner will consent to take his assay from it. in this latter process the whole work is performed in one fusion, and the expense of a new crucible thereby saved. the flux employed in the reduction of the metal is also considerably reduced. the plan is performed after the following manner:-- [illustration: fig. . plumbago crucible for lemel.] take a plumbago crucible of the shape shown in fig. , and capable of holding the required mixture; put the lemel into it, and then place on the top one ounce of finely powdered carbonate of soda; this is all the flux the mixture requires, and it is then quite ready for the furnace. when the lemel has become properly fused, for facilitating which it is repeatedly stirred with a thin iron rod, it is withdrawn and poured into an ingot mould prepared for it as previously described. the flux and other organic matter, which always accumulates upon mixtures of this kind, is held back by the timely application of a thin piece of flat wood to the mouth of the crucible. after the withdrawal of the bar of metal from the ingot mould, it is cooled and weighed, and then it is quite ready for the operations of the refiner. chapter ix. on the working of silver. having reached a most important and very interesting part of our subject, viz. the working of silver, and being desirous of making this treatise useful to the silver-worker in all the branches of his art, it is our intention to enlarge upon these processes--which are purely mechanical--and somewhat minutely to describe the various manipulations and arrangements required in the production of the wares of the silversmith. after the removal of the bar of metal from the ingot mould, it should be plunged into a vessel of cold water, dried, and then carefully weighed. at this stage of the process it is ready for the operation of rolling. this process, so far as it concerns large ingots of the metal, is a distinct branch of the trade, and is carried on in separate premises established by certain firms for the purpose. these establishments are called "rolling-mills," the machinery used in them (which is powerful and costly) being moved by steam-power, the reduction of the bars of metal to their various sizes is soon effected. the very thin ribbon-shaped metal is produced by submitting it to the action of rollers of smaller dimensions, one after the other, until the desired thinness is obtained. the bars of metal are taken to these mills by a man whose special duty it is to watch over them during the processes of rolling and annealing, otherwise it would be very easy to have an ingot of gold or silver exchanged for one of base metal, the mill companies not being responsible for the material intrusted to their care for rolling; hence the necessity for the porter's services, to watch over his employer's interests. to prevent accidentally exchanging the bars of metal, through their great similarity to each other, it is the usual thing for the men in charge of them to put a special mark upon the property of each person, previous to the process of annealing. this mark is applied by means of a piece of chalk or soap, and is not removable by heat. the annealing is performed in large iron muffles, heated to redness and kept in that condition by flues; the bars which require annealing being placed upon a piece of sheet-iron which slides into the muffle, and there they remain with the doors closed until they have become red hot. it is more particularly during this operation that each person's property requires marking and watching, because of the number of bars admitted at one time into the muffle; and unless the greatest care be exercised at such a time some mistake is almost sure to occur. a register is kept of the weight of the metal sent to the mill for the purpose of being rolled into the required shapes and sizes by the manufacturer, who afterwards works it up into different wares and utensils. the metal is also weighed on its admittance to the mill, by the clerk of the works, and again on its passage out, and a comparison of the weights registered; but in birmingham, in some cases, this has been so irregularly performed that great discrepancies have actually taken place in the weights at times, and it has led to the establishment of another rolling-mill for gold and silver, in which the proprietors take upon themselves the whole responsibility and care of metals intrusted to their charge for the above purpose. the method pursued by them in respect to their business is as follows: a manufacturer sends a bar of metal to be rolled, carefully noting the exact weight and size to which it is to be reduced upon a proper _order head_. this weight is carefully tested at the mill, and if found correct, an invoice is given in exchange, upon which is entered the cost of rolling and the time when the work will be completed. the messenger then goes away, returning at the time stated to bring away the rolled metal. the advantages this system presents over the others are obvious; the return of the full weight of the metal is guaranteed by responsible persons, the messenger is at liberty during the time occupied in rolling to follow his other duties, the weighing of the respective metals is far more accurately performed both in and out of the mill, besides greater satisfaction being given both to the manufacturer and the roller, the reciprocation of confidence between each, being among some of the additional advantages which might be enumerated. messrs. kemp, of birmingham, deserve the thanks of the jewellery community for their enterprising efforts in the establishment of a system so admirably suited to the requirements of the trade. the following table gives the charges at the present time for rolling bars of silver:-- table of the cost of silver rolling. oz. oz. s. d. under above and under " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " " above this s. d. per ozs. it is a usual thing at all rolling establishments to provide slitting-rolls for those who choose to avail themselves of that mode of cutting up their metal. these rolls are used for the purpose of cutting stout bars of metal into strips suitable for wire-drawing, thus dispensing with the older process of cutting with a pair of vice shears, which method was slow and somewhat uncertain in the production of good work. the slitting-rolls consist of circular barrels, after the manner of the "breaking-down" rolls, only of course much smaller in diameter, and with this exception, the slitting-rolls have square grooves cut into each barrel, the projecting portion of each corresponding with the hollow of the other, whereas the breaking-down rolls are perfectly smooth and plain. rollers something similar to those we have described are used by wire-drawers to facilitate the speedy reduction of the metal, the difference being in the construction and action of the grooves. in the grooves of the latter, which are inserted farther apart, the hollows take a half-round shape, and unlike the slitting-rollers, during the revolution of the barrels, the grooves in this case directly meet each other, and thus produce a strip of wire almost round. it is almost needless to remark that wire-rolling requires some amount of practical knowledge to perform it properly. the manipulations indispensable to the art of silver working are so varied and so numerous that we are at a comparative loss which part of the process to consider first; however, if we follow the course of the workman with regard to the production of the various manufactures of his art, we shall perhaps not be far wrong in our desire to effect the purpose we have in view. in commencing to enlarge upon these mechanical processes we may at once state that it is our intention to refrain from going into the whole art of wire-drawing, because that process has been somewhat minutely alluded to in our other work recently published in the interests of the goldsmiths; the details of which are there fully described. [illustration: fig. . draw-plate.] the draw-plate, fig. , which is the principal tool of the modern wire-drawer, was unknown in this country until the middle of the sixteenth century, when it was introduced by christopher schultz, a saxon, from france. it was supposed to have been the invention of a native of that country named archal. the draw-plate had been in use some years on the continent previous to its introduction into england. the old method of making wire was upon the anvil, by means of the hammer; and those who manipulated in this art were termed wiresmiths at that period. the best form of draw-plate consists of a piece of steel about nine or ten inches long, one and a quarter to one and a half inch broad, and about half an inch thick, each containing a number of conical holes of various sizes, becoming smaller in succession until the last hole in the plate is reached, when another plate, corresponding in size, having smaller graduated holes, is employed, and the wire drawn through it; and so on, until the proper size has been obtained. [illustration: fig. . draw-bench for wire.] [illustration: fig. . draw-tongs.] [illustration: fig. . drum used by wire-drawers.] [illustration: fig. . skeleton frame or swift used by wire-drawers.] the drawing of stout pieces of wire is effected very readily by means of the draw-bench (fig. ), and the thinner pieces, by the application of draw-tongs (fig. ), held in the hands of the operator, and made to do service by swinging the body backwards. very fine wire is now drawn by means of an apparatus called a _drum_ (fig. ), revolving upon a perpendicular pin, the exterior of which receives the wire and prevents it from becoming entangled. when the end of the wire has finally passed through the draw-plate, the whole coil is carefully removed from the drum (which is made slightly conical in form for facilitating the process) and placed upon a skeleton frame made to receive it (fig. ); it is then in proper form for its passage through the next hole of the draw-plate. in the production of very fine wire, the metal, after passing a few times through the draw-plate, requires annealing, as its fibres become so condensed and hardened that it is impossible to repeat the operation without some risk of the wire breaking. for fine wire the annealing is repeated five or six times during its passage through the draw-plate; for stouter kinds the annealing need not be so frequent. this process produces a scale or oxide upon the surface of the wire, which should be removed before the continuation of the drawing takes place, which is generally done by an immersion for a time in very dilute sulphuric acid pickle; or its passage may be assisted through the draw-plate by the application of some lubricating substance, such as beeswax, or a mixture of beeswax and oil, which enables it the more readily to pass through it. in the progress of the wire-drawing the holes have a tendency to become enlarged; these are made smaller again, by repeated blows upon the front of the plate with a somewhat pointed hammer (fig. ), and then opened from the back with a tapered steel punch, such as is shown in the woodcut (fig. ). the hardening and tempering of the punch is of importance. a gauge-plate is used in all establishments for the purpose of determining the size of the wire. the hammering should not take place upon a hardened draw-plate, as it would fly to pieces: it is only those known as soft which should receive such treatment; and those, by a continual alteration of the holes, gradually become hard and require annealing at intervals. [illustration: fig. . knocking-up hammer.] draw-plates for wire-drawing purposes are mostly cylindrical in form, but they are employed in various degrees of fineness and in different shapes; such as oval, oblong, half-round, square, fluted, star, sexagon, triangular, and other complex sections, for the production of corresponding wires, all of which receive similar treatment to that above described. [illustration: fig. . round steel punch.] the process of wire-drawing, in connection with the art of the silversmith, is more particularly employed in the manufacture of chains, in which branch a very large quantity of silver is consumed. this branch of the craft is almost a purely mechanical one, but, nevertheless, there are some designs in chains which require a considerable knowledge of art for the proper execution of them. it is, however, in "wrought" or hand-made work that true art is made to play so conspicuous a part; for it is here that perfect workmanship, together with great skill and taste, are required in the manufacture of an article. "wrought" work was one of the earliest productions of the goldsmith and silversmith, and it still remains the true _artistic_ method, although it has been superseded by others of a less expensive character; such as stamping, chasing, engraving, enamelling, casting, &c., to which the older processes of ornamentation and decoration by means of hammering have given place. [illustration: fig. . hammer for wrought work.] [illustration: fig. . sparrow-hawk.] wrought work is produced by hammering and soldering the various pieces or ornaments together; and one of the very first things to be attended to in the production of this kind of work is proportion, a knowledge of which is indispensable to true art-workmanship; for the piece of metal which is to be operated upon by the hammer should be of the proper size, so as to require none to be cut off afterwards. every portion of a design should be wrought out of the piece of metal separately, and soldered in its proper place upon the article in process of manufacture. when circular forms have to be raised or flanged by the employment of the hammer, as in the case of a raised or flanged brooch "bezil," the _modus operandi_ is as follows:--take a piece of metal of the exact size and shape, turn the two ends together from the longitudinal direction, and unite them by soldering; when this is done, the circular band of metal is taken and flanged by means of the hammer and a miniature anvil, placed upon a stout piece of wood which the workman renders secure by placing between his knees, the pressure of which retains it steadily in its place during the various manipulations performed upon it; this kind of tool is termed a "sparrow-hawk"--a representation of it is given in fig. . the work is effected by a series of blows dealt with the hammer in regular concentric circles, the bezil all the time gradually working round the pointed end of the sparrow-hawk. it requires great skill and practice to produce the proper shape, and to keep all parts of the metal of equal thickness. the bezils may be produced in this manner round or oval, as well as other complex shapes; the hammering taking place according to the shape required. when raised or ornamental brooch bezils, such as concave or convex patterns, are to be made, the means adopted in their execution are somewhat more complicated than the mode of flanging above alluded to. a tool called a "swage" is employed, which partakes of many forms, the pattern or ornamental device which the metal is required to take being the shape of the swage, or otherwise cut upon it. the metal is easily raised to take the proper design, by a very careful application of the hammering process. sometimes in silver-working the form of the object to be manufactured is of such a nature as not to allow of the use of the swage tool, and this is more particularly the case in the manufacture of plate. such things, for instance, as cups or tankards which have raised ornamental surfaces, and which have to be executed after the vessel is roughly finished, require altogether a different tool for the effecting of such purposes. the one commonly employed in operations of this description consists of a bent piece of steel, upon one end of which is cut the device required; this end being turned up to the required height for raising the design, and the other end being bent in an opposite direction, which, when required for use, is secured in a vice. the workman, in executing the design upon the object in hand, places it upon the "snarling-iron" (for such the tool is called) at the part to be raised, and there holds it securely while another man strikes the piece of steel at the top of the angle, or just above where it is secured in the vice, the reaction of the steel wire then throws out the metal, in accordance with the device or pattern cut on the end of it. designs are only roughly raised in this manner, the perfecting of them being performed by the application of various kinds of chasing tools. to prevent a change in the form of the object undergoing this operation, it is filled with a composition formed of pitch, resin, and brick-dust, in the following proportions:-- pitch parts. resin " brick-dust " --------- parts. ========= the preparation of the cement is as follows:--reduce the brick-dust to a very fine powder, and pass it through a fine sieve; then take the other ingredients and melt them in an iron ladle or other suitable vessel over a slow fire, stirring them well together; when this has taken place, the mixture will present a thin liquid appearance, which is the time for using the brick-dust. this should be added in small quantities at a time, and well stirred together, until the mass has become tolerably thick. it is then poured out either upon the floor, or into some suitable vessel provided for its reception. while undergoing the operation of chasing, the lower part of the object is preserved from injury, by being laid on a sand-bag. the illustrations, figs. and , represent the snarling-tool, and its mode of application to the work of the silversmith. [illustration: figs. , . snarling-tool, and its mode of application for raising.] the progress of the silversmith's art, in conjunction with the researches and discoveries in the mode of working the precious metal during the past century, have wrought a great change both in the style and manner of workmanship. before the period referred to, the gold and silversmiths' trade was in its lowest possible condition; partly, no doubt, on account of the war then raging on the continent of europe, and partly because the silversmith at that time was not allowed to manufacture articles of any standard inferior to that of the coinage of ozs. dwts. until the peace of waterloo, few people were busy but the gun-maker, and other smiths who were able to work at similar occupations; but with respect to most other trades, the men did all they were capable of, in order to earn their daily bread. if at that time the silver trade had been specially cultivated, the art, as regards its progress, would have met with many drawbacks, as compared with the present time; the knowledge of the workmen in the production of finished work was not equal to that to be found upon the best articles now manufactured. and although forbidden by law to work in inferior metal, they would have been incapable of effecting the beautiful surfaces which modern articles of inferior quality are made to present. the recent scientific discoveries, both chemical and mechanical, that have taken place during the last sixty or seventy years, have wrought a great change in the general conditions, as well as in the mode of the manufacture of silver wares. we have said that previous to the year all was dark and obscure with the precious metal worker, but from that period the work gradually rose in artistic excellence, and the trade very slowly improved; the cause of this no doubt being due, in a great measure, to the security afforded as the result of peace, and with it a revival of the industrial occupations. with the increased industries of the nation arose the pleasures and pastimes of the people, and racing became a national sport. this kind of pleasure soon led to an increase in the work of the silversmith, in consequence of the demand for racing cups, which gave opportunities for the artistic excellence of design in their manufacture; and the silversmiths who made them soon acquired a prestige as art-manufacturers. the demand for work of that and a similar kind led to the employment of regular designers and modellers, who gradually improved both the designs and the work in different parts of the country. at the period of which we are speaking, polished or burnished silver goods were most in demand, the modern processes of surface finishing not being then understood. the introduction of the french style of work in filigree soon afterwards caused a demand for that class of work; and the attention of those in the trade was then turned in that direction for a time, and others springing up, the silversmith's and goldsmith's trade generally began to assume a position of importance. this kind of work required no polishing and very little artificial finish; besides being exceedingly light in weight and graceful in appearance. it required fine material for its manufacture. in england filigree work has been superseded by other processes, but in india, and in other parts of the east, it is still cultivated to perfection. silver and gold filigree is also manufactured in the ionian islands, in switzerland, and in some parts of germany and france, where labour is cheap. in the two latter countries it is made from a very inferior material to that used in india. silver filigree work in this country was soon found not to answer all the requirements of modern society, so far as regarded its utility, durability, and cheapness; fashion therefore demanded something different. it is worthy of remark that while this class of jewellery in both gold and silver was so much in vogue for ladies' wear, the old-fashioned seals and keys had undergone a change, and the chasing of them in representation of filigree ornamentation had become the fashion for gentlemen's wear. the processes of the manufacture of filigree wire and its mode of application to the work of the artist, have been considered in a previous chapter, further detailed information is therefore rendered unnecessary. [illustration: fig. . die.] when filigree work was no longer used, the fashion changed into "stamped" or "struck-up" ornament. small pieces of metal were struck-up by means of the hammer and punch, or by the use of the hand-press or stamp; in the former case a lead cake would be prepared, composed of a mixture of lead and tin, and upon it the various ornaments would be produced from the flat metal, corresponding with the pattern of the punch employed for the purpose; in the latter a small die (fig. ) would be employed with the pattern sunk upon it; this would have an aperture through it, the dimensions of the off-side being generally rather large, gradually becoming smaller towards the front surface, which takes the form, in general outline, of the desired pattern. when the necessary blanks have been cut out, another die and punch are used, by which they are raised to their proper shape. these tools should be firmly secured in the press (fig. ), otherwise they are likely to be soon destroyed. [illustration: fig. . press.] the small ornaments thus raised were variously arranged one upon another, until a design or pattern was formed, which in every way appeared very showy. such articles suited the tastes of the people at that time, and still suits those who require good weight for their money. the same kind of thing existed at that period in chains, and being heavy-looking, and costly in appearance, they attracted attention and caused a demand. thus with the continual changing of the fashions a new era for the goldsmiths and silversmiths of england began. they were beginning to work in all sorts of qualities, with the manipulations and finish of which they were becoming now thoroughly conversant, and a demand springing up for goods for purposes of exportation, encouragement was given to the trade, which soon assumed the position of a thriving industry. the style of work that followed the "struck-up" patterns was that of plain and solid silver-work, well polished and whitened. this sprung up about the period when coloured gold became the fashion, and the mode of finishing it being somewhat similar, no doubt the demand arose as much from the introduction of colouring as from any other assignable cause. in the chain-maker's branch of the art, a great variety of new patterns came into existence at this period; chain bracelets also began to be introduced; and altogether the trade made rapid strides, and fast rose into a great commercial industry. this kind of work has remained more or less in fashion up to the present time, and vast quantities of silver chains of the plain and solid patterns are now being made in birmingham. the silver trade seems to be an exception to the general depression which now prevails in all the other branches of the jewellery trade; the fashion just now is for silver, which causes a greater demand than is usual for goods manufactured of that material. in a short time we believe this fashion will undergo a change, and then no doubt manufacturers who have taken advantage of it to make large stocks will have goods remaining upon their hands which they will not be able readily to dispose of, unless at a sacrifice; for it should be borne in mind, that to keep a large stock of silver goods in a saleable condition, and without a quick sale, considerable expense is entailed above the cost of making, to keep them in that condition, through their great liability to become tarnished. after the introduction of plain and solid-looking work, it next became the fashion to have it chased over its entire surface. following this, about the year , came the beautiful process of enamelling, which added artistic beauty to the work, and brought out the harmonies of colour. about this time, too, there sprung up a great demand for the so-called "galvanic ring," which consisted of a lining of zinc and one of silver. the ring represented, in appearance, those large, plain, half-round rings which are now made in -carat gold, and which weigh from to dwts. each. it was then as now made of half-round shape, and sometimes with the addition of a buckle upon it. the silver was so drawn upon the zinc that the outer surface appeared entirely of silver, and a portion of the inner surface was made to show the zinc only, which was quite sufficient for the purpose required. when the ring was put on the finger the zinc, in conjunction with the silver, touched the flesh of the wearer, and was thus supposed to create a galvanic action, which it was alleged had a tendency to remove or prevent _rheumatism_. this kind of work had a good run at the time of its introduction, but like all the rest, the fashion lasted only for a while, when something else had to be brought to the front in the silver trade. the mode of the preparation of the wire was as follows:--a bar of silver would be rolled out until a certain thinness was attained, occasionally annealing it during the process; it was then cut into strips wide enough for the purpose required, again annealed, and subsequently doomed. the latter process was effected in this manner:--a block of hard wood, such as boxwood, would be made use of, having a round groove in one side of it, the metal to be doomed would be laid along the groove and a round piece of iron or steel held upon the upper surface with the left hand; a wooden mallet is then taken with the right hand, and by a skilful application of it to the piece of iron or steel, the metal is soon forced down in the groove and made to take the proper form for drawing. the flat strip of metal should be pointed; this may either be done before or after the dooming process, though it commonly takes place before. it is performed by taking away a small portion in a conical form, from one of the ends with a pair of hand-shears. a piece of zinc wire should be provided, corresponding in shape with that the ring is to take; this is placed in the hollow of the silver to be drawn, with the flat side outwards, so as to correspond with the aperture in the plate through which it has to be drawn. a draw-plate is then taken, with holes of the half-round shape, and the two metals carefully drawn through them. the drawing through a succession of holes produces an edge upon the silver coming against the flat side of the aperture in the draw-plate which overlaps the zinc and thus holds it securely in its place. [illustration: fig. . hammer for dooming.] a change in the style of work gradually took place in the course of every few years, and thus it was that hollow-work became the fashion. this kind could be made in a variety of ways, and being very light and showy, it appeared much more expensive than it really was. it is therefore very easy to account for the changes which have taken place in the manufacture of articles of adornment and luxury, and for the encouragement which the art has received. with the present styles of the "plain," the "solid," the "filigree," the "stamped," the "mosaic," the "cameo," the "repoussé," the "inlaid," the "enamelled," and a variety of others, we can fearlessly say that silver-working has of late years made rapid progress, and attained to a higher standard than it ever before possessed. [illustration: fig. . steel die.] [illustration: fig. . stamping press.] the art of stamping and shaping articles of jewellery from sheets of the various metals came into general use just previous to the first exhibition in . these, which are made in considerable numbers, are produced by means of dies, having the shape of the pattern upon them, both at the top and bottom, made of hardened steel. fig. represents a bottom die for the use of the stamping press, and fig. represents the press. in raising the metal by stamping, the material undergoes the same bendings and extensions between the dies as if it were being manipulated by the hammer, and consequently it requires to be repeatedly annealed, otherwise it would crack and fall to pieces in a subsequent operation. the raising should be brought about gradually, and this is done by placing a number of sheets of metal between the dies, which prevents the top die from falling with too sudden an action upon the metal, which it would do, as it falls with a succession of forces if the process be repeated, and if its action be not arrested by the means we have pointed out. after every blow of the stamp one of these pieces is removed from the bottom, and a fresh one added at the top; the continual falling of the stamp gradually forces these plates, if placed in the manner we have indicated, to take the shape of the die. the exact form of the figure is effected by striking the plates singly between dies which exactly correspond. a very large quantity of work is now produced by the means we have stated, such as brooches, studs, locket-backs, earrings, rings, and an endless variety of other things; moreover, by the cultivation of this art a considerable amount of the labour formerly bestowed by hand upon the work is now saved, as the stamping in many instances is so complete, almost taking the form of a finished article after that process has been performed, that the workman has only to arrange the parts and supply the ornamentation when required, to render the article complete. works of art are also produced by other methods; as an example, we will take the process of "spinning or burnishing into form," which consists in spinning the metal to the desired shape in a lathe, by means of burnishing tools, specially made for the purpose. this process is employed in the production of large bangle bracelets with plain surfaces and other similar works. the metal to be operated upon should be soft and malleable, otherwise the process is very difficult to perform. the disc, or other form of metal, is taken and fixed in the lathe with the aid of holdfasts, a chuck or mould of the desired pattern being provided, upon which the disc is turned by the tools referred to. the metal, as in the other processes, is _gradually_ spun into the required form. in most cases the mould is exactly the shape of the interior of the article required to be made, and under these circumstances it would be made up in several pieces together with a key-piece; so that when this latter is taken away, there is no difficulty in removing the rest, and leaving the article free. it is of importance, during the spinning, to keep the edges free from notches, but should these occur, it would be better to touch them a little with a turning tool. the metal for spinning into a bangle bracelet should be of the form of a flat circular band, soldered of course; it would then be secured upon a properly shaped mould, composed of several pieces, in the manner above described; this would then be placed in the lathe, and the application of the spinning tools would soon bring about the desired form. after the removal of the spun piece of metal, the workman trims the edges up a little, then saws it into two pieces, and at once proceeds to the operations of snapping and jointing, which are delicate processes to perform properly in work of this kind, and require the services of a skilled and competent workman. having now described some of the processes in the working of silver, and alluded to the various articles which are produced by _wire-drawing_; _raising_ with the hammer; _stamping_; _spinning_; _chasing_, &c.; we shall next direct attention to those processes which immediately come after the putting together and soldering the article; and foremost of these is _polishing_. we trust that the foregoing details in reference to this part of the subject will convey some idea of the art of silver-working. polishing is an important process with all precious metal workers. it is applied for the production of _surface_ to their wares, and in proportion to the smoothness required upon the work, so should be the fineness of the material employed in effecting it. the polishing powders are _emery_, _powdered pumice_, _crocus_, _rottenstone_, _putty of tin_, and _rouge_. in the best work, scratches are removed with a smooth and rather soft dark grey stone (water-of-ayr stone); it is then polished in the lathe with a stiff brush, and the application of a little fine polishing mixture. we have placed the materials for polishing in their respective order of smoothness or fineness, beginning with emery, which is the coarsest. a very good mixture for ordinary work consists of equal portions of emery, pumice, and crocus, with oil added to the consistence of a thick paste. good work does not want much polishing, for the beauty of it depends _more_ on its being executed by a well-trained workman; whereas rough and badly executed work requires much polishing, and for this the coarser powders are preferable, or a mixture of them; but for the smoother work the finer powders should be employed. the water-of-ayr stone employed for polishing is usually obtained in the form of small square sticks, and is used with a small quantity of water to the surface of the work, in a similar manner to filing. the stone is softer than the material upon which it operates (and, in fact, so are all the materials for polishing), and therefore wears away, producing a mud-like substance upon the article, which should be repeatedly removed in order to ascertain the progress made. this may be done with a piece of clean rag, or tissue-paper. when the work is polished at the lathe it will gradually become enveloped in grease, &c., which should be removed occasionally, to show when the process has been carried far enough. the polishing of silver work is a branch of the trade commonly performed by girls. it is hard work for them, as the metal possesses a very soft nature; it therefore pulls hard against the brush which holds the polishing mixture. the lathe employed is the ordinary polishing lathe with a horizontal spindle, and is worked with a common foot-treadle; steam-power is used by some firms for moving these lathes, but it is by no means the usual custom at present. after the completion of the polishing process, the work is well washed out in a prepared solution, to remove the mixture which adheres to it; a solution of soda is found to answer the purpose best, both from its cheapness and effectiveness. it should be used hot, with the addition of a little soap, and with a stiff brush the dirt is soon removed. the quantity of soda used to a given proportion of water differs in the trade, and there is no set rule to go by; it depends, more or less, upon the adhesiveness of the polishing mixture. we have found about two ounces of it to a quart of water amply sufficient for the purpose. chapter x. enriching the surfaces of silver. by the application of the processes about to be described, the finishing touches in their relation to articles or wares of silver manufacture are effected. these processes, as adopted by the trade, are various, almost every firm having a specially prepared mixture and mode of employing it. we shall refer only to those which, from their practical utility, are likely to be of service to those workmen who have to do with this particular metal. the branch of the art of which we are now treating comes only into operation when every other process of workmanship has been completed; and some of these processes must be executed in a perfect manner in order to arrive at the highest possible results in this one. the best and richest surface is produced when the metal to be operated upon is good in quality, and the workmanship of a fair order, so far as regards smoothness, and freedom from surplus solder-marks. one of the oldest methods for producing a pure snowy whiteness upon articles of silver was as follows:--take an iron or copper annealing pan (the latter is much to be preferred), place the work upon it in proper order, so that it may be heated all over alike. it should, previous to this, be immersed in a thick solution of borax, or otherwise brushed over with it. after the work has been properly arranged upon the pan for annealing, it must be sprinkled over with fine charcoal dust; the pan is then placed in the muffle upon a bright clear fire without blaze, and when the work has assumed a degree of heat approaching to cherry redness, it is withdrawn and allowed to cool. when this has taken place, it is removed and boiled out in a very weak solution of sulphuric acid, commonly called oil of vitriol. if the right colour was not then produced, the process was repeated as many times as circumstances permitted, though usually two or three times was found to be amply sufficient. the annealing process required great attention, for the work being in contact with borax, if slightly overheated, it was liable to become melted, therefore the operation was a delicate one to perform, and was only intrusted to such workmen as were experienced in the art. small delicate articles were commonly treated with the mouth blow-pipe and gas-jet, and were placed upon a pumice-stone, or some other suitable substance capable of withstanding the power of burning. according to the inferiority of the silver alloy, is the difficulty of producing a good white surface on wares of such standards. fine silver requires very little whitening, generally one process suffices to effect a good colour; but inferior standards require half a dozen or more to bring up the proper degree of whiteness; and those ranging below oz. dwts. to the lb. troy cannot be whitened at all by the means we have described, but require the application of the modern chemical process, known as electro-plating. the east indian silversmiths never touch their manufactures with any kind of abrasive substance, from the most delicate, to the more strongly made article. but then it should be remembered, that in india the natives work from the pure material, a point which they rigidly adhere to; whereas we are compelled in this country to manipulate in all sorts of qualities; and some of these require no little trouble and difficulty to bring back to the surface the snow-white appearance of the pure metal. in the former case it is effected without any difficulty whatever--in fact, the metal scarcely undergoes any change throughout the whole of the manipulations to which it is subjected in the various processes of manufacture. the indian mode of procedure is as follows:--some juicy lemons are cut into slices; the silver articles are briskly rubbed with these for a short time, and subsequently covered with them, being placed in a suitable vessel for a few hours for the completion of the process. for very delicate articles of jewellery the natives cut a large lime nearly in two halves, into which they insert the work; the halves are then tightly closed up again, and placed aside for a few hours; when the article is removed, it is well rinsed in clean water, and consigned to a vessel of nearly boiling soap-suds, where it is well brushed, again rinsed in fresh hot water, and finally dried on a metal plate placed over hot water; the process is rendered complete by a little gentle rubbing with wash-leather if the work be of a plain nature. green tamarind pods are also employed by them for the purpose of whitening silver, in the same manner as just described; they are great detergents both of gold and silver manufactures, and are largely employed by artisans in the east for the removal of oxides and fire-marks. another process for the whitening of silver goods is performed in the following manner:--take the work, which must be cleanly prepared, and give it a coating of the following mixture:--finely powdered vegetable charcoal four parts, saltpetre one part; the ingredients should be well mixed with a little water, and may be applied to the surface of the metal either by brushing over with a soft brush, or by dipping the work into it. the work is then placed upon the annealing pan and submitted to the heat of the muffle, until the wet powder has become perfectly dry and ceased to fly about; it is then withdrawn from the muffle, allowed to cool, and afterwards boiled out in a solution of potash prepared for the purpose, in the proportion of about one ounce of bi-sulphate of potash to twenty ounces of water. the boiling out is done in a copper pan (fig. ), and if the work be put through the above process two or three times a beautiful dead-white colour is the result. it is then washed in a hot solution of soda, soap, and water, or if preferred bright, scratched, or burnished, and the process is finally completed by drying it in fine boxwood sawdust, which should be made hot, but not allowed to char or burn in any way, as it would produce a stain upon the work very difficult to remove, and thus the finish would be considerably impaired. [illustration: fig. . boiling-out pan.] in large manufactories the process of whitening silver goods is repeatedly required to be performed, and where such is the case, the above methods are found not only tedious and expensive, but occupy much unnecessary time and labour; to dispense with a portion of which, the custom of covering the work with a chemical preparation was accordingly departed from, and yet it was made to show its former brilliancy. to effect this object the liquid for boiling it in was differently prepared, which only required to be made of a proper strength to do all that the surface mixture had done before. the following is the method adopted in preparing the cleansing liquid. boiling-out mixture:--to one pound of smoking salts, add two ounces of cream of tartar; well shake the ingredients together, so that they may be thoroughly incorporated. the smoking salts employed for this purpose are not the ordinary _spirits of salts_ of commerce, but a preparation of the common oil of vitriol; therefore the one should not be taken for the other; the spirits of salts would turn the work black, whereas, if the proper ingredient were procured, a fine dead matte or blanched surface would be the result of its application. the mixture employed for boiling the work in consists of the proportion of one ounce of the above preparation to about thirty ounces of water. the silver articles simply require to be annealed, allowed to cool, and then boiled for a minute or so in this solution, when the desired result will be attained; if, however, the exact colour be not obtained the first time, the process should be repeated a second, and if necessary, a third time; the right colour will then be produced, if the articles are not made of a too inferior standard. the mode we have ourselves adopted for the colouring or whitening of silver goods is somewhat different, and still more simple than even the above. we will proceed to give the details of the process. a mixture of very dilute sulphuric acid is first provided, in the proportion of one ounce to forty ounces of water, and well mixed together; the work, after being heated to a good red heat, is boiled in this, which soon removes the oxide from the surface, and shows the fine white colour of the pure silver. for fine silver work, such as indian filigree, one process will generally suffice, for english standard quality two, and for low qualities three, but these latter must not by any means be too low; if so, no colouring can take place by the method just described. objects of delicate workmanship are usually annealed by the gas; being placed on a pumice-stone of light material, the flame of the gas is blown with the mouth blow-pipe, in such a manner that the object gradually becomes heated all over alike; and the work should be well heated, as this facilitates the process of oxidation, and subsequently that of whitening. the oxidation takes place at the expense of the copper in the silver alloy, and this is only effected by raising the articles to a very high temperature, which produces the oxidation of the copper coming in contact with the air, and which necessarily exists upon the surface of the alloyed goods. whitening silver goods then is nothing more than the removal of the base alloy from the surface, leaving the pure metal behind with its full rich colour. therefore to be clear, the process of annealing in contact with cold air oxidizes the copper upon the surface, and the pickling mixture so dissolves and removes it, that it gradually undergoes a process of refining, and is ultimately made to represent the finest material in all its purity. sometimes silver work is to be seen having a brown colour upon it; this is produced when the acid employed for cleansing has been too strong; it can only be remedied by another annealing and boiling-out in a much more diluted mixture. there are various other methods employed in the trade for the purpose of whitening silver work of the best quality; and although annealing is always a part of the process, other ingredients, such as salt and tartar, permanganate of potash, cyanide of potassium, alum, &c., have been severally used for the cleansing or whitening mixture. they may be useful in their application to plated work (articles that have received a coating of pure metal by means of the electro-metallurgical process), for cleansing purposes only, but for all practical purposes the process to which we have called special attention is to be much preferred. common articles of silver cannot be whitened by annealing and boiling-out in a diluted acid; a thin film of pure silver must be deposited upon their surface by the process of electro-deposition, or by the action of some chemical preparation in which fine silver forms the principal ingredient. such preparation, however, as the latter can be used only to plain surfaces, therefore they are not applicable to all kinds of work. they are composed of the following chemical ingredients:-- st, chloride of silver part, cream of tartar part; nd, chloride of silver part, common salt - / parts; rd, chloride of silver part, prepared chalk part, pearl-ash part; th, chloride of silver part, alum part, common salt parts. the chloride of silver is easily prepared by precipitating it from the nitrate with a solution of common salt or hydrochloric acid. the various mixtures should be worked up with water into a thin paste, and applied to the work by rubbing with a soft cork or piece of wash-leather, or by thoroughly stirring it about in the mixture until it has acquired the requisite degree of whiteness. for the purpose of silvering watch and clock faces, &c. these mixtures may be used with advantage and entire success. other solutions are sometimes employed for similar purposes and are very useful; being simple in their preparation and easy of management. we have selected the following as being the most practical:--take one ounce of the _nitrate_ of silver and dissolve it in one quart of pure distilled water, or if this cannot be procured, water which has been boiled, by which it loses some of its impurity. when the nitrate of silver has become thoroughly dissolved, throw into the mixture a little powdered hyposulphite of soda, this will precipitate the silver, and when it has taken place, a further addition of hyposulphite of soda should be made, which will eventually re-dissolve the precipitate, and the solution is then ready for use. to produce a good mixture, the salt of soda should be added slightly in excess. the solution is used by simply dipping a sponge in it and rubbing it over the surface of the articles to be coated, and this is continued until they have assumed the desired colour. for improving the colour of silver and electro-plated wares, the following mixture has been strongly recommended:--nitrate of silver pennyweights, cyanide of potassium ounces, and water quart; the ingredients should be well mixed together, and applied by means of a soft brush or sponge to the surface of the work. in using this cyanide solution, the operator should be careful to guard against a too frequent contact with it, as it is decidedly injurious to the hands, especially if there be any abrasion of the skin; it being one of the deadliest poisons known. sufficient details of the process of silver whitening and cleansing having now been given to assist the workman who manipulates in this particular metal, and to enable him to select a form of recipe in every way adapted to the kind of work in hand, we shall now proceed to the modern process of _electro-plating_, and give a practical description of it in its applicability to the trade of the silversmith. this art is decidedly of modern origin, as far as concerns its employment for commercial purposes. the invention is supposed to be due to the electrical and chemical researches of mr. spencer, of this country, and professor jacobi, of russia, both of whom claim to have found out the art of depositing one metal upon another, somewhere about the same period. of course it was left to others to apply the invention to the industrial arts, and it was not until after the discovery of the _constant battery_, by professor daniell, about half a century ago, that the art began gradually to extend in the direction of commercial pursuits. the messrs. elkington, of birmingham, were the first to employ it in their manufactures, with a success which their enterprise thoroughly merited. this took place about the year , and since that time the art of electro-plating and gilding has wonderfully developed, in its application to the various manufactures of the country. its progress would be a subject highly interesting, were we to trace the general details of it, but the part of it we are considering being the practical mode of its employment in manufactures, we shall at once direct our attention to it, by giving a complete description of the process; so that the ordinary silversmith may be enabled to employ it in his business with safety and advantage. the first thing to be considered in electro-plating is what _battery_ to employ, which will be the most simple, inexpensive, and effective one. when the battery is only occasionally required for use we prefer the smee before any other. it is a small portable apparatus, and consists of a high, but narrow, glass or stoneware jar, in the form of a cylinder, capable of holding about two quarts; inside this jar is fitted a thin plate of platinized silver fitted to a frame with two zinc plates, one on each side of it, the zinc plates being held to the frame by means of a binding screw. strong copper wires are firmly secured to these screws, which serve as the positive and negative poles of the battery. those parts of the plates which are not exposed to the action of the acid solution may be advantageously coated with sealing-wax varnish or melted paraffin wax, to protect them from the destructive influences of the battery acid, and to prevent it from creeping upwards, which destroys the connections. the jar is filled with water acidulated with sulphuric acid, in the proportion of of acid to of water; the frame containing the plates is then lowered into the solution, and the battery is ready for use. in the above form of battery for occasional use we have one simple in construction, easy of management, of fair constancy, and when once prepared very inexpensive, merely requiring a little free acid at times to keep up the strength of the current. two cells of this form of battery, each holding two quarts of mixture, will be found sufficient for all ordinary purposes. the zincs should be well amalgamated, and not touch the bottom of the cells. the connections should be regularly examined, and kept perfectly free from corrosion, which would stop the passage of the current. for plating small delicate articles of jewellery one cell of the above form will be found powerful enough for the purpose. the battery that we prefer and have of late years employed, for regular continuous working, is the bunsen, consisting as before of a cylindrical glass or stoneware jar of the same size and dimensions, fitted with a well amalgamated _cylinder_ of zinc and a copper wire secured to it; a porous cell is placed in the centre, and a bar or rod of carbon is put into this cell with a copper wire also secured to it. the porous cell is filled with a mixture of equal parts of nitric and sulphuric acids, or sulphuric acid alone; we prefer the latter, as it does not give off such fumes as does the other acid; a little of the more powerful acid, however, is sometimes required to be added in order to increase the action, as with this acid alone it sometimes becomes slow. the outer cell is filled with a mixture of part of sulphuric acid to parts of water, and the connections being in proper order the battery is then ready for use. in action this form of battery is regular and continuous, it lasts a long time upon one charge, and is therefore inexpensive in use; if the two cells are coupled for power or intensity, an unusual quantity of work may be got through in a given time. this cell is admirably suited to the work of the manufacturing silversmith, and to those who prefer doing their own plating. the amalgamation of the zinc is effected as follows:--the cylinders are best treated by putting some mercury into a coarse flannel bag, dipped repeatedly into muriatic acid and applied to the surface of the zinc, both inside and out; and when they present the bright characteristic appearance of mercury they are sufficiently operated upon, and may be rinsed and set aside to drain. the zinc plates may be advantageously amalgamated by placing some mercury in a shallow dish with a little muriatic or sulphuric acid, a hare's foot or a piece of cloth tied to the end of a stick is then dipped into the mercury and acid, and rubbed over the plates until they are sufficiently protected with mercury, when they should be rinsed in clean water and set aside to drain. if possible the process of amalgamation should always be conducted in the open air, as the fumes which are given off, if breathed, are highly injurious. the best possible way to amalgamate rods of zinc is by pouring mercury into the melted metal just before casting it into rods, in the proportion of - / oz. of mercury to the pound of zinc. this makes the rods exceedingly brittle, and they should therefore be handled with care. the mercury should not be added to the zinc when the latter is at too high a temperature, and the best manner of testing this is by the application of a piece of paper to the molten metal, when if it takes fire, the temperature is still too high; it should be allowed to cool until the paper refuses to ignite, then and not till then is the proper time for the addition of the mercury. the copper conducting wires and binding screws must be cleaned when they become much corroded; if not they add resistance to the current, and it will become considerably diminished, or cease altogether. the cleaning may be effected by simply annealing and then plunging them while still hot into dilute sulphuric acid pickle, or dipping them into nitric acid for about an instant. the zincs should be taken from the battery liquids when not required for use; and the porous cells should be removed every night and their contents poured into a large jug kept for the purpose. the porous cells should be placed in clean water to prevent the salts of the battery liquid from crystallizing in the pores, which would crack and spoil them for future use; the carbons should also be placed in water; and when required for use again these arrangements should be reversed, when the battery will work as well as ever. the solution for electro-plating articles of jewellery is the next part of the subject we have to consider, of which there are many, containing various proportions of the metal employed in silver depositing. the following is one of the best we have employed: take pure silver and dissolve it in a mixture of nitric acid and water:-- fine silver dwts. nitric acid drms. water drms. the silver should be put into a small florence flask, so as to allow the mixture of acid and water to cover it thoroughly; this mixture on being added to the metal soon promotes a chemical action, and the silver becomes gradually dissolved. if the acid employed has been weak, it will necessitate a further addition of it to complete the dissolution of the silver, or the removal of the flask to some other and warmer place, such as a sand-bath, but care should be taken not to apply too much heat. as the chemical action proceeds, red fumes are formed in the flask; and the action should be allowed to go on until these cease to rise, when the silver should by that time have become dissolved. the mixture then consists of a solution of nitrate of silver, and should be carefully poured into a suitable porcelain or wedgwood capsule; this is then heated upon a sand-bath until a scum or pellicle appears upon the surface, when it should at once be transferred from the sand-bath to a suitable place for cooling. during the last operation the mixture begins to form itself into crystals, and the liquid which appears reluctant to crystallize should be poured away from those already formed, into another capsule, and again heated until it has sufficiently evaporated to crystallize. when the whole of the liquor has finally undergone this process, the crystals of nitrate of silver must be removed to another vessel, and about one pint of cold water added, the whole being then well stirred until they have become thoroughly dissolved. a solution of cyanide of potassium is next prepared in water, in the proportion of about one ounce of cyanide to the pint of water; some of this solution is then added to the one containing the nitrate of silver. it must, however, be added very cautiously, for precipitation soon takes place, and if too much be used, the precipitate becomes again dissolved. for this reason it is advisable to take a little of the solution from the vessel, in a wine-glass or test tube, and to add a few drops of the prepared solution of cyanide, in order to ascertain its exact state. if the application of this solution produces no effect upon the nitrate of silver, the operation of precipitation is complete. the liquid above the sediment should next be carefully poured away to avoid any waste of silver; when this is done fresh water should be added, well stirred with the sediment, and allowed to settle; it is then again poured off, and the process repeated until the precipitate has become thoroughly washed. now add sufficient cyanide of potassium to dissolve the precipitate and a little more, and make up two quarts of solution with fresh clean water. it is better to filter the solution before using it. the solution may be made by means of the battery, and, if preferred, the above mode of chemically preparing it may be dispensed with. the following is the most simple method by the battery process:--dissolve in two quarts of water about half an ounce, and no more, of best black cyanide; this should be done in an oval, or still better, oblong stoneware vessel, placed in an iron one of the same shape containing water. the stone jar should not be allowed to touch the bottom or sides of the iron one, a space being left for holding the water. when the cyanide has become dissolved, fill a porous cell with some of the solution, place this cell in the other vessel containing the cyanide; the solution should be about the same height in both vessels. now put a piece of sheet copper, secured to the end of the wire issuing from the zinc of the battery, into the porous cell, and place in the larger vessel containing the cyanide solution about one ounce of sheet silver, properly secured to the wire issuing from the carbon of the battery. in a short time the solution in the larger vessel will have acquired the right proportion of silver ( dwts. to the two quarts) for use; when this has been effected, the porous cell should be removed and its contents thrown away. these solutions are both worked hot, at a temperature of not exceeding ° fahr. with the battery we have described. the solutions are heated by means of gas-jets, and the articles are plated by being suspended to the wire proceeding from the zinc of the battery. to the wire proceeding from the carbon is to be attached the piece of sheet silver which dissolves and keeps up the strength of the solution. the piece of silver or anode being lowered into the solution, upon the immersion of the work, an almost instantaneous deposit of fine silver takes place, the thickness of which depends entirely upon the period of immersion. when a solution begins to plate of an inferior kind through the acquisition of organic matter, it will be better to abandon it altogether and make a new one, rather than to waste valuable time in repeated attempts at improvement, which seldom can be effected in solutions that have been employed for all kinds of work. the silver may be recovered from such solutions by means of the battery, by precipitation, and by evaporation; the first process, however, we have not always found successful, the solution in some cases refusing to give up its silver to the action of the battery. it is put into operation as follows:--the anode which supplies the solution with silver is replaced by one of platinum, on which the cyanide solution has no action whatever; a piece of clean sheet copper should be hung upon the zinc wire of the battery, and the battery kept in action until the whole of the silver held in the solution has become deposited upon it; at which stage it may be removed, and the exhausted solution thrown into the waste water tub. the piece of copper containing the silver may be used again in the place of the silver anode until it has become dissolved, or it may be removed by any other means, if preferred. in the event of the above plan failing, the process of precipitation or evaporation should be resorted to. if the former one be adopted, the solution should be poured into a large open vessel, and considerably diluted with water; sulphuric acid should then be carefully poured in, a little at a time, until it produces no effervescence. the sulphuric acid precipitates the silver, and the fumes which it creates are highly deleterious to health, therefore the process ought to be performed in the open air, and not in ill-ventilated workshops. when the sulphuric acid produces no effect upon the solution, it should be allowed to stand for a while for the precipitate to subside, when the water above (which should be clear) may be drawn off, the precipitate well washed, to free it from the acid, dried, and fused in a crucible with a little potash or soda. if the latter plan be adopted, the solution may be placed in a cast-iron kettle or saucepan, and then heated upon a gas-jet or stove, until evaporation takes place, after which the sediment should be removed and fused in a crucible, as before. [illustration: fig. . scratch-brush lathe.] the finishing of silver work requires some little knowledge and skill to perform it properly; and we think that a few observations bearing upon it will be of service to those for whom this manual is written. after either of the processes of whitening or plating, the work has to be scratched, unless required to be left a _dead_ white, then this process does not take place; the scratching removes from the surface the dull white colour produced by the above processes, and effects a characteristic bright and uniform colour to the work of the silversmith. scratching is done at the lathe (fig. ) by the application of a very fine brass-wire brush of circular form running upon the spindle; a solution of weak ale runs from a barrel with a tap to it, placed upon the framework of the lathe so as to enable the beer running from it to fall upon the brush during the whole time of its rotary action, and this assists the brush the more easily to glide over the surface of the work submitted to it. a large quantity of silversmith's work receives no other treatment than this, after the whitening processes have taken place. silver chains are burnished by means of a polished steel jack chain, and the application of a little soft soap and hot water, or otherwise scratch-brushed. the beautiful frosted surfaces to be seen upon silver lockets, and other work of a similar nature, are all produced by means of the scratch-brush. burnishing is another mode of finishing silver work. it produces a polished surface, which reflects like a mirror, and gives the greatest lustre: it removes marks left by the polishing mixtures, and produces a darker surface than the other modes of finishing. the tools employed for this process are extremely variable, and well adapted to the different kinds of work to which they are applied; they are of two kinds, one being formed of hard stone, and the other of polished hardened steel; they vary with regard to shape, some being straight with rounded points, or with curved and blunted edges, others with large rounded surfaces, &c. stone burnishers are made of blood-stone, which is mounted in a wooden handle with a brass ferrule, which firmly secures the stone to it, in which state it is used. steel burnishers are likewise fixed in wooden handles, which enable them to be firmly grasped by the operator. throughout the whole process of burnishing, the tool should be repeatedly moistened with a solution of soap and water; which causes it to glide more easily over the surface of the work, prevents it from becoming too much heated, and generally facilitates its action. in consequence of the great friction which the burnishing tool undergoes, it soon loses its bite, when it slips over the work as if it were greasy; its effectiveness must therefore be restored from time to time by rubbing it upon the leather which the workman has beside him for the purpose. it generally consists of a piece of buff leather, impregnated with a little crocus. in very small articles only steel burnishers are used, as they are finer in make, and by their greater variety of form, are exceedingly well adapted to all kinds of work; in this class of work, if any soap-suds should adhere to the article they may be removed by the application of a little tissue paper. large pieces of work are rubbed with a piece of old linen, or washed in a warm solution of soap and water, rinsed, and dried in boxwood sawdust, which finally completes the process. silver work may be oxidized by any of the following processes:-- i. sal-ammoniac parts. sulphate of copper " saltpetre part. reduce the above ingredients to a fine powder, and dissolve it in a little acetic acid. if the article is to be entirely oxidized, it may be dipped for a short time into the boiling mixture; if only in parts, it may be applied with a camel-hair pencil, the article and the mixture both being warmed before using. ii. platinum part. hydrochloric acid parts. nitric acid part. dissolve the platinum in the mixture of acid, evaporate to crystallization, and when cold, dissolve again in a little sulphuric ether. apply the mixture with a camel-hair pencil to the parts required to be blackened. iii. saltpetre parts. common salt part. spirits of salts " reduce the salts to powder, and place it in a black-lead crucible along with the acid, boil up, and then dip the articles into the mixture for a short time, or otherwise apply it to the parts required to be oxidized. these mixtures will give the various tints of oxidation to silver work if properly treated; but if other tints be desired, the following chemical substances may be employed according to taste:--for slate-coloured surface, dip the articles into a boiling solution of sulphuret of potassium. strong hydrosulphate of ammonia produces a dark tint of oxidation, and if diluted with much water a light tint is produced. nitric acid produces a light surface. the fumes of sulphur produce a beautiful blue-coloured surface. this operation should be conducted in a closed box, and all parts not to be blackened should be coated with a suitable resist varnish. after any of these processes the articles may either be scratched, or otherwise burnished. chapter xi. imitation silver alloys. the undermentioned white alloys have their various uses in the industrial and mechanical arts, some being employed as common silver, whilst others are manufactured as near as possible in imitation of it, and used as a substitute, for many purposes. in melting the alloys in which nickel and several other compounds enter into combination, unless very great care be exercised, it is a difficult matter to maintain the true and definite proportion of each metal of which the alloy proper is composed, owing to the loss of the more fusible metals by volatilization, if allowed to remain too long in the furnace. the best method of preparing the compound for the crucible, is to mix the copper and nickel together. the latter is produced from the pure oxide of nickel; therefore it is taken in this form and placed in the crucible with the copper at the commencement of the operation. when these ingredients are well melted, and incorporated by stirring, add the zinc or other fusible metal required to make up the compound, previously heating it thoroughly over the mouth of the _crucible_, to prevent the chilling of the already molten metal which it contains. when silver forms a component part in any of these alloys it should be added at the beginning of the process along with those of a high degree of fusibility, and reduced under the protection of a suitable flux; charcoal being the best for the purpose. this flux also tends to preserve the fusible metals, upon their addition to the melted compound in the pot, from too suddenly flying away in the shape of fumes. the best zinc of commerce should be employed in these alloys, which is sold under the name of spelter. common silver alloy alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= common silver alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= common silver alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel ------------- ============= another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel spelter -------------- ============== common silver alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel spelter ------------ ============ another-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver shot copper nickel spelter ------------ ============ chinese silver-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper spelter nickel cobalt silver ------------ ============ imitation silver-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper nickel spelter ------------ ============ imitation silver-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper spelter nickel ----------- =========== another-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper spelter nickel ----------- =========== another-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper spelter nickel ----------- =========== another-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper nickel spelter ----------- =========== white alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper tin brass arsenic ------------- ============= clark's patent alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper nickel spelter tin cobalt ------------- ============= white alloy-- oz. dwts. grs. shot copper tin arsenic ------------- ============= alloy with platinum-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver platinum ------------- ============= alloy with palladium-- oz. dwts. grs. fine silver palladium ------------- ============= the platinum and palladium of which the last two alloys are composed, although very difficult to use in combination with any other metal, readily unite in any proportions with silver; and it has been found that such alloys are not so easily tarnished as the ordinary ones, or even as fine silver itself. these various alloys serve to effect the several purposes for which they are employed in manufactures; wires prepared from any of them will supply the place of silver, as brooch tongs, stems for pins, catches and joints, &c. for articles of common quality and cheap workmanship. they are also employed for preparing the ground for "electro-plate," for which they are very serviceable. when, however, these alloys are employed by the regular silversmith, care should be taken not to get the scraps of metal in any way mixed with those of the better material, otherwise difficulties will soon begin to present themselves, which will materially interfere with the regular and proper working of the best silver alloys; and in fact, with all qualities that have originally been prepared free from nickel. those prepared from nickel are much more infusible than those made without it; consequently, if a piece of the nickel alloy, either by accident or design, gets intermixed with the other quality, in a subsequent melting, it will be found to float upon the surface of the molten metal for some considerable time, and thus retard the process. alloys prepared in imitation of silver are harder and much more difficult to work than those of the true metal; therefore it can easily be imagined what alteration the latter undergo upon the addition of some of the former compounds. the hardness and toughness which these alloys possess admirably adapt them for such purposes as we have described. chapter xii. economical processes. in all silversmiths' establishments, the economical or waste-saving processes, as they are termed, require special and careful attention, so that the actual working loss, or that portion of it which is entirely irrecoverable by the manufacturer, may be reduced to the lowest possible degree. it may not be known to the general reader, or to the beginner in the precious metal trades, that there always takes place in the working up of the metal a loss of material, a portion of which the manufacturer is unable to recover, however cautious may be the means employed for that purpose. in the best regulated workshops, this loss will amount at the lowest estimate to about - / per cent. of the whole quantity worked up in the establishment. if the actual loss can be reduced to within the above limit it is considered very low, and highly satisfactory. taking into consideration the loss that is occasioned in precious metal working, and from calculations that we have made from experience, we have long since arrived at the conclusion, that it cannot possibly be estimated under per cent. of the total work daily performed; and this opinion is based upon experiments, the _raw_ material being weighed before the process of melting and after the articles were completed, a fair calculation of course being made for unfinished work. this was including every description of manufacture; in some branches of the trade the working loss is not quite so great, but then there are others in which it is exceedingly heavy, so that the estimated loss in the jewellery trades cannot be safely put at a lower percentage than we have quoted. it will thus be seen that the _real_ loss, such as manufacturers are unable to recover by the means already known to them, amounts to one-fourth part of the total working loss of the establishment. this is easily accounted for: in the first place, a little takes place in the melting of the various alloys, the re-melting of scrap metal, the reduction of lemel, &c.; then there are the sundry manipulations of working; the passage of the metal through various acids, and the processes of finishing, each of which detaches small particles of metal, too small to be visible to the naked eye, but all of which go to form a portion of the loss which the manufacturer never recovers. the unrecovered metal may be judiciously proportioned as follows:--a portion of it works itself into the wood-work of the flooring of the shops, lathes, boards, and other parts of workshop appliances; then there is the refiner's profit--as purchases of the sweep, polishings, and other refuse of precious metal workers. instances can be recorded in which shrewd business-men have actually taken up the floors of their workshops and recovered a vast quantity of metal which was supposed to be lost for ever; and instances are well remembered in which two jewellers, upon removing into more extensive premises, availed themselves of the opportunity, not only of removing the boards which formed the flooring of the premises they were about to leave, but also those of the tenants they were about to succeed. in one case, metal of the value of £ was recovered, and in the other it reached the large amount of £ . the two jewellers referred to, of course, were too un-english to refund the proceeds to the late tenants, who, when they became aware of it, if ever they did, would be, no doubt, wiser if sadder men. to prevent the precious metal from finding its way into such places as these, it is advisable to have the floors well protected with sheet zinc or iron, in which case not the least particle could be lost in this manner. the extra cost of laying the floors would soon be amply repaid, by an extra quantity of the working loss being recovered; and if other equally effective precautions were adopted in the waste-saving processes by precious metal workers, the _real_ loss, which they cannot avoid suffering, might even yet be reduced to the lowest possible point. iron or zinc covered floors may be protected from wear, by laying over the surface small square grates of perforated iron, and these, being removable, may be readily taken up at stated periods, for sweeping the refuse from the floors; once a month will be found often enough to do this. the gratings should, however, be swept over lightly every day in order to remove the dust and particles of metal that may accumulate upon the surface into the perforations, and also for the removal of waste paper and other rubbish, continually accumulating in workshops. floors containing no such waste-saving precautions, are commonly swept over once, and sometimes twice each day, the refuse arising therefrom being carefully passed through a very fine sieve, all extraneous matter removed, and the residue remaining in the sieve being well sorted for the detection of all the precious metal visible to the naked eye. the whole refuse matter is then thoroughly burned in a muffle provided specially for the purpose, and finally reduced to a fine powder in a cast-iron mortar. when it has reached this stage of the process, it is quite ready for the particular kind of treatment it next receives at the hands of the refiner. grinding by large stone rollers is now fast superseding this mode of pulverising jewellers' waste and refuse. when the latter plan is adopted, the refuse should be swept from the floors every morning, carefully looked through, and then transferred to a barrel (having the top removed, which may be used as a lid), where it can be well kept together, and hidden from view until the time arrives for its further treatment. the waste which accumulates in the processes of polishing, lapping, &c., is greater than that already referred to, consequently, it cannot be too carefully looked after, in every stage, where a large manufacturing trade is being carried on in various branches. it is advisable in the practice of true economy, for the polishing, lapping, and scratching boxes to be repeatedly cleaned out, and the contents removed out of the temptation of every one, by being placed in a box, well lined with either sheet lead or zinc, which ensures the perfect safety of the material placed therein from all irregularities in the workshop. this kind of waste on being prepared for sale is again placed in a very strong wrought-iron box, made of a suitable size to fit the muffle, and having a thick close lid to it. after the work of the day has been completed, the fire in the furnace or muffle is made up, the dampers are closed, and then the iron box containing the refuse is at once passed in and allowed to remain there till morning, when every particle of matter will have become thoroughly burned; a slight pulverization after this process readily reduces it to a fine powder; further operations then cease, and the product is in all probability in a fine state of division, and fit for the subsequent operations of the refiner and assayer, whose special business it is to attend to these arrangements of precious metal workers. the next process we have to consider is one which includes the whole of the liquid substances variously employed in silver-working establishments, such as the pickling solutions, washing-out waters, whitening mixtures, and waste or spent solutions of every kind. the whitening solutions or mixtures, when in use, should be kept apart from the ordinary cleansing liquids, as after they have been in use for a time, they become saturated with copper taken off the work during the whitening processes; if the solution is then set aside for some time the copper eventually crystallizes out from the liquor, which may be poured into the waste-water tub, and the remaining crystals of sulphate of copper, for such it then is, may be removed and preserved. in small establishments one large tub, to form the receptacle for all spent or used-up liquids, will be found sufficient; but in large places several will be required. in the former case the water is only drawn off at the beginning of every fresh week, which allows plenty of time for the precipitation of the silver without any disturbance taking place in the mixture between the close of one week and the commencement of another; whereas in large concerns it requires to be drawn off continually unless other vessels are provided for its reception during a long period. attempts have been made to recover the silver from these solutions by simply filtering the liquid through a coarse piece of felt or flannel; or by providing a false bottom in the tub or other vessel containing the waste waters, arranged in the following manner:--a tolerably large tub would be employed, being about one-fourth filled with coarse deal sawdust, next would be placed the false bottom perforated with numerous small holes, and upon this would be firmly secured a piece of felt, so as to exactly fill up the space in that part of the tub, which then serves to act as the filterer of all solutions poured in above. the liquid after passing through the piece of felt proceeds through the perforations in the false bottom into the sawdust beneath, where it is allowed to run away by means of a small hole or tap at the bottom. but the use of either of these processes, if adopted on a large scale, where the waste products amounted to some hundreds per annum, would be wretchedly bad economy and tend to a serious loss of valuable metal; the boiling sulphuric acid, used in cleansing the work and for other purposes, has the power of dissolving minute particles of silver as well as those of the baser metal which always enters into the composition used in the production of the work of the silversmith; therefore, that portion of the metal which has become dissolved and entered into the chemical state, requires to be brought back to its original form before it can be saved by such means as those just described. to illustrate this more clearly, we will take the process of gold-colouring. if workmen were to notice the rinsing waters employed in this process, subsequently allowing the vessels containing the rinsing to stand for a very short time, upon pouring away the surplus water, a white curdy precipitate will at once be observed at the bottom. this is the silver removed from the surface of the gold alloy, which has been precipitated by the muriatic acid and the common salt employed in the colouring mixture, into the form of _chloride of silver_. now in this proceeding there is no gold to be seen in any of the vessels, but it is a well-known fact that a portion has been removed during the process from the surface of the gold articles. where is it? why, it has become dissolved, and is therefore held invisible in the solution, in consequence of the colouring mixture forming the well-known solvent for gold, _aqua-regia_. this is exactly the case with a portion of silver in the silversmith's solutions; small particles are continually being dissolved by the mixtures employed, and are thus held in solution past the power of filtering, unless some chemical ingredient be added to it, which acts as a re-agent upon the metal sought to be recovered. from what we have seen in the colour water, which always contains a little silver, it is evident that both muriatic acid and common salt will do this work for us. we prefer common salt, on account of its cheapness, besides being easily procurable. the best mode of treatment for the silversmith's waste waters, after being collected together by pouring into the receptacle specially provided for that purpose, is to prepare a saline solution for the precipitation of the silver. this may be made by mixing together common salt and tepid water, in the following proportions:-- common salt oz. tepid water pt. the water need only be sufficiently warm to dissolve the salt, and the proportions given do not require to be strictly adhered to; in fact any quantity, if properly mixed, will do to effect the purpose required, and we merely give these as a guide for the process. in small establishments where only one tub is employed, the above proportion of saline solution may be added (every saturday after the completion of the day's work) to the waste-water; the whole should then be stirred slowly in a circular direction, and allowed to settle until monday morning, when all the surplus water may be drawn off and poured away. in larger establishments the accumulation of waste-water is greater, therefore several collecting vessels should be employed, and the mixture for precipitation may be added to them at other times than those stated, if required, and in accordance with workshop regulations. the sediment produced in the collecting vessels after the supernatant water has all been drawn off, may be removed, dried by heat in a strong iron pan, and subsequently sold to the refiner. chapter xiii. licences and duties. manufacturing silversmiths, and all persons trading in silver wares of more than five pennyweights each, are compelled to take out a licence; articles under that weight being exempt. the licence has to be taken out annually, and costs £ _s._ for manufacturing or trading in articles under thirty ounces in weight, and £ _s._ for articles of thirty ounces and upwards. it should be taken out on the th day of july in each year at the excise office. this act of the legislature was passed in the year , george iii. c. , and is not the only one which refers to the subject we are now considering. there are other conditions besides the compulsory _plate licence_, as it is called, to which manufacturing silversmiths are subject, such as the supervision of the assay offices, in the case of certain descriptions of goods; and the payment of duty on all such goods. at the present time all hall-marked silver articles have to pay a duty of _s._ _d._ per ounce, calculated not on their gross weight, but on five-sixths of the weight, the other sixth being allowed for waste in finishing the articles, as they are sent to the hall in a half-finished state. the duty is paid at the assay office at the time the goods are sent to be marked. some dissatisfaction just now exists in a portion of the trade with regard to the above duty, as it is considered excessive, besides having a tendency to discourage the manufacture of silver wares; be this as it may with respect to a certain description of goods, on the bulk of the trade it can have no injurious effect whatever. the duty is paid only on manufactured _plate_ and such other articles as are requested to be hall-marked; besides which the trade in this particular department of manufacture has never been very extensive, being confined to a few firms of eminence only. before going into the general details of this question, it will be as well, perhaps, if we give a short history of the imposts that have existed in the silver trade for some time back. the first impost that we can find recorded took the shape of a _duty_, and was levied as far back as the year , by george i. c. , which placed a tax of _d._ per ounce on all silver plate manufactured in great britain, which, should be assayed or marked. the officers of the excise were to collect the tax, but the great difficulty of ascertaining the number of ounces worked up, which the provisions of the act did not clearly set forth, soon rendered it ineffectual, and it was consequently repealed by the statute george ii. c. , and a licence then substituted had to be taken out by manufacturers and dealers in plate. the licence at this period amounted to forty shillings, and had to be renewed annually. in , george ii. c. , it was increased to £ per annum, for every person trading in silver wares of thirty ounces and upwards; wares in one piece not exceeding five pennyweights in weight being exempted. the next change that took place was in the year , george iii. c. , when a duty was again imposed of _d._ per ounce on silver plate. it was also enacted that the assay masters should stamp the work with the additional mark of the "king's head," as well as the others already ordered by the various acts of the legislature. the mark of the king's head represented that of the reigning sovereign, and showed that the duty had been paid on the work. the present mark, therefore, is the queen's head. by an act passed in the year , george iii. c. , the duty on silver ware was increased to one shilling per ounce, but the act which subjected silver wares to a duty of _d._ per ounce ( george iii. c. ) has not been repealed, and is therefore in existence to this very day; by its provisions, however, the duty has been increased from time to time, until it has reached the amount at which it now stands. the present annual licences of £ _s._ and £ _s._ respectively, were enacted in the year by an act of george iii. c. , and by these regulations every person making or trading in silver wares, or otherwise dealing in the raw material, is compelled to take out an annual licence, or render himself liable to a penalty of £ . another act was passed in reference to the duty on silver goods in the year following, , george iii. c. , whereby it was increased to _s._ _d._ per ounce. and in the year , george iii. c. , the act was further extended to _s._ _d._ per oz. calculated in the manner we have described at the beginning of this chapter. to sum up, therefore, the silver _duties_ in their several forms, bearing upon the trade at the present time, we find them as follows:-- manufacturers of silver wares under dwts. in weights.--_exempted from all duties._ vendors and dealers in silver wares under dwts. in weight.--_exempted from all duties._ manufacturers of silver wares under oz. in weight.--_a plate licence of £ s. annually._ vendors and dealers in silver wares under oz. in weight.--_a plate licence of £ s. annually._ manufacturers of silver wares of more than oz. in weight.--_a plate licence of £ s. annually._ vendors and dealers in silver wares of more than oz. in weight.--_a plate licence of £ s. annually._ bullion dealers, refiners, and assayers.--_a plate licence of £ s. annually._ manufacturers of plate.--_a duty of s. d. per ounce._ hall-marked goods.--_a duty of s. d. per ounce._ manufactured plate includes silver wares, such as spoons, forks, snuff-boxes, tea-sets, &c., and other articles used by the rich, and upon which the duty is compulsory; the duty on hall-marked goods, refers to all articles--with the exception of watch-cases, which are free--marked at the request of intended purchasers, which then pay duty on the manufacture of them. it will be observed from these remarks, that the silver trade generally is not at all affected by the _duty tax_; the wares manufactured by the trade at large not coming directly under the compulsory provisions of the law bearing upon this subject. it has been said that the silver trade ministers to luxury, and no doubt that portion of it which manufactures costly articles of plate for the wealthy does so; but we fail to see exactly, that the same remark applies to that vast and increasing commercial industry which has sprung up of late years, and which bids fair to become one of the staple trades of the country. the duty-bearing articles are generally purchased by the classes of society who can well afford to pay the little extra which the duty imposes, and as the tax affects only that section of the silver trade which manufactures the article of luxury, it is not at all likely that the general trade would be increased by its entire removal. the duty, no doubt to most persons, may seem excessive, when calculated upon the percentage system; such for instance, as a tax of per cent. upon spoons and forks; or one of per cent. upon chains; or of - / per cent. upon tea-sets, &c.; this appears unjustly oppressive, and undoubtedly affects the _silver-plate_ manufacturer more vitally than any one else. to the ordinary silversmith this question of duty is not likely to be of much importance; the agitation therefore commenced against it, may be expected to confine itself to those persons more directly affected, and whose interests would be advanced by its abolition. the question of licences is one of far greater importance to the trade generally than that of duties, every manufacturer and dealer being compelled to procure a licence before he can carry on his business. if more direct action were taken in regard to this particular question, we believe that the whole trade would enter into it; for it resolves itself into this:--why should the silversmith or goldsmith pay for a licence for the purpose of manufacturing and dealing, any more than the coppersmith, or the manufacturer of electro-plate, both of whom escape scot-free? we believe this to be an unjust tax, and that it ought not to be levied upon one particular trade any more than another. we have also distinctions made in the general class of silversmiths: we have those who may trade without any licence at all; those who may trade with a _s._ licence; and those who may trade with _s._ licence, that is, those who work or sell under dwts., those who work or sell under oz., and those who work or sell at any weight. now this way of arranging the matter is very unsatisfactory to the trade generally; and any one of the first two traders to whom we have referred, is liable at any moment to be summoned before a criminal court for an infringement of the law, if he should happen to sell an article slightly over the weight for which he is duly licensed. at the present time a raid is being made upon the goldsmiths with reference to this particular question, and a number have already been summoned for infringing their licences in this manner. however, there appears to be some doubt with respect to the act of parliament bearing upon the subject, as in most of the cases the defendants have gained a verdict, the line of defence on their behalf being, that the clause of the act which bore upon the cases referred to, meant the weight in fine metal, _i.e._ "pure gold," of which the article was composed, and not that of the gross weight of the article sold. it was urged by those engaged in the various cases on the side of the defendants, that, for a _s._ licence, the vendor could sell an article in which the gold did not exceed two ounces, without any regard to the quality and weight made by alloy, and on this plea the magistrates granted them a verdict. in the higher courts we believe such verdicts would be reversed, for we firmly believe that the framers of the act meant no such thing, however defective may have been the legality of the points raised. the clause of the act to which we have alluded is no. , and runs as follows:--"all articles sold, or offered for sale, or taken in pawn, or delivered out of pawn, and alleged to be composed wholly, or in part, of gold or silver, are for the purposes of the above act to be deemed to be composed of gold or silver respectively; and if upon the hearing of any information for any offence against this act, any question shall arise touching the _quantity_ of gold or silver contained _in any article_, the _proof of such quantity_ shall be upon the defendant." the excise authorities argue that this clause means that the absolute or gross weight of an article sold as gold must not exceed two ounces, and one sold as silver must not exceed thirty ounces, gross weight. if this view of the meaning of the act be eventually taken, and we believe it will, it will certainly operate to a greater extent against makers and vendors of gold articles than it will against silversmiths. that part of the _clause_ referring to the quantity of gold or silver contained in a given article, we believe has reference to articles containing jewels, &c., in their construction, which renders it exceedingly difficult to get at their exact weight, when the work is finally completed with these jewels properly affixed upon it, and not to the amount of fine material any article may contain by assay. the last part of the clause we have marked in italics, "proof of such quantity shall be upon the defendant," fully bears out these observations, because he is supposed to know the gross weight of any special article before the addition to it of any jewels. we have been led to make these few remarks, in order to point out the gross anomalies which exist in the trade with respect to these licences, and to show the necessity of a reform taking place in a trade singled out from all the others, and made to pay a tax for the privilege of being allowed to make, or sell, articles in which gold or silver forms a component part. therefore, if any action is to be taken in the matter, it must not be confined (if it is to be successful) to one particular branch of this important trade, but all must unite, and every influence should be brought to bear upon it in as forcible a manner as possible. the electro-plate manufacturer, and the dealer in _his_ wares, ought in all common fairness to the trade, to be put upon the same footing as the silversmith, if this licence is to be still continued. in electro-plating establishments, thousands of ounces of silver are being annually used on the surface of such wares as are manufactured there; and if such decisions as those lately given at the thames and other police courts, with reference to the act of parliament on the subject of gold and silver wares are upheld, we fail to see how the manufacturers of silver-plated articles, who are continually making and selling them, containing as they do, more silver than the general public would suppose, are to escape much longer these new interpretations of the act of parliament, and avoid being called upon to take out a licence in the same manner as the silversmiths. this is a tax in which the holder gets no direct return, and is levied in an unfair manner by the establishment of various grades of silversmiths, so that it gives a just cause for grievance. if the tax is to be upheld at all, why not make it equal by the establishment of one uniform rate for all trades alike? chapter xiv. useful information for the trade. silversmith's alloy. copper, oz.; nickel, dwts. grs; bismuth, grs.; zinc, dwts. grs.; soft iron, grs.; tin, grs. this compound is said to form a fusible and malleable metal, that can be easily worked by the silversmith; it is also said to resist oxidation through atmospheric influences. silver wares. never scratch-brush silver ware with a solution of soap and water; neither should it be washed with the solution if it can be avoided, as it gives it the colour of pewter; better to scratch in weak ale, or if plain, rub it with a piece of wash-leather and prepared chalk. cleaning plate. carbonate of ammonia, oz.; water, oz.; paris white, oz.; well mix the ingredients together, and apply to the surface of the plate by means of a piece of soft leather or sponge. imitation silver. fine silver, dwts.; nickel, dwts.; copper, dwts. this alloy will cost about _s._ _d._ per ounce. another recipe. fine silver, dwts.; nickel, dwts.; copper, dwts. cost about _s._ _d._ per ounce. removing gold from silver articles. silver articles which have been gilt, may be brought back to their original colour, by simply covering them with a thick solution of borax, and then well annealing them. after this process if the articles are boiled for a short time in one of the whitening mixtures and scratched, they will present a beautiful white and uniform surface. oxidizing silver. a beautiful deep black colour, possessing great lustre, may be given to finished silver work by boiling it in the following preparation for some time:--bromine, grs.; bromide of potassium, dwts.; water, oz. the boiling should be effected in a stoneware pipkin, and generally from two to five minutes will suffice for the purpose. the work is finished after the proper colour has been attained, by well rubbing with a soft piece of wash-leather and a little best jeweller's rouge. it is better to make the work as bright as possible before submitting it to this mixture; for this reason it is preferable to thoroughly buff all plain surfaces on a piece of felt by the application of the lathe, as by that means a characteristic brightness is imparted. dipping mixture. brass or metal goods may be cleaned and their oxides removed by dipping into the undermentioned liquid for a few seconds only:--oil of vitriol, five parts; water, five parts; nitric acid, two and a half parts; spirits of salts, two drachms. well mix the several ingredients together, and immerse the work in the solution cold. the mixture improves after a quantity of work has been dipped into it. silver powder for copper. chloride of silver, two parts; cream-of-tartar, two parts; alum, one part. mix with water to the consistence of a paste, and apply with a soft leather or sponge; when sufficiently whitened, well polish. powder for silver. chloride of silver, oz.; sal ammoniac, oz.; sandiver, oz.; white vitriol, oz.; bichloride of mercury, dwts. make into a paste with water and rub the articles over with it; then expose them to a good heat upon a clear fire, in order to run the silver and evaporate the mercury, after which process dip in very weak sulphuric acid to clean. to protect the polish of metals. melt one part by weight of best wax paraffin and when sufficiently cooled, add three parts of petroleum. well mix together, and apply to the polished articles by means of a soft brush. the protecting film is required to be only very thin, therefore too much should not be put on. silver stripping mixture. sulphuric acid, six parts; nitric acid, one part. take a large black-lead crucible or pipkin, and heat the mixture in it; when this is done, put in the work required to be stripped, occasionally withdrawing it to ascertain the progress made. the large proportion of sulphuric acid allows of the dissolution of the silver, and does not sensibly corrode or interfere with copper, or any of its alloys, if kept quite free from water; therefore be careful not to introduce wet articles into the mixture. after finally withdrawing the work, it should be well rinsed, annealed, and then boiled out. stripping silver. put some strong oil of vitriol in a similar vessel to those above described, apply heat, and during the process add a few crystals of saltpetre. when the solution has become hot enough the work should be immersed in it, and be moved about or agitated until the silver is dissolved from the surface. the articles should not be allowed to remain too long in the solution, and if it does not remove the silver quickly, more saltpetre should be added from time to time until the desired end be attained. soft solder. pure tin, two parts; lead, one part. melt and well incorporate together; when this is done pour into strips for use. soldering fluid. muriatic acid (spirits of salts), three parts; metallic zinc, one part; or as much as the acid will take up. when dissolved and all effervescence ceases, allow it to settle, then decant the clear solution from the sediment at the bottom of the vessel in which it has been made, and it is ready for use. if a small quantity of water be added to the mixture at this stage, say one-sixth, it will answer quite as well for some purposes. for soldering iron and steel, a very small portion of sal ammoniac is of great advantage to the mixture for promoting toughness. _dissolving fine silver._--nitric acid, two parts; water, one part. _dissolving silver alloys._--nitric acid, one part; water, two parts. _dissolving copper._--nitric acid, one part; water, four parts. _dissolving soft solder._--perchloride of iron, one part; water, four parts. _dissolving silver solder._--nitric acid one part; water four parts. _dissolving sealing-wax._--place for a time in a solution of spirits of wine. resist varnish. dissolve resin, or copal, in essence of turpentine, or boiled linseed oil; to give it different shades of colour, add red lead, chrome yellow, or prussian blue. plate powder. whitening, two parts, white oxide of tin, one part, calcined hartshorn, one part. reduce to a powder and well mix together; apply as usual. electro-plating soft solder. take nitric acid, oz.; water, oz.; copper about oz. in small flat pieces; when the copper has all dissolved and effervescence has ceased, the solution is ready for use. to apply it, take up a few drops by means of a camel-hair pencil and apply it to the desired part, then touch it with a bright piece of steel, and there will be instantaneously a film of copper deposited. if the copper has not spread all over the desired part, the process should be repeated, when deposition in the plating bath will take place with perfect success. another recipe. take sulphate of copper (that which accumulates in the whitening mixture), one ounce; water, six ounces. reduce the sulphate of copper to a fine powder and dissolve it in the water. treat according to the directions given in the previous one. a good mixture for effecting the same result may be made by dissolving verdigris in vinegar. testing silver wares. take nitric acid, six ounces; water, two ounces; bichromate of potash, one ounce. reduce the salt of potash to a powder and well mix it with the acid and water. the solution is used cold, and should be placed in a stoppered glass bottle, the stopper having a long dropper extending into the mixture, which acts as the agent for conveying the liquid from the bottle to the article to be tested. the surface of the article should be perfectly clean, and to make certain what kind of metallic substance you are testing, it is advisable to rub a file over some obscure part of the surface and to apply the liquid to that part. the test liquid should be used, by means of the glass stopper, to the filed part, and immediately removed by a sponge damped with cold water. if the article consists of pure silver, there will appear a clean blood-red mark, which is less deep and lively in proportion to the quality of the metal. upon platinum the test liquid has no action whatever; on german silver at first a brown mark appears, but this is removed by the sponge and cold water; on britannia metal a black mark is produced; and on all the various metals an entirely different result takes place to that on silver; therefore the test is a simple one, and may be advantageously employed for the detection of any fraud in relation to the precious metal. another test. water, oz.; sulphuric acid, drs.; chromate of potash, dwts. this mixture is applied in the same way as before and produces a purple colour of various depths, according to the quality of the silver. no other metallic element exhibits the same colour with this preparation. perchloride of iron. take spirits of salts, oz.; crocus powder (jeweller's polishing material), oz.; well mix them together and keep in solution. in preparing the mixture for the dissolution of soft solder, &c., take oz. of it, and add to it ozs. of boiling water. aluminium alloy. copper, dwts; aluminium, dwts. new alloy. zinc, dwts; soft iron, dwt. this alloy is said by the inventor to be remarkable for its whiteness and tenacity. removing gold from silver wares. sometimes the process of annealing and boiling-out fails to effect the removal of the gold from articles which have been thickly gilt, in which case the work should be submitted to the action of the following chemical preparation:--sulphuric acid, ozs.; muriatic acid, oz.; nitric acid, / oz. this mixture should be heated in a black-lead crucible or earthen vessel, and the work immersed until the dissolution of the gold takes place, carefully watching it during the progress of the operation. the gold may also be removed by using a strong solution of oil of vitriol, to which has been added a fair proportion of common salt. silver plating fluid. nitrate of silver, oz.; cyanide of potassium, ozs.; water, ozs. put the cyanide and the nitrate of silver into the water; shake them well together until they become thoroughly dissolved, then let the mixture stand till it becomes thoroughly clear. it is then ready for use. if preferred, a little prepared chalk may be used as an additional ingredient. plate-cleaning powder. take of the finest rouge, and prepared chalk, equal parts, well mix and use dry by means of soft leather. solder for aluminium. spelter, dwts.; aluminium, dwt. grs.; copper, grs. to be employed for soldering the _pure_ white metal, and not the so-called aluminum bronze, that being commonly soldered with bath-metal solder. chapter xv. foreign silver standards--pre-war. table showing the various standards of the silver work manufactured in the principal countries previous to the european war, - :-- +------------+------------------+------------+---------------+ | | | thousandth | | | countries. | silver per oz. | parts. | remarks. | +------------+------------------+------------+---------------+ | | oz. dwts. grs. | | | | france | | - | old standard. | | " | | - | st " | | " | | - | coinage. | | " | | - | nd standard. | | germany | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | " | | - | rd " | | " | | - | th " | | austria | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | " | | - | rd " | | " | | - | th " | | geneva | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | " | | - | rd " | | holland | | - | old standard. | | " | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | belgium | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | " | | - | rd " | | spain | | - | lowest " | | portugal | | - | one only. | | neuchatel | | - | one only. | | russia | | - | st standard. | | " | | - | nd " | | italy | | - | st " | | " | | - | nd " | | " | | - | rd " | | china | - / | - | about. | | norway | | - | one only. | | sweden | | - | " | | denmark | | - | " | +------------+------------------+------------+---------------+ in france, all articles manufactured as silver are subject to _government control_ and pay duty, but this is very slight compared with the english duty, amounting only to one _franc_ per _hectogramme_, which is equal to about threepence per ounce. this is exclusive of the charge for testing and marking; the state of the articles sent for this purpose with regard to the state of manufacture is, moreover, very different from the custom in this country. here they are sent in their rough or half-manufactured state, and this seems better suited to the particular processes through which they have to pass; whereas in france they may be tested and marked in their whole or finished state; and, if thought requisite, this operation may be performed while the goods are on their way to their final destination, by calling at the control office for that purpose. the continental silversmiths, especially the french workmen, exhibit much ingenuity, original thought, and refined taste, in the execution of their work; and the natural capacity for design which they possess enables them to produce articles of a very high order and artistic character. the construction of some of their productions is exceedingly ornamental and decorative, and in some instances this is even carried to excess, as may be seen from some very elaborate articles which they manufacture. to them belongs the credit of being producers of the most artistic and best decorative work in the whole world. they set the _fashions_ and work them out with a will to be only found in a people so enthusiastic as the french. their jewellery is very elegant, light, and showy; some of which is prepared so thin as regards material, that it has to be supported underneath by a wax composition, which, however, gives increased strength to all articles so manipulated. with regard to articles of _vertu_, the french workmen certainly far excel those of any other country: they are more original, and bring into play greater ingenuity in the various processes which they employ in their manufactures. still with all this ingenuity and skill, their works of art in this department are not durable, being very _tinselfied_; in wear their shape and form soon undergo a change, and eventually they soon get destroyed. in this branch of art the french workman might learn something to his advantage from the english style of work, which is the most durable of any nation in the world. french silver plate and jewellery of the best manufacture partake of the first standard; all other kinds are of the lowest standard. in germany all silver manufactures are placed under _imperative_ control, and lower standards than those given in the table, under their respective heads, cannot be worked. the german style is similar to that of the french, but the former manufacture an unusually large quantity of filigree articles, very light in construction, tasteful, and cheap; and the possession of these advantages enables them to export to england and other countries their wares at a cheap rate. they are commonly sold by weight, and not so much per article; in many cases the charge does not exceed _s._ _d._ per ounce. in filigree work the germans cannot equal the taste and variety displayed in indian workmanship. in india the natives have definite designs, but the germans are too fond of a variety of colours in their wares, which do not always harmonize with their particular kind of work. in austria silver manufactures are commonly ornamented by enamel, niello, &c., which gives them a very pleasing appearance. they are usually light and showy, and something after the style of french work. the laws affecting the austrian silver workers are the same as those of germany. the english style of work is strong and solid; and is undoubtedly superior to that of all continental manufacturers as regards substantial workmanship, careful manipulation, and durability. it is, moreover, capable of a higher finish, and possesses more evenness of surface, together with a combination of strength, that admirably suits it for articles and utensils for daily use, and which causes it to be preferred before that of any other nation; and while france, germany, and other countries may exhibit greater ingenuity, to england belongs the credit of producing the best _finished_ and the most _durable_ work of any nation in the world. index. acids, vegetable, action of acids on copper, of silver under heat, acts of the legislature, on licences, clause on, , advantages of scorification, air in furnace, alkalies, caustic, allowed, remedy in fineness, alloy, clark's patent, commonly used, for cupel quantity, for hall-marking, for plate, for silver-wares, french, for coinage, french, for plate, french, for silver-ware, german, for coinage, instructions in preparing, new, nos. to , - of the highest quality, silver dissolving, standard, white, alloy, with copper, with palladium, with platinum, alloys of common silver, - characteristics of, , imitation, - imitation, uses of, of nickel, of silver, of tin with gold, of tin with silver, silversmith's, , aluminium alloy, solder, amalgam, amalgamation of zinc, america, american supply of silver, ancient method of assaying, workers in tin, ancients, annealing silver, anthracite, art in soldering, in the silver 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skittle-pot, for lemel, slitting-rollers, snarling-tools, soda, carbonate of, , soft solder, , dissolving, plating, solder, composition for, , best hard, common, , common easy, dish, easy, , , filed, for aluminium, for chains, for filigree, , hard, lemaille, medium, , pallion, quick running, very common, with arsenic, with copper and silver, with zinc, soldering, art of, , alloy, dissolving, connections, mode of, fluid, flux, solders containing tin, solders, drossy, for enamelling, melting of, preparations of, remarks on, tin in, solid plain work, solution for battery, cyanide, for plating, , for precipitation, inferior, no. , no. , no. , soundness of crucibles, spain, sparrow-hawk, special soldering flux, specific gravity of zinc, spelter, used by jewellers, spinning, , sprouting, stamped work, stamping-press, standard alloy for hall-marking, alloys of the highest quality, standards, english, french, german, state in which silver is found, state of silver trade, state of the jewellery trade, stone, water-of-ayr, strength of solution, stripping silver, style of work, austrian, english, french, style of work, german, indian, surface, refining of silver, swedish filigree, system of assaying, table of cost of silver-rolling, of metallic elements, of various duties, tarnishing of silver, of zinc, tax or licence, technical education, test for pure silver, testing crucible, silver wares, testimony, scriptural, , test-ring, tin, alloyed with gold, alloyed with silver, ancient workers, and christianity, density of, dissolving, ductility of, fusibility of, in solders, , malleability of, scientific name, tenacity of, vapours, tongs, draw, tongs for melting, total working loss, trade, silver, state of, useful information for, treatment, economical, in furnace, of waste, treatment of waste liquids, twisting wires, unjustly assessed tax, uses of silver, borax, for imitation alloys, of lathe, silver, mechanical, vapours of tin, various qualities of silver, duties, table of, metals, mixing, varnish, resist, wares, ornamental, law on, removing gold from, silver alloy for, silver, testing purity, washing-out mixture, waste, saving, liquids, treatment of, treatment of, waters, - water, precipitation in, water-of-ayr stone, weighing of silver assay, whitening, old method, indian mode of, our mode of, powder, wire for filigree, rolling, drawer's drum, drawer's punch, &c., drawing, fine, wires, conducting, withdrawal from cupel, work, austrian style, burnishing, english, style, filigree, , , french duty on, french style, german style, hollow, indian style, silver, burnishing, solid, stamped, workers, indian, working filigree, loss, material, bad, silversmiths, total, workmen, english and foreign, workmanship, process of, wrought work, yield of silver, , zinc, a fusible metal, amalgamation, annealing, ductility of, gravity of, in silver solder, , malleability of, on floors, tarnishing of, tenacity of, printed by william clowes and sons, limited, london and beccles. lockwood's manuals _trade_ clock repairing garrard net /- watch repairing garrard " /- mechanical dentistry hunter " /- electro-plating watt " /- house painting davidson " / carpentry and joinery tredgold " /- gas-fitting briggs " /- bricks and tiles dobson " / metal plate work barrett " / _technical_ engineers' screw cutting pull " / engineering measuring tools pull " / slide rule hoare " /- _craft-work_ modern fretcutting makinson " / _art-work_ illuminating whithard " /- _educational_ portuguese dictionary elwes " / _business_ foreign commercial correspondent baker " / _complete list on application._ london: crosby lockwood & son transcriber note the following changes were made: p. "fahr." moved from after " · and · " => to after " °" p. "week pickle" => "weak pickle" p. "regulated workships" => "regulated workshops" images generously made available by the internet archive/canadian libraries) [illustration] hints on the use and handling of firearms generally, and the revolver in particular. by lieut. h. onslow curling, c. l. a. b. _'nunquam non paratus.'_ london: dulau & co., soho square. _all rights reserved._ . london: printed by strangeways and sons, tower street, upper st. martin's lane. hints on the use and handling of firearms, _&c._ _&c._ 'he, that rides at high speed, and with his pistol kills a sparrow flying.' shakespeare: _henry iv._ the national rifle association may fairly claim the honour of introducing, at their meeting in july , the subject of military revolver practice in this country. for years past the want of such a movement has been felt, but the many obstacles to be overcome have been so vast that no one seems to have cared to venture upon the matter, and so it has slept. the great drawback has been, and is now, to find suitable ranges anywhere near london. such ranges, the use of which is enjoyed by our citizen army, are insufficient, and the expense of keeping them up is considerable, falling heavily upon the corps to whom they belong. the national rifle association, although they offered some _l._ in prizes, and provided not only revolvers but ammunition, for a small consideration, or entrance fee, met with but poor support; but it should be borne in mind that this was the first year of such a competition, and it was in consequence not generally known of. very little was known of the movement till it actually took place, and then only when noticed by the press the day after its introduction. again, it should be remembered that the entries were restricted to officers, warrant officers, and petty officers, of her majesty's land and sea forces, and doubtless this restriction accounted for the spare attendance. every englishman belonging to the auxiliary forces should hail with pleasure the opportunity offered of making himself master of this useful weapon; one that in skilled hands is most deadly at long or short ranges, and a thorough knowledge of the use of which might at any moment be the means of saving another's life from an opposing force when no other weapon was at hand. the difficulty in using even an ordinary pistol with accuracy is, and always has been, an acknowledged fact, as it requires great practice to enable a man to make his mark as a crack shot. some men would perhaps miss a haystack at twenty yards, while others, with little practice, soon become excellent shots at very small objects. it is marvellous the accuracy with which the professional burglar has of late years used his revolver against the police and others; but it may be accounted for by the fact that these men use a small, light weapon, easily carried and much easier wielded than the military regulation revolver, which weighs lbs. oz.; that they invariably take what may be termed flying shots--and it should be remembered that a full-sized man at comparatively close quarters presents a very large target. i venture to affirm that if these burglarious minions of the moon, who make night hideous, were compelled to stand before a martini-smith target (a foot square) at twenty yards, with a military regulation revolver, they would make but sorry marksmen. the use of the military revolver is acknowledged to be a question of great importance, as one not only affecting those who embrace the profession of arms, but those who travel; and as no one knows when he may be called upon, or where he may be, it is imperative that he should gain a thorough knowledge of every minor detail, most useful in the hour of need, and which will enable him not only to protect himself with confidence, but to come to the assistance of the weak should occasion require. it is to be deplored that what once formed part of the education of a gentleman--_i.e._ the use of the small sword and broadsword--should have been so thoroughly neglected of late years in this country. that part of the education of youth seems to have become quite a secondary consideration. general sir charles napier has truly said, 'young men have all the temptations in the world to pleasure, none to study; consequently, they some day find themselves conspicuous for want of knowledge, not of talent.' the introduction of the breech-loader has revolutionised firearms. when we look back upon the extraordinary achievements of arms during the present century, with the comparatively crude weapons then in use as compared with the marvellous inventions of the present moment, it is simply astounding what results were obtained. the terrible work done by the old brown bess, with its unique flint-and-steel lock of its day, at waterloo and elsewhere, is now matter of history. in those days artillery and cavalry had a chance of existence in the field, they have scarcely any now. the old flint lock, although it has had its day, has done its work well, and is entitled to veneration. many a noble fellow has bit the dust from its spark, and england's first and greatest battles were fought and won by its aid. the nipple and percussion cap came next into use, and subsequently the breech-loader; but since rifles have superseded military smooth-bore weapons, the old spherical ball has been condemned. the breech-loading rifled arm of the present day may be looked upon as a marvel of modern ingenuity; as combining exquisite manufacture, extraordinary precision, and unequalled range. the latter may be accounted for by the conical shape of the bullet, and the rotary motion given thereto by the grooving of the barrel; and lastly, from the full force of the evolution of gas consequent upon the powder being enclosed in a copper tube which is inserted in the breech when loading the piece. the barrel of the breech-loading rifle is by its own action of firing kept comparatively clean, as compared with the old muzzle-loader; for with the breech-loader any fouling of the barrel is driven out by the discharge, and the powder in the cartridge is kept perfectly free from any contamination with the moisture adhering to the barrel by its copper case and being inserted in the breech; whereas in the old muzzle-loading weapon the barrel, after the first discharge, becomes lubricated, and consequently a portion of the powder poured down the barrel adhered to its moist sides, thereby becoming deteriorated and decreasing the explosive force. as a weapon of precision the snider is perhaps preferable to the martini-henry; but, of course, this is matter of opinion. the sportsman of the good old school would be somewhat astonished, and would perhaps feel uncomfortable, upon finding himself armed with a breech-loading fowling-piece of the present day, particularly as prejudices are strong and obstinacy very prevalent among some people, and the keen eye of the old sportsman would view the modern innovation upon his rights--as he would probably call them--with dread, suspicion, and distrust. it is a fact, even at the present time, that there are many old farmers in england who use their ancient flint-and-steel fowling-pieces from choice in preference to modern weapons. the cool old sportsman of days gone by would sally forth in quest of game, having previously overhauled his lock, and, if necessary, adjusted a new flint, with as much care as an angler would examine his tackle previous to a day's sport, as he well knew that success depended upon vigilance and care. there was no blustering and banging away in those days, as soon as a bird rose, as is unhappily too often the case now-a-days, resulting in either blowing the bird all to pieces or probably missing it altogether. no, the keen eye of the old school would coolly watch his bird rise, take a pinch of snuff, cock his piece, cover his bird, and then bring it down, allowing it to get well away before drawing the trigger. many a young gentleman calling himself a sportsman knows little of the capabilities of the weapon he wields, and cares less; his whole aim is to see how many head of game he can bag, and to blaze away is the order of the day, to the astonishment of poor ponto, who, if he chance to run within range, sometimes gets a charge of shot in his tail. in the royal navy the use and practice of the pistol, and latterly of the revolver, has always been kept up. consequently the jack tar knows more about the pistol and the military revolver than most men give him credit for. in boarding vessels, for instance, the pistol was one of the arms used. the importance of the revolver movement as inaugurated by the national rifle association has resulted in the formation of a club called 'the metropolitan revolver club.' this club, which is in its infancy, has many obstacles to surmount, but it is to be hoped that the provisional committee will be able to carry out the object in view, which is, according to the programme, as follows:-- 'that this club be formed, having for its object the provision of facilities for acquiring a thorough knowledge of and proficiency in the use of the military revolver.' dudley wilson, esq., pall mall, is the honorary secretary, and may success attend him. to the inexperienced, the revolver is, perhaps, as deadly a weapon as can well be handled; and to no class is this fact so well known as to naval and military men. the many deplorable accidents resulting from the incautious handling of firearms is terrible to contemplate; and sportsmen and military men have frequently fallen victims to carelessness, to say nothing of novices. the unfortunate part is, that foolish and inexperienced people often inflict misery upon innocent persons; unintentionally, it is true: but they are none the less guilty. firearms should be looked upon as a kind of machinery, which no one in his senses would attempt to handle unless he knew the use of them. the abominable practice of those to whom firearms belong, or those in the charge or care thereof, of keeping or leaving such weapons loaded, so that they may at any moment fall into the hands of children, or perhaps, what is worse still, inexperienced adults, is most seriously to be condemned, and may be designated really as a criminal act, which ought to be summarily punished. it is an act which has no real motive, no real _bonâ fide_ object, and is lawless and idle in the extreme,--an act which has resulted in the death of its thousands, and the maiming of even more. a weapon should never be brought within the portals of a man's house loaded; the breech-loading cartridge can be easily withdrawn. if the piece is a muzzle-loader it should be discharged after the day's sport is over; ammunition is really not so very costly as to require to be husbanded at the probable cost of a serious accident, or perhaps a fellow-creature's life. this rule cannot be too strictly adhered to. some years ago it was my lot to be staying with a gentleman of eccentric habits, a man of violent temper, and when in one of these fits really not answerable for his actions. i was aware that he kept a full-sized revolver loaded with ball, and capped, in his dressing-room. i confess i was coward enough to let this matter trouble me. i felt i could stand up and face death with any one in the field, fighting in a good cause and armed as others; but to be taken advantage of at any moment, and perhaps shot down like a dog, was rather too much. i therefore resolved in my own mind, not only to disarm my friend but to render his weapon useless; but how to accomplish this was the question, as to raise any suspicion would perhaps bring down wrath upon my own head. i therefore resolved to leave everything precisely intact till an opportunity should present itself. the very next day the time arrived, and during this grand turk's absence i hastily removed the caps from off the nipples of the revolver, and having exploded them upon the nipples of his double-barrelled gun, i pinched them back into their original shape and replaced them on the revolver. i then put the box of caps into my pocket and felt perfectly secure, and could have sat and been fired at without the slightest fear. this gentleman shortly afterwards was seized with paralysis of the brain, and ended his days in a madhouse. no one, i believe, ever suffered any inconvenience from the revolver, and what became of it i know not. if leaving weapons about is necessary (which i do not for a moment admit), then most assuredly they should be rendered harmless by being left unloaded, and thus the means of rendering them destructive would be kept out of the way of meddlers. all ammunition should, as a rule, be kept in some secret and safe place, and always under lock and key. every man knows that edged tools are dangerous, consequently that the leaving loaded firearms within the reach of anybody who may chance to come across them is simply leaving means of destruction unprotected, and he should bear in mind that this mischief of his own neglect might accidentally at any moment be wielded against himself. 'how oft the sight of means to do ill deeds, makes deeds ill done. shakespeare: _king john._ the responsibility of those possessing firearms is great, and proper precautions and proper care cannot be too strictly enforced. care costs nothing, and may be the means of preventing loss of life and many a deplorable accident. the precautions necessary to be borne in mind in the safe use of firearms for one's own protection, as well as the protection of others, are voluminous, and so varied are they that it is with difficulty they can be all dealt with in this little treatise; it is only therefore proposed to mention some of them, and detail a few important hints for the guidance of the unwary. generally speaking, if a man will not exercise a little gumption, care, and discretion, when in the society of a shooting-party similarly armed as he is himself, he must put up with the consequences. accidents in properly regulated families should never happen. since the introduction of the breech-loader there is no excuse for any man carrying a loaded weapon and swinging the muzzle of it about when carrying it on his shoulder (which is often done), bringing every one in his rear in the line of fire of the piece. a man can load his piece now when he arrives upon the ground in a moment; and should a bird rise, with the present facilities given by the breech-loader, there is ample time to load and bring the bird down without the slightest difficulty. for any man therefore, when not in the field, to strut about with a loaded weapon in his possession now-a-days is simply bombastic tomfoolery. to carry a gun gracefully and properly is an art. it should never be so carried or wielded as to be a risk to the possessor, or any one. the following are a few ways how a gun should be carried:--for safety, when commencing sport, the right hand grasping the piece at the small of the butt, the butt resting on the right hip or thigh, muzzle up. the weapon can then, on the rising of game, be at once safely presented. when carried on the shoulder it should be always with _lock down_: this mode will so elevate the barrels that the muzzles are far above the heads of any one; even when at close quarters, on the march, or when approaching or returning from cover, this way will be found easiest and with the least possible fatigue, as the weight of the weapon is centered in the stock held in the right hand. to relieve the shoulder pass the hand up to the small, or neck of the butt; at the same time seize the butt with the left hand, then raise your gun to a perpendicular position, carry it across the body, and place it on the left shoulder. the left shoulder can be relieved in a similar manner, _i.e._, pass the left hand to the small or neck of the butt, at the same time seize the butt with the right hand, raise the gun to a perpendicular position, and carry it across the body and place it on the right shoulder. never present, much less fire, when any person, whether keeper or beater, intervenes or is near the bird. never fire over any one, even if he what is called 'ducks,' or stoops to allow of your doing so. a keeper or beater should never be encouraged in, or allowed to 'duck' or stoop; the practice is a bad one, and should be for ever discountenanced. if no one fired over a ducked body the habit would soon fall into disuse. sportsmen and others would do well to bear in mind that an accident deprives the injured man from earning his livelihood, and the poor wife and children suffer: better to forego taking a shot for safety sake and let the bird escape for another day than run any risk. this should be made a hard-and-fast rule among sportsmen, and a law of sport. the left hand should never be placed upon the gun till the bird has risen and _all is clear_ ahead. coolness in the field is everything; there should be no blundering, no hurry; a man who knows the capabilities of his gun can afford to be cool. he knows but too well there is no occasion for haste; the cool hand would pause after the bird rose, and give it time to get fairly away before presenting. a gun should never be so wielded as to bring its barrels in line with any one, or the barrels athwart any one. when quite a youth i remember being in the field, when one of the party becoming fatigued from the effects of a tight boot handed me his gun; the friend, who evidently did not appreciate the confidence placed in the youngster, kept aloof--well to the right; presently a bird rose, i hesitated; looking at the bird. 'fire! fire! why don't you fire, sir?' exclaimed the old gentleman with some warmth. 'how can i,' cried i, 'with those peasants at work right in front?' the effect was marvellous. the old gentleman, thoroughly appreciating the caution, at once joined me, and i had the benefit of my full share of the sport. firing when in thick cover and from behind hedges should be conducted with caution, and with a knowledge that all is clear on the other side. little observation will show whether your companion has been accustomed to the use of firearms. a man of reckless temperament, one who would blaze away blindly, a devil-may-care sort of fellow, should be avoided; give him a very wide berth, and keep the gentleman well on your extreme left. if you can shunt him altogether so much the better. a gun should never be carried in the field at the trail; should never be carried under the arm, hugging the lock; should never be carried muzzle down, so that by an accidental slip, or stumble, or fall, the barrels may become choked with earth (which would burst the muzzle if not removed before firing); should never be carried transversely across the body with barrels pointing left. when shooting, a man should be as much upon his etiquette as he would be in my lady's drawing-room; should mind his p's and q's, and remember that when in a china-shop he should refrain from carrying his umbrella under his arm. as a fact, the closing of one eye in taking aim is unnecessary. the complete angle of sight upon a given object can only be obtained by the use of both eyes. consequently two objects cannot be seen distinctly or clearly at the same instant, one is clear while the others are blurred or misty; hence it stands to reason, that in laying a gun the top of the notch of the hindsight, the apex of the foresight, and the object, can be brought into line as accurately with both eyes open as with one closed. an artilleryman can lay a gun perfectly without closing one eye. the eyes should not be less than inches from the hindsight, if from to feet so much the better, and a more accurate aim will be the result. upon the principle that the hand follows the eye, a sportsman fixing both eyes upon his bird can take as perfect an aim as he could with one eye closed. this rule applies equally to all arms. a man when in the field or at practice should keep his eyes about him; he should remember whom he is with; that he may be covered by a friend's gun or rifle at any moment, and that as the abominable and unnecessary proceeding of carrying weapons loaded, when not actually in the field, is the rule rather than the exception, he may perhaps find himself accidentally pinked at any moment, and when he little expects it. i remember some years ago the magnificent solemnity of a military funeral was brought to a somewhat ludicrous termination by one of the firing party shooting his comrade in the stern. how the accident really occurred i never could learn; but it was a fact that the rear-rank man managed somehow to discharge his rifle, and pretty nearly blow off the tail of his comrade's tunic. the wounded man, who was more frightened than hurt, seemed not at all to relish the joke. an old lady came to the rescue. this good old soul seems to have been in the habit of carrying a flask, and, graciously offering the 'pocket pistol,' suggested a drop of the creature. the offer was most readily accepted, but, i regret to say, the terror of the injured man was so great that he emptied the flask. he had evidently had enough of soldiering and 'villainous saltpetre,' for the very next day he sent in his resignation. at ball practice men should refrain from talking, joking, and that ungentlemanly pastime known as _horse-play_. their attention should be directed to what they are about to do and what others are doing, and they should leave frivolities for some other time. many accidents in the field have occurred when getting over stiles, gates, hurdles, stone walls, and even through hedges. within the beautiful glades of kensington gardens stands a lasting memorial. in memory of speke. victoria, nyanza, and the nile. . here is a terrible record of an awful death through carelessness. a noble life lost, sacrificed in a moment. poor speke, who had faced death often in many forms, met it at last by his own hand. while out shooting, in getting through a hedge he dragged his fowling-piece after him, the muzzle towards his own body, when, the lock becoming entangled in the brambles, his immediate death was the result. such a piece of foolhardiness on the part of a man accustomed to the use of firearms is astounding. use dulls the edge of caution, and some men, unhappily, who are accustomed to deal constantly with weapons and ingredients of destruction, become not only careless but indifferent and callous. there is a class of men who, if not kept under surveillance, would probably be found smoking their pipes in a powder-magazine, or while sitting upon a barrel of gunpowder. men are too prone to carry their weapons at full-cock. this should never be done. if alone, when getting through a hedge or over any _impedimenta_ the weapon should be laid on the ground, parallel with the hedge, if possible. after getting upon the other side, the weapon should be drawn through with the butt end towards the person. if you have a comrade or keeper with you, hand him the weapon, muzzle up; get through yourself, and then take the weapons from him, _muzzle up_, and he can follow you with safety. always place your weapon upon half-cock (it should never be at full-cock) before attempting to go through a hedge or over a stile. when two or more gentlemen take the field together, it is advantageous to work the ground in the formation of échelon. the whole field will by this means be thoroughly searched for game, and each man can fire clear of the other, commanding his own ground and the whole field within the range of the respective guns. when about to commence practice with the rifle or revolver the firing party should be placed well to the front, and should never load, or be allowed to load, until all preliminaries are arranged, and the words, 'ready! go on!' are given. this command or caution will, of necessity, place every one upon his guard. when the piece is loaded, the finger with which the trigger is drawn should on no account be placed within the trigger-guard till the weapon is raised and the aim about to be taken; and with the rifle until the weapon is presented, after being put upon full-cock. in firing with a pistol, or revolver, the proper finger with which to draw the trigger is the second finger, not the index finger, as generally used. the index finger should be placed horizontally along the barrel, on the side of the weapon, which is most important--which, as a means of securing steadiness and leverage, tends not only to reduce the difficulty of the pull, but also tends to prevent depression of the muzzle, which is sure to take place if the forefinger is used, particularly when the trigger has the minimum five-pounds' pull. when a gun, rifle, pistol, or revolver, is at full-cock, and it is desired to place it upon half-cock, as is often done, it should be so altered, with great care, as follows:-- the hammer should be lowered gently to the full extent of the spring, and should then be carefully drawn back till the distinct _click_ of the half-cock is heard; then the weapon is as safe as an arm can be when loaded, and cannot be accidentally discharged. to place a weapon from full to half-cock, by not lowering the hammer to the full extent of the spring, and then drawing it back to half-cock as before described, is a most dangerous practice, as the hammer may not be properly inserted in the clip, and an accident might be the result. a man once having taken up his position at the firing-point, and having loaded his piece, should never return into the company of his comrades till his piece (particularly if a pistol or revolver) is discharged, or till all its chambers have been expended. if it is necessary for him to rejoin his comrades after his piece is loaded, or after any of the chambers have been expended, he should leave the weapon behind him at the firing-point, and should place it, _muzzle down_, in a hole or slot purposely made in the table before him to receive it, which hole in the table should have the word 'loaded' written legibly near it. if there is no table, then the weapon should, if at full-cock, be placed upon half-cock, as before described, and then laid carefully upon the ground, muzzle pointing towards the target, and slightly inclined to the left thereof, so as to be clear of it, which will allow of the target being examined, if necessary, without the examiner coming within the direct line of fire of the weapon; but the table with a hole in it is the safest method, and is recommended. a couple of stakes with a rope from the firing-point to the target should be used, as a precaution to keep back idle curiosity-seekers from placing themselves within danger on the firing party's left. no one should, upon any pretence whatever, place himself, or be allowed to place himself, on, or even near, the firing party's left side. the reason is obvious, as it will be found invariably in practice that a man, when loading with a breech-loader, will naturally incline the muzzle of his piece, and so innocently place those immediately upon his left within its range. if it is necessary to address a man when at the firing-point all interlocution should be addressed to him on his right; so the instructor should place himself on the right and rather behind the practitioner, and as close to him as convenient, so as not to incommode his freedom. some men are naturally nervous, particularly when at ball practice, and for this reason all but novices should be left alone, as they will perhaps make better scoring if not interfered with. all spectators should take ground well in rear of the alignment of the firing-point, and on its right flank. the practice of taking up weapons and going through the pantomime of pointing them at the target, or pointing a weapon at anything when not at actual practice, is idle, and is to be condemned. weapons set aside for practice should never be meddled with. the party who takes his turn (if firing with revolvers) should receive his weapon unloaded, _muzzle up_, with the necessary amount of ammunition, from the instructor or superintendent in charge; he should then step to the front or firing-point, load his piece himself, and get rid of his cartridges as quickly as a due regard to careful aim, &c., will admit; then return his piece, _muzzle up_, to the instructor, who will carefully examine it and satisfy himself that all the chambers have been expended. should a revolver miss fire, it is most important that great caution should be used, as it will sometimes '_hang fire_,' which the cartridges of all weapons are liable to do at times.[a] when a cartridge does not explode the revolver should be held in the same position as much as possible, muzzle to the front, or downwards, for a few seconds; should it not then explode it may be examined, the non-exploded cartridge removed and condemned, and a new cartridge put in its place. on no account should the condemned cartridge be placed with or near live cartridges. firearms should never, under any pretence, be pointed at anybody; even if unloaded, such a practice is foolish and unpardonable. no soldier except in action would ever think of doing so, and no gentleman could. the thoughtless practice of relinquishing one's weapon into the hands of a friend, or, even worse, a stranger, is against all military rules, and in any case is strongly to be condemned, and no excuse will palliate such an offence; not even the assurance that the piece is unloaded. a brother-comrade in the same regiment is, perhaps, the only exception; but even this is objectionable, except in extreme cases. as a rule, a soldier should never _relinquish_ his piece, even to a general or a field officer. firearms generally, and particularly revolvers, when loaded or unloaded, should never be laid upon a table so that the muzzle can accidentally cover any one. if they must be relinquished by the owner they should be placed in a corner of the room farthest from the door, leaning against the wall, muzzle down, so that they cannot fall. if loaded they may, when practicable, be laid upon a side-table, muzzle towards the wall. guns or rifles should be stood muzzle up in their place in the rack, or, if there is no rack, then in a corner of the room farthest from the door, to prevent surprise. no weapon of any kind should be carried or put down, or left at full-cock, and no loaded weapon should be left unprotected. they should, if loaded, be in the charge of some trustworthy and responsible person; but in the time of war no man would be so foolish as to relinquish his piece, either by night or by day. to sportsmen and others, with the great facilities for loading and unloading afforded by the breech-loading system, there can be no excuse for leaving a weapon charged when it can so easily be rendered harmless. there are many theories as to the proper way to present a pistol or revolver. every man has some idea upon the subject, and perhaps it would be well to leave every one to his own devices; but at the same time a suggestion here, as we are upon the subject, may not be out of place. the french carry the weapon muzzle up, the lock of the piece in line with the ear. upon taking aim, the muzzle is gradually depressed till the object it is desired to hit is covered. this is no doubt a very good way; but when firing at any distance beyond a point-blank range it necessitates, firstly, the depression of the muzzle to cover the object, and secondly, the necessary elevation must be taken so that the ball may be carried the required distance, and so _hit_ the object. this position of holding the weapon when at practice commends itself on the ground of safety. the preferable way, perhaps, is the old duelling style; that is, to hold the weapon muzzle down at the full extent of the right arm, standing sideways or three-quarters left, showing as small a front as possible, the eye to be fixed steadily upon the bull's eye or centre of the target or object, then gradually raising the arm to the required elevation. should the distance be beyond the point-blank range, after covering the bull's eye continue to elevate till the required elevation is reached: by then steadily and firmly increasing the pressure of the second finger on the trigger the desired result will be obtained. suddenly drawing or jerking the trigger should be avoided. by the latter means the object is covered at the same time as the foot of the target is covered, so that in the event of the trigger being drawn before the bull's eye is reached the target will be hit, and assuming the target to be a man he would be disabled and the object gained. another important reason for advocating the use of the second finger in drawing the trigger is the fact that the weight of the military revolver ( lbs. oz.), together with the power required to draw the trigger ( lbs. pull), by the long tension of the muscles of the arm, in aiming, causes a vibration, so that the farther the bullet has to travel the farther it is thrown off the centre of the objective. the first finger, therefore, placed along the barrel or side of the pistol, acting as a lever, tends to reduce almost to a minimum the spasmodic muscular vibration; again, in drawing the trigger with the forefinger the hardness of the pull tends to depress the muzzle, while with using the second finger as before described this depression is almost impossible. in rifle-shooting, as also in that of the pistol and revolver, the ordinary method should be reversed; that is, instead of commencing at yards from the target, the practice should commence at the longest range, and the target should be gradually approached as if it were an actual enemy. in revolver practice i would recommend all who desire to become thoroughly efficient to commence at say yards from the target, and to gradually reduce the range to not less than yards. this would accustom the practitioner to get a thorough knowledge of the capabilities of the weapon, and to learn the required amount of elevation necessary. it must be remembered that the military regulation revolver will kill at yards. i have myself shot with a -bore revolver, eight grains of powder, bullet eighty grains, at a regulation target at yards, and have made very fair practice: in fact, the long range is far preferable for practice, as being not only beneficial, but a more exciting pastime than the ordinary range. to those who do not possess a regulation iron target, i would recommend one similar to that which i have sometimes used. (_vide_ diagram.) this target is made of a simple framework of wood, covered with canvas and layers of paper pasted thereon. it has the double advantage of having the martini-smith target in the centre, and the remaining portion, having the exact size of a man traced thereon, has one other advantage in at once showing the result of the practice. this target can be used over and over again, as, after use, the perforations can be pasted over with small pieces of paper, and when well riddled, it can be re-covered; and the thicker it becomes the better. no one should attempt to fire ball-cartridge anywhere but at a proper range. firing in small back-gardens, against brick or stone walls and trunks of trees, should never be allowed. bullets will rebound or go off at a tangent, and do serious mischief. when a bullet once leaves the muzzle of a rifle, pistol, or revolver, by the evolution of gunpowder-gas, there is no dependence upon it as to where it may stop, or what damage it may do, and bullets upon hitting hard ground will ricochet; therefore, to those who wish to enjoy security at practice, i would advise the selection of ground free from habitation, or where no people are at work--some secluded spot where there is ample range, and, if possible, a natural hill or mound to receive the bullets. the military revolver will kill at yards, the snider artillery carbine at yards, and the martini-henry rifle at yards.[b] too much dependence upon the use of the slide of the back-sight for elevation in rifle practice should be deprecated for more than one reason: _e.g._, assuming that a man has been firing at yards with his back-sight adjusted to that range, and he is suddenly ordered to advance at the double; if, at the spur of the moment, he neglects to reduce his sight, the result will follow that every shot will go over the enemy. it is simply idle to suppose for one moment that in the heat of action a soldier could afford to fritter away valuable time, or even be allowed to do so, in adjusting back-sights. he would, if he were properly instructed, when within yards place his back-sight level, and rely upon his own skill in judging what elevation he should use. it is better to fire low than high. a low shot will usually ricochet, particularly upon striking hard ground, greensward, or a wet clay soil, and, consequently, will do damage. very nearly two thirds of the bullets in action are lost by going over the heads of the enemy. in the instruction of men in the use of the rifle valuable time is wasted, and too much importance is attached to useless detail. let a man be placed before the ordinary regimental target, at an unknown distance, with the figure of a man traced thereon, assuming the target to be an enemy similarly armed with himself; let him understand that he must take his chance of hitting his man or being hit himself; and let him fire at this target with the back-sight level, judging his own distance and the necessary elevation required: this calculation (not a very difficult one, after a little practice) could easily be come to while in the act of loading. the result of the first shot would determine the required elevation, and by taking pains, bull's eyes and centres would soon be obtained. it is submitted that this mode of procedure would create an interest in the practice of the soldier, tending to cause a healthy reaction; men would take more pains, and try to beat their comrades, as there would be a greater stimulus to do so than by the present system. men, as it is, go to their practice without the slightest interest therein, and get rid of the ammunition as soon as possible, in order to get off duty. the real reason why we have such excellent shots in the volunteers is accounted for by the fact that they not only take an interest in the work, but take pains in everything they do, the result being success. much significance is attached to the bull's-eye mania. it should be borne in mind that a man is a large object at which to aim; that so long as he can be crippled there is no necessity to kill. to disable a man so that he can do no more mischief is sufficient. any man can make a scale of elevation in his own mind, and, with practice, fire at any range without putting up the sight, and can fire standing. my theory is as follows:-- up to yards the range is point-blank, that is, aim direct on the bull's eye; for yards, raise the muzzle, say one foot above the bull's eye; for yards, two feet above the bull's eye, and so on. a few trial-shots will soon settle the question, and practice makes perfect. a man will thus be independent of the back-sight of his rifle. this refers to shooting in the open. of course, under cover, when time and circumstances admit, the back-sight can be used with great advantage. a man in shooting with a pistol or revolver has to judge his own distance and the necessary elevation. why should not the same rule apply directly to the rifle? i have seen excellent practice at yards with a snider carbine, back-sight level, the man judging his own elevation, and have been very successful myself, and have found the above rule apply, with slight variations. in rifle contests all artificial nonsense, such as coloured glasses, eye-shades, kneeling upon eider-down quilts, firing from shaded tents, blackening sights, &c., should be discouraged. let a man leave all such effeminacy and tomfoolery at home, and shoot like a man, taking circumstances as he would find them in the open field _with an enemy_ before him, using such cover only as nature and circumstances provide. there is infinite satisfaction attached to the winning of an honour, when that honour has to be obtained under difficulties which must be surmounted. the more difficult the task is, the more merit in overcoming it. lastly. all firearms require constant attention, and should be kept clean. after use they should be immediately attended to, and never put away dirty; should be kept in some dry corner where rust cannot destroy, and they should be occasionally overhauled and oiled when necessary. really valuable weapons are sometimes ruined by neglect. the man who takes no pride in his gun is no sportsman. footnotes: [a] i have known instances of pistols and fowling-pieces hanging fire for two or three seconds after the hammer has fallen, and then suddenly go off. [b] vide _minor tactics_, by lieut.-colonel clery, . * * * * * london: printed by strangeways and sons, tower street, upper st. martin's lane * * * * * transcriber's notes: page , "the" changed to "the" (the snider artillery carbine) generously made available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/toy-makinginscho polkuoft transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). text enclosed by equal signs is in bold face (=bold=). a carat character is used to denote superscription. a single character following the carat is superscripted (example: c^ ). toy-making in school and home [illustration: plate i a scene in toyland _fr._] toy-making in school and home by r. k. & m. i. r. polkinghorne the county secondary school streatham london george g. harrap & company & portsmouth street kingsway w.c. the riverside press limited, edinburgh great britain prefatory note the authors wish to express their thanks to mr j. e. mansion for many valuable criticisms and suggestions, and to miss bassett, whose encouragement and support alone made the work possible. contents page introduction. _by_ miss r. bassett, b.a., _headmistress of the county secondary school, streatham_ part i toys for little ones: paper and cardboard chapter i. toy-making and its educational possibilities ii. general principles; materials iii. paper work for infants iv. more paper toys v. match-box toys vi. more complicated match-box and cork toys vii. cork animals harnessed to sledges, etc. viii. more cork toys ix. cardboard and paper ships x. cardboard and paper toys xi. simple woodwork xii. materials xiii. some difficulties in toy-making xiv. merry-go-round, swinging boats, and great wheel xv. flying airships, gondolas, and birds xvi. fire-engine, motor-lorry, and steam-roller xvii. gipsy caravan and bathing machine xviii. a train and railway station xix. red cross motor and taxi-cab xx. swinging and jointed animals part ii toys of cardboard and wood: mechanical toys chapter page i. additional tools ii. capstan, dreadnought, liner iii. motor-car, swinging cradle, deck-chair iv. a tram-car v. a crane vi. windmill, water-wheel, well vii. drawbridge and siege tower viii. war engines past and present ix. a fire-escape x. castle, tournament, and fair xi. an old chariot and some quaint dolls' furniture xii. railway signal and signal-box xiii. lighthouse, transporter bridge xiv. yachts and boats: the use of the chisel xv. the fret-saw xvi. little gymnast, dancing clown, rocking animals xvii. moving figures xviii. some old-fashioned toys xix. little swordsmen xx. some more fret-saw toys xxi. toys worked by sand xxii. toys worked by wheels, etc. xxiii. kites, gliders, and aeroplanes xxiv. more old-fashioned toys xxv. lift, pont roulant, tower bridge xxvi. soldering. screw steamer. toys worked by wind and by convection currents xxvii. buildings at home and abroad xxviii. a theatre introduction by r. bassett, b.a. headmistress, county secondary school, streatham i. external evidence women are often limited in their amusements and in their hobbies for lack of power or of knowledge to use the requisite implements. we may wield the needle, the brush, kitchen utensils, even the spade and the trowel, but what knowledge have we of the chisel, the plane, the saw, or even the friendly gimlet and the screw-driver? the scissors answer many purposes until the points are broken, but how helpless we are with a screw or a saw, how futile are our attempts to adjust a loose door-handle, or to set the knives of a mowing machine! it is humiliating to call for help in such simple jobs, and tantalising not to be able to enjoy the carpenter's bench as our men-folk do in their hours of leisure. a really active hobby, one entailing exercise of many muscles, otherwise resting, does help to keep a well-balanced mind and a healthy body. it saves one from fretfulness, from too great introspection; it keeps one cheerful and changes one's attitude of mind when change is needed. it is possible that the management of big things falls into men's hands because from babyhood they have dealt with larger things than women, and through handling manageable things from an early age have developed the constructive faculty more thoroughly. the little girl deals with 'wee' things: stitches are small, dolls are small; there is a fatal tendency sometimes to 'niggle,' to 'finick'--not that men-folk are immune from this--to love uniformity and tidiness for their own sakes, to seek regularity rather than utility. the little girl, however, must, unless she is too thoroughly supervised, exercise some ingenuity in planning a doll's dress out of a cutting from the rag-bag; but her amusements and hobbies tend to pin her down to small things, and she does not rise far enough from her immediate surroundings. the dress of her little doll will follow the prevailing fashion. originality in dress is eccentricity. the girl takes pains to carry out her work (neatness is often the sole aim put before her), the boy finds methods. the girl hovers round the well-known place, the boy makes a bee-line to fresh fields. see how this affects reading: the girl still hankers after _what katy did, what katy did next_, while the boy of her age is reading jules verne or ballantyne or henty, or if there is open access to shelves in the free library near him, you see him finding books on airships, submarines, carpentry, or engineering. we started our voluntary classes with these ideas in mind, and at first allowed girls to choose an indoor occupation in the two winter terms instead of outdoor games. many girls preferred games, but others chose art or first aid or cookery or handwork or needlework. they had to work at least a term at the chosen occupation. we felt that the girls gained great benefit from the hobbies, not only in the additional happiness of working at what they enjoyed, but in an increase of freshness of mind for other work. this year we have gone still farther and have given each girl one period of voluntary work in addition to a whole afternoon for games or gardening; moreover, the four lowest forms have each one period of class work in toy-making; yet even now the children say that the time is too short. it is really amusing to see a change of classes in the woodwork-room; the first class dare not and cannot stay a minute after the bell has rung, for the second class is in and already at work. i have tried to find out what is the great attraction to the child in the handwork lessons; the children's appreciation of the subject will be found in section ii. probably the strongest attractions are: firstly, they see the building up of a piece of work and the result pleases them (at all events, until they do something better); secondly, they are actively employed, learning by doing, not learning by listening; and, lastly, they love the cheerful noise of the hammer and the saw and friendly conversation. it is hard to estimate the value of handwork in education, for one cannot separate the influence of one subject in the curriculum, but one is tempted to say that it has a beneficial effect upon the child's attitude toward work in general; she looks into the why and wherefore of an object in order to see how it is made; unconsciously she adopts the same attitude toward things abstract. she learns to appreciate accuracy and to detect error, but how far she applies this to subjects other than handwork it is hard to say. it is possible, also, that handwork helps to develop the sense of justice. certainly the girl who has had a course in handwork does take a more intelligent interest in things around her, and does find out a way of 'setting about' a piece of work by herself. she has something pleasant and profitable to think about; she becomes more businesslike; in the lesson itself she resents interruption (this was the case when the photographer came for illustrations for this book); more strangely still, she plays no tricks with glue-pot or tools, although she has innumerable opportunities for mischief. the joy over the finished article is greater than the spirit of mischief. she realises how short the time is when there is work to be done, and looks out for devices for saving time, putting tools in handy places, saving pieces of wood of useful sizes to avoid sawing, and so on. there is a spirit of earnest endeavour abroad in the handwork class which prevents a girl from throwing aside in a pet something she has done badly; she does not give up in disgust; she finds out the cause of the failure and tries again and again until she gets better results. it is no unusual thing to find a girl return to a job that, five or six weeks before, she had thought finished, and do it again, because her progress with other articles has made her dissatisfied with her previous standard. this comes, not from suggestion from outside, but from the development of the child's own judgement. these are the things which show what is the real value of this training. ii. internal evidence in order to find from internal evidence the educational value of toy-making, the following questions were put to the two lowest classes (ages ten to eleven). the girls were told to write frankly what they really thought, not what they thought might satisfy the mistress. to the question, "if you like handwork, say why; if not, say why you do not," out of forty-five papers one answer only was against handwork--"because i do not like sawing." the answers in favour were of this type: "because we can make what we like." "because i like sawing and hammering." "because it is nice to see the things when they are finished." "because you can make interesting things." "because it is interesting making things out of wood like boys." "because i make useful things." the favourite tools were the hammer and saw. there was considerable difference of opinion on the question, "has it done you any good?" a fair number think it has made them careful or patient or more useful; others seem to think that the exercise in sawing has some good effect on the arms; one says her "fingers are better for music." others see in handwork a pleasant occupation for future grown-up days; another thinks it has made her "not so flabby and fat." if they admit that it has cured them of any faults (and they are not very ready to do this), the chief are laziness, clumsiness, and carelessness. to the last question, "will it be of any use to you when you are grown up?" the majority look forward to the joy of mending their little girls' toys. (not one mentions a little boy; is he expected to mend his own?) others will make things instead of buying them ready-made. some look forward to mending broken chairs or door-handles. one says: "it will teach me to earn my fortune," and finally one writes philosophically: "ordepents." (no! handwork does not cure bad spelling.) the girls of the next highest forms (ages eleven to twelve) were given the _questionnaire_ as suggestions and were asked to write an essay on handwork. from them we get the 'home' point of view, the views of the mother, father, sceptical brothers, and of the younger children, who appear to clamour for the toys. [illustration: plate ii a toy-making class at streatham] "handwork is my favourite lesson next to botany. it is a delightful pastime for myself and a great amusement for my little brother when it is finished. 'have you finished the swing yet?' is the usual question which greets me every thursday evening. when i am able to do handwork extra nicely i shall do a very nice piece of work and keep it as long as i can, and when i get old it will remind me of youth." "my brother tries to make some of the things i bring home. my sister likes the swing and uses it for her dolls." "it is a source of enjoyment to most children, but until i entered this school i had never heard of girls being taught it. i enjoy this so much that i hope to buy some tools and wood and do some work at home. my three brothers tease me terribly and call me the 'left-handed carpenter,' because i always work with my left hand. i am not satisfied with the handwork i have done at present, but hope greatly to improve. i enjoy making useful things because they make very useful presents at all times. i should like to teach handwork to others, as i think it so interesting. i have discovered that handwork needs patience and neatness in every way." "i have learnt that everything must be done properly, because i made a motor-car and gave it to my little sister, but she happened to drop it and it came unstuck. my little brother thinks it's silly for girls to learn handwork, and everything i bring home he says, 'i should not have done it like that,' and goes on to explain how he would have done it, although he has never learnt himself. i don't like the part much where you have to prepare everything to put together. i like putting it together and then you can see something for your work." some show the ethical value of the training; the need of patience seems to appeal most forcibly to children who are making their first attempts at handwork. "to make toys and other wooden things teaches us to be patient, for often just at a critical moment something will come unstuck and we have to begin all over again. the top of the roundabout which i am now making has come off three or four times, and consequently it has taken me about twice as long to make as it would if all had gone smoothly." "sometimes you have to wait for a piece of wood to stick. the other friday i was waiting for a piece to stick and after a while i went on, thinking it had got stuck; unluckily it had not and it came off. that very same piece of wood has come off every day except to-day. this shows any one that one needs time and patience. also you have to wait a while because some one has run off with the glue-pot, or else i find my file or gimlet disappeared." "when i first began handwork i could not knock a nail in straight or else i would hit my fingers. but i can now knock a nail in straight and without knocking my fingers. i can saw much more quickly than when i first began." "it teaches us a great lesson of patience. for instance, it is very trying to have to sit or stand for quite a long while holding some little refractory piece of wood that will not stick however much one tries: but it is no good getting cross, for the work will not be finished if we do not stick the little piece of wood or paper." "once mother told me i had not any idea for anything, but now she says i am much better, this being one result of handwork." "handwork, i think, has cured me of one fault and that is inaccuracy, for if the wood is not the proper length, it will not fit on to the thing which is being made. i have never done this kind of work before, but i think it does help us when we are grown up; one way is that everything must be accurate; and it is also very nice to make things." "i find that handwork helps me greatly, as i am bad at my drawing and needlework." "i love using the saws and hammers. mother is going to give me a set of fretwork tools so that i can put fancy tops to my frames, etc. if i had a little sister or brother i would make a motor or train, but as i am the only one, i make things for ornaments. next i shall make a table with the two sides to let down, or one with a separate leaf to put in. handwork teaches you to be exact and to hold things delicately. it is very awkward to hammer a nail into a thin leg of a table or chair, because they wobble over." "i think handwork is very interesting and it has taught me patience. i am not allowed to read more than half an hour after i have done my homework and practice because my eyes are weak, and as i am what some people call a bookworm i used to miss reading a great deal, but now i do handwork in my spare time. one day i hope to complete my doll's house, its garage and furniture, but i have not finished the house yet. i like making such things as chairs and tables best of all. handwork lessons were unknown to me until i came to this school nearly two terms ago, and at first mamma was always telling me that she would not let me do any more at home, until i thought of putting paper on the floor, which keeps the shavings and sawdust from untidying the floor. i always do this now, and when the paper is taken up i do not have so much trouble as that of picking the pieces off the mat and then sweeping the floor before i go to bed." "handwork also helps to make one accurate and careful; perhaps your fingers 'were all thumbs,' as the saying goes, before you started handwork, but you find that after say a month your fingers would be able to touch a frail thing without breaking it." their desire to make and remake varies between 'pleasure toys' and useful articles; one suspects sometimes a desire to appease the vexation of the 'house-proud' mother when there is much disorder caused at home with shavings and sawdust. "i can not only make toys, but useful things such as dish stands, brackets, photo frames, also easels to stand photographs on." "i like handwork. for voluntary work i do handwork, and it is also our first lesson on friday afternoon. i like it because it helps us to make useful things. for voluntary work i am making a medicine chest. it will be handy, because we always have a great deal of medicine at home. last term i made a knife-box, and it was useful, because mama's was getting old. my favourite tools at handwork are the saw and hammer. next term i want to make a writing-case and a red cross motor." "i enjoy going to handwork very much. the first thing to think about, on getting down to the handwork-room, is setting to work, and going about everything quietly. everything in handwork, to be done nicely, must be neat, clean, and carefully made and put together. in handwork i have made an easel (which is a bit difficult to fix, unless one has a proper hinge at the back) and a picture-frame and a little doll's house, and i would like to make another one, as i think it is so interesting planning out each little corner for different things, and it helps one to think of how they would plan out a home if they had one of their own, as perhaps some of us will. i am now making a tram-car, which is really very difficult. i have not nearly finished yet, as there is such a great deal of work in it." "girls' likings for tools differ, but a file is the nicest tool, in my eyes; it makes the rough places quite smooth and nice. in my experience of handwork i have made a boat with the captain's bridge and riggings, funnels, masts, and railings around the edge. i have also made a picture frame and doll's furniture for a friend's sister. at home i have made a basement for a doll gentleman's house for the servants to live in; i papered it and made it look neat and tidy." "it is rather nice to see all of the girls making things at the tables as busy as bees and it is nice to see their faces when they look at the thing which they have just finished." "the lesson i enjoy most during the week is the one termed handwork, really carpentering on a small scale. there are many things you can make, and if you take great pains with them they become really pretty little ornaments; in fact, i am thinking of having some shelves specially for my toys." "when thinking of what measurements to make your toy and planning it out in figures i think that it helps you greatly in arithmetic. the hardest tool to use, i find, is the saw; you have to have a steady hand to use it. when i first took handwork lessons i used to think it hard work, but now i think otherwise, and feel rather grand when i show my parents the things i have made. the most important use of handwork is that when you are older you can knock a nail in or mend anything that needs mending in the wooden line, instead of having to wait until father, brother, or husband comes home tired for them to do it. as well as this there might come a time when the making of toys would help to earn the daily bread." "i am making a tram-car now, and when i have finished it i want to make a whole set of furniture for a doll's house. the hardest part of it will be when i am putting legs on tables or chairs. they have to be quite straight or the table will not stand up." "sometimes we have just settled a post or a rail in the right place with the help of some glue when somebody knocks the table and over goes our piece of wood. then we have 'to grin and bear it.'" "our teacher's name is miss polkinghorne, she being very skilful and does much better work than us for we are only miniatures yet awhile!" "when i grow up handwork will be useful to me, for if anything breaks i shall know how to mend it, and if i had children i could make things to amuse them. often i do handwork at home. i like using the saw better than any other tool. i have made a good many things, but i think the best was a little toy motor-car. handwork is my favourite lesson; when i grow up i shall never leave off doing handwork. my little sister helps me sometimes. i think she will like it. my mother has asked me to make a little thing to put match-boxes in." "i think that it helps to make you very careful. for when one is hammering and the hammer slips you get hurt and that makes one careful. the hardest thing to do in a writing-case is to saw the piece of wood for the ink division. it is hard to get the exact size, but it does not look nice if it does not fit exactly." "i like handwork because it is different from any other lesson in the week; there is not much writing to do, only to mark on the wood certain lengths." "i once spent a long time in doing a ship, but i could not get on. i spent a very long time in trying to take the paper off a tobacco box, but it was not going to come. i then went on with the making, but it kept falling to pieces. i took it home, and took necessary materials with it; paper for flags and nails. i was a long time in doing it, as i took everything apart and scratched all of the paper off; but it now looks very much better. handwork is rather a funny kind of occupation for girls, but it teaches us how to do things." "handwork is one of the most interesting lessons that there is. it helps one to have ideas, and also to be careful. the reason why i like it is because i think that most people should have a pastime and this is a very pleasant one, and i think most children will agree to this point." "i have to use many kinds of tools but the nicest is the hammer, because when i use it i know i am near the end of a piece of work. (it is not that i dislike handwork, but that i am going to start something fresh.) i have already made two picture-frames, two beds, a swing, a chair, a motor-car, an easel, and i am now making another swing. i think i shall try to make a baby's cot after i have finished my swing." "i prefer to saw wood and stick pieces of wood together to hammering nails in the wood, because the nails are sometimes difficult to get in, for they very often go in crookedly. when we get older and understand handwork more thoroughly we may be able to make things for the home, such as knife-boxes and paper-racks; the things we make now are mostly pleasure toys that we will amuse our younger brothers and sisters with. in most cases it needs a great deal of patience, for the things, however simple, have some difficult part." "i like making toys, so then if you make them nicely you can take them home for your little sisters and brothers to play with. handwork gives you ideas about things. we can make very useful things such as letter-racks and pipe-racks. i like making furniture for dolls' houses--chairs, tables, and sofas. i like making swings. some of us make animals." "i do not know very much about handwork, as i have scarcely handled a tool before i came here this term, but i think i shall always enjoy it very much." "i am making a doll's house now, for my little sister (aged five), and i think it is teaching me to make myself useful, because nobody at home cares for it much, so i will soon be able to mend chairs, make brackets, etc., etc." "since we have not been able to have proper firewood at home lately, mother has had large wooden boxes to chop (a thing i delight in doing), and now and again mother has given me a few of them. i tried to make things out of them and soon found it too rough: so father has given me some nice polished wood, and he says that perhaps soon he will buy me a nice little fret-saw set of tools as his are so large and clumsy." "i think i like sawing best of all, but i think i like all the rest very well; i get quite excited when thursday and friday come round (for those are the days on which we have handwork)." "mother thinks it is a splendid thing for girls, and i quite agree with her. and we both think that it will help me on with my geometry (which i'm not very brilliant in, but am trying my best)." these compositions were written in school and the extracts have not been corrected, they are just as the children wrote them; we add no commentary, but let them speak for themselves. toy-making in school and home chapter i toy-making and its educational possibilities one's main object in teaching children how to make toys should be "to teach them how to make toys." through their efforts to make a beautiful toy they may become more patient, more accurate, more observant, and more nimble with their fingers, but these virtues will come more naturally and readily if the teacher has but one object in view; singleness of purpose is the secret of success. through classes in toy-making rightly conducted the children become more resourceful, more quick at finding the right thing for the right place, happier in some cases--that is to say, the so-called dull child, the child that has no gift for mathematics, no memory for languages, can often find in the handwork class the happiness of doing something well, of producing a praiseworthy and pleasure-giving piece of work. it is very necessary to find occupation for backward children, who sometimes drift rather aimlessly through the school, occupation that will develop initiative and involve effort, occupation that will bring disappointments (so often one careless bit of work spoils an almost finished toy), but will also bring the joy of successful achievement. the ordinary lessons--english, french, etc.--may be said also to bring their disappointments and joys, but not in the same tangible way as the handwork lesson. the table that will not stand steadily because all its legs have not been carefully cut the right length teaches to a certain type of mind a more forcible lesson than the incorrect sum or french exercise. again, it is very necessary that one lesson period a week should be devoted to an occupation which is of the nature of a hobby; the ordinary history and geography lessons do not often suggest voluntary work for the children's leisure. indeed, in many cases it is easier to train children to become future clerks and teachers than to train them how to use their leisure. now handwork classes suggest leisure occupations. the children who begin to make their own toys in the lower forms for themselves, when older will want to make them for other little children, when older, too, they will begin to ask how to make useful articles--writing-cases, medicine-chests, knife-boxes, soap-boxes--articles very frequently suggested by their parents and much valued by them when made. one need scarcely fear for the future of the child, however dull and mechanical her daily work as a grown-up person may be, if she has abundant interests in life--if she can use and love to use in leisure moments hammer, saw, and file, or if she has some other healthy hobby. still, for those who like the pleasant noise and pleasant mess caused by tools, it is hard to find a happier occupation than toy-making. a toy-maker becomes at once a collector of useful odds and ends, and a collector (that is, one who collects willingly the things he likes) is always a happy person; the toy-maker becomes, too, the contriver, one who can adapt materials to different purposes, and the giver--for the finished article must be disposed of. the mere acquisition of knowledge forms the least important part of school work. a large number of facts in connexion with history, geography, french, etc., have rightly to be learnt by heart and are useful to the child in after life, but they do not bring with them necessarily wisdom, nor does the learning of them play such an important part in the child's development as the activity of the child in the handwork class does. some one has wisely said, "if education at school means nothing more to the children than a respectable routine and a few examinations successfully circumvented, then education is a failure; if _besides that_, it has enlivened the years and counted for something in the general joy of growing, then it has a real value--a value which entitles it to a place among happy memories, perhaps even the highest place of all." many of us perhaps feel in looking back on our schooldays how many good things we lost for the sake of learning some now forgotten facts; how many good things we lost to be first in class; we confused means with ends, we toiled over our history and learnt it to get full marks in the coming test (we should have toiled over our toy for love of making it and to produce as perfect a one as possible); in after life we would gladly tread some of the by-paths of knowledge, have some hobby, but our rigorous system of training left us no opportunity in young days, and sapped the energy that alone would make it possible in after years. no scheme of work then for schooldays must be so rigorous that it leaves no leisure for 'feast days.' some days, some hours must come back to memory, bringing not only their past happiness, but ideas for present occupation. the happiest days of youth are generally the busiest, days when one had something one really wanted to be busy about for its own sake, not for the sake of marks or for the sake of outstripping one's fellow-pupils, or for the sake of one's future. these busy, happy, idle days are the feast days of youth, days one thinks of as the poet thought when he wrote: and none will know the gleam there used to be about the feast days freshly kept by me, but men will call the golden hour of bliss 'about this time,' or 'shortly after this.' this book on toy-making is not written to advocate the so-called 'primrose path in education,' the 'turn-work-into-play theory,' though undoubtedly the first chapters at least of this book will be attacked by those who fear that education is yielding or is going to yield to a popular clamour for ease. for these people, too, masefield has a message: best trust the happy moments. what they gave makes man less fearful of the certain grave, and gives his work compassion and new eyes; the days that make us happy make us wise. moreover, every teacher of handwork knows how little ease the busy children in her classes get--in these classes they are never passive listeners or passive learners by heart. they see the need of accuracy, the labour necessary to produce it, they suffer for every mistake they make, they realise some of the joy and pain of creating, and, best of all perhaps, they realise the joy of work--active, muscular work as distinguished from their ordinary scholarly work. with regard to the question of work it has been ably said that "no one has yet preached in an adequate way the gospel of work--real hard work--as the most amusing of all occupations--not a noble duty." it is somewhat unfortunate that directly one begins to like one's work one is accused of playing. to return to toy-making (which is work or play, according to whether one dislikes or likes it)--whether toy-making be taken in the school or not, the teachers will find it a useful hobby. through it they can amuse themselves and renew their youth; through it they will have an enduring bond of union with their children. our knowledge of history and geography often fails to impress our children; they probably think we are a little foolish to burden our heads with so many facts that seem to have no bearing on to-day; but when we can use our hands and make a toy they see us with other eyes, we are really clever people worth cultivating. if toy-making be taken as a form of handwork in school, one enlists at once the interest of the parent--especially of the father--the mother sometimes, not often, objects to the mess. this interest of the parents is a great gain; the father delights in doing a bit of the work--sticking on the difficult funnel, sawing the hard piece of wood; child learns from parent, and parent from child, and in this way the father may again remember half-forgotten ambitions, half-neglected talents, and find in toy-making a profitable occupation, profitable mainly in the fact that any occupation which recalls to the grown-up person his youth, with its fresher outlook on life, must be wholesome. finally, if the handwork classes make the children more 'at home' with themselves and with life, they will have done something; if they help them toward self-realisation they will help them toward the joy the writer speaks of who says, "joy of life seems to me to arise from a sense of being where one belongs, as i feel right here; of being four-square with the life we have chosen. all the discontented people i know are trying sedulously to be something they are not, to do something they cannot do.... it is curious, is it not, with what skill we will adapt our sandy land to potatoes and grow our beans with clay, and with how little wisdom we farm the soil of our own natures?" chapter ii general principles; materials in toy-making in schools it is very necessary to design toys that can be made from materials which are easily obtained. the board of education in a report on handwork in the london elementary schools says: "the range of materials used is limited, as a rule, to paper, cardboard, clay, and 'prepared wood' or 'stripwood.' it is perhaps unfortunate that these are almost entirely 'school materials,' in other words materials which are not likely to be much used outside the school, either in the child's home or in after life." there is truth in this--to give the child too much 'prepared material' tends to make him less inventive, resourceful, and painstaking, and prevents him from continuing his work at home, where he has not got prepared material. any series of toys made from the same material--say a series of toys made from match stales or from 'stripwood'--has very limited educational advantages. toys made from a combination of waste materials are the best--match-boxes, cardboard and wooden boxes of all sizes, mantle-boxes, reels, corks, broom-handles, silver paper, etc., can all play a part in producing an effective, even a beautiful toy. most of the toys described in this book are made from so-called 'waste materials.' with regard to infant school work, squares of white paper--cartridge paper or ordinary exercise paper--which the children can colour themselves are better than a too slavish use of the coloured gummed squares supplied to schools. further directions with regard to materials will be given in connexion with the various toys. it is advisable to use as few tools as possible, both because the fewer tools the less expense and because the fewer tools the more thought and ingenuity required. to have a perfect instrument at hand for every need paralyses work, thought, and happiness. most of the toys in this book are made--if for little ones, with scissors, if for older ones, with hammer, saw, and file. a graduated course is necessary. generally speaking, the little ones from five to seven make their toys of paper, clay, plasticine, and raffia. children from seven to ten can make simple wooden toys. wooden toys are the best; many things can be done with wood, impossible with cardboard or paper, and they are so lasting. cardboard modelling is always difficult, and as a rule should not be attempted by children younger than nine. except that they provide practice in accurate measurement, toys made of paper and cardboard by children of nine or older are disappointing, they crush so quickly. quite strong toys can, however, be made from a combination of wood, cardboard, and paper. if really strong paper toys are required (for example, the various articles of doll's furniture, the table and chair, etc., are more valuable if strongly made), an excellent medium can be made by pasting (using ordinary flour paste) two or three sheets of paper together and allowing them to dry thoroughly under pressure. both or all three sheets must be pasted over before they are brought together to avoid subsequent curling. this will, however, prove too stiff a medium for children younger than five. =skewers= will be found very useful in toy-making. any ordinary metal skewer is useful for boring holes in cardboard and corks, while the short meat skewers, three inches long (cost twopence per dozen), are an excellent substitute for bradawls when the children are making the early light woodwork models; later on in woodwork a fine workman's bradawl is required, or a drill. wooden skewers are useful for axles of all kinds. another useful boring tool (for making holes in paper, corks, or cardboard) is the metal pin stopper supplied with tubes of seccotine. this bores a hole in cardboard or paper that is the right size for a match. when boring holes in cardboard the children will find a cotton reel useful to bore upon; their meat skewer or seccotine pin stopper can then pass through the cardboard into the hole in the reel. =methods of joining cardboard and paper edges.= ( ) leaving a flange. in fig. the shaded portions represent flanges--flange a is for joining side of house b to c, flanges d, e, f, g are for holding the roof; they must, of course, be bent at right angles to the sides b and h. (note flange in socket of candlestick, fig. , chapter iv, and in pigeon-house, chapter x.) [illustration: fig. ] if fig. is made of cardboard, flange a must have the surface of the cardboard pared away, otherwise the joining will be clumsy. the dotted lines represent bends only in the case of paper, but half cuts in the case of cardboard. [illustration: fig. ] with regard to the size of the flange, this will depend upon the strength of the adhesive used and the stiffness of the material. generally speaking, the larger the flange the better, for a narrow flange tends to turn up and must be held down longer than a wide one. a good general rule to remember when joining two pieces of material is this--that it is always the thinner of the two that is to be pasted or glued. this must be borne in mind when using the second method of joining cardboard or paper edges. [illustration: fig. _a_] [illustration: fig. _b_] ( ) using paper hinges. the hinge should extend the whole length of the edges that come together, as in fig. , where pieces of cardboard a and b are joined by the hinge _a b c d e f_. before pasting the hinge must be folded along _b e_, care being taken that _b e_ is at right angles to _a c_ and _d f_. the sides, bottom, and roof of the noah's ark are joined together by paper hinges (chapter x). ( ) wherever it is necessary to join curved edges, the flange must be cut as in fig. _a_, flange _a b c d_. fig. _b_ shows paper curved and flanges bent down ready for pasting. this is the method used for fastening on paper funnels, the bottom of the paper mug (fig. , chapter iv), etc. =the making and fixing of wheels.= if it is desired to attach movable wheels to any of the toys described in the following chapters (in the early chapters for greater simplicity the wheels are gummed to sides of carts, or to matches, etc.), the following methods are suggested. ( ) the wheels can be rigidly fixed to the axle--that is, a match end is pushed tight into the cardboard wheel and the axle is free to turn in loose bearings, as in fig. , fixed under the cart or other vehicle or to the sides. these bearings can be cut from cardboard or cartridge paper. in fig. the paper is bent at a right angle along the dotted line, and the rectangular portion is gummed under the cart. if the rectangular portion is gummed to the side of the cart no bend is needed. the parts of the match sticks that pass through the holes must be rounded with sand-paper so that they will turn easily in the holes. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) the axle can be glued to the bottom of the cart and the wheels left free to revolve. the wheels are kept in their places by the following plan. cut some small cardboard washers, seccotine one near each end of the axle as in fig. _a_, taking care that they do not come under the cart. slip on the wheels, taking care that the centre hole is punched large enough to allow the wheel to revolve freely. this will be the case if a steel meat skewer (size about inches long) has been used to make the holes. fix washers outside the wheels to keep them on, as in fig. _b_. these washers keep the wheels from sagging. these wheels will revolve if the match stick has been rounded with sand-paper. [illustration: fig. _a_] [illustration: fig. _b_] with regard to the arrangement of the toys in this book, roughly they are described in order of difficulty, but for convenience sometimes this order has been departed from. for example, match-box toys have been grouped together, cork animals, etc. the teacher must select her own models from different parts of the book and use them in accordance with her children's ability and her own taste. another important principle to follow is this. the teacher should give as few directions as possible, be as silent as it is possible for a teacher to be. the child has an excellent opportunity in these classes of learning from his own mistakes. this opportunity must not be taken from him; he must be given the chance of finding out his own mistakes. moreover, every difficulty should not be anticipated for the child; nor should too many warnings be given. let the children set to work as soon as possible and use their tools without too many instructions about them. let them ask, let them have the pleasure of discovering; every child wants to learn, but not every child wants to be taught. all models should be made as large as is reasonably possible; this should be insisted on from the beginning. lastly, great accuracy (though much to be desired) must not be expected from the child; careful work must be insisted on, but one must learn to recognise the careful work of a child (which is so different from that of the grown-up person) and not heedlessly blame him or her for not reaching perfection. accuracy is so often the outcome of 'lack of vision.' the child so often has that 'vision,' that imaginative outlook on life that floods the mind with ideas, but lacks accurate power of expression, while the grown-up person has the accurate power of expression, but has lost the fresh imagination of youth and all its ideals. we must see to it that we do not dim our children's vision. chapter iii paper work for infants =materials.= white paper of any kind that is not too thick and bends easily, _e.g._ cartridge paper, plain white foolscap, pages from exercise books. pieces of coloured paper are introduced into some of the toys. it is better, however, to encourage the children to colour the white paper with chalks. one must remember, however, children's delight in coloured paper and let them have it sometimes. a wall-paper sample book will provide coloured paper, and gummed coloured squares are supplied to most schools. these gummed squares are really too thin for effective toy-making, and there is the temptation to the child to lick them when making models from them. =adhesives.= in many cases the toys can be fastened together by means of paper-fasteners. where this is not possible the following adhesives are recommended. ( ) gloy--this is clean and fastens the paper fairly securely. ( ) higgins' vegetable glue. this has one great advantage over gloy: it cannot be spilt. a little of it can be put on a piece of paper for each child; this is a great convenience in a large class. ( ) home-made paste of flour and water; this is very clean and wholesome. paper toys from the square the following toys should be made as _large_ as possible, never from a square of less than inches each side. the larger the toy the thicker the paper that can be used and the stronger it is. in the following diagrams, lines to be cut are drawn, lines to be folded are dotted, parts to be cut off are shaded. as soon as possible the child should be shown how to make a large brown paper envelope to keep his work in. model . =the rabbit hutch.= fold paper into squares as in fig. . cut lines indicated. draw bars in square a, or fold along t s (fig. ) and cut out the bars; the door is drawn and cut in square =b=. colour the whole yellow or brown to represent wood. gum l over m; n over m; o over n. the same on the other side. a small paper-fastener makes a good handle. rabbits and carrots can be cut out of paper to furnish the hutch (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] from a similar square folded into sixteen squares a =railway carriage= can be made. in this case the door is cut in the middle of c d (fig. ). windows and panels are drawn on the paper. a roll of paper is put on top for the light, or a small piece of cork can be used. the wheels are drawn by means of halfpennies, then folded in half; one half is pasted under the carriage, the other appears as in fig. . three or four carriages can be made and fastened by strips of paper. [illustration: fig. ] children delight in chalking the blinds of their carriages in various colours and labelling them st, nd, or rd class. the top of the carriage should be darkened with pencil or chalk, or a piece of black paper pasted over it. [illustration: fig. ] =a luggage van or cattle truck= (fig. ) can be made from a square of the same size by cutting off oblong e f (fig. ) and gumming l over n and m over l. the =basket= (fig. ) is a simple model. one quarter of the square is cut off to form a handle. cut remaining portion as in fig. , double over corners _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_, paste corner _d_ over d, _c_ over c, _b_ over b, _a_ over a. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the basket should be coloured with yellow chalk to represent straw; the handle is fastened on with paper-fasteners. [illustration: fig. ] paper fruit, apples and oranges, can be cut out to go in the basket. =a wardrobe.= fold square into sixteen parts and cut as in fig. . gum a over c and b over a. repeat with d e f. gum a piece of silver paper on the door for a mirror; square h, with its corners cut off, forms ornament on top (fig. ). a match is gummed inside, on which clothes are hung. the children can either draw these and cut them out, or cut them out from old fashion plates. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an oak chest.= make exactly as for wardrobe, but stand on the long side. draw panels and colour light brown (fig. ). by cutting off the lid and making a handle from it a basket can be made. the children themselves may be able to suggest some of these articles and should be encouraged to. =a sedan chair= can be made in the same way as the wardrobe (see fig. ). loops of paper are gummed on at a and b (fig. ), through which the shafts pass; a window can be cut by folding the door c d g h in half along k l. a piece of coloured paper can be gummed inside the window for a blind; some sort of ornament can be gummed at the top along c d and e f. panels, etc., can be drawn. [illustration: fig. ] =a market basket= (fig. ). fold square as for wardrobe (fig. ), cut off the quarter k l m h. gum a to b and c to a--the same with d e f. to make lids, halve the quarter k l m h. gum k to a (outside) and l forms one lid; gum h to d and m forms the other lid. paper-fasteners may be put in each lid for handles. the handle of basket must be made from another strip of paper. the basket should be suitably coloured before being gummed together. [illustration: fig. ] =a cradle= (fig. ). begin with a square (each side four times the diameter of a penny). fold and gum together as for basket. cut two round discs of stiff paper the size of a penny. fold these in half. gum one half of each disc on to bottom of cradle; the other half forms the rocker. these halves must be made less round by being cut as in fig. , so that the cradle will rock. by means of the penny portions a and b can be cut to form top and bottom of cradle, a strip of paper c d e can be gummed across one end (round a) to form a hood (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a settee.= fold a square as for wardrobe (fig. ), cut off one quarter, k l m h. gum a to b, d to e for arms. cut arms as in fig. . for back legs of settee use portion k l m h; gum k to f and h to c (fig. ). to strengthen the settee gum a piece of paper over n o and m l. coloured paper can be pasted on back, sides and seat as shown in drawing. the legs may either be cut out or simply drawn on the paper as in illustration (fig. ). the settee will prove a really strong piece of doll's furniture. the children should be allowed to furnish a doll's house with the various articles described in this book. when they have had some practice in making them each child can be allowed to make one piece of furniture for a school doll's house. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =table.= top of table is a square of white cartridge paper. make the legs from a double square, each square the same size as top of table. fold and cut the double square as in fig. . bend flaps a b c d carefully along _a b_. gum a to b, c to b, d to a to form legs. gum square top on to a b c d. a square of coloured paper can be gummed on to top of table as in drawing (fig. ). leg e can be gummed to f by means of a paper hinge, or a flange may be provided, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make a =chair= to go with the table. take a double square the same size as that used for legs of table. fold into eight as in fig. . cut in half along _a b_. squares a, b, c form front legs, seat and back of chair respectively. square f is gummed to b, so that e forms back legs. the chair must be strengthened by gumming h to c and g to e. coloured squares can be gummed to seat and back; the rest of the chair can be chalked to represent wood (fig. ). a dining-room suite may be made in this way. =side-board.= begin with two equal squares. cut and fasten one square together as for rabbit hutch (fig. ), but cut two doors. one quarter of the second square must be cut and gummed on to back to form a mirrored top (fig. ). a piece of silver paper may be gummed on to back for a mirror. from the rest of the second square plates and dishes can be cut and coloured to go on top and inside sideboard. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an arm-chair.= begin with square folded into sixteen parts (fig. ), cut off one quarter d h n s, again cut off one quarter o p r. cut remaining square as in diagram. gum e to a and g to c. cut these squares to form arms. gum o to k and r to m to form back legs and sides. to strengthen chair cut off n from d h. gum h to p and d to b. the corners of b are rounded. coloured paper can be pasted over the arms and in the middle of back, seat and sides (fig. ). legs can be chalked on p, l, k and m, or cut out as shown in the figure. if preferred the arms are not folded over but cut round. this arm-chair is a strong one and will hold a heavy doll. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bed.= fold a double square as in fig. . cut portions indicated. gum a b c d to e f g h, the same the other side. bend up m and n to form head and foot of bed. these can be cut any shape, or simply be coloured to represent beams. legs can be drawn on or cut out of sides f h k l and b o d p (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a coal scuttle.= begin with a -inch square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter, cut off a quarter again; cut remaining portion as in fig. . gum a over b, c over b. for the stand take the smallest quarter (fig. ), fold and cut as in diagram. gum a to bottom of coal scuttle, b and c form the supports; a handle can be cut and gummed on as in fig. . the children can cut a shovel out of paper to slip in a little paper band at the back (fig. ). the coal scuttle should be coloured black, with yellow to represent brass. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a drawing-room cabinet.= fold and cut square as in fig. . gum b over a, c over d. bend e and k down and cut corners off to form shelves as in fig. . g h can be cut round, or in any way to make suitable top for cabinet. silver paper can be pasted on where desired for mirrors, doors cut or drawn, etc. from fig. the children will be able to make a number of simple and effective articles of doll's furniture--namely, doll's dresser, oak settee for hall, dressing-table, wash-stand, writing-case. these the children must be allowed to suggest and think out themselves. [illustration: fig. ] =a shop or stall.= this will hold together without the use of gum. fold and cut as in fig. . fold together so that square e n g m covers square g m k t; the same the other side. bend back c s g q along s q to form side (fig. ); the same the other side. fold b f d h along f h for roof, fold b v d w down as in fig. ; this portion should have name of shop written on it. fold a b f c along r s, so that a c coincides with b f. fold down r b x v so that top of c s g q lies between r b x v and a r x z; the same the other side; this folding keeps the shop together. gum can be used if greater strength is desired. from paper the children can cut materials to furnish their stall. from a similar square a piano can be made as in fig. . a piece of paper must be gummed to v b w d to close up the hollow; the sides s c g q must not be bent back but cut as in fig. to represent the sides of a piano. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =some simple tents.= a good imitation of an "a" tent can be made by little ones from a square. several of these make an excellent encampment for toy soldiers. fold and cut square as in fig. . to fasten it together paste square to square ; this forms the back of the tent; edges p o, k l, etc., rest along the ground. corners l and m must be bent back to form the entrance. pieces of cotton are fastened along f m and f l for straps for lacing up the entrance (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a drawing of a real "a" tent spread out flat upon the ground. it is made of strips of canvas, , , , , , , , , , , , sewn together. children can imitate this in paper. [illustration: fig. ] =a triangular tent.= this is very simple. fold and cut as in fig. . paste a e b over e b d. cut door at f. chapter iv more paper toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bridge= (fig. ). begin with square ( inches each side), fold in four and cut off one piece. fold again in four, folds running in opposite directions to first folds, and cut off one piece. a square, a b c d, remains, divided into nine squares (fig. ). fold a g and f c in halves, cut off shaded portions. join l e, f n, m gand h o, and cut off shaded portions. cut along l r, n s, m p and o q; bend as in fig. . matches can be gummed on the slopes of the bridge. if a piece of white cardboard or paper is placed underneath a river can be marked on it and paper boats made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the children can make a very pretty scene from this. trees can be coloured and cut out of paper and gummed upright by means of a little flap of paper left at the end of the trunk of the tree. the house can be cut out of a piece of folded paper (fig. ) so that it will stand; animals can be cut in a similar way (fig. ). boats are made of plasticine, with paper sails stuck in it. children can add other animals and think of other additions to the scene. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a punt= (fig. ). begin with a square, fold into sixteen parts, cut off a quarter. fold in half oblongs a b and c d (fig. ). cut off the shaded portions. cut along the lines m e, c n, o b, p g. fold along m k, f n, o l and p h. the child will accomplish this fold more easily if she puts her ruler along a line from k to m and folds the paper over it. a coloured band should be chalked round the punt. to fasten it together gum k e m to m e c n, c n f to m e c n and so on the other side. three seats are fastened inside, made from the quarter cut off the original square. the length of the seat is equal to the distance e c; the height of the seat to half of the distance k e (fig. ). the punt should be made from a square of cartridge paper, eleven inches each side. it will be found to float well on water. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a candlestick= (fig. ). begin with two squares of coloured paper (sides inches); one forms the bottom of the candlestick; half the other forms the socket. to make the socket fold and cut as in fig. . the other half divided lengthways forms the handle. the handle and socket can be fastened on with paper-fasteners or gummed. it looks neater when gummed. a roll of yellow paper or white paper coloured forms the candle; into this roll some cotton-wool is put and into this a piece of red paper for the flame. children delight in making candlesticks of different colours and decorating their form rooms with them. the candlestick can be strengthened by being gummed on to a piece of cardboard (a post-card will do). a round candlestick can be made in a similar way. to make the socket, fold the oblong (fig. ) into four parts, leaving a piece, e, over; gum e to a. =a lantern.= begin with an oblong inches by - / inches, a b c d (fig. ). fold along e t k and g h to get flanges. fold c a b d into half to obtain the line l m, and fold a l m b into four parts to obtain the line l´ m´. fold a h c g into four parts along q p, o n and s r. draw the top of the lantern in a h l´ m´, as in fig. , and cut off the shaded portion. draw or cut windows in the sides of the lantern. cut the flange _abc_ as in the diagram. make the candle and the candlestick to fit into the lantern as in fig. . (note the length of the edge of the candlestick is the width of the lantern e t.) bend the flanges _a_, _b_, _c_ at right angles to the sides and gum the candlestick to these. flange _d_ can be gummed to the edge l´ e, and a door cut in one of the sides, or flange _d_ can be cut off and then side _l_ forms the door. make holes in the tops of the lantern and tie together with thread, as in fig. , or the flanges can be left round the triangular tops and they can be gummed together. fig. shows the finished model. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =colouring the lantern.= the lantern can be made of black paper (lines must be drawn on the white side), or white paper chalked, or painted black or yellow, etc., according to taste. [illustration: fig. ] =a well and bucket.= the well is made from an oblong about - / inches by inches. fold down one side of the oblong, about / inch; make cuts along this fold as in fig. . when the paper is bent round to form the well, these cut pieces form the edge of the well (fig. ). a b is a piece of cardboard or stiff paper bent, as shown in the diagram, and gummed to the sides of the well. two holes must first be made in a and b. then through these holes a piece of cane c is passed. d and e are pieces of cardboard of equal size; holes are made in each end and the strips are glued to each end of the piece of cane. into the other holes are glued two smaller pieces of cane or two matches, f and g, for handles. the well should be coloured red before being fastened together. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the bucket (fig. ) is made from a small oblong. fold and cut off the shaded parts as in fig. . when the bucket is fastened together stand on a piece of paper and draw round it to get the measurement for a circular disc for the bottom. cut this out and gum it to the bent edges , , , . a handle can be made of string or paper. [illustration: fig. ] =a mug= (fig. ). this is made like the bucket. the handle is made of a strip of paper fastened to the mug by paper-clips. a band of coloured paper is gummed round the mug; the handle can be made of the same coloured paper as the band. [illustration: fig. ] =motor-car.= begin with a square ( -inch side). halve it. fold each half into thirty-two parts. cut one half as in diagram . gum a to b and d to c, e to f and h to h. this forms the body of the car. the doors must be cut in squares k, m, l, n. from the second half (folded into thirty-two) pieces can be cut to cover exactly the front of the car, and to form seats o and r and backs and sides, s t. see fig. . the wheels are drawn on stiff paper or cardboard by means of halfpennies, cut out and gummed on to the sides. the children of six who made this car enjoyed adding, according to their own ideas, steps, steering-wheel, and other details. the car looks more attractive if coloured and if the seats are covered with red paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a similar square ( -inch side), divided into two (each half divided into thirty-two parts), a =book-case= can be made (see fig. ). one half gummed together as for the motor forms the case; the other half forms the shelves and the ornament on top. a door can easily be added, or two doors, one on each side. [illustration: fig. ] =a wigwam.= begin with half a square (fig. ). fold into thirty-two parts. draw a curved line from a through b and c to d, and from a through e and f to g. cut along these lines. join k with h by a curved line and h with l. cut along this line. gum l n to k m. fold back the corners g and d for the door. strips of paper can be cut out and gummed inside the wigwam for poles. designs can be drawn on wigwam as in fig. . marks from k to k show where it is laced up. the wigwam should be coloured brown, the circles on it red and white or yellow. this model will be found useful when illustrating scenes from _hiawatha_. other simple models to go with this are--a bow, arrows, quiver, canoe. the bow can be made from a piece of cane, the arrows cut out of paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a quiver.= fold square into sixteen parts (fig. ). join a to c, c to d, d to b by curved line; cut along it. join e with g and bend along it; g with f and bend along it. gum b h g to a k g. fasten a piece of string as in the drawing (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for =canoe= begin with an oblong - / inches long (fig. ); width, twice the diameter of a penny. fold in half along g h. make half circles a b c and f e d, at each end, by means of penny. cut around a b c and d e f. fold in half along b e. join a by means of curved line with b e, and f with b e. cut along a h k f. gum the canoe together at a b c and f e d. cut out three seats to go in the middle; make drawings on the canoe. paddles must be cut to go with canoe (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] an =indian cradle= can be made in the same way as the quiver, but with the point g cut off as in fig. , and markings put on the front to look as though the cradle were laced up. string is attached for hanging the cradle to the mother's back or to a tree. canoe, quiver and cradle look effective cut out of brown paper and chalked with yellow or red chalks. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a clock tower= (fig. ). begin with an oblong inches by inches. fold in eight parts, and cut off three. fold the remaining portion a b c d in half along e f; fold a f in half along g h. fold along as in fig. . draw clock faces in squares , , and , a pattern of some kind in triangles and , and mark bricks on the sides , , , ; side is gummed over , which, therefore, is not seen (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =to fasten tower together.= fold the sides and at right angles to ; bend j forward and gum to it both k and l (fig. ), and cut off the part of j that projects beyond k and l. now gum the side to , bend o toward j; gum n to o and m to o and cut off the portion of o that projects beyond m and n. a piece of paper, painted to represent slates, can be gummed over the roof, so that it projects slightly, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] a simpler way of fastening the tower together is to gum o to j, m l and n k standing upright as in fig. . =a windmill= can be made in the same way. the sails are made as described in the match-box windmill (fig. ). =a lighthouse= (fig. ). take an oblong piece of paper, about - / inches by inches. fold down each shorter edge for / inch and cut the flanges as described in the case of the bucket (fig. ). bend the flanges inward, curve the paper round and gum together to form the body of the lighthouse. cut two squares of paper, one smaller than the other, gum the smaller one a to the flanges at the top of the cylinder; colour b blue and gum it to the flanges at the bottom. make a small lantern, as in fig. , to fit the top of the lighthouse. in this case it is better to gum the triangular tops of the lantern together. the door, windows and staircase should be drawn and the lighthouse coloured grey before fastening the cylinder together. chapter v match-box toys many simple and effective toys can be made from match-boxes. the great advantage of these toys is that the children can readily supply the materials themselves. in every case the toys explained here have been made by young children, whose ages vary from four to seven. the materials used are match-boxes, matches, paper of different kinds, white, brown, coloured, and cardboard, while in some toys corks and silver paper have been introduced. for sticking paper on to the boxes, gloy or vegetable glue is suitable, but when matches have to be fastened into or on to the boxes it is best to use liquid glue or seccotine. some of the toys can be made more effective by colouring them with crayons. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a canoe.= to make the canoe (fig. ) the inside portion of the match-box is gummed to a piece of stiff paper or cardboard pointed at each end. strips of paper gummed to the sides of the box form the seats. the paddle (fig. ) is made of a match, to the ends of which paper discs are gummed. to get these circles the children can use farthings and draw round them. the paddle and the seats can be coloured with brown crayons. [illustration: fig. ] =a kayak.= for the kayak (fig. ) a piece of paper is measured to fit over the box; it is doubled in half and a small hole cut in it, then gummed to the sides of the box. =a motor-car= (fig. ). the car consists of a match-box without the cover. the seats are of white paper. the following them measure and cut a piece of paper, a b c d, that will just cover the box from side to side, making bends _a c_ and _b d_ where the edges of the box come. fold paper into four as in fig. . cut along _e f_, and cut off the shaded portions and fold as in fig. . gum the parts g and m to the side of the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] wheels for all match-box toys are made from stiff paper or cardboard, the circle being drawn from a farthing, or, where larger wheels are necessary, from a halfpenny. the spokes are drawn on the wheels. these can either be gummed to the sides of the match-box, or, if holes are made in the wheels, they can be fastened to each end of a match, which is then glued to the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a house or barn.= from the covers that are left, after making the canoe and the motor-car, a house or barn can be made (fig. ). one cover is cut open and the top bent back as in fig. . a portion of the second cover is cut off (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] side a is then gummed to b, and c d is fastened to e f by means of a piece of folded paper covering the whole of the roof. this paper is double the size of c d h g (fig. ), is coloured grey or blue to represent slates, and folded along the middle. [illustration: fig. ] =a sentry-box.= this is an easy toy to make. the children will notice that one end of a match-box is double--that is, one piece of wood overlaps the other. if they unfasten these and bend them out they form the roof of the sentry box (fig. ). a piece of paper can be pasted behind to fill up the hollow. the toy looks more effective if covered entirely with brown paper. a soldier can be cut out of paper, coloured and gummed to the bottom of the box. [illustration: fig. ] =a castle.= a castle can be made from the cover. a piece of paper is cut to fit round it, doors and windows are marked on it with pencil or crayon, and one edge is cut to represent battlements (fig. ). the flagstaff is a match glued inside. a larger castle can be made by fastening two or more covers together. =a jack-in-the-box.= these toys are so simple that the diagrams almost explain themselves. in the case of the jack-in-the-box the children like to decorate the half-opened match-box with coloured paper. the little figure is made of bits of wool, a piece of cotton is tied round the neck and put through a hole in the top, a match is tied to the cotton to prevent it slipping back; another piece of cotton tied to the waist of the doll pulls it down (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a belfry.= in the belfry the back of the box at a has been cut out, the bell is made of paper or cardboard, covered with silver paper (fig. ). a match stick is passed through a hole in the bell, and gummed to each side of the box. another match is gummed to the bell, and a piece of cotton attached for ringing. [illustration: fig. ] =a van= (fig. ). the van is made from the inside of a match-box; the cover is of brown paper gummed inside the sides of the box. the seat is also of brown paper, while one end is bent back for the flap of the waggon. the shafts are made of matches. [illustration: fig. ] =a milk-cart= (fig. ). the can is a cork covered with silver paper, which is used to cover chocolates, etc. the paper can be screwed into a little knob at the top. in fig. the wheels are the same size. two are fastened to a match for the axle, which is then glued underneath the box; the third wheel is glued between two matches, which are fastened underneath the box. in fig. the side wheels are larger and a cardboard set of shafts is made for the small front wheel. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the shape of these shafts. the shaded portion is bent at right angles to the shaft and glued under the box. the small wheel can be gummed between these shafts, or, if the shafts are fastened on with a space between them, and holes made in each end, a piece of match stick, on which the small wheel is mounted, can be passed through the holes. a match is glued across the back of the box (fig. ) to form the bar by means of which the cart is pushed along. [illustration: fig. ] =a field gun.= fig. shows how the match-box is cut. the gun is made from a roll of brown paper. a piece or inches square is large enough. yellow bands can be chalked round the cannon. the wheels are made of circular discs, the size of a penny. shots can be made from silver paper, or from plasticine. [illustration: fig. ] =a field gun and limber.= the gun in fig. is mounted somewhat differently. a is one-third of a match-box cover, with one narrow side cut away, covered with dark grey paper; two holes are made in it opposite each other; the gun has a match or piece of cane passed through it, and the ends of the match or cane pass through the holes in a. b is a piece of cardboard or stiff paper shaped as in diagram: the shaded portion is gummed underneath a. [illustration: fig. ] =the limber= (fig. ). this is made from a match-box (c), covered with dark grey paper and fitted with a cardboard cover e, similarly coloured. match sticks, coloured black, form the shots. the handle consists of two match sticks, or two strips of cardboard, glued together. the wheels must be the same size as those for the gun. [illustration: fig. ] =a porter's truck.= this is made from a box of which three sides have been cut away (fig. ). it can be covered with brown paper, and matches can be glued across it. the handles are of matches, the legs of stiff paper fastened to the bottom. the children can make little paper parcels and boxes to put on the truck. [illustration: fig. ] =a sweep's barrow.= the figure ( ) shows how the match-box is used. a bundle of matches tied together represents part of the sweep's outfit. the broom is made from a roll of paper, the ends of which have been cut into a fringe. the broom and matches can be darkened with crayons or ink. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a windmill= (fig. ). prepare the inside of a match-box as described in the case of the sentry-box, and place it inside its cover, securing it with a little gum. paste a piece of paper in front to hide the hollow. the sails of the windmill are made of brown paper, cut as in fig. , and gummed to strips of cardboard which form the framework of the sails. the whole can then be fastened to the box by a paper-clip. [illustration: fig. ] =to make the sails turn.= bore two holes through the windmill; round a match stick by rubbing it with sand-paper; glue the sails to one end of it, pass it through the holes and glue a circle of cardboard to the other end to prevent it slipping back. fig. shows a more complicated but very effective way of making the sails. the paper is cut along the dark lines and bent back along the dotted lines. [illustration: fig. ] =a tram-car= (fig. ). for this toy two insides of match-boxes are needed. the children could cut and gum to one box a piece of cardboard a b. then into this box are gummed six matches of the same length. while these are drying the wheels can be made and the top prepared. the top is a box turned over with a piece of paper gummed round the edge. the paper should be coloured yellow. the projecting paper forms the rail round the top of the car. when the matches are quite firm the inverted box is placed over them. [illustration: fig. ] =a church= (fig. ). this is made from a combination of the barn or house and the castle. a strip of paper can be gummed along both sides to keep the two parts together. =a match-box train= (fig. ). the engine is a match-box turned upside down, to which is gummed a cork covered with red or green paper. the broad end of the cork has been sand-papered to make it more equal to the other end. the funnel is a piece of cardboard blackened and inserted into a slit in the cork. half a match-box glued to the cork forms the cab. the coal tender is a match-box on wheels; a piece of brown paper can be pasted round one end to form the back and the sides. the simplest way of making a carriage is to fold a piece of paper into three, mark on it the door and the windows and gum it to the inside of the box. for this piece of paper the children can get the measurements from the match-box. [illustration: fig. ] in order to make a long carriage like a real train a child suggested gumming two match-boxes together, end to end. when a long train was complete the children at once wanted to make a station (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] for this purpose two or three match-box covers can be fastened together by covering them with white paper (marked to represent the boards of a platform) and gumming them to a piece of cardboard, a b c d. the paper must be left long enough at each end to be gummed to the cardboard and form the slopes of the platform. the waiting-room or shelter is a match-box gummed to platform as in diagram, with a triangular piece of paper pasted behind to form a roof. a seat can be pasted inside. the name of the station, signals, and a signal-box (a half-opened match-box standing on end) can be added. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a railway bridge.= gum two sets of four match-box covers together as a and b in fig. . next, take a half-opened match-box (c in fig. ), gum cover securely to box, turn it upside down and to it gum cover d, and to this, half a cover e. fasten this to a by strips of paper gummed on each side (see shaded part in fig. ). b has a similar arrangement fastened to it. these portions form the two sides of the bridge, but the steps so obtained are too high and extra paper steps must be made. for each of these take a piece of stiff paper l m n o (fig. ). l m equals width of match-box; m o equals three times thickness of box. fold in three along t u and r s; fold l u and t s in halves and bend paper to form steps. l q is gummed to a and r o to e. repeat for each intermediate step. [illustration: fig. ] next cut a piece of cardboard the width of the match-box and long enough to leave a suitable distance between the two ends of the bridge to allow the match-box train to pass through, or two trains to pass each other. gum this to the top of a and b (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] next cut a piece of paper f g h j to fit across both parts of the bridge and to project to form railings or a wall, cut out the archway, colour to represent stones or bricks, and gum to bridge; cut and colour a similar piece for the other side (fig. ). chapter vi more complicated match-box and cork toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a paddle-wheel steamer= (fig. ). the cover of a match-box, a b c d, is covered on top and bottom with two pieces of stiff paper or cardboard pointed at both ends (fig. ). a long strip of paper is cut, e f g, etc., and fastened round the cover and projecting cardboard. the box is gummed on to a b c d. the funnel is made of a roll of red paper (fig. ). the mast is a roll or strip of paper gummed to inside of box. the wheels are strips of paper held together by a paper-fastener, the paper being bent sideways. the paper-fastener clips the wheel to the side of the box. a piece of cotton-wool can be put into the funnel for smoke. [illustration: fig. ] =a castle and drawbridge= (fig. ). a and b are match-boxes, with the shorter sides cut off, gummed to a square piece of cardboard ( -inch side). along the bottom of these a piece of blue paper is gummed to represent the water in the moat. c d f e is a piece of paper with archway cut out, gummed to sides of boxes a and b, and behind this are gummed match-box covers g and h. the drawbridge is a piece of stiff paper hinged to c d, and has match sticks gummed across it. holes are made in the bridge and wall through which pieces of thread are passed; the ends behind the drawbridge are fastened to a match. [illustration: fig. ] k is a box turned upside down and gummed to g, h. l and m are covers forming a passage from drawbridge. the castle can be enlarged by adding more boxes. =a lighthouse= (fig. ). this toy is made from two corks gummed together and fastened to the cover of a match-box which is gummed to a square of cardboard covered with blue paper. round the box, paper, cut and coloured to represent rocks, is pasted and paper steps are fastened to one edge. into the top cork four pieces of matches are inserted and between them is placed a small roll of red paper. a small piece of paper with four holes in it is placed on top of the matches. the corks can be coloured grey, and windows and doors painted on them. the top cork must be filed to fit the lower one, and its upper end filed to make it narrower. [illustration: fig. ] =an airship= (fig. ). the airship is made from three corks glued together, the thickest cork being in the middle. matches are inserted at each end. four matches are inserted into the corks and their other ends glued into a match-box. a piece of black thread is fastened to the matches as shown in the diagram. matches and corks can be coloured dark grey. [illustration: fig. ] =a bristol biplane= (fig. ). a b, c d are two strips of paper, in length about four times the length of a match-box, in width nearly three-quarters the length of a match-box. these are fastened together by match sticks, as shown in the diagram. [illustration: fig. ] e f is cut from a piece of paper as long as a b and about the width of a match-box. this paper is doubled along e f and marked and cut out as in diagram (fig. ); then unfolded and pasted on the bottom of a match-box (g), to which four small cardboard wheels are pasted. a b c d is then gummed along the back of the box g at right angles to e f. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bird-cage= (fig. ). this is made of two small squares of cartridge paper fastened together by matches, as shown. when making the holes the two pieces of paper should be placed together. a piece of cotton is fastened to the matches so that the cage may be hung up. a bird for the cage is made from a small cork, as in fig. . the legs are two halves of a match; the tail must touch the ground in order that the bird may stand. [illustration: fig. ] =a travelling menagerie= (fig. ). cages are made from match-boxes. the box is mounted on wheels, match sticks are glued inside the box, and a piece of paper with holes in it is fitted to the tops of the matches. [illustration: fig. ] animals are cut out of paper and coloured. if these animals are cut from a folded piece of paper (=fig. =) they will stand. [illustration: fig. ] the various cages can be harnessed to horses. a caravan to accompany the menagerie is shown in =fig. =. a piece of paper folded in three is gummed to the inside of a match-box. on the sides windows are marked, and a round paper chimney is gummed to the top. [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-escape= (fig. ). the ladder is made from two narrow strips of cardboard; holes are made in these and match sticks inserted. the ends of the matches should be slightly filed or sand-papered. b is a match-box, one end, c, of which is bent forward. to this end strips of cardboard, c d, e f are gummed, and across them other strips, f d and g h. wheels can be gummed on as in the figure. l and m are cardboard strips gummed to box and ladder to help to keep it in position. thread could be attached as shown in diagram, and an additional ladder made to stand between l and m. [illustration: fig. ] =a mangle.= a is a match-box turned upside down to which are gummed two corks which have been filed to make them perfect cylinders (b and c in fig. ). the two corks are gummed together and a strip of paper e is bent round them, gummed to their flat ends, and also to the sides of the match-box as at f. k and h are pieces of cardboard shaped as in diagram and marked to imitate the iron legs of a mangle. these pieces are gummed to the inner sides of the match-box to form the legs. g is a circle of cardboard (on which spokes should be marked) fastened as shown in diagram; to this a cardboard or match handle, l, is attached. [illustration: fig. ] =a submarine= (fig. ). a, b, c are corks filed to the shapes shown in fig. , and glued together. e f is a piece of cardboard, narrow and pointed at each end, gummed to the corks. before fastening it on holes should be made in it round the edge. through these small pins are put and pushed into the corks to form a railing, and round them a piece of black cotton is tied. g is a small cork, or a part of a large cork made small by filing, gummed to e f; a match, h, is inserted to represent the periscope. pins are inserted round g with black cotton tied round them. the corks, cardboard and matches should be coloured grey. older children can make this submarine so that it will float. the corks a, b, c must be fastened together by pieces of wire passing through them. the deck is made by filing the corks flat along the top, e f, and pins are inserted around it. cork g is fastened to b by a pin. a narrow strip of lead is cut and pointed at each end, these ends are bent at right angles and are inserted into slits in a and b. this submarine will float well, and makes a very effective little toy. it could be painted with grey enamel. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a barrel organ.= figs. , , show how a barrel organ can be made from a cork and match-box cover. a is a match-box cover, a cork; b, is made a perfect cylinder by means of sand-paper, and gummed to side of cover. it is kept in its place by a piece of paper, c d e, which is gummed to cover and also to the cork. wheels f and g are gummed to the sides or made to revolve on axles as described in chapter ii. the handle k is made of a match stick and bent piece of cardboard. support h and handles are made of cardboard. note that the piece of paper c d e reaches nearly to the ground. this prevents the toy from overbalancing. paper, etc., must be suitably coloured. the match-box cover might have brown paper pasted round it. chapter vii cork animals harnessed to sledges, etc. for these toys plenty of corks are necessary, and files or sand-paper; also some pointed instrument, a long nail or bradawl, for making holes in the corks. four of them are shown in plate iii. [illustration: fig. ] =horse and cart.= gum wheels (size of penny) and matches for shafts on the match-box as in fig. . file or sand-paper a cork quite smooth and round the edges. cut a horse's head out of cardboard and colour it, make a slit with a knife in the widest part of the cork, insert the horse's head, insert the tail and four matches for legs. gum a piece of paper on the horse's back, turn up and gum the ends of a paper strip to form loops for shafts to go through. these shafts can be gummed into the loops or fastened by thread or paper to a collar round the horse's neck. (this latter way is difficult for little children.) the collar is cut out of paper. a piece of thread can be put through a hole in the horse's mouth for reins. paper seats may be added to the cart. [illustration: fig. ] =a coster's donkey barrow= can be made in the same way, by substituting a donkey's head and cutting the box as in fig. . the van described in chapter v might be harnessed to a horse. [illustration: fig. ] =russian sledge.= to make the sledge cut two runners out of brown paper (as a in fig. ), and gum on each side of a match-box. make two brown-paper seats, c, d, and gum on. cut part of the cover of a match-box as in =fig. = to form the back of the sledge, b. gum a brown-paper hood round this. a narrow strip of brown paper, e, is bent and fastened on as in diagram. a match or piece of cane, f, is gummed in front of the box, and to this the horses are harnessed. the horses are made as already described. a piece of silk or thread is looped round their necks and gummed under the straps of the outside horses, then tied to match stick, f. [illustration: fig. ] this toy and some of those following will be found very useful to illustrate geography lessons. =a reindeer sledge= (fig. ). make the reindeer as the other animals. for the sledge the bottom of a match-box, a, and a piece of brown paper are needed. the brown paper should be in length one and a half times the length of the match-box and broad enough to wrap round a match-box and cover every side except one narrow side. fold the paper in two along c b. draw the runners on the doubled paper and cut out as in fig. . cut the straps e o and g p along the top k f and l h; double them along m and n. gum m k f and n l h to the bottom of the match-box, a. do the same on the other side; pieces m k f, etc., may be cut shorter for convenience in gumming. a piece of brown paper forms the back, d (fig. ). finally, a piece of paper just the size of the match-box can be pasted over a to make the sledge look tidy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =the howdah= on the elephant's back, the next model, is a simple one, though difficult for some little fingers. a is a little paper case, in which four halves of matches are glued, a square piece of paper with a little fringe cut round is gummed on the top (fig. ). =south african trek waggon= (fig. ). this is made from two match-box covers, a and b, fastened together by a strip of paper; two match-boxes, c and d, are gummed to the top; part of one box, d, is cut away as in the figure. a strip of brown paper must be gummed along a and b, and a piece along the bottom of boxes c and d; the outsides of c and d may be left their ordinary blue colour. a piece of bluish-grey paper, e, is folded in three and gummed inside the sides of boxes c and d, as in figure; three or four divisions should be pencilled on each paper side. the wheels are cut out of cardboard--the large wheels should be somewhat larger than a penny, the small wheels a little smaller--these are gummed to the sides. f is a strip of brown paper, through which a piece of thread passes to fasten the waggon to a stick, g, gummed across the oxen's backs; this can be fastened to a stick, h, and so on. five pairs of oxen should be yoked to the waggon in this way. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an irish jaunting-car= (fig. ). this toy is made from one match-box. first two cardboard wheels are cut out. these are gummed on each side of the match-box cover as in fig. . the box is then cut in half (fig. ) and each half gummed to the cover, _e.g._ e f g h (fig. ) is gummed to a b c d (=fig. =). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] two pieces of brown paper are bent as in fig. , and gummed on, l m n o to h g j k, to form foot-rests. a piece of paper bent as in fig. and gummed on to the front closes up the hollow cover and forms the back of the driver's seat. a similar piece without the top, p, is gummed to the other end. before putting on the seat the top may be covered with coloured paper, to represent the upholstered part of the car. shafts of cardboard or cane are cut out and gummed underneath the seat to the cover and a cork horse is harnessed to them. [illustration: fig. ] =a mexican cart with ox team.= a match-box is cut as shown in fig. . two pieces of narrow cardboard are cut the length of the box; holes are made in these and four matches are inserted in each. these matches are then glued inside the sides of the box. [illustration: cork animals] [illustration: plate iii noah's ark] while these matches are drying the wheels can be made. the wheels are very large (the diameter nearly equal to the length of the box); they must be shaded to represent solid wood. two strips of cardboard, a and b, are gummed on as in the figure. a strip of brown paper gummed underneath the box forms the shaft, which can be gummed or tied to a match lying across the oxen, just behind their horns. this match is tied to the horns; this is the correct way of harnessing oxen. [illustration: fig. ] =a donkey with panniers.= the panniers can be made of brown paper, in the same way as the mug described in chapter iv; they are gummed to a strip of paper, which can be fastened to the donkey's back (fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a persian method of travelling.= the bottoms of the panniers, x and y (fig. ), are made from a small square of paper folded and cut as in fig. . a is gummed on b and d on c; h on g and e on f. the hood is made of a piece of brown paper gummed inside the paper boxes x and y. the panniers can be gummed to a strip of paper, the middle of which is gummed to the donkey's back. [illustration: fig. ] =an eskimo sledge= (fig. ). the sledge is made of a match-box turned upside down; one end, a, is bent back as in diagram; the other end, b, is cut in half, bent outward and shaped as in diagram. a match, c, is glued to the ends, and to this is tied the thread that harnesses the dogs. a team consists of twelve dogs. [illustration: fig. ] =a seal= can be made from a cork as in fig. , and placed on the sledge. [illustration: fig. ] =a belgian milk-cart= (fig. ). two pieces of cardboard, a, are gummed inside a match-box; cover the box with paper, colour it green and mark as in the figure. small corks should be filed to resemble milk cans. the carts generally contain six, three large and three small cans; they are yellow in colour. two pieces of cane, or two match sticks, d and c, are glued under the cart for shafts; the ends are slipped through pieces of looped paper gummed to the backs of the dogs. a piece of string tied to the ends of the shafts and round the dogs fastens them to the cart. the dogs are grey, and one is often smaller than the other. [illustration: fig. ] =russian dog sledge= (fig. ). this is made from a piece of paper folded along c d (fig. ); draw the sledge and cut out as in the diagram; bend along k l m. when opened out the sledge appears as in fig. . runners a b and e f are fastened together by strips of paper. [illustration: fig. ] a seat may be gummed over g and h. a piece of thread attached as in the figure harnesses the sledge to five dogs, made of corks. chapter viii more cork toys [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =cork boats.= besides the submarine described in chapter vi, many other boats can be made from corks, all of which will float well. the corks are joined together by pieces of wire passing through the middle. for the keel cut a narrow strip of lead (not more than / inch wide); point both ends, bend them up at right angles as in fig. ; make slits in the corks and push in the pointed ends of the lead. the keel is made more secure by driving pins or thin nails through the lead and the corks. the keel also helps to hold the corks firmly together and prevents them from slipping round on the connecting wire. =a steamer= (fig. ). select three corks, as uniform in size as possible. cut and file part of their round surface quite flat as in fig. . shape the bow and stern. the funnels are made of two small corks, fastened by pins. the masts consist of pieces of cane or thin sticks. =a sailing-boat.= a very pretty little sailing-boat can be made, as in fig. . the sails are of glazed lining. the edges of this do not fray, so the sails do not require hemming, and as they must be as light as possible, this is a great advantage. the gaff, a, is tied with thread to the mast, also the boom, b; both are pieces of cane, to which the mainsail, d, is sewn. the end of the boom is tied by cotton to a piece of wire at the stern, shaped as in fig. . care must be taken that the lead keel is exactly in the middle, and that the sails and masts are not too heavy, otherwise the boat will blow over on its side. =a paddle-boat.= two pieces of cork pinned on each side of the steamer and cut as in fig. , or even left round, make very realistic-looking paddle wheels. other models, such as a dreadnought, a fishing smack, etc., are easily made. [illustration: fig. ] =a flying proa of the ladrones= (fig. ). these boats are used chiefly in east indian waters. they are remarkable for their speed. bow and stern are equally sharp pointed. one side of the proa is flat, and in a straight line from bow to stern (fig. ), but the other is rounded as in other vessels. the outrigger prevents the boat from turning over. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] in the model the outrigger is made of a cork fastened to the side of the boat by match sticks or pieces of cane. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =an eskimo canoe= is very easily made by pointing the ends very sharply and hollowing out a hole in the centre (fig. ). fig. shows an =egyptian dahabieh=. for this boat it is better to use four corks, as two sails are carried. [illustration: fig. ] in the =double canoe= (fig. ) the two boats are joined by a thin piece of wood, a. a slanting hole is drilled in a for the mast. mast and yards are best made of cane. these little boats look wonderfully effective on the water. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =cork wrestlers= (fig. ). this is a very amusing toy and is very easily made. cut and file two corks to the shape shown in =fig. =. drill a hole through the shoulders (_a a_) and hips (_b b_), and flatten these for the limbs to work against. the arms and legs are made of cardboard. cut out the legs as in =fig. = and make holes in them. pass a piece of stout wire through the hips and the holes in the legs and double the ends over, so that the legs will not slip off, but let them be loose enough to move freely. in shaping the legs make them bend slightly at the knee, as this makes the figures more life-like in their movements. the arms must be cut out in pairs as in =fig. =. make holes near the shoulders and one at _c_. then fasten the arms to the body in the same way as the legs. the heads are made of cork, the eyes, mouth, etc., being marked in ink. cut a slit across the neck and one across the top of the body. fasten the head to the body by inserting, with the help of a pen-knife, a strip of calico into both these slits, so that the head is fairly close to the body (fig. ). the heads will move about as the figures wrestle. paint the legs and arms. [illustration: fig. ] pass a piece of thread through the holes c. hold one end of the thread steady and move the other about and you will cause the little figures to wrestle in a most life-like manner. if it is necessary to make the figures heavier, little pieces of lead may be glued to the feet. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] similar little wrestlers (fig. ) can be made from two wooden clothes-pegs (fig. ). cut the pegs in two along the dotted line. the upper part forms the head and body of a wrestler, and the lower parts are used for the legs. drill holes through the bodies (at a in fig. ) and through the legs at the thin ends; fasten these to the body with wire. for the arms two pieces of thin, flat wood are necessary, about inches in length. bore holes at each end and in the middle, shape them roughly with a pen-knife to represent the joined hands of the wrestlers. fix these pieces to the bodies and work them as described in the case of the cork wrestlers. =swiss musical figures.= these amusing little toys were first invented by the swiss. they are not musical in the sense that they produce any sound, but they dance about to music when placed on a piano lid, or on any flat surface which vibrates. the figures should be small and light and are easily cut out from a cork. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] shape a cork as in fig. and hollow out the centre (a). cut out arms and legs of thin cardboard. fasten the legs to a piece of wire passing through the hollow in the cork (b c in fig. ), so that they hang loosely. fasten the arms to the shoulders with wire. make four tiny holes in the bottom rim, e, with a pin; get some stiff bristles (from an old clothes brush), glue them into the holes and when firm cut them level, so that the figure stands upright, with the feet a little above the ground. a head is then made of cork, and a little dress and bonnet of paper added. this little figure, resting on the bristles, is affected by the slightest vibration. other figures, such as a soldier, a clown, or animals, such as a dancing bear or a monkey, can be made on the same principle. chapter ix cardboard and paper ships (plate iv) an interesting series of ships can be made of cardboard and paper. these ships can be used to illustrate the history lesson or to illustrate a lesson on the evolution of the ship. =materials.= cardboard of medium thickness (thin cardboard will bend and thick is difficult to cut), white paper--cartridge paper or ordinary exercise paper--and coloured paper or chalks, scissors and pen-knife, ruler. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: cardboard and paper ships schooner (part ii, chapter xiv)] [illustration: plate iv cardboard and paper ships] =the viking ship= (fig. ). give the children oblong pieces of cardboard, a b c d, about - / inches by - / inches. a line, e f, drawn across the middle of the cardboard gives the top of the ship. the ship is then drawn on the cardboard, and the shaded part of the cardboard is cut away. dragons' or serpents' heads are drawn on paper, cut out and gummed on to the stern and prow (as g and h); a tongue cut from red paper can be added to each dragon. (the 'dragon ships' were, as a rule, the largest, the 'serpent ships' being smaller and better adapted to sailing.) the mast is cut out of cardboard and gummed behind the ship; the sail is cut out of paper and gummed to the mast. the shields are cut out of cardboard and pasted along the sides. the ship may be painted white, blue, red, or any combination of colours; the warriors' shields were also of different colours. the sails were generally in coloured stripes, blue and white or red and white. masts brown. for teachers who want to be historically accurate the following notes on the viking ship may be useful. the viking ship (from ninth century on-wards) was clincher-built, caulked with hair, and iron fastened. one ship we know to have been feet long by - / feet of extreme breadth; the ships varied in length from to feet. they had from twelve to thirty-five seats for rowers. generally both ends of the vessel were alike, so that it could be steered from either end by the paddle, which was used everywhere until the invention of the rudder. standards and pennants were used, and possibly the two-armed iron anchor (for the romans used it), so the children can cut out pennants and anchors for their ships. children delight in naming their ships and should be given some of the 'real' old names to choose from. these old names generally referred to the figure-head, which was of wood or metal, in the shape of the head of a dragon, deer, bird or other animal--_e.g._ _dragon_, _serpent_, _raven_, _deer of the surf_, _sea-king's deer_, _horse of the sea_, _sea-bird_, etc. to support the boat two pieces of cardboard are cut and folded, as n p o q (fig. ). the cardboard must be half cut with a pen-knife along the line r s, so that it can be bent easily. [illustration: fig. ] the portion n r p s is gummed to the back of the ship, r s o q bent at right angles to n p r s forms the support, with corner s t q cut off, so that the ship tilts a little backward. =a phoenician warship=, b.c. (fig. ). this is made, as the viking ship, from oblong a b c d; pieces of paper, e and f, with railings drawn on them, are gummed on each end; a stern ornament, g, is cut out of paper and gummed at one end. (when a vessel was captured in olden days this was kept as a trophy.) [illustration: fig. ] small circles are drawn along the side of the ship to represent the holes for the oars, or holes may be made in the cardboard and matches or strips of cardboard passed through for oars. a device of the sun (common to carthaginian vessels) should be drawn on the sail and prow. the ship can be coloured in stripes yellow and red, with one blue band near the top; stern ornament red and yellow; sail yellow with red sun. the ships represented in fig. and in plate iv are made in the same way. in all these a piece of cardboard forms the foundation. masts, high funnels, anything likely to bend, should also be cut from cardboard, but sails, stern or prow ornaments, railings, flags, etc., are best cut out of paper. by means of a needle and cotton, rigging can be added to the ships. [illustration: fig. ] =a tudor ship= (fig. ). tudor ships are difficult, because of their elaborate and lofty forecastle and poops. a simplified one is shown in the figure. this can be easily managed by the children if an oblong a b c d is given them, divided into six parts lengthways, or if the oblong e b f d is given them. in the latter case the poop and forecastle are cut out of paper and gummed on separately. the ship is coloured red, yellow and blue, the sails white. the ship may be decorated with many flags. the =cunarder= has red funnels, with a black band at the top and two black lines underneath. the =super-dreadnought= should be coloured dark grey. children will delight to make, in a similar way, a roman galley, columbus' _santa maria_, in which he discovered america, the _black prince_, in which sir philip sidney's body was carried to england, britain's first =ironclad=, etc. instead of cardboard supports pieces of wood (about / inch thick, inch wide, the length equal to that of the ship) can be half sawn through along the middle line and the ship inserted in this slit; or pieces of wood (cubes) may be glued to the back. in the first case the surface of the wood should be painted blue to represent water. chapter x cardboard and paper toys involving use of ruler, set-square, scissors, and knife =materials.= the cardboard used should not be too thick; medium thickness is best (threepence a sheet). almost any paper that is not too thin can be used for making hinges. all kinds of cardboard boxes will be found of great use in making shops, engines, etc. =tools.= _scissors_ with round points are safer for children to use, though perhaps not quite so suitable for the work. _knives._ for little children the carton knife, consisting of a small blade projecting not more than a quarter of an inch from the handle, is the best, as the smallness of the blade does much to prevent the children cutting their fingers. for older children the "london" or "leipsic" pattern is suitable, or they can use their pen-knives. these can be sharpened quite well on an ordinary knifeboard. _rulers._ the "non-slip" safety ruler is the best. it grips the paper well, and the depression between the raised edges enables the children to hold it steady when cutting. =adhesives.= higgins' vegetable glue or seccotine. [illustration: fig. ] =a pigeon-house= (fig. ). on a piece of cartridge paper draw an oblong inches by inches, and divide it into four squares (fig. ). on the top of each construct an equilateral triangle. make a flange about / inch on the sides of the triangles, as shown in fig. , and on the sides of the squares. cut and fold back the doorways. fold and gum together. flanges , , , should be folded in. draw and cut out a square, side - / inches (fig. ); gum the house on to this. [illustration: fig. ] for the post draw an oblong inches by - / inches (fig. ). fold into five lengths ( / inch wide). draw j k and l m / inch from the ends of oblong e f g h. cut along the lines, cut off the shaded portions, and fold along the dotted lines. gum the two outer portions over each other to make a four-sided post. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] for the base cut a square, the side inches (fig. ), and to this gum the flanges at l m. gum the house to the flanges at j k. to make the top stronger, a second square (the side - / inches) can be cut; the flanges at l m are gummed to this, and then the house is fastened on. other easily made farmhouse models are a hen-coop, a barn, a pigsty, the farmhouse itself, etc. =the noah's ark= (plate iii). as this is a fairly large toy, it is best made from separate pieces of cardboard hinged together by strips of paper. if it is cut from one or two pieces, the size of the cardboard is somewhat unmanageable. the following noah's ark is of a suitable size for holding cork animals. two pieces of cardboard are cut, - / inches by inches (fig. ). cut two other pieces, - / inches by inches. mark and cut these out as a and c. in one side, a, a door is cut. a paper-fastener is put in to form the handle. on the other sides windows may be drawn and coloured. when fastening the pieces together the children must be very careful that the bend of the hinge is straight. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the pieces of the noah's ark hinged together. the children will find it easier if they paste the hinges on a and c first and let them dry thoroughly; then they can fasten a to b and c to b and d, and lastly d to a, but b must be firmly hinged to a before c is attached, and so on with the other parts. however, there is plenty of work to be done while the children are waiting for the paste to dry. (in their eagerness to finish toys the children often want to paste or glue too many things together at once.) for the bottom of the ark a piece of cardboard, - / inches by inches, is cut and pointed at each end. for the roof the children can get the measurements themselves. the long side of the ark is - / inches, so that if the roof projects / inch on each side of this the length will be - / inches. they must measure e f (fig. ); this will be about - / inches. now, the roof must cover e f and f g and project about a / inch beyond e and g, so that the width of the roof must be inches. therefore, they must cut a piece of cardboard - / inches by inches. down the middle of this a half cut is made, along which the cardboard is folded. a stronger method is to cut the roof in half and hinge the two pieces together by a piece of paper cut and coloured to represent tiles; thus the roof will open and shut easily without breaking. the roof can be coloured or covered with blue paper. when the body of the ark is complete, it must be placed on to the bottom, so that it stands in the middle. two hinges on each long side will be sufficient to keep the ark steady, but hinges can also be made for the shorter sides. the hinges are more easily put on the outside, but would look neater if fastened inside the ark. one half of the roof is fastened by paper hinges to three sides of the ark; the other half opens and shuts. a strip of cardboard, the width of the door, is cut to form a gangway for the animals to enter the ark. across this matches should be glued. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] very effective animals can be made from corks, as explained in chapter vii. easily made animals are the elephant, camel, giraffe, horse and donkey. the children will suggest other possible animals, _e.g._ a hedgehog, or porcupine, a small cork with pins stuck in it, etc. noah and his wife and children can be made from corks. a cork is filed round the narrowest end to form the head (fig. ). eyes, mouth, etc., can be marked in ink. round noah is pasted a piece of coloured paper to form a cloak, open in front; this, with the help of match sticks for legs, enables him to stand. half matches form the arms. a piece of round paper gummed to the head forms a hat. noah's wife (fig. ) has a piece of coloured paper round her body to form a skirt, on which she stands. =a dog kennel= (fig. ). this toy is made of either cardboard or stiff paper, on lines similar to those of the noah's ark. the bottom and the sides can be made from one piece, - / inches by inches (fig. ). half cuts are made along h a and b c. in fixing the front of the kennel it will be noticed that the bottom and the sides project beyond it. the back portion can be fixed to coincide with the edges of the bottom and sides. the roof can be measured and fixed as described in the noah's ark. planks can be indicated by drawing lines across the sides and the roof. the kennel may be fastened to two strips of wood, y and x. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a shop.= this can be made like the noah's ark, except that the bottom will, of course, be a rectangle, and one long side must be left open. the children can turn cardboard boxes of different kinds into shops quite easily. perhaps one of the easiest shops to make is the butcher's. the inside can be covered with white paper, upon which the children have drawn tiles in blue or green pencil. a little paying-desk (fig. ) can be made of brown paper and gummed to one of the walls. tables can be made of cardboard, or of wood if the children have begun woodwork. joints of meat drawn on cardboard, and coloured with red pencil, look very realistic when cut out. to hang these the children can hammer nails half way into a piece of stripwood and glue it to the wall. the joints can be attached to the nails by pieces of string. [illustration: fig. ] other toys that can be made in a similar way from stiff paper or cardboard are castles, houses, a sentry-box. =a wheelbarrow= (fig. ). this toy is made of cardboard of medium thickness. fig. shows how the bottom and the sides are cut out from one piece. half cuts are made along the dotted lines. small holes are made at d and c for the axle of the wheel. figs. and show the two ends of the barrow. before placing them in position a little seccotine should be put round their edges; with the help of this and the slits they will be quite firm. the wheel is about / inches in radius. it is mounted on an axle made of a rounded match stick or piece of cane. two small pieces of cork can be filed to the shape of e and f in fig. , and holes made through them. they are then slipped on to the axle on each side of the wheel (fig. ) to prevent the latter from wobbling. the legs are made of strips of cardboard about / inch wide and - / inches long (fig. ). a very slight half cut is made along the dotted line, so that part of the leg, k, may be bent straight when h is gummed to the side of the wheelbarrow. fig. shows another method of making the legs. a half cut is made along the dotted line, h is bent back at right angles to k and is gummed to the side of the barrow. the slant of the dotted line is the same as the slant of the sides of a in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this toy could also be made of three-ply wood with a fret-saw. the sides and bottom would then have to be cut in three separate pieces. chapter xi simple woodwork children as young as seven can begin woodwork, but the little strength they possess for sawing makes it necessary to give them prepared wood, called stripwood. there is no need, however, to begin woodwork in too great a hurry, so many are the toys which the children can make with match-boxes, corks, paper and files, and the more familiar the child gets with his ruler and with simple measurements, the better able he is to saw to advantage. woodwork may well be postponed to the age of eight or nine, then the child can begin to measure accurately and be introduced by degrees to the mysteries of set-squares, try-squares and t-squares. [illustration: fig. ] the following tools are necessary when beginning easy woodwork with children from seven to ten years of age; other tools, described in part ii, can be added as the children advance in age and in ambition: . bench-hooks, against which children can press their strips of wood and hold them firmly. a simple one is shown in fig. . c is a piece of hard wood about inches square, a is a strip of hard wood against which the child can hold her wood, b is a strip of wood that presses against the table. . try-squares. . a brass-back saw with a blade about inches long. . a light hammer. . files--these are very cheap. some must be round; the others should be -inch files, / cut (one safe edge). . bradawls (or meat skewers). . a pair of pincers. other materials required will be liquid glue, sand-paper, nails--useful ones are / and / veneer pins. with regard to wood, children as young as seven should be given prepared lengths (schools are commonly supplied with the so-called satin walnut, machine-planed, see next chapter), from which they can saw portions for making simple objects, such as picture frames, ladders, gates, objects which consist of different lengths of wood nailed across each other. a word of advice is necessary with regard to sand-paper; this varies in coarseness from no. to no. , every sheet being stamped. it should never be used until all work with edged tools is finished, as the particles of sand left on the surface dull an edged tool. when using sand-paper on a flat surface it should be wrapped round a rectangular block of wood. all corners should be left as sharp as they are left by the edged tools and rarely sand-papered. lastly, always sand-paper with the grain. the bradawl varies in size or diameter of the steel shaft from / inch to / inch or / inch. the legitimate purpose of the bradawl is to bore holes in wood so as to ensure the passage of a nail or screw in the right direction, and to facilitate its entrance into the wood. three words of advice might be remembered by teachers beginning woodwork: ( ) don't begin it too soon; don't begin woodwork with children of seven and eight because others do; wait until they are really ready, until they have the necessary strength. there is plenty for them to do in measuring and cutting out paper toys and toys of thin cardboard; they will enjoy the woodwork the more when it comes. ( ) simple doll's furniture, chairs and tables, are not easy for the child to make. ( ) leave behind as soon as possible prepared stripwood and its everlasting gates, railings, bridges, or picture frames. _suggestions for teachers who are beginning woodwork with their forms._ let the children measure out and cut a square of wood to support the merry-go-round, make the stand for the swinging boats and great wheel (chapter xiv). make the noah's ark and dog kennel described in chapter x. a very simple toy for beginners is a =flat-bottomed boat=. a flat, oblong piece of wood is marked out as in fig. , the bow and stern are cut as indicated; the three dots down the central line indicate the position of the masts. these can be made of wooden meat skewers or of pieces of strip wood ( / " Ã� / ") rounded toward the top. [illustration: fig. ] nails are driven through the bottom of the boat so that they project about half an inch above the surface; on to these points the masts are hammered, having first had a little glue applied to the base; nails are hammered carefully round the sides for railings, with cotton intertwined. funnels of red paper, little squares of wood for cabins, paper or cardboard lifebuoys and anchors, a captain's bridge, etc., may be added (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] children delight in tying thread from mast to mast (a ridge must be filed round the tops of the masts to keep the cotton from slipping down) and in decorating this thread with flags. instead of nails, stripwood ( / " Ã� / ") may be glued or nailed along the sides, and a piece of wood nailed over the bow (fig. ). these boats will float on water if they are not too heavily laden with cabins, etc. fig. shows a fishing-boat complete. [illustration: fig. ] a reel will be found very useful as an anvil when driving the nails through the bottom of the boat to hold the masts. the child should hold his piece of wood--through which he is driving a nail--in such a position that when the point comes through the wood, the nail makes its passage down the hole in the middle of the reel. as soon as the point has been driven through to a certain distance, the child can lift up his wood and examine--and if need be correct--the direction of the nail before fixing on the mast. [illustration: fig. ] hammering must be done with the hammer held with the hand well back from the head, and each blow struck so that the flat face of the hammer falls exactly upon the head of the nail. gentle but firm blows are necessary; heavy blows are likely to bend the nails. all bent nails should be at once drawn out. chapter xii materials =nails.= the nails used in the making of the toys described in the following chapters are made of very fine wire, with fine points. the wire commonly used for such nails is gauge, but a finer gauge ( ) is better for light woodwork, for it does not split the wood so easily. the nails vary in length from / inch to inches, increasing by eighths of an inch. the most useful sizes are veneer pins / inch in length and / inch in length. panel pins have small heads. =liquid glue.= though this is dearer than ordinary glue (it can be obtained in small bottles, price - / d), it is always ready for use, and is not affected by exposure to the air, except that it thickens and hardens from evaporation. if spread thinly over the wood it holds the various pieces firmly together. when fastening different pieces of wood together it is well, whenever possible, both to glue and nail them. =wood.= ( ) _satin walnut_ is one of the easiest woods to work, and is adapted for a wide range of work, but it is liable to warp and twist badly unless properly seasoned. for handwork in school, and for toy-making generally, satin walnut machine-planed can be had in the following useful sizes. they are supplied in lengths of feet and are done up in bundles of . (_a_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " about s. d. per bundle. (_b_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " " s. " " (_c_) ' Ã� / " Ã� / " " s. d. " " (_d_) ' Ã� / " Ã� " " s. " " ' Ã� / " Ã� " " s. " " in the toys described in the following chapters satin walnut lengths (_a_), (_b_), (_c_), and (_d_) are referred to simply as stripwood. ( ) _round dowel rods_ in beech or birch / inch to / inch diameter and inches long are useful for axles and for the perches for the swinging animals, etc. these dowel rods cost s. to s. per . dowels are made by planing up a strip square in section, then planing off the corners, and finally the resulting eight corners. they are now nearly round, and can be made quite so by hammering them through a hole in a piece of hard wood or metal. ( ) _sawn laths such as builders use_ are perhaps the cheapest material that it is possible to get. these can be got from builders' and timber-merchants' yards at a cost of about d. to s. per bundle of . each lath is ' " Ã� " Ã� / ". ( ) "_three-ply_" is composed of three thin layers of wood glued together under pressure. the grain of the centre layer is laid at right angles to that of the other two, so as to give additional strength and to avoid warping. "three-ply" will not split easily and should be used for the jointed animals and swinging animals described in chapter xx. ply-wood is usually sold in thicknesses varying from / inch to / inch. price of three-ply boards in large squares for cutting up: / in. thick, " Ã� ", / d. per sq. foot. / " " Ã� ", d. " " / " " Ã� ", - / d. " " =match stales.= these are sometimes useful in toy-making, though ordinary matches that have been used generally serve as well. match stales may be obtained from messrs bryant & may's, fairfield works, bow, e., at s. per bundle (about to the bundle). these are supplied without brimstone, - / inches long, and thicker than the matches in common use. most of the wood so far described is prepared wood (with the exception of builders' laths), and is ready for use at once; it has merely to be sawn to the right length or the right size. but it is well to get the children away as soon as possible from dependence upon this "prepared material" and to encourage them to use "waste material." if there is a kitchen or tuck shop in connexion with the school this will supply the children with useful wooden and cardboard boxes of various sizes. the wooden boxes in which fry's, cadbury's, etc., chocolates are packed are most useful in toy-making. the wood is easy to saw and fairly free from knots. if no school kitchen or tuck shop exists a grocer, for a few pence, will supply a delightful collection of wooden boxes, sweet-boxes, soap-boxes, boxes that have contained bovril, etc. the greater part of every wooden toy in this book has been made from materials such as these. to avoid expense one should begin at once to collect useful boxes; this adds to the enjoyment of toy-making. a tobacconist will often give away his cigar-boxes, the wood of which is a pretty brown colour and very useful. unfortunately, it is sometimes so thin that it is very liable to split. it is difficult, too, to get the paper off some boxes, and the children who resort to washing, scrubbing, and sometimes boiling (!) the wood do not improve it. however, all waste wood has to be prepared in some way; generally the file and sand-paper will make it ready for use. other materials that are invaluable to the toy-maker and should be carefully preserved are old broom handles, reels, and the round rods of various sizes that one often comes across. lead plays an important part in many toys; sheet lead can be bought in pennyworths; lead buttons can also be bought. chains are also useful (for example, in part ii, in the drawbridge, the siege tower, etc.), so toy watch chains or any odd pieces should be preserved, as these chains look more effective than those made of wire. very good chain can be bought from an ironmonger's--price, d. a yard. chapter xiii some difficulties in toy-making i. =gluing.= generally when pieces of wood are fastened together, both glue and nails should be used; the glue prevents the wood from revolving on the nails, and the nails hold when sometimes a sudden jar will cause pieces of wood that are glued to separate. however, if glueing be well done, it will serve well without nailing, and it is often convenient to use glue only when making small toys or when adding a piece of wood to a delicate toy that will not stand the shock of the hammer. to apply glue so that the pieces of wood that it fastens shall hold together permanently, the following points should be borne in mind: ( ) the layer of glue should be so thin that the seam will scarcely be seen. ( ) the glue must be perfectly free from sawdust, shavings, etc., and so must the wood. ( ) glue must be evenly and thinly applied to _both_ the surfaces that are to be joined. ( ) the surfaces to be joined must be perfectly smooth. ( ) time must be given for the glue to dry. children often want to touch too soon. ii. =nailing.= generally in nailing holes should first be made for the nail with a fine bradawl or drill. the holes for the nails should be made just large enough to allow them to stand upright in them without being held. the points or heads of nails that project should always be filed away. iii. =sand-papering.= a holder for sand-paper should be used, as by simply holding the sheet in the fingers it is impossible to retain the perfect flatness of the surface. a holder can be bought for twopence. sand-paper should always be applied with a very light pressure, lest it wear away the surface unequally. iv. =filing.= filing should be resorted to as little as possible. _avoid filing the sawn edges._ children often saw carelessly, relying on the file to remedy defects. the file, however, is useful when cutting discs, to make the circle perfect. round files are very useful in finishing off round holes and in enlarging them when required. the sharp edges of triangular files can be used for making notches, such as those in the deck-chair (part ii, chapter iii). v. =the making of wheels.= the child toy-maker often finds wheels somewhat of a problem. there are, however, several ways of making or getting them. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) small reels make good wheels for trams, motor-cars or trains. they require no sawing. fig. shows how they are fastened on. a is a block of wood glued and nailed on to the axle, b c, which is made of stripwood, / Ã� / inch, or / Ã� / inch; the ends, f b and g c, are rounded so that the reels can revolve easily on them. the bottom of the car is glued to the block. the reels can be placed quite under the bottom of the car, as in diagram, or they can project. for a train the wheels should be placed underneath. ( ) large reels may be sawn into several thicknesses. these make excellent wheels, but are very difficult to saw even with a mitre block. it is hard to hold them steady and there is some danger of the children sawing their fingers. ( ) broom handles, round rods, etc., are easily sawn up and make excellent wheels. holes have to be drilled through them and enlarged with round file for the axle, or a hole the right size can be made at once with the brace and bit. (for use of which see part ii.) ( ) wheels can be made with the brace and centre-bit. the way for the centre-bit must be prepared by using a small-sized pin-bit. the wood must be laid perfectly flat, the brace and bit held perfectly perpendicular, only a little pressure applied upon the knob and the crank turned slowly. the boring must be done half way through from each side of the wood, and this will liberate a disc of wood inch in diameter, or - / inch, according to the size of the centre-bit. ( ) there is a little instrument sold called a circle-cutter (price, s.), designed for cutting small circular pieces of wood from satin walnut board. it is so constructed that it will cut circles of any size up to inches in diameter. this, however, is difficult for children to use. ( ) for large wheels or table-tops a circle can be drawn in a square, the corners sawn off, the obtuse corners sawn off again and then filed perfectly round. this is rather a laborious method, but quite successful. holes can be made in the centre with a bradawl and enlarged with a round file. ( ) _cardboard wheels._ wheels can be cut out of cardboard with scissors and pen-knife (the latter is necessary only if the spokes are to be cut out). if several cardboard wheels of the same size are gummed together, a wheel strong enough for any toy in this book can be made. the edges can be filed to make them perfectly even. cardboard washers prevent the wheels from wobbling. ( ) the fret-saw (see part ii) is very useful for making wheels. ( ) the wooden tops of gloy bottles make very good wheels indeed (especially for motor-cars). they are ready for use at once, as they have a hole in the centre. also the tin tops of le page's liquid glue make excellent small wheels; a hole can easily be made in the centre by means of a hammer and a long nail or the pin stopper of a tube of seccotine. ( ) wheels can be bought. a sheet of four wheels costs a penny. this is the least satisfactory course. of the various ways of making wheels described above, the methods best suited to little ones are ( ), ( ), ( ), ( ), and ( ). the axles should be narrow strips of wood, with the ends rounded. round rods do not make good axles, because they cannot be fastened securely to the bottom of the vehicle, the nailing being a difficult matter for the children. in fastening the axles to vans, carts, etc., there is no need for block a (fig. ); the latter is only introduced when the wheels have to be under the vehicle; in other cases the axle can be glued and nailed directly to the bottom. =colouring the finished toy.= a well-made toy is beautiful without paint, which is often used merely to hide bad work and give a false appearance of finish. children generally like the wooden toys, which they have made, uncoloured, until the grown-up person suggests paint. however, some toys should be coloured; for example, the swinging animals described in chapter xx. if the wood has been well sand-papered water-colour paints can be used. older children can use oil paints or penny tins of enamel. but let the children realise the beauty of plain wood; the drawbridge in part ii is far more effective in white wood, with the stones marked out in pencil or crayon, than if painted. chapter xiv merry-go-round, swinging boats, and great wheel a toy children delight to make is the =merry-go-round= (plate v). it has been made successfully by children from six to twelve. a square piece of stout cardboard ( -inch side) forms the bottom; this can be covered with brown paper or coloured paper. a reel is glued in the middle. into this reel a stick (about inches long) is fastened securely. another piece of cardboard is cut round (diameter, inches), and has a reel glued in the middle; this reel fits on the top of the stick and must turn freely. if the stick is square the top must be rounded to fit the reel. a handle for turning the top can be made from a reel, a piece of cork filed round or a piece of wood. cork horses, six or eight in number, are made as described in chapter vii. paper bands of various colours are gummed round the middle of each horse. these horses are fastened to the top disc by pieces of cane, which may be gummed into the top disc, or simply passed through the holes and bent over. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] paper boys and girls can be cut out to ride on the horses. they will sit on quite steadily if cut out as in fig. . a piece of paper is folded in two along a b, and a little sailor boy drawn; the figure is cut out, the two halves remaining joined along c d. both sides should be suitably coloured. the figure will be found to have four hands; one raised one on one side, and one lower one on the other, should be cut away. the heads are then gummed together. when placed on horseback the sailor may have his arms folded round the cane. little girls in sun-bonnets can be cut out in the same way. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a very simple merry-go-round made by a large class, and more suited to the work of a large form than the first one described. two square pieces of cardboard ( - / -inch sides) form the top and bottom. small reels are glued on as in the first merry-go-round. four pieces of stout cane are pushed into holes in the top piece of cardboard, and the bottom of each piece of cane is split so that it holds a horse cut out of paper. the children themselves will think of various ways of altering and improving this toy. fig. shows how match-boxes may be hung round for cars; match-boxes and horses may also be hung alternately. the children delight in decorating the top of their merry-go-round and the stick with coloured paper. [illustration: fig. ] older children (nine to twelve) like to make the bottom and top of wood; in this case the top may be octagonal in shape. the central pillar, instead of being supported by a reel, can then be fastened as in fig. , by four triangular supports (of which only two are shown). =swinging boats= (plate vi). this is another simple and effective toy that little ones can make and play with. the wooden stand can only be made by children of eight and older; a simpler stand can have a cardboard bottom, the supports being reels, the posts stripwood ( / " Ã� / "), sand-papered to fit reels, and the cross-beam a strip of cardboard with holes in it. the boats are match-boxes. four strips of thick paper, all equal in length (a little longer than the match-box), are cut out and gummed inside the box, as a b, c d, etc., in fig. . a match stick, h, passes through these strips of paper where they cross and projects on each side. pieces of thread are tied to each end of the projecting ends. these threads fasten the car to the cross-beam. [illustration: plate v a merry-go-round] [illustration: fig. ] paper seats should be put in the box; it can be covered with coloured paper, and the strips a b, e f, etc., either chalked or covered with coloured paper. the children delight in making and decorating these swinging boats, and then swinging little dolls. =a great wheel= (plate vi). two circular pieces of cardboard are glued to a large reel; four match sticks are fastened into holes opposite each other, and to these match-boxes are attached, as explained in the previous toy. a round rod or wooden skewer passes through the reel and through two holes drilled in the wooden supports of the stand. a slight touch will set the wheel spinning. before putting the wheel together, the sides may be painted. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows another possible shape for the top of the supports. this hollow can be quite easily filed out with a round file. older children might like to make a pulley, as shown in fig. , by means of which the wheel can be turned. the pulley wheels, a and b, are each made of three cardboard circles gummed together, the inner one, in both cases, being of smaller diameter. a is glued to axle f g. [illustration: fig. ] a smaller axle, j h, is fixed into a hole in the support lower down. a hole is made in the wheel, b, into which a match is glued for a handle. b must turn freely on the axle, j h, and is prevented from slipping off by a nail driven through the axle. a small elastic band connects the two wheels. chapter xv flying airships, gondolas, and birds (plate vi) these toys are made in a somewhat similar manner to the merry-go-round. get a large reel (diameter about - / inches). next saw a piece of stripwood, a b, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue and nail to the ends of this cross-pieces of the same stripwood, - / inches long. make holes for nails with a fine drill, otherwise the stripwood may split. glue and nail a b across the top of the reel as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ". glue and nail cross-pieces - / inches long to one end of each of these. glue and nail them to the reel as in figure. next glue and nail another large reel to the centre of a board about inches by - / inches. get a dowel rod that will fit the reels (diameter about / inch), or file the ends of a square stick to fit; this central pillar should be about inches high. glue this pillar into the reel on the board and fit the other reel with the cross-pieces on the top of the pillar. [illustration: fig. ] the cars must next be made; they will hang by two strings from the ends of the cross-pieces (fig. ). grooves may be filed round the ends of the cross-pieces for tying the cotton, or holes can be drilled in the ends before the cross-pieces are fastened on. the cars are made of paper, cardboard or wood. fig. shows the pattern of a car. it should be - / inches long and inches wide. the dotted lines show where the paper is to be bent, or in the case of cardboard half cut and bent. the width of the bottom of the car is inches, the roof - / inches; this allows for bending, and makes a curved roof. the doors can be made to meet if desired; in this case each door will be inch wide. five, four or three windows may be cut in the sides, and windows in the doors. paper seats may be fitted inside. to hang the car a rod is cut, about inches long, e f in fig. , and grooves are filed at each end. this is glued to the top of the car, with the ends projecting. pieces of cotton attach the beam e f to the cross-piece. (length of cotton, about inches.) [illustration: fig. ] a reel may be glued on the top of the arms for turning the airships; cotton may be wound round this, and when pulled causes the cars to revolve. into the hole of the top reel may be inserted a stick bearing a flag. paint the cars according to taste. when the top reel is set spinning the cars fly round and outward in a delightful manner, gradually returning to a vertical position as the speed lessens. =gondolas.= for the cars gondolas may be substituted, as in fig. . these gondolas form simple and effective paper toys, even if not attached to revolving arms. draw on stout paper or cardboard and cut out the two sides, a a, as in fig. . the total length of the boat should be inches. next draw a line on a piece of paper, _a´ b´_ in fig. , the same length as _a b_ in fig. . divide the line into three parts at _c´_ and _d´_. _a´ c´_ represents the length _a c_ in fig. ; _c´ d´_ (not shown to scale), the length of the cabin _c d_. if the full length of the gondola is inches, the length _a b_ will be about - / inches, and the length _a c_ should be inches; this makes the length of the cabin, _c d_, about - / inches. draw two lines at _c´_ and _d´_ at right angles to _a´ b´_. make _e f_ and _g h_ (fig. ) equal to the widest part of the gondola. (if the length of inches has been decided on, the width of the gondola should be - / inches.) complete triangles _a´ f e_ and _g b´ h_ as in fig. ; draw flanges as in diagram and cut out. two other triangles exactly the same size with flanges will be required. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now fasten together the bows, b, and the sterns, c, of the sides, a a (fig. ), with seccotine, taking care that no gum comes below the line _a b_. gum the triangle _a´ f e_ (fig. ) to the sides, a a, as in fig. . point _a_ must come at the very end of the sides a, and the surface of _a f e_ forms the deck. gum triangle _g h b´_ to the sides, a, in the same way (fig. ). now gum the other two triangles to the bottom of the gondola. their apexes will probably come at about k and m in fig. . the positions of these points can be determined by finding out at what spot the triangle brings the sides a a closely together; try to keep them as far from ends _a_ and _b_ as possible. [illustration: swinging boats and great wheel (chapter xiv)] [illustration: plate vi flying gondolas, etc.] the space left between the two bottom triangles has a piece of paper gummed over it. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the shape of the cabin and the measurements required for a cabin for a gondola of inches. four gondolas should be made. they should be painted black and red, or black and yellow, according to taste. the gondolas are hung from cross-pieces, like the airships, but the arms should be - / inches, and the cross-pieces inches; the strings must be of different lengths, since the bow is higher than the stern. seats may be put in the cabins if desired. [illustration: fig. ] =flying birds.= cut four arms as for the gondolas (stripwood / " Ã� / " will do), drill small holes at one end, glue and nail them to a reel. cut four short arms - / inches and glue them on between the long arms as in fig. . the birds are made of cardboard and corks. the birds from the long arms should hang low down, and the birds from the short arms higher up. cane may be used for hanging the birds to the arms. the outer circle may be hung with sea-gulls (fig. ), and the inner circle with swallows (fig. ), or all the birds may be swallows. when the reel is turned quickly the birds in flight are very effective. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how the sea-gull is made out of a cork and four pieces of cardboard (one for the head, two for the wings, one for the tail). paint the cork white, paint eyes and a beak, mark a few feathers on the wings. figs. , , show how the swallow is made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: figs. , ] chapter xvi fire-engine, motor-lorry, and steam-roller (plate vii) [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-engine= (fig. ). for this toy two cardboard boxes are required, one about " Ã� " Ã� ", a in fig. , and the other, b, " Ã� " Ã� ". the cardboard case that contains le page's glue is a suitable size for b. make holes through both sides of a, about inch from one end, for the axle of the large wheels, and holes through b at k and j for the pieces of cane that support the ladders. gum b to a and cover both with red paper. d is part of a round mantle-box, and the funnel, e, a roll of paper. both are coloured yellow, f is a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, cut the right length and glued to b and to two supports, h. a similar piece is fastened on the other side. these are for the firemen to stand on. they may be left their natural colour or coloured grey. the seat, c, is a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, with a paper back, and l m are match sticks glued to the sides. g, the foot-rest, is made of cardboard and fastened to box, b, by two wedge-shaped pieces of wood. the ladders are made of strips of cardboard, with half matches as rungs. n is a piece of cardboard gummed underneath a and projecting from it / inch for the fireman's stand. this stand, seat, foot-rest, ladders, etc., should be coloured red. the small wheel is about inches in diameter. the diameter of the large wheel can be measured when the smaller wheels are in position. [illustration: fig. ] =a motor-lorry= (fig. ). the foundation is a piece of stout cardboard or wood. a is an open box gummed to this, and covered with paper, suitably coloured. b is part of a box cut as in figure and gummed to a. inside b a wooden seat, d, is fixed. c is a smaller box, gummed upside down. the size of the lorry will depend upon the boxes procurable. it can also be made of wood, in which case the windows, d and e, and the curved portion of b can be cut out with a fret-saw (see part ii). both this toy and the fire-engine look very effective made of wood. [illustration: plate vii fire-engine, motor-lorry and steam-roller] =a steam-roller= (fig. ). fig. shows the foundation of the steam-roller, a b, c d, etc., are pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch. the front roller is made of a small mantle-box about - / inches in length. the cover is glued on, holes are made at each end and a round, wooden axle passed through. the ends of the axle should be filed flat as in fig. , so that a and c (fig. ) can be glued to them. the roller may be painted black. cut a piece of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches. bend this round so that it fits between a b and c d (fig. ); place the roller in position, mark with pencil the portions of cardboard that cover the roller and cut these off (see the shaded parts in fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the construction from cardboard of the part of the cab marked g in fig. . half cuts are made along the dotted lines; the axle of the side wheels passes through the openings x and y. fig. shows the part of the cab marked h in fig. . next cut a strip of wood, - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", for an axle for the side wheels, and round the ends; the wheels are inches in diameter. fasten these to the axle. now glue the ends of the axle for the front roller to a and c. while this is drying colour the cardboard parts of the engine dark green. bend j (fig. ) and glue this part to the inner sides of a b and c d. cover the part marked k (fig. ) with paper; the part underneath k may remain uncovered. glue the axle of the side wheels in position behind j, with just sufficient space for g to slip in between the engine and the axle. when the axle is secure glue g and h in position; g is glued to the inner sides of d c and b a, h is glued to the inner sides of blocks e and f. the supports, o and n (fig. ), are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] m and l are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". these supports are / inch shorter, as they stand on the axle of the side wheels. the roof is of cardboard coloured green. q is a cardboard wheel glued to l, and joined to the dome by a strip of cardboard, t, bent as in fig. . _a_ is inserted into a slit in the cork, and _b_ is gummed to the wheel. the steps, r, are made of stiff paper. the funnel and the dome are made of corks. chapter xvii gipsy caravan and bathing machine the foundation of the =caravan= is a piece of wood or cardboard, - / inches by inches. the sides are made of stiff paper or cardboard. for each of the long sides draw a rectangle, inches by - / inches, and to each side add / -inch flanges. make the two ends as follows: [illustration: fig. ] draw e f (fig. ) inches, mark off e k and f l / inch each; erect perpendiculars k o and l p; with e as centre and radius, - / inches (_i.e._ height of side a in fig. ) cut k o at g, find point h in the same way, join g e and h f. find m, the centre of e f; with m as centre and radius m g describe an arc from g to h. mark flanges along the top, g h, to which the roof can be gummed, and a flange at the bottom. in front and at the sides draw and colour the windows, which may be made to open. at the back cut out a door (fig. ). colour the sides a light brown. fasten up the caravan by the flanges; the base projects / inch at the front. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the roof is made of brown paper and should be cut to project about / inch over the sides and end of the caravan. it is then gummed to the flanges. the chimney is a roll of brown paper. the wheels should be at least inches in diameter. steps can be made of cardboard and paper, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a bathing machine= (fig. ). this is similar to the noah's ark. the measurements are as follows: base, inches by inches; sides, inches by - / inches. measurements for the ends are given in fig. . the roof should be cut to project about / inch over the sides and end of the machine. cut a door in one end. paint the machine in red and white stripes, mark the windows on each side and a number in front. the wheels should be about - / inches in diameter. steps may be added. chapter xviii a train and railway station (plate viii) =a train.= ( ) _the engine_ (fig. ). the body of the engine, a, is a long mantle-box or a piece of old curtain pole, about - / inches long. the wooden bottom, b c, is - / inches by - / inches. a is glued to b c and kept in position by wooden blocks, e and f. the funnel and the dome are made from corks or pieces of round wood; their ends must be slightly concave, so that they may fit securely to a. a ring of cardboard is gummed to the top of the funnel, which may have a hole in it to take a piece of cotton-wool for smoke. the rim of the funnel and the dome are coloured yellow. the boiler can be covered with dark green or dark red paper. the buffers are pieces of round rod, to which cardboard discs are gummed. [illustration: fig. ] the cab is made of cardboard, as shown in fig. , and is coloured to match the engine. g k l m is gummed to the back of a (fig. ), and its sides are fastened to the footplate by the flanges. fig. shows the roof of the cab; the length, n o, is equal to the arc, g h k. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheels should be about - / inches in diameter and are fastened underneath b c, as described in chapter xiii. strips of cardboard, coloured black (d in fig. ), are glued to the wooden blocks behind the wheels. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _the tender_ (fig. ) can be made in various ways. the bottom is best made of wood, inches by - / inches. the sides may be made of wood, inches by - / inches; the back must be cut to fit exactly between the sides. when the back and the sides are glued in position two wedge-shaped blocks may be glued into the corners for strength. the buffers and the wheels as in the engine. the sides of the tender may also be cut out of one piece of cardboard and fastened to the bottom by flanges. it should be coloured to match the engine. pieces of cork dipped in ink make realistic coal. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _a cattle truck_ (fig. ). the foundation is a piece of wood, inches by - / inches. the sides may be cut from one piece of cardboard (fig. ) and coloured to represent bars, as in fig. . it may also be made of wood as follows: cut eight thin strips of wood, - / inches by / inch, a b c d, etc., and eight pieces - / inches by / , j k l m in fig. . the pieces are glued together to form the sides, as in fig. . the length of the cross-bar, x, can be obtained by measuring the distance between y and z. glue the sides to the bottom and to each other. wedges may be glued in the corners for strength. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) _a carriage_ (fig. ). the bottom is of wood, - / inches by - / inches. the carriage is made of cardboard, on the same principle as the cattle truck, according to the measurements given in fig. . the upper part of the door may be cut out and the lower part be made to open. the windows may be cut out or coloured with light blue pencil. the interior should be coloured or covered with paper to represent upholstering, etc. before fastening the cardboard to the bottom, glue to the corners of the bottom small blocks of wood, inch high, as supports for the cardboard seats, which should be gummed across them and be suitably coloured. cut the cardboard for the top and leave flanges for fastening it to the ends of the carriage. the top and the ends are coloured black or dark brown. a little piece of round wood or cork, coloured black, is gummed to the top for a lamp. the step is made of stiff brown paper. small screw eyes are screwed in the ends of the various parts of the train, which can be linked together by wire loops. =a railway station.= this station is a suitable size for the train already described. [illustration: train and station, signal-box and signal (part ii, chapter xii)] [illustration: plate viii red cross motor and taxi-cabs (chapter xix and part ii, chapter iii)] a (fig. ) is a piece of wood or cardboard, about feet by inches, standing on supports made of two match-boxes gummed together. b and c are pieces of cardboard fastened by flanges to a. d is a piece of cardboard gummed to supports e and f to cover the hollow in front; this and the platform may be suitably coloured. the railings are of cardboard and are fastened to a piece similar to d. advertisements may be cut from papers and fastened to the posts behind the railings; also the name of the station in the same way (see plate viii). [illustration: fig. ] the =ticket-office and waiting-room= is shown in fig. . this may be made from a cardboard box of suitable size, or from cardboard (according to the measurements given). the bar before the ticket-office is made of match sticks. tram tickets form good advertisements for the walls. additions to station: ( ) porter's truck. see chapter v. ( ) milk-cans. corks covered with silver paper. see chapter v. ( ) flower-pots. a cork filed the right shape and painted is used. the shrubs are cut out of cardboard, coloured and fastened into a slit in the cork (fig. ). ( ) lamp-posts (fig. ). a piece of round rod is placed in a reel or a cork to make it stand. the lamp is cut out of stiff paper, coloured as in the diagram, and is inserted in a slit at the top of the rod. a small piece of cane is passed through a hole near the top for the cross bar. ( ) benches and seats of various kinds may be made from cardboard. ( ) figures of men, women, etc., may be cut from illustrated papers and a strip of cardboard gummed behind them to make them stand upright. ( ) small boxes of various kinds may be placed on the platform for luggage. in country districts, where the station buildings are of a simple design, the children may be encouraged to make sketches of these, and to bring to the models described above such modifications as are to be found in their own locality. in part ii (chapter xii) models of working signals and a signal-box are described. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xix red cross motor and taxi-cab (plate viii) =red cross motor.= begin with a piece of wood - / " Ã� " Ã� / ". glue and nail to this two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", a b and c d in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut out a piece of wood inches by inches (a piece of cigar-box will do for this, or a piece of stout cardboard)--e in figs. and . saw out the corners f and g, so that the piece of wood e will fit between the strips c d and a b. saw slits at h and k to hold the cardboard hood. glue e in position as in fig. . a seat must be placed in front of e; it should measure about - / inches by / inch, and may be glued to a piece of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", which is glued to e as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the bonnet is made of two pieces of stripwood, m and n, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / "; these are glued together and glued on as in fig. . a piece of wood, p, well smoothed and with edges rounded, is glued over m and n. r is a piece of wood inches by inch, with the corners cut off or rounded. the hood is made of a piece of thin cardboard, inches by - / inches, cut as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] this hood may be painted grey or khaki-colour, and a cross painted in red on the sides, or cut out of red paper and gummed on. [illustration: fig. ] the hood is glued inside the strips of wood a b and c d in fig. , and fits into the slits h and k in e. for axles and wheels see chapter xiii. figs. and show another kind of van, made of cane and brown linen. =a taxi-cab.= begin with a piece of wood, inches by inches. cut out two pieces of cardboard (medium thickness), - / inches by - / inches. draw doors on them and cut out as in fig. . these pieces are painted the colour desired for the taxicab. [illustration: fig. ] cut out a piece of wood, - / inches by inches, for the back, a b. cut two blocks of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� " (c in fig. ), to be glued on to the bottom to support the seat and back, a b. when glueing these blocks in position see that they are about / inch from the end, and not quite close to the edges. if additional strength is required these blocks may be nailed as well as glued; the back, a b, is nailed and glued to these blocks. now cut two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue these posts - / inches from the back, a b (d e in fig. ). now glue on the sides. side f is glued to post d e, to block c and to back a b; the other side is glued in the same way. a cardboard seat may be glued across the blocks and painted the colour desired for the interior. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now to make the front of the cab. cut a piece of cardboard of medium thickness, - / inches by inches, g in fig. . draw and cut out the windows (the shaded portion of fig. ). to the bottom of g glue a piece of stripwood, h, / inch by / inch, leaving a strip of cardboard / inch wide on each side. h is for the driver's seat. now glue the front, g, to the posts e d (fig. ), and the block h to the bottom. [illustration: fig. ] two cardboard seats, cut as in fig. , should next be fastened by paper hinges to the inside of g. to make the top of the cab cut a piece of cardboard, - / inches by inches (fig. ). make a half cut along a b and bend. glue portion k to the back of the car a b, and l to the tops of the posts e d and to the sides f. if necessary a paper hinge can be used to fasten the top l to the front g. a cardboard seat about inch wide is glued to the block h for the driver. the sides of this seat (m in fig. ) are made of pieces of wood, - / " Ã� " Ã� / ", one corner being rounded as in the figure, and they are glued to each side of the block h. two pieces of cane should be glued on each side and to the roof. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make the bonnet, first cut the piece of wood p, inches by - / inches (fig. ). two round cardboard discs, r and s, with centres painted red are glued at each corner. next two pieces of wood the shape of q in figs. and are cut out. one piece, r, is glued to p, and p is glued to the bottom - / inches from the front (see fig. ). the other piece, q, is glued in front. a piece of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches, is cut as in fig. ; half cuts are made along the dotted lines. it is painted as in the diagram. this piece of cardboard is bent along the dotted lines and glued round q and r to form the bonnet. two pieces of wood, / " Ã� / " Ã� / " (s and t in fig. ) are glued in front on each side of the bonnet; these have round pieces of cardboard gummed to them to represent lanterns. a number should be glued behind and in front of the car and a steering wheel added. the wheels may be made of wood or cardboard; diameter about inches (see chapter xiii). chapter xx swinging and jointed animals (plate ix) the peacock, monkey, and other animals with long tails can be cut from cardboard, and by means of lead buttons attached to their tails be made to swing realistically on a perch. it is difficult in some animals to get the balance correct and the position natural. if the drawings in this book are carefully enlarged and the lead buttons placed on the spot (a) indicated, they will be found to produce satisfactory animals. they look most effective and move more readily when made from three-ply wood with the fret-saw (see part ii), but this work is beyond the ten-year-old child. children of ten and younger can, however, make them quite well of cardboard (the thicker the cardboard, providing the children can cut it with scissors, the better). a set made of wood by the teacher will form a delightful plaything for very little ones, and even material for nature lessons. the =mouse= (fig. ) should be drawn on cardboard, cut out, and both sides coloured. if grey cardboard is used, eyes, whiskers, etc., can be drawn in sepia. two lead buttons (about the size of halfpennies) are glued one on each side of the tail (at a); pieces of paper should then be glued over the buttons and painted to match the tail. children will find it easier to draw these animals if a piece of cardboard is given them on which the animal to be drawn will just fit. the colouring should be as simple as possible to be effective. the stand is similar to that for the swinging boats, but with a rounded bar, on which the part of the animal marked b will rest. the =cat= (fig. ), enlarged, made more fierce-looking and with stripes painted on it makes a very terrifying tiger, ready to spring. the =monkey= (fig. ) may have another monkey swinging from his tail, and so on. animals with movable limbs can also be cut from three-ply wood (see part ii) or cardboard. if cut from cardboard the various joints are fastened by small paper-fasteners. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: plate ix swinging and jointed animals] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to make the =elephant= cut out two pieces the shape of a for the body (fig. ), and make four holes in each piece as in the diagram. next, cut out four legs, and fasten two to each portion of the body by little paper-fasteners, then cut out the tail and fasten it between the two pieces that form the body; cut out two ears and the head; one fastener will hold the ears, the sides and the head together; the head is inside the two bodies, the ears outside. [illustration: fig. ] the =giraffe= (fig. ) can be made in a similar way. the =butterfly= and the =dragon-fly= (figs. and ) have their wings and feelers cut out of cartridge paper and gummed on to cardboard bodies, so that when the animals swing their wings wave in a realistic manner. fig. shows how cardboard =crabs= and =lobsters= can be mounted amid under-sea surroundings. part ii chapter i additional tools besides the tools mentioned in part i, viz., bench-hook, hammer, saw, file, bradawl, pincers, the following additional tools will be found of service, though some of these are luxuries, and generally it is best to use as few as possible: . a larger saw, for sawing rougher and larger wood than stripwood, _e.g._ a _tenon saw_, length to inches; to points to an inch, price about one and ninepence. . _an archimedean drill._ this is useful for making small holes when there is danger of the wood splitting, however when once this drill is used, the worker never again feels inclined to use a bradawl or any other kind of boring tool. a quite useful and efficient drill can be bought for sixpence. care must be taken that the drill bits or drill points do not break, for being quite slender and made of tempered steel they are rather fragile. a set of twelve drill points in assorted sizes in a metal case may be bought for sixpence. (for hints on the use of drill, see under fret-saw.) . the _cramp_ or clamp is a contrivance used for holding boards together. an adjustable g cramp is a handy article for small work. there are several models of g cramps; that shown in the plate costs twopence. . a _rasp_ or rough file for removing from boxes either paper or the names that are sometimes stamped on them. . _brace and bit._ the smallest-sized brace, which has a sweep of inches, is the most convenient for children. bits are of many patterns. the most common form is the _centre-bit_ which will cut holes from / inch to - / inches in diameter. the _pin-bit_ or shell-bit of the smallest bore is used to make small-sized holes for screws, etc., but more especially when making preparation for using the centre-bit. a _centre-bit_ - / inches in diameter costs ninepence; a brace and bit ( / inch diameter) together costs one and threepence; this latter bit is useful for boring holes in wheels for axles, etc. however the brace and bit is somewhat of a luxury and can be done without, for holes made with the archimedean drill can always be enlarged to the required size, by means of round files and patience. . the _mitre-block_ is a piece of beech-wood carefully squared and rebated so as to present throughout its length a rectangular step-like recess in which the wood to be mitred is placed in order to be cut at the necessary angle. in the raised part are three saw kerfs, two at an angle of ° with the sides of the mitre-block and one half-way between these at right angles to the sides. the inclination of the saw-cuts at an angle of ° is to the right and left respectively, so that when these angles are brought together in the mitred joint they may form a perfect right angle ( °). the mitre-block is a luxury, but it is useful in squaring off the ends of the wood, making picture frames, making the crane (chapter v), etc., price sixpence. a _compass_, _protractor_, _ruler_, _try-square_ and well-sharpened _pencil_ will be found useful in making nearly every toy. a _plane_ is not necessary for any of the toys described in the following chapters, but is mentioned here in case anyone should require one for reducing the thickness of wood or straightening a surface. the most economical one is a jack-plane fitted with a smoothing-plane iron. the jack-plane thus equipped may be used for reducing thicknesses of material (this is the real function of the jack-plane) as well as for planing up surfaces true and smooth (the purpose of the smoothing-plane). the jack-plane iron has its cutting edge slightly rounded in order to gouge out the wood and thus reduce thickness quickly, the smoothing-plane iron is ground to a straight edge. if both these irons are bought, the plane becomes both a jack-and a smoothing-plane. the stanley bailey adjustable iron plane is a good one. no. size, inches long, is recommended. [illustration: plate x useful tools . fret-saw . 'non-slip' safety ruler . card knife (london pattern) . craft knife . g cramp . round-nose pliers . brass back metal saw . mitre block . tenon saw . archimedean drill . try square . file . bradawl . brace and bit . carton knife] however, as we have said before, it can be done without. the first four tools are the really necessary ones. _the preservation of tools._ keep tools in a dry atmosphere in a wooden box. have them instantly dried after grinding and whenever they have been in contact with wet. iron or steel parts should be frequently rubbed over with a piece of oily rag (if grease is used it must be free from salt). a speck of rust must be removed at once with fine emery-paper and oil. a generous coating of oil or vaseline should be given when tools are laid aside for some time. _the sharpening of tools._ chisels, planes and knives are sharpened on oilstones. the lily-white and the rosy-red washita oilstones are perhaps the best natural stones on the market. with regard to the oil used, machine, engine, neat's foot and sweet oils are all suitable. clean the stone after use. knives are sharpened at an angle on both sides, and will therefore have one side rubbed on the stone a few times and will then be turned over to rub the other side. pen-knives can be sharpened on the ordinary kitchen knifeboard. chapter ii capstan, dreadnought, liner [illustration: fig. ] saw a square piece of wood, side - / inches, a b c d (fig. ). cut two others, sides - / inches. saw the corners of these and make them octagons.[ ] drill a hole through the centre of e (fig. ). into this hole glue a wooden meat skewer or round rod that will pass through the hole of a large reel. glue and nail e to a b c d. round the sides of f (fig. ) drill eight holes about / inch deep. make levers of wood to fit these holes as in fig. . match sticks could be used. now glue f to the top of the reel, g, taking care that the centre of f is over the centre of the reel. place the reel over the axle, round which it can be turned. the capstan can be used for dragging along a toy boat by means of a string tied to the boat and wound round the reel. [ ] to make an octagon from a square a b c d. draw a d and b c (fig. ). with centre c and radius c o mark points e and k, with centre d and same radius mark m and g, and so on. join e f, g h, j k, etc. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] a =dreadnought=. the bottom of the boat is made from a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches. shape the bow as in fig. . to this glue another piece of wood, a b c, shaped to fit over the first, and about inches in length. the two pieces can also be nailed together. [illustration: fig. ] cut a piece of wood, d, - / inches by - / inches, and glue and nail it to a b c. when these pieces are secure drill a hole through them at e for the mast. to carry the guns at the stern, shape two pieces of wood, g and f, in the form of circles or octagons, and glue and nail them in their place. the mast has holes drilled through it to hold pieces of cane. nail / inch nails round one end of d and tie black thread round them. the guns are made of small rolls of brown paper, narrower at one end and painted black or grey. they are glued in position. the guns h and k, are fastened to a small piece of wood, l, to raise them above the level of the deck. the funnels are made of pieces of round wood or rolls of paper. the whole boat is painted grey, and rigged with black thread. a =liner= (fig. ). the foundation of the boat is a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches, and about / inch in thickness, or thicker if possible. shape the bow as in the figure. round the stern. [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of cardboard - / inches by - / inches. these are for the decks (fig. ), and their stern ends must be shaped to correspond to the stern of the boat. place them together on the foundation and make holes right through along their edges about / inch apart. [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". place them one over the other and drill a hole ( / inch in diameter) at p, about - / inches from one end; this hole is to receive the mast, b. along each piece of stripwood mark little doors and windows or port-holes. glue each piece of stripwood along the middle of each cardboard deck, as in fig. , having made holes in the cardboard corresponding to the holes p drilled in the stripwood. now glue the stripwood of one piece to the middle of the cardboard of the other piece, taking care that the holes in each piece of cardboard are over each other (fig. ). while these pieces are drying, drill a hole about inches from the bow for the mast a; drill holes along the edge of the bow (c d e), / an inch apart. cut pieces of cane / inch to fit through the holes in the cardboard, and pieces about / inch in length for railings round the bow. now glue the stripwood, g, to the boat so that ends h and k correspond with the edge of the stern. while this is drying prepare the masts. the mainmast is about inches in length; this length allows it to stand inches above the upper cardboard deck; the foremast is about inches. round the foremast glue a circular piece of cardboard, m, resting on a nail passing through the mast. hammer a nail through at l for a spar, and put a piece of cane through a hole at n. [illustration: fig. ] glue the masts into position. put in a nail at o in the stern, and a piece of cane, d, at the bow. hammer in three nails in side d c and three on the other side for rigging. insert the strips of cane through the holes in the cardboard; put a little glue into the holes in the wooden deck, and tap the cane in very gently; put the smaller pieces of cane into the holes round the bow. tie cotton round the pieces of cane as in fig. ; tie cotton to masts, etc. the funnels are made of rolls of paper. if the liner is a cunarder, the funnels should be red with black bands round the top and two black lines lower down. the wooden sides of the boat are painted dark brown. chapter iii motor-car (plate viii), swinging cradle, deck-chair a piece of flat wood - / inches by - / inches forms the bottom of the car. two pieces of wood, - / inches by inch, are marked out and sawn as in fig. . if it is found too difficult to saw out the corner pieces e f g and h k l, piece a e c m can be cut right off, by sawing along a line e m; g m h n can be cut off by sawing along lines g m and h n, the same with l n b d. [illustration: fig. ] the corners e, f, g, h, k, l should be rounded with a file, as shown in the plate. the two side-pieces are then glued at each side of the bottom. front and back pieces are then cut, and fitted between the bottom and sides; also a top to fit over a e, and seats to fit over g h and l b. these seats are then provided with backs and arms as shown in the plate. axles and wheels should be made and put on as described in part i, chapter xiii. the wheels should be / an inch thick and have the edges rounded to represent the tyre. lastly the steering pillar, with cardboard wheel attached, is fixed into bottom. a drawback to this toy is that it is made of so many separate pieces of wood, but children delight in it and can make it most successfully. children from nine to twelve have turned out most effective motor-cars. =a swinging cradle= (fig. ). the _cradle_ is a wooden box, inches by - / inches, and inches deep. before nailing this together, holes must be drilled in the two short sides, large enough to take a wooden axle about / inch in diameter. a and b are two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� "; their tops are rounded and holes similar to those in the cradle are drilled in them about - / inches from the top. a is fastened to e, which is inches in length, by means of triangular pieces of wood, c and d, which are glued and nailed to a and e. [illustration: fig. ] f and k are wider pieces of wood, inches by inch. e is glued and nailed to f; a wider space must be left on one side of e so that the supports, h and g, can be fastened securely to f. g and h are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". for the axles on which the cradle swings two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / " must be cut and rounded, passed through holes in a and b, and glued securely to the holes in the sides of the cradle. =a deck-chair= (fig. ). two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", a b, c d, are taken. these are nailed and glued to e and f, each - / inches. e and f should not be placed too near the ends of a b and c d, as the wood may split when the nails are driven in. e and f may be rounded. for the smaller frame of the chair, cut two pieces of stripwood, inches in length. to get the measurements for the bars, m and l, place g h and j k inside a b c d as in fig. , and measure distances g j and h k. this must be done very accurately. before nailing g h and j k together, notches must be cut in them as in fig. . the wood is partly sawn through at n and o, and the notch is then filed out, the safe edge of the file being turned towards n and o. to make the support, two pieces of wood are cut inches in length, q r and u v in fig. , which shows how the length of the piece of wood s, which fastens q r and u v together, is obtained. frame g k is now nailed to frame a d (fig. ). fix the point for the nail at t about inches from h and b. when hammering the nail in at t, the bars a b and g h should rest upon the edge of the bench or table. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] from a and c measure distances of - / inches to r and v respectively. to these points nail the arms of the support, q r and u v. a piece of coloured print or casement cloth is fastened to e and l. other toys which can be made in a similar manner are a camp-stool, a clothes-horse, a screen. chapter iv a tram-car this toy is made of wood, cardboard and paper (cartridge). a piece of wood, e f g h (fig. ), - / inches by - / inches is required for the bottom of the car, and two pieces, a b c d, inches by - / inches, for the sides. the supports ( , , , , , ) are pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". [illustration: fig. ] glue three of these to one of the sides as in fig. , allowing a b c d to project beyond them for a space equal to the thickness of the wooden bottom of the car, e f g h. this forms one side of the car; make the other in the same way. fig. shows how the sides and seats are fastened to the bottom of the car. the seat is a piece of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ". the top of the car is made of thick cardboard cut as in fig. to the given measurements. before the top is fastened on strips of cartridge paper are gummed round its sides. these strips are about an inch wide, and are doubled in half; one half is gummed to the cardboard as in fig. . the other half bends downward and the names of places to which the car runs are printed on it. similar pieces are gummed to the top and bent upward to form the railings round the top (fig. .) [illustration: fig. ] these pieces are painted yellow and edged with dark brown. fig. shows the entrance to the interior of car. j and k are pieces of cardboard, coloured yellow, and glued into position; l is a similarly coloured piece of cardboard or paper glued to supports and . the other entrance is finished off in the same way. cut two pieces of cardboard, - / inches by - / inches, as in fig. . make half-cuts along the dotted lines. these pieces are bent round and glued to the ends of the bottom of the car (m, n, o in fig. ). these are also coloured yellow and their edges are dark brown. [illustration: fig. ] the wheels are put on as the wheels of the engine (part i, chapter xiii). cut two pieces of cartridge paper (p in fig. ), colour as described before, and gum under each end of car. part q is a piece of cardboard one inch wide, coloured like m n o, and gummed along the side, so that it covers at least half the wheels. the top can now be glued on. thin strips of wood or pieces of cane (s and t in fig. and ) are gummed in position. the steps into the car are made of cartridge paper coloured black. fig. shows the simplest way of making the stairs leading to the top of the car. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] w y is a piece of cardboard, inch wide, to which pieces of stiff paper are gummed as in diagram. x is a flap of paper which fastens the steps to the top of the car. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _seats for the top._ pieces of cartridge paper are cut out, - / inches by / inch, and coloured yellow. these are folded and cut as in figs. and . part _a_ is gummed to the side of the car, flap _b_ is gummed to the floor. the second seat is gummed back to back to the first seat (fig. ). the top of the car will hold about six of these double seats. single seats can be gummed in the corners. steering-wheels are made as in fig. . the top is of cardboard, cut or marked as in the figure and coloured black. this is gummed to a round rod, about - / inches in length, which is fastened to the end of the car (n in fig. ). a similar steering-wheel is fastened to the other end. chapter v a crane =a crane.= _foundation_, _arm_, _pulley_. cut a piece of wood about - / inches by - / inches (h in fig. ). cut a second piece a square, a, side - / inches. cut off the corners. this forms a stand on which the crane, etc., is fastened. cut a piece of stripwood, / " x / " x ". this is the arm of the crane, c, and is usually inclined at an angle of ° to °. to support this arm cut b with sides about / inch, angles ° or ° and °. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut two pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, each inches in length; shape like e and f in fig. . these can now be glued and nailed to the arm c, projecting an inch beyond. a wheel for the pulley is cut from a round rod about / inch in diameter. if a groove is to be made round the circumference, the wheel should be about / to / inch thick. the groove is made with a file. a simple way to make the groove is to cut two cardboard discs a little larger in diameter than the wheel and glue them to each side of the wheel, in which case the latter need not be quite so thick. a hole is drilled through the wheel and enlarged by a round file to / inch in diameter. a piece of wood is now rounded for an axle, so that the wheel turns on it easily. this must fit tightly between e and f. pass it through the wheel and glue it in position (g in fig. ). _winding gear._ cut two pieces of stripwood, / " x / " x ", j and k in fig. . round their tops, drill and enlarge holes in them. a hole must now be made through the centre of a, to enable this part to rotate on the foundation h, so that the crane may swing round in any direction. one of the simplest ways of doing this is to use a rivet, but if such is not procurable a screw may be used; the hole in a is made large enough for a to turn easily on the pivot which can be screwed into h. before this is done, pieces j and k are fastened to a about one inch apart. to do this, drive nails right through a in correct positions, glue the ends of j and k and hammer them on to the nails. the head of the nail should rest on a piece of metal when the wood is being hammered down on its point. the support b should now be glued and nailed to a. when b is firmly fixed the arm c is fastened to it. the hole in the centre of a must be left clear. a is now riveted or screwed to h. a wooden axle, p, is made to pass through holes in j and k, and to the ends of this axle wheels are glued. (the figure shows one only.) the wheels can be made from reels, or several discs of cardboard gummed together. before glueing on the wheels, wooden handles, l, are fastened to them. a wooden handle o is fastened to a. this is used for turning the crane. a piece of stout thread is tied to and wound round p and passed over the pulley. to the end of this a hook is fastened, made from wire or a bent pin. bags can be made and filled with sawdust, etc. [illustration: plate xi a crane] chapter vi windmill, water-wheel, and well =windmill= (plate xii). cut a square of wood, side inches. this is the stand a in fig. . to the centre of this glue a large reel, b. next cut two -inch squares of wood and drill through their centres holes of about / inch in diameter. glue one to the top of the reel so that the holes coincide. next cut and glue into position the supports, c. for these stripwood / inch by / inch can be used. cut two pieces of wood, inches by inches. these form two sides of the windmill; glue and nail them to the other -inch square, which forms the bottom of the windmill. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut two pieces of wood as in fig. , for the other sides of the windmill. drill a small hole in each at d about - / inches from the top. on one of these sides mark and paint a door and windows as in fig. , and over the door make a small roof, like the roof over the porch of the signal-box (chapter xii). the windows and door may be cut out with a fret-saw and the door hinged on by means of a strip of strong linen. glue and nail these sides in position. make and fix the roof. _the sails._ for these, two strips of wood, / inch square and inches long, are necessary. in the centre of each of these, cut a slot half-way through the wood so that one may fit tightly into the other (f in fig. ). the sails are made of cardboard, and are rectangular in shape, measuring inches by inches. they are coloured light brown, with dark markings on them, as shown in the plate. shape each end of the arms of the sails as in fig. . this is easily done by filing, if the wood is fairly soft. saw half-way through the wood at e, and file, or cut off the wood with a pen-knife. to this flat surface the sails are glued, so that they may be inclined to the wind. now glue the two arms together, and when they are firm make a hole through the middle, f, where the arms cross. take a short steel knitting needle, about - / inches; fix one end into this hole with glue; then glue a small piece of cardboard or wood over it, and a cork washer behind, to keep the sails from touching the walls of the windmill; pass the needle through the holes in the sides of the windmill and glue a little knob of wood to the other end to prevent the needle slipping back. if a needle cannot be obtained, an old bicycle spoke, or even a wooden meat skewer, will do, but in the latter case the holes in the walls must be made larger, and the sails fixed to the end of the skewer by a small nail. now glue a piece of round rod into the reel (h in fig. ) so that it projects about an inch. place the mill on this stand, so that the rod passes through the hole in the bottom of the mill. the mill can be turned round in any direction so that the sails may catch the wind. make a small ladder to reach the door. a very pretty but somewhat more difficult windmill is shown in fig. . it is made of cardboard. the foundation, platform and railings can be made as described in the case of the lighthouse (chapter xiii). the truncated hexagonal pyramid forming the body of the windmill is made as follows. with centre o (fig. ), and a radius of about inches, describe an arc, a b. from any point on this arc mark off six spaces, each inches. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] join the several points to each other and to o. with radius about inches make arc c d. join points where c d cuts radii, by dotted lines. draw the flanges; make half cuts along the dotted lines, cut out along the dark lines, and fold into shape. fasten together with seccotine; turn in the flanges at the bottom, and fasten them to the platform. the _top of the windmill_ can be cut from one piece of cardboard. draw square, a b c d (fig. ), large enough to project beyond top of hexagonal pyramid (side of square should be about inches). on the middle of d c draw m k = inches, and draw a similar line on a b. join a j, j b, k d and k c, by curved lines. produce a b and d c both ways. make b f, c e, d h, a g, equal in length to arc b j. draw the flange e f p o. make holes in the middle of a j b and d k c through which the knitting-needle (on which the sail is fastened) may pass. draw flanges on b j, j a, etc. make half cuts along the dotted lines, and cut along the dark lines. before fastening the top together, put a very small paper-clip through the middle of square, a b c d, and fasten it to a square of cardboard of the same size, so that it turns freely on it. this second square will be gummed to the top of the hexagonal pyramid, so that the top of the windmill may be turned in any direction. bend up a j b and d k c at right angles to square, a b c d. bend up b c e f and a d h g and gum them to the flanges of a j b and d k c; gum flange f o to a d h g. the sails are made as already described. =a water-wheel= (plate xii). _the wheel._ cut two discs of cardboard, inches in diameter. make holes in the centre, glue them to a small reel (about an inch high), and pass a round rod through for an axle. this wheel is an overshot water-wheel--that is, one that receives the water _shot over_ the top, and must be fitted with 'buckets.' these receive the water at the top of the wheel and retain it until they reach the lowest point (see fig. ). the 'buckets' may be made of stiff paper or thin cardboard. cut pieces inch in width, and in length the distance of the two wheels apart plus / an inch. mark these out as in fig. , where _a b_ is the distance between the wheels, and _c_, _d_, _e_, _f_ are flanges for fastening the bucket to the wheels. fold as in fig. . make at least twelve of these buckets; divide the wheel into twelve parts, and fasten the buckets between the wheels. [illustration: windmill and watermill] [illustration: plate xii drawbridge (chapter vii)] to make the toy technically correct, the buckets should rest against a solid wheel contained within the two outer ones, as in fig. , so that no water can run down toward the centre of the wheel. this can be easily managed, if desired, in the following manner: before fastening the wheels to the reel, cut a long strip of paper, with flanges, as in fig. , in which _a b_ is the distance between the two outer wheels. describe a smaller circle on one of the wheels, about inches in diameter; glue the reel in position, then bend down the flanges of this strip of paper (fig. ), and gum these round the smaller circle of the wheel. now gum the other wheel to the reel and to the flanges of the paper. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheel should be painted brown, with spokes marked in darker colour. the plate shows the wheel and the mill-house. a hole is made in the side of the house, into which the axle of the wheel is inserted; the other end is held by the upright standard shown in the plate. the shoot may be made of cardboard; it should slope a little and should come just over the top of the wheel, which revolves freely beneath it. a chimney may be made of a cork, one end being cut on the slant, so that it stands upright on the roof, which is made of cardboard. the whole should be suitably coloured. _an undershot wheel._ this wheel is very simple to make. it has a number of float-boards arranged round it and is turned by a stream of water moving against the float-boards at its lowest point (fig. ). fig. shows how the float-boards, which are made of cardboard, are fastened between the wheels. with this undershot wheel, the shoot represented in the plate is not required. [illustration: fig. ] =a well= (fig. ). the round part of the well is made from a mantle-box or other round box. a is a fairly deep box turned upside down, with a circle cut out into which the mantle-box fits closely. this gives a fair depth. cover the well with paper coloured to represent bricks; colour the box, a, green. the cardboard roof is glued to posts, d, and to triangular pieces of wood, b and c, glued to each side of d. holes are drilled through the posts to take the roller, e, which is a round rod about / an inch in diameter. drill small holes in it at each end. push a pin from the end f through the side post into the roller. bind a piece of wire to form a handle, g, and push one end of this into the roller. bend a piece of wire or pin to form a hook, tie this to a piece of string, wind it round the roller and fasten the other end of the string to roller with seccotine. if a small chain is used this can be fastened by one of its links to the roller with a staple, and should be so fastened before the roller is put in position. chapter vii drawbridge and siege tower =a drawbridge= (plate xii). two pieces of wood for the front, h and i (fig. ), must first be sawn inches by - / inches. the white wood of chocolate boxes, etc., is the best. next two strips of wood, " Ã� / " Ã� / " are cut (satin walnut stripwood will do)--d e and f g in fig. . the bridge is made of a piece of white wood, - / inches by - / inches. the posts, d e and f g, are nailed to the bridge so that the bridge turns on the nails. (note that the bridge is nailed about - / inches from bottom of post.) next two lengths of stripwood, r s, are sawn " Ã� / " Ã� / ", these are nailed to pieces h and i (nails are about - / inches from bottom), so that the portions r t project about - / inches. the strips r s turn freely on their nails. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] before nailing them in position, their ends should be rounded as in the figure. the posts g f and d e (which hold the bridge) are then glued to h and i. a piece of wood, v, about inches by - / inches, is glued to the lower parts of h and i, and joins them together. next the piece of wood q is cut; its width will be the distance of post f g from d e (about - / inches)--this distance should be carefully measured so that the piece fits well; its length will be about inches. the arch is cut with a fret-saw. piece q is kept in position by having the ends of the arch glued to posts f g and d e, and by a length of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) glued along the top as shown in the plate. lengths of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) may also be glued down the sides. holes must be drilled in the ends, r, for wire loops, care being taken that these holes are over the bridge; wire loops must be placed on the bridge exactly underneath, and these loops are joined by chains, which can be made of wire or else bought from an ironmonger. fig. shows the inside of the drawbridge; a, b, c and d are the lead weights for raising and lowering the beams. these weights can be cut from a piece of sheet lead or may be lead buttons. they are attached to the beams by chains and wire hooks. e f is a ledge for the defenders of the bridge to stand on. sides have been added and a platform, l. the battlements, g, h, k, etc., are made of pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", glued round the top. the ladder is made of matches as described in chapter ix. =a movable siege tower= (plate xiii). two pieces of wood (a and b in fig. ) are sawn to the shape and measurements of fig. . to the broader ends of these, pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are glued and nailed (c in fig. ), and other pieces, d, / inch by / inch (about three on each side), are fastened at equal distances apart. d_{ } and the corresponding piece on the other side must not extend to edge of b, but a space must be left of / inch for the posts of the drawbridge. next the wood is cut for the foundation and the platforms, j, h, etc. a stands about inches from b, so this must be the width of all the platforms, except the foundation, f, which is wider and projects about / inch on each side of a and b, and the platform k, which rests on a and b. the other dimensions of the platforms will be the same as those of the pieces of stripwood on which they rest. the platform k must be about / inch narrower than tops of a and b, to leave room for posts l and m. a and b are now glued and nailed to the base by means of the pieces of stripwood, c, at their ends, and the platforms are glued in position. two pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, s and t in fig. , are now cut equal in length to distance of k from h, for the supports of bridge. place these in position between k and h, and measure distance between them; this gives width of drawbridge; its length is - / inches. this can now be sawn. fix in position as explained for previous toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", l and m. at the ends of these drill holes, / inch in diameter, through which passes the chain of the drawbridge. fix these in position by triangular wedges glued to sides and to platform j. on top, k, add struts to support m and l, as shown in the plate. the chains of the drawbridge are looped over nails driven into a and b, just above platform j. the base may be mounted on small wheels and strengthened with projecting beams by which the tower may be pushed into position. (these are not shown in plate.) ladders to reach the top can also be made (see chapter ix), and a battering ram may be swung from platform h, as shown in the plate. a tower of this kind was used by the crusaders in the siege of jerusalem ( ). [illustration: plate xiii mediÃ�val siege tower trapget] chapter viii war engines past and present =a war engine= (plate xiii). this piece of artillery was used at the time of the crusade of richard i. it is a simple and interesting model to make. the sides (a b c d in fig. ) are built up of pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, length about inches, or the sides may be pieces of cigar-box. if made of stripwood, grooves can be filed in the two bottom pieces to make holes, e, when these pieces are glued together. a round rod passes through these holes to form a windlass. two posts, f and g, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are glued to the sides about - / inches from end, a c, as in figure; these must either have holes drilled through them for a rod of wood (or thick wire) or have circular grooves filed in the tops into which a rod can be glued. [illustration: fig. ] the sides _a b c d_ and a b c d should be about - / inches apart, and are kept together by pieces of stripwood glued across the bottom. make struts as in the figure to support posts f and g. the beam h k may be made from a piece of stripwood, / Ã� / Ã� ", filed to a round shape. two pieces of wire, l l, are bent to form a fork and two hooks, m and n are bound firmly to one end with thread. the other end, k, has a small screw-eye screwed into it through which passes a wooden bolt to keep the rings of lead, o, from slipping off. these rings of lead are easily made from strips cut from a piece of sheet lead and bent round the beam. (a pair of old scissors should be kept for cutting lead, or a knife and hammer may be used.) now the beam h k must be fastened to rod p q. this may be done in different ways. the simplest but least effective way is to bind the beam firmly in the middle to the rod with thread or elastic. a second way is to drill a hole through the beam, through which the thread or elastic that binds it to the rod can pass. the best way perhaps is to make the hole in the beam large enough for rod p q to pass through, and then bind it to the rod with elastic or thread or, if a large model is being made, catgut. (a jeweller is generally ready to give away a small quantity of this.) a barrel, r, can be filed or cut from a small piece of wood or cork, or it may be a small reel. to work the machine pull the beam down by means of a piece of thread looped on to the hook m and wound around the windlass. when the beam head is down, place the barrel on the fork and keep it in position by rope, s. when the beam head is released, it flies up and the barrel is shot forward. this trapget or war engine was used for casting greek fire, with which the barrel was filled. it may interest the maker of this toy to know its composition. in the words of an old writer: "you make greek fire thus: take quick-sulphur, dregs of wine, persian gum, 'baked salt,' pitch, petroleum, and common oil. boil these together. then whatever is placed therein and lighted, whether wood or iron, cannot be extinguished except with vinegar or salt." [illustration: fig. ] generally this engine had a kind of wooden hood in front to protect those working the machine (fig. ). this hood is easily made of stripwood or an old cigar-box. notice that the stripwood that forms the sides, a b c d, must be longer (extended in diagram to s t), so that strips of wood, , , , , , can be nailed and glued as in diagram. the =mangonel=, fig. (an instrument for casting great stones to beat down walls and to slay the enemy), makes an interesting toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] first cut two pieces of wood, - / inches by - / inches (the sides of a wooden chocolate box will do when sawn the right size and filed), and shape them as in fig. . saw slits in both pieces at g, / inch wide and / inch deep. if two saw-cuts are made for each slit the wood between can be cut away with a pen-knife. these slits must be about - / inches from end, _b d_. with a round file make semicircles at _c_ and _e_ to hold the rollers on which the engine is moved into position. with a bradawl and round file make holes, f, in both pieces about - / inches from end, a (diameter of hole about / inch, or larger if a larger windlass is required). put these two pieces aside, and next saw a length of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� "; saw a slit about / inch from one end and hammer it on the metal top of a bottle of le page's liquid glue as in fig. . the corner _a_ should be cut or filed off. a small screw-eye is screwed into the wood just below the metal top. saw a piece of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", tie this firmly with elastic to the other end of the first piece of stripwood as in fig. . this elastic constitutes the propulsive force. the ancients used catgut, which formed a thick coil, stretched from h to k, the lever passing through the middle of the coil. the pulling down of the lever gave additional twist to the coil, which reacted strongly on release. now fasten the sides _a b c d_ and a b c d together by nailing and glueing them to two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". then glue h k securely into the slots g so that the beam with the stone-holder m is upright. push a round stick through the holes f, for a windlass; this can have holes drilled in the portions that project, to hold sticks for turning the rod. a piece of thread is tied to the screw-eye q, and wound round the windlass f; when this thread is tightened the beam is pulled down, then when let go it flies up, causing anything placed in the tin, m, to be shot some distance. the safest 'stones' to put in this pan are pieces of cork or small pieces of wood. the following additions can be made to the model: ( ) rr are pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", glued to the sides and carrying a strip, t. this strip t in the olden days was covered with leather and was so placed that the beam carrying the stone-holder would abut against it. notice the struts w for supporting the posts r. ( ) n o is a rod (about / inch in diameter) passing through two small screw-eyes fixed in a piece of stripwood, s, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". a piece of strong wire, p, passes through hole in rod n o; it is bent so that it cannot work out, and the other end is bent to just catch the holder, m, when it is pulled down. a releasing handle is fastened to the rod, n o at o. the beam s is glued into slots in a b c d and _a b c d_, so that when the beam is pulled down the catch p clutches m. ( ) small screw-eyes may be screwed in at a, _a_, b, _b_, for holding ropes to fasten the machine to pegs in the ground. rollers may also be made to fit under c and e. this toy is an attractive one, because it really works successfully. it must be strongly put together, for the beam when pulled down flies up with considerable force. stone-throwers like this were used at the siege of acre. very often these engines had special names given to them. for example philip of france had a very good engine of war called 'the bad neighbour,' and inside acre the turks had one called 'the bad kinsman.' =cannons of the fourteenth century.= these are very easily made. figs. and show two that can be copied. in fig. a piece of wood is cut to the shape of a b; a groove is then filed in it, into which the cannon c is glued. the cannon may be made of a roll of brown paper (two pieces may be pasted together for greater strength) with four bands of cartridge paper painted yellow and gummed round it, or it may be a piece of wood filed to shape and circled with bands of lead. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the cannon in fig. consists of two cardboard wheels on an axle of stripwood, / inch by / inch, and the cannon is glued to a groove in the axle. it may be made of wood with a lead rim, or of two rolls of brown paper as in fig. , where the flanges of the smaller roll a are gummed to flanges of b. =cannon of the fifteenth century.= this may be made of a short mantle-box (with lids on), cardboard wheels and pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch. fig. shows the finished cannon. the stripwood cart which the cannon rests on must be made to fit the mantle-box; the shafts _a_ may be straight or curved. round holes may be cut at _b_. this same cannon may be fitted with axles, and swing between two posts. the wheels should be painted black, and the mantle-box covered with black paper, with bands of yellow paper at , and . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] toward the end of the fifteenth century artillery was much improved. fig. shows a gun that is interesting to make. the carriage consists of two pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� " (_a b_ and _c d_ in fig. ). a cannon, e, is made out of a roll of brown paper, length - / inches, diameter about / inch, and glued between _a b_ and _c d_, or it may simply rest on cross-pieces of wood joining _a b_ and _c d_. g is a piece of wood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", turning on a pin or piece of wire, h, which passes through _a b_ and _c d_. _a b_ and _c d_ are glued to a piece of stripwood f ( / inch by / inch) which has its projecting ends rounded to receive two cardboard wheels. the great fault of these earlier cannons was that though they were often of immense bore and weight, throwing balls of from one to five hundredweights, they were for the most part without carriages, and therefore very difficult to move about and very slow in their operations. the scots were the first to anticipate the modern gun-carriage by what they called 'carts of war,' which carried two guns. many of the guns of the english required fifty horses to drag them! ='mons meg'= (a fifteenth-century cannon still to be seen at edinburgh castle) is an easy model to make. [illustration: fig. ] parts a and b (fig. ) are drawn on cardboard, cut out and coloured (brown and black). they are joined together by strips of cardboard at _a b_ and _c d_. to the cardboard at _a b_ the cannon is gummed. the wheels are of cardboard, the axle of stripwood ( / inch by / inch). mons meg fired a granite ball weighing lb. =a tudor cannon= (fig. ). the sides a a may be cut out of cardboard or, better still, of three-ply wood with the fret-saw. the wheels are solid discs and may also be cut out with the fret-saw, holes being drilled in the centre for the axle. the cannon itself can be shaped out of wood with pen-knife and file, or a cardboard roll (such as is used for transmitting music or pictures) can be used, the thicker parts are then made by gumming additional pieces of cardboard round it, or glueing strips of lead. [illustration: fig. ] it is difficult to discover when gunpowder was first used. probably its use was learnt from the saracens in the fourteenth century. roger bacon (? - ) suggested that it might be used in warfare. in a florentine document of mention is made of the use of gunpowder in europe. the first use of the cannon recorded in english history is in , when edward iii was at war with scotland. in making the guns described in this chapter it is necessary to distinguish between breech-loading cannons and muzzle-loading. the breech-loader is loaded from the breech or rear end of the barrel and not at the muzzle. figs. , and are examples of this kind and therefore must have a hole at each end. figs. and are examples of muzzle-loading cannons and therefore have holes only at one end. during the sixteenth century breech-loading was gradually abandoned for muzzle-loading owing to the large escape of gas and air at the breech. it was not until that it was reverted to with great improvements. [illustration: fig. ] =a ship cannon.= a piece of wood (about / inch thick, the side of a wooden chocolate-box or any other light box will do) is first sawn out - / inches by inches (a in fig. ). another piece of wood, b, - / inches by inches, is cut and glued on the first piece. three pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, c, d, e, are cut to lengths - / inches, - / inches, inches respectively. these are glued on one side as in the figure, and similar strips are cut and glued to the other side. two pieces of stripwood, f, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", have holes drilled half way through them, to receive the pivots of the gun, but must not be glued on to e until the gun is in position. the cannon is made of a roll of brown paper inches long; one end should be narrower than the other (the widest end say inch in diameter, the narrowest end / inch to / inch). [illustration: fig. ] the roll must be securely fastened together by seccotine, two layers of brown paper make a strong cannon; black paper is then pasted over it and bands of brown paper as in fig. . a hole is pierced through the cannon about half-way along it, and a round stick, k m, passed through; this pivot should be just long enough to fit into blocks f when these are fixed and glued in position. before this is done, the wheels should be made and fastened on. this is an easy matter. two lengths of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) are cut - / inches long. the little wheels ( / inch in diameter) are cut from any round rod available, or if no rod can be obtained they may be cut out of cardboard. holes are drilled in the wheels and nails with large heads passed through and driven into the stripwood. the axles are either glued or nailed to the bottom of a. finally the pivot, k m, is fitted into its blocks, and these are glued into position. a wedge can be made to slip in under the cannon to raise and lower it. the wedge should be just wide enough to slip in between the two layers of stripwood. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a modern breech-loading field gun= (fig. ). this is a simple toy to make. a piece of stripwood, a, / " Ã� / " Ã� ", must first be cut, and the ends, b and c, rounded for about / inch (fig. ). next two pieces of stripwood, d and e, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are cut. these must have their tops rounded as in fig. , and have holes drilled through them to receive a rounded match, g. f is a piece of wood / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". pieces f, d and e are glued or nailed to a. before the pivot g is put in position the cannon must be made. this is a roll of black paper, - / inches long, / inch in diameter at widest end, and / inch at the narrowest. holes are made through it to receive the pivot. the ends of the match sticks that project beyond d and e can be cut off. next the wheels are cut. these may be cardboard discs of diameter - / inches. a piece of wood, h, is next cut, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", and worked to the shape shown in fig. . the end l must be sawn at an angle, so that when h is glued on, d is perpendicular. the end l is glued to the piece of wood, f. k is a piece of cardboard with a hole through it for pulling the cannon along; it is glued to end m. the wheels, etc., should be painted black or grey. the cannon itself may be made of white paper and painted grey or yellow, or else made of yellow or light brown paper. a =cart= must next be made to carry ammunition for the cannon. the shells for the cannon described would be about - / inches long, so the cart must be - / inches long, and - / inches wide (fig. ). it can be made of wood or cardboard. notice the end to which the lid is attached. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the wheels must be the same size as those used for the cannon and can be made and attached in the same way to an axle, but this axle must project some distance beyond the wheel, as in fig. , and have a groove filed round it, so that short chains may be fastened on each side; ropes are attached to these chains to allow the cart to be pulled along by hand. fig. shows the shaft. it is - / times the length of the cart. it can be made of strips of cardboard or wood. matches painted black make good shells. chapter ix a fire-escape (plate xiv) to make this toy, plenty of used matches are required, and some strips of light wood (that obtained from a soap-box or chocolate-box will do) and liquid glue. two lengths of wood, q r and s t, are cut - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", and one long edge of each is rounded. these pieces are sand-papered if they are rough or uneven. twenty-three pencil dots half an inch apart are marked down the middle of the widest side of one piece. the two pieces are then clamped together (the piece with the marks on top), and holes drilled through them both together with an archimedean drill. next seventeen matches are taken, and cut exactly to the length - / inches; the ends are tapered so that they will fit in the holes drilled. beginning from one end of one long strip, hammer these matches in the first seventeen holes, place the second long strip of wood on top of these matches, so that the first seventeen holes are exactly over the seventeen matches and hammer it on. (be careful to hammer in between the holes, a file makes a good hammer.) hammer first one strip, and then the other until the matches are driven firmly in the holes, as far as they will go; file away all projecting ends of matches. through the eighteenth hole of q r and s t, a long piece of wood, a b, must pass to project - / inches on each side of the ladder (fig. ). two pieces of wood, - / " Ã� / " Ã� / " (c d and e f), are cut, and have six holes drilled in them; these six holes must be marked off from the six remaining holes in the main ladder, so that they will come exactly opposite them; these pieces are secured to the main ladder by matches, and by the cross-piece, a b. the whole ladder is then glued to a strip of wood, g h, / inch by / inch of a length equal to the total width of the ladder. this can be put aside for a time. next the shaft in fig. is made. k p is the same length as g h in fig. and about / inch by / inch; k m, l n, o j, p u are each - / inches long, they are the same distances apart as c g, q r, s t and e h in fig. . they are held together by strips, v, w, x, y, z. these strips may be matches; in this case they must be inserted first, and then the whole of k m p u is glued to k p. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this shaft is fastened to the main ladder in fig. midway between a b and g h, so that when the shaft is horizontal the main ladder makes an angle of ° with it. fig. shows the shaft m k, p u, attached to the main ladder; it is supported in its place by four struts, two on each side (_a_ and _b_ in fig. ). care must be taken to saw off the ends m, n, j, u (fig. ) so that they rest exactly against c d, r q, s t, e f (fig. ), at about an angle of °. the ends of the struts must also be carefully bevelled to fit; the main ladder can then be glued to the shaft and the struts to the main ladder and shaft. small wheels of cardboard or wood are nailed (as for ship's cannon) at each end of g h. an axle for the larger wheels must be made to be glued on k p (fig. ). care must be taken in deciding on the size of the large wheels, the diameter must be such a length that the shaft, k m p u, is parallel to the ground. [illustration: plate xiv fire-escape] next the back portion shown on the plate is made similarly to the shaft shown in fig. . it is glued to g h so as to be at right angles to the main ladder. pieces of wire bent and pushed into holes in c d and e f form railings. pieces of stout thread are attached to strengthen the whole, as shown in the plate. an extra ladder (necessarily narrower) can be made to rest on the bar, x, and lean inside a piece of bent wire as shown. the wheels can be made of cardboard or sawn from any of the materials suggested in part i, chapter xiii. _note._--in making the fire-escape it will be a help to cut out two cardboard angles of °, these help to keep the shaft k m p u in the right position while the glue is drying. chapter x castle, tournament, and fair =a castle= (plate xv). fig. is an example of a mediæval castle and is somewhat similar to the castle of chaluz, which was besieged by richard i. it is made of cardboard of medium thickness. first make the four towers, a, b, c, d fig. . cut a piece of cardboard inches by - / inches. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] divide this as in fig. , and make half cuts along the dotted lines. cut out the windows. fold and gum together. make the other towers in the same way. to make overhanging battlements, cut pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch the correct length, and glue them round the tops of the towers (fig. ). then cut out pieces of cardboard as in fig. , and gum these to the wood. it is best to cut a strip of cardboard long enough for two sides only, and to make a half cut at the bend; then to cut another strip for the other two sides. small pieces can be cut off a length of stripwood, / inch by / inch, and glued underneath, as _a_, _b_, _c_, in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] next make the sides, m, n, o, p; these are about inches in width, but a / inch must be allowed on each side for flanges for fastening them to the towers; in height they just reach the battlements of the towers. make battlements as described, cut out the windows and fasten these sides to the four towers. colour this part suitably. to make a flat roof for q (fig. ), cut eight lengths of stripwood / inch by / inch just long enough to come about / inch below the battlements of the sides, m, n, o, p, and glue these into the eight corners of q. cut a piece of cardboard to fit over q, cut doors in this for access to the roof, and glue it to the tops of the pieces of stripwood. to make towers e and f. cut a piece of cardboard, inches by inches. mark it out as in fig. , and make half cuts along the dotted lines; the narrow strips at each end are flanges for fastening the tower e, to a and c. make battlements round the top, colour, mark the windows and door, and gum to a and c; make f in the same way. g and h are similar towers - / inches square and inches high. the four towers, e, f, g, h, can be covered with roofs in the way already described. g and h are fastened to e and f respectively, by pieces of cardboard inches long and about - / inches high. g is fastened to h by l, which is about - / inches long and - / inches high. a door can be made in l, leading into the courtyard, q. cut a piece of cardboard, r in fig. , about - / inches high, and gum it to the side of e to form a wall; between the latter and tower a fit a flight of steps. these are marked out as in fig. . make half cuts along the lines marked----; turn the cardboard over and make half cuts on the other side along the dotted lines; bend in alternate directions. flanges may be added to each step. a =tournament= (plate xv). fig. shows a royal tent at a tournament. the platform inside may be made of match-boxes (a, b, c, d, e, f show the six foremost ones) or of any suitable cardboard box. pieces of cardboard, g h k l and m n o p, are gummed on each side. _a b c d_ is a piece of cardboard gummed to a match-box and placed in front of the opening between h l and m o. paper steps may be made to lead from the ground to the top of the match-box, and thence to the top of the platform. the roof, s, is a piece of paper, bent along t v, to fit the triangular tops of the cardboard sides, q and r, to which it is fastened by paper hinges. a piece of cardboard is gummed at the back. flags, etc., may be added. x and z show stands at the back for the more ordinary spectators. they are simply strips of cardboard, suitably painted and gummed for support to match-boxes or strips of wood. the railings shown in the plate are made of cardboard or stripwood, and placed in suitable positions to represent the lists. if the railings are made of cardboard they should be fitted into a groove in a piece of wood to enable them to stand. [illustration: castle and tournament] [illustration: plate xv mediÃ�val fair] across the enclosed space, and parallel to the royal tent, a partition is placed to separate the combatant knights. it may be made of cardboard or wood (see fig. ). [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] two circular tents made of cardboard and paper stand at each side; in these the knights put on their armour. in fig. a is a cardboard disc to which the paper covering c is gummed by a flange; b is a post which is glued into a hole in the middle of the cardboard disc and rests on the ground inside the tent. the horses are made of corks and matches as described in previous chapters. a piece of coloured paper (a in fig. ) is gummed over the horse's back. the saddle, b, is a piece of coloured paper, gummed to a. the bridle is cut out of paper. knights may be cut out of paper as in fig. . two pieces of paper should be cut out, of the same shape except that one arm bears a lance, the other a shield; gum the head and upper part of the body together; the knight can be fastened to the horse by gumming his legs to the trappings, a. heralds, a king and queen to sit in the royal box (for which a bench must be made), spectators, etc., may be drawn and cut out, or suitable figures can sometimes be cut from old history books or advertisements. the background may consist of trees or of a castle. in a similar way, with cork horses, etc., a procession of the canterbury pilgrims can be made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a fair in the days of henry viii= (plate xv). the plate shows the background of the fair. it is a piece of cardboard, with houses drawn upon it and coloured; behind it are fastened two cardboard supports which enable it to stand upright. this piece of cardboard should be as long as possible, to give plenty of room for many booths to be placed in front of it. fig. shows a booth at which cloth and woollen materials are sold. the covering of the booth is made of paper. the tables may be of different shapes in different stalls. in the cloth merchant's stall, rolls of coloured paper are piled up to represent bales of cloth. to the pole is tied a sheep cut out of cardboard. an apothecary's booth with its red and white pole can be made. shelves of cardboard, supported on little pieces of wood glued to the posts of the tent, may be fastened round three sides of the booth; cardboard bottles are cut out, painted and fastened to the shelves by paper hinges, or bottles can be made of plasticine. [illustration: fig. ] other booths may be added, one for 'ribbons of all the colours of the rainbow,' others for books, leather, ironmongery, pewter and silver articles for the table, etc. chapter xi an old chariot and some quaint dolls' furniture fig. shows a quaint swinging chariot of the eleventh century; it can be made of stout cartridge paper, cardboard and stripwood ( / inch by / inch). [illustration: fig. ] first draw on cartridge paper two arcs of a circle (about -inch radius), _a b c_ and _d e f_ in fig. ; join them by straight lines _a d_ and _c f_. this is for the floor of the chariot. to make the sides, draw arc g h k (fig. ) with same radius, but portions g l and m k project about inch beyond the arc _a b c_ in fig. . join g and k by the curved line, g n k. draw the flange o p. colour the side yellow and brown, cut out. bend the flange o l m p and gum it to _a b c_ in fig. . draw and cut out the other side in a similar manner and gum it on; the chariot will then appear as in fig. . two seats of paper can be gummed inside. [illustration: fig. ] two pieces of stripwood ( / inch by / inch), a and b in fig. , are then cut; their height must be determined by the size of the car. two small screw-eyes are screwed in at c and d (fig. ), from which the car is slung by pieces of thread or wire. the posts, a and b, are glued and nailed to the middle of the axles, which must be flat, the ends only being rounded for the wheels. pieces of stripwood ( / inch by / inch) or strips of cardboard, c, connect the axles on each side. [illustration: fig. ] the wheels are cardboard discs, with a pattern drawn on them as in the figure, and painted yellow and brown. fig. shows a pretty chair for a doll's house. it is a copy of a carved oak chair of the fourteenth century. it is made of wood or cardboard. if made of cardboard, a small square box may be used for the seat, a, to which the sides and back are gummed. the sides and back should be cut in one, with half-cuts down _a b_ and _c d_, where the cardboard is bent and gummed to the box. the chair should be painted a very light brown with dark brown markings. it looks well if made out of the wood of a cigar-box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. gives a pattern of a fourteenth-century bed that goes with the chair, a can be an oblong box, covered with paper suitably coloured (light brown with panels of dark brown). b and c are pieces of cardboard (painted as indicated) gummed to each end of the box; four pieces of stripwood, d ( / inch by / inch), are glued on to the cardboard. this bed is easily made of wood. a may be a cigar-box, or the bed can be made of separate pieces of wood carefully glued and nailed together. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a fire-place= (fig. ). this toy is made of wood and cardboard. its size will depend upon the doll's house for which it is made. the mantelpiece, d, is a piece of wood glued and nailed to two wooden supports, e and f. to the back of these a piece of cardboard, a, is glued. this is coloured to look like tiles, and space c is painted black. the grate is made of cardboard (fig. ). the shaded portions are cut out and half cuts are made along the dotted lines. it is coloured black, bent as in fig. and gummed to the cardboard back. the fender is of wood, and is glued to e and f and to a cardboard bottom, b, which is coloured to represent tiles. the grate may also be made of pieces of wire bent to shape and passed through holes in two pieces of wood (fig. ), which are then gummed to a. fire-dogs can be made from matches glued together as in fig. . a poker and shovel can be cut from cardboard. the most convenient sizes of stripwood from which to make this toy are lengths of / inch by / inch for supports e and f, lengths of / inch by / inch for the fender, and inch by / inch for the mantelpiece. chapter xii railway signal and signal-box [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a railway signal.= fig. shows a simple method of making this toy. a is a piece of stripwood about " Ã� / " Ã� / ", fastened to a wooden stand. holes are bored in a at f about / inch from the top and at g about - / inches from the ground. the arm, c, is a piece of cardboard inches by / inch with a red band painted across it. the lever, d, is a smaller piece of cardboard. c and d are fastened to a by pieces of wire or by rivets so that they move freely up and down. b is a narrow strip of stiff cardboard fastened by small paper-clips to c and d. when the lever, d, is pulled down, the arm, c, is pushed up. a small nail is put in at e to keep the arm from rising too high. fig. shows a railway signal which can be worked by a lever placed at any distance away. in this model the arm, f, is a piece of wood about " Ã� / " Ã� / ". into one end is fixed a screw-eye, a. about / inch from this end bore a hole. nail the arm through this hole to the post about / inches from the top, so that it moves freely on the nail. b is a piece of wood, " Ã� / " Ã� / ". make three holes in it. nail it through the middle hole to the post, inches from the ground, so that it turns freely on the nail. take a piece of fairly strong wire, fasten one end to a and the other to b. a weight (a lead button) is needed to keep the arm of the signal up. attach this weight, c, by a piece of thread to b, as in the figure. tie a piece of thread to d, pass it through a small screw-eye, e, fixed on the stand. when this string is pulled the arm is lowered. this toy may be worked entirely with thread. tie a piece of thread from a to c, taking care to keep the lever b in the position shown in the figure; then tie another piece from a small nail at f to d. a small nail should be put in at g to prevent the arm from rising too high. the stand and the shaded part of the signal post should be painted black, the rest of the post is white, the arm is white with a red band. =a signal-box= (plate viii). for the foundation of the signal-box, take a piece of wood inches by inches, a b c d (fig. ). cut two pieces of wood, - / inches by inches. glue and nail these to a b c d (e and f in fig. ). next cut four pieces of wood, g h j k, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ". glue these to e and f. measure and cut two pieces of wood, m and l, to fit in between k and j, and g and h. glue these in position. next measure and cut out a piece of cardboard, n (fig. ), that will fit in between the posts, g h j k, and rest on the sides, e and f, and the ends, l and m. this forms the floor of the signal-box. measure and cut two pieces of cardboard that will fit across the space between the posts g and k. mark and cut out windows in these as shown in the plate, and glue them on each side to the posts. next cut out two pieces of cardboard, inches by inches (fig. ). measure along the sides the distances c j and k b; find the middle, o, of top, join o k and o j, and cut off the shaded portions. make half cuts along the dotted lines and bend back the flanges to which the roof is fastened. in one piece make a door, the bottom of which must be on a level with the floor. a window may be cut out in the door, or simply drawn in with pencil and painted; on the other side, mark and cut out a window similar to the window in the sides. glue these pieces in position. make the roof of cardboard as described in the case of the noah's ark, and glue it to the flanges. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _the porch._ for the platform of the porch cut a piece of wood - / inches by - / inches. cut two sides, - / inches by - / inches. glue and nail these to the platform. cut two supports as shown in the plate, and glue these to the ends just underneath the door, so that when the porch rests on them, and the door is open, the floor of the porch is level with the floor of the signal-box. next cut the two outer posts, glue them into position as shown in the plate, and glue the platform of the porch on the four posts. the roof of the porch is cut from cardboard, with flanges to be glued to the end of the signal-box. the slope of the roof should be parallel to that of the roof of the signal-box. make a ladder as described in chapter ix. bevel the ends of the ladder as in fig. so that it can be glued into position. glue two small posts on each side and glue two strips of cardboard to these and to the sides of the porch for railings. windows may be painted in the wooden sides, the rest is coloured to represent bricks; the window sashes are dark green or brown, and the roof grey. [illustration: fig. ] from this signal-box the signal shown in fig. can be worked in a very simple manner. fig. shows the arrangement. through a hole, a, in the floor fits a wooden lever, b c. pass the thread belonging to the signal through a small hole in the side of the box, then through a small screw-eye at o, and tie it to the end of the rod. when the lever, b, is pushed over the signal arm is lowered. a small nail is put through the lever just above a, to act as a fulcrum. the side f (fig. ) may have large windows which open to enable the child to insert his hand and push the lever. if the signal-post is set up some distance away from the signal-box, it may be found necessary to add another weight. chapter xiii lighthouse, transporter bridge =a lighthouse= (plate xvi). this lighthouse is similar to one called the gull island light in newfoundland. it is a hexagonal column and is therefore somewhat easier to make than a circular structure. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the main column is inches high, and each of the six faces is inches. cut out a piece of cardboard, of medium thickness, inches by - / inches (fig. ). divide it into six parts inches in width, leaving a flange / inch wide at the end for fastening the column together. make half cuts along the dotted lines. cut out a door and windows, and two holes, g and h, / inch square. fold and gum together. the hexagonal column above the first platform is - / inches high, sides inches; that above the second platform is inches high, sides - / inches. before folding and gumming the top column, or lantern, together, windows must be cut out. it is easier to cut the windows out completely and gum the bars behind the openings. a door is cut just above the first platform as shown in the plate. the top of the lantern is a hexagonal pyramid - / inches high, edges inches. to make this, the length of one of the sloping edges (as _a' d'_ in fig. ) must be found. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] draw a line _a b_ (fig. ) inches long. this is one edge of the hexagonal base. on it make an equilateral triangle _a c b_. this is the same as triangle _a' c' b'_ in fig. . at _c_ (fig. ) draw _c d_ at right angles to _a c_; make _c d_ equal to the height of the pyramid--namely, - / inches; join _a d_; this is the length of one of the sloping edges (_a' d'_ in fig. ). with radius _a d_ describe a circle (fig. ). mark along its circumference the distance _a b_, six times; join _a_ to _b_, _b_ to _c_, etc., and join each point to the centre. cut off the shaded portions, leaving a flange for fastening, and make half-cuts along the dotted lines. bend and gum together. the first platform shown in the plate is a circle of cardboard or wood, radius inches. holes are made round the edge. to this the upper column is fastened by paper hinges, unless the columns have been provided with flanges at top and bottom. glue match sticks or pieces of cane, about inch in length, into the holes in the platform for railings, round which black thread may be tied. now fasten the whole to the main column so that the sides coincide. in the same way the lantern is fastened to the upper platform and the latter to the upper column, after similar railings have been made round the upper platform. lastly the pyramidal top is fixed on the lantern, by either paper hinges or flanges. now cut a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, of the right length, so that it passes through the holes g and h in the lower column and projects about / inch over the doorway; into this projecting end screw a small screw-eye, pass a piece of string through it and bring the ends inside the door. this is the pulley by means of which goods are hauled up from the boat into the lighthouse. a ladder can be made of matches (as described in chapter ix); two wire hooks are inserted at the ends, and it is hung to the doorway. the lighthouse can be coloured grey and fastened to a piece of cardboard painted blue. [illustration: plate xvi a lighthouse] =a transporter bridge.= the supports for this bridge, a and b (fig. ), are two small wooden bovril boxes (those containing one dozen one-ounce tins); their bottoms have been knocked out and they are mounted on wooden supports or on two smaller boxes of about the same width. [illustration: fig. ] take two lengths of stripwood, c, d, ' Ã� / " Ã� / "; on to each of these glue and nail a similar length of stripwood, / inch by / inch (fig. ). next the overhead trolley should be made (fig. ). the axles g and h are about - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ". the wheels are made of wood and can be cut from an old broom handle. before these are put on, the two pieces e and f, which are - / " Ã� / " Ã� / ", are glued to g and h. c and d are placed so that the trolley runs easily along their ledges, the distance between them is measured and two pieces of stripwood (j in fig. ) are cut, by means of which c and d are fastened together. this frame can rest on a and b. there is no need to fasten it permanently. to each end of h and g, very small screw-eyes are screwed, k in fig. , to which the strings or chains which support the car are attached--also two screw-eyes are screwed in at h and g. fig. shows part of the car and gives the necessary measurements. side r is made of stripwood, / inch by / inch. the gates at each end are made of strips of cardboard. four screw-eyes are placed in the corner posts for hanging the car to trolley (see fig. ). pieces of thread are tied to the screw-eyes at h and g, and pass through screw-eyes in the supports (t and u in fig. ). two windlasses can be made to stand on m and l, similar to the winding gear described in making the crane (chapter v), by means of which the car can be drawn backward and forward. the bridge may stand across a piece of cardboard painted to represent a river. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xiv yachts and boats; the use of the chisel for the toys described hitherto, the chisel has hardly been required, but to carve boats from a solid block of wood it becomes somewhat of a necessity, the pen-knife being but a poor substitute. the use of the chisel has been postponed owing to the dangers which attend its use. however, when children have become accustomed to handle tools properly and to respect them, they are no more likely to cut their hands with a chisel than with a knife when sharpening pencils or peeling potatoes. the following tools will be found useful in making exact models of boats, hollowing them out, etc.: ( ) a / -inch or / -inch chisel. this is a good one to start with. ( ) a smaller chisel about / inch wide. ( ) a gouge. a / inch and a / inch gouge answer most purposes. this is an indispensable tool when hollowing out a boat. ( ) a spoke-shave. this is used to smooth a curved surface after it has been roughly cut with a chisel or knife. it is not really necessary, as its work may be done with sand-paper or a file. however it is not expensive, and it leaves the wood with a 'clean' surface much superior to that obtained with sand-paper. ( ) a vice. the best wood for making the following boats is _yellow deal_ or _american white-wood_. this, though not expensive, must be bought. one does not often find a piece of waste wood suitable for boat-making. a very simple boat can be made in the following way. procure a block of wood about " Ã� - / " Ã� ". on the top surface of the block draw a plan of the boat as in fig. ; on the bottom surface draw the plan shown in fig. . take care not to make the keel too narrow, especially in first attempts at boat-making. the keel of this boat may be quite / inch thick. see that it is really in the middle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] mark on both sides of the boat the lines shown in elevation, fig. . mark lines showing the stern elevation as in fig. , at the other end the stern, as in fig. . now saw away as much surplus wood as possible. it is well to begin by sawing along lines a b and _c d_ in fig. , to roughly shape out bow. if a very curved bow is desired, saw off the corner _e f g_ (fig. ). to make the keel, saw along lines _a h_ and _c k_, about / inch deep (fig. ), at the stern end saw down to m and n. now carefully round and model the sides and keel with gouge, chisel, spoke-shave and file, or simply with chisel and file. before finishing off with sand-paper or spoke-shave, the boat should be tried in the water, it will probably lean to one side; cut off a little wood from this side and try again. (be careful to dry your tools if they get wet.) when the boat is properly balanced, nail a strip of lead along the keel. a hole may be bored on the deck for a mast. _to make the rudder._ saw a piece of wood out about inch by - / inches (wood should be about / inch thick). draw a rudder on it as in fig. , cut out this shape with saw and file. round the top as at c for the handle. make holes with a fine bradawl and insert two pieces of bent wire at _a_ and _b_. to put them in it is best to hold them with a pair of pincers. ordinary pins with their heads cut off do just as well as wire. make two wire loops and fix them in the stern of the boat (p and q in fig. ), that the rudder may hook on to these, care must be taken that the eyes are exactly opposite the hooks. to make the tiller, drill a hole in a piece of wood, as in fig. , and file it large enough to fit tightly round the top of the rudder, then work the tiller to shape. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] this boat can be hollowed out with the gouge. first draw line r r r r round the boat (fig. ) to give the thickness of side. before starting on the actual boat, it is as well for the amateur to practise cutting a few hollows. with satin walnut, pine, american white-wood, gouging is not a difficult matter. when the boat is being gouged out it should if possible be placed in a vice. (always put a piece of thin wood between the jaws of the vice and the article you wish to hold to prevent marks.) another way of hollowing the boat is to begin boring centre-bit holes as close together as possible, being careful not to bore too deep, then gouge out as much wood as you safely can, finish with file and sand-paper. when the boat is hollowed out, seats can be made for it. these should be cut the exact length of middle of boat, bevelled at the ends, and fitted into the boat by forcing them into position. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] figs. , , show elevation and plans of a common type of boat. saw off triangular pieces of wood to form the bow, cut out the stern with the tenon saw and chisel. model the sides and keel with gouge, chisel and file as before. to put a rudder on this boat, notice that a hole must be bored through the deck for the rudder to pass through. there is no need in a boat like this, or indeed in any boat (when practice has been attained), to saw out the keel, the gouge and chisel are sufficient, but the sawing sometimes helps the beginner. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a schooner= (plate iv). on a suitable piece of wood (a square prism, length - / times width) draw a line _a a_ (fig. ) on the surface through the middle from end to end. then draw a line across the middle _b b_, and divide the surface in three by lines _c c_ and _d d_. pencil out the deck as in fig. . now here is a piece of advice that it is well to follow in all boat-making. to mark off the deck make a cardboard template the shape and size of one half, taken from the middle line, _a a_. lay the template on one half of the piece of wood and pencil round the edge. then turn the template over on the other side and pencil round the edge again. in this way the shape of the deck is more accurate and both sides are symmetrical, which is very important if the boat is to float upright in the water. now on the sides draw the elevation as in fig. . cardboard templates will also be found useful in getting the cross-sections correct. now saw and file away the stern, d, and the bow, e, and chisel away the sides and keel as described before. fig. shows the appearance of the stern. having chiselled and filed the outside of the hull to correct shape and exactly equal on both sides, gouge out the inside as described before. next make the deck from deal about / inch thick, cutting it the exact size of the outline in fig. . before fastening the deck, bore a hole at a for the rudder (a corresponding hole being bored in the hull), and holes at b and c for masts (with corresponding holes, not more than / inch deep, in the hull). if need be (in large models) the under part of the deck where holes come can be strengthened by pieces of wood nailed across. with a hard pencil draw lines along the deck to give the appearance of boards. a hole for a hatch-way may be cut out with a fret-saw. the hatch-way itself for a large boat can be made of pieces of wood nailed together. now fix the deck on to the top of the hull with small nails. another way of fixing the deck is to make it just large enough to fit inside the hull, leaving an edge or bulwark all round, / inch to / inch in depth. the longer mast goes into hole b. the total length of the schooner is about - / times the height of the mast above the deck. the shorter mast goes into hole c and is very little longer than half the boat. the masts must fit firmly into the holes in the deck and hull. to ballast the boat, nail a piece of lead along the keel. if too large a piece is used at first, it can easily be reduced. the rudder f is cut out and fixed as already described. h in fig. shows where the end of the bowsprit comes. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. a. stay foresail. b. gaff foresail. c. mainsail.] fig. shows a drawing of the masts and sails for a schooner. the gaffs, _a b_ and _c d_, and the corresponding booms, are fastened to the masts by wire loops. lawn or indian muslin make good sails. it is well to wash the material before using it. chapter xv the fret-saw the =fret-saw= is a delightful tool, and very useful to the toy-maker. it can be used for making wheels and the various jointed and mechanical toys described in the following chapters. in dealing with the fret-saw we have to consider ( ) the saw-blades and ( ) the frame in which they are held. the saw-blades are about five inches in length and are made of delicate steel wire with correspondingly fine teeth. they are very cheap, being commonly sold at about three halfpence to threepence a dozen, and even less when purchased by the gross. they are supplied in ten different grades, numbered from to , proceeding from fine to coarse. for the toys described in this book, nos. , and will be found most suitable. to preserve the saw-blades from rust, keep them in a wood or metal case. upon the proper tension of the saw-blade depends its action. to keep it taut, a number of frames have been designed, the most practical being one made of steel and varying in size from inches to inches measuring from the saw-blade to the back of the frame. the handle is of wood. the -inch size is the most suitable for children. cheap frames can be obtained for sixpence halfpenny (smaller ones even for fourpence). in the cheaper kinds the necessary tension is obtained by drawing the arms slightly towards each other when clamping the blade. the spring of the steel will then keep the blade sufficiently taut. in the better-class frames (price from two shillings upward) the tension is secured by the action of a lever. notice that the saws must be inserted with the teeth pointing downward. _holding and managing the saw-frame._ the hand saw-frame requires all the steadiness possible; the bend of the frame should rest along the forearm, and against the shoulder if the frame be a long one, or under the shoulder if a short one. this prevents the frame from swinging round. the saw-blade will describe the arc of a circle as it passes through the wood, and this dip is reduced to the minimum by making _short strokes_ instead of long ones. this is important to remember. the amateur is sure to break a few saw-blades at first, they are so fragile, indeed even in the hands of an expert they have a precarious hold on life and can only be expected to last a certain time. fortunately they are cheap. the saw-blade must not be pressed on into the wood too quickly; the wood is held to the table with the fingers, and every part of the line to be cut is moved in due succession against the cutting edge of the blade. excessive energy will often cause the blade to stick fast in the wood; in this case the blade must be eased by gently working it up and down so that it does not cut but frees itself. this method can be adopted when turning a sharp corner; work the saw up and down (without cutting) until the blade points in the right direction. very often the locking of the blade in the wood is due to gummy or heavy wood, or to a twist in the saw-blade; this latter cause can be prevented by the exercise of care in fixing the saw in the frame. children should have the cheaper frames to practise with; however they soon learn to manage them and in due course find out that a saw-blade is really not so delicate as it looks. in cutting out animals, etc., leave a piece of surplus wood round the frailer parts as long as possible so that one has something to hold without fear of breakage. when an interior space has to be cut out (_e.g._ when cutting away interior portions of wheels to make the spokes) a hole must be made by means of the archimedean drill to admit the saw; the upper end of the saw is released from its clamp, passed through the hole, and again fixed in position. the hole in all cases should be bored as near as possible to a corner or point, as these are convenient starting-places. a medium-sized drill point rather than fine points should be used wherever space permits. fine points are apt to break. the drill stock must be held quite vertical and revolved both when the point is entering the wood and when it is being withdrawn. no pressure is required on the drill beyond its own weight. in making the various jointed animals, etc., in the following chapters bifurcated nickel rivets are used, small-gauge. the following are useful sizes:-- sizes no. / , / , / . (these are useful for jointed animals.) sizes no. / , / , / . (these are used for the crane, etc.) these rivets can be bought in boxes of assorted sizes. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] figs. and show how a jointed animal is riveted together. when hammering the rivet open, its head should be placed on a piece of metal (the clamp will do). fig. shows the method of opening the rivet. a represents the table, b the clamp, c the head of the rabbit and its ears, d, the rivet. chapter xvi little gymnast; dancing clown; rocking animals =little gymnast.= first the little gymnast must be drawn and cut out. he can be made of cardboard of medium thickness and paper-fasteners (size ) or better of three-ply wood and bifurcated nickel rivets (size no. - / ). first draw the body, a, fig. , - / inches long. (the measurements given are important, for unless the limbs are in proportion the figure will not work properly.) make two holes with the drill, if wood is being used, as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the arms, b, are - / inches long, the hands must be large enough to contain holes to carry a wooden knitting needle ( / inch in diameter). the upper part of leg, c, is - / inches in length; the lower part, d, - / inches. make holes in these parts as in the figure. take care that the holes are large enough to hold the rivet or paper-fasteners loosely, so that the limbs swing about easily. now fasten all these parts together. (for directions how to hammer the rivets see the previous chapter.) paint the figure in water colours if it is made of cardboard, if it is made of wood it may be left unpainted, or painted in oil colours. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] push a wooden knitting needle (about / inch in diameter) through the holes in the hands, see that it fits tightly, add a little glue if there is any danger of the needle slipping round inside the holes. two pieces of stripwood, e, are next sawn about " Ã� / " Ã� / ". these posts must have holes drilled in them near the top for the knitting needle to pass through, and revolve freely. the posts are nailed and glued to a base, the size of which will depend upon the length of the bar which the gymnast turns upon. two or three gymnasts look well swinging together, or a gymnast, a monkey and a clown. in this case " Ã� " Ã� / " makes a good stand. the posts are supported by triangular supports. on turning the knitting needle the little figure will revolve in a life-like manner, and perform many of the professional exercises of the horizontal bar. the actions are made more realistic if the man's head is weighted with a piece of lead, so as to make his head more nearly the same weight as his body. =the dancing clown.= draw on cardboard or three-ply wood and cut out the head and body of the clown as in fig. . colour it, and cut out another piece exactly the same to represent the back of the clown. draw and cut out two arms as in fig. , two legs as in fig. . cut out two small discs of lead, and glue them behind the balls in his hands; glue little pieces of lead behind his boots. his arms and legs are fastened together by thread, as in fig. . the back part of the body hides the strings. this clown can be hung inside a box, and the strings passed through a hole (directly underneath the clown) in another box upon which he can then be made to dance, as in fig. . the figure works best if properly balanced; see that the arms and legs are equal in size and weight. =rocking horses and elephants.= the simplest way of making a rocking horse is shown in fig. . two rockers, a b c, are cut out of cardboard (medium thickness). next two horses, d, are drawn on cartridge paper, the distance between the fore and hind feet corresponding to the distance a c in the rockers. the horses are coloured and cut out, and their heads and tails gummed together. the four legs are then fastened with paper-fasteners (or with gum) to the ends of the two rockers. a wooden rocking horse is made in the following way. the two rockers, a b and c d, are cut out of three-ply wood with a fret-saw. the arc of a circle of inches to - / inches radius is a good size; width of rocker, h k (fig. ), / inch. three pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are sawn, length - / inches, e, f and g. pencil-marks must be made on the two rockers to show where these strips are to go, one in the middle, the other two at the ends. before fastening them on, a slit is sawn in the middle of each end-piece, as at e and g. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] strips e, f and g are glued and nailed to one rocker, then this rocker can be laid on its side, and the second rocker glued to the upstanding strips. there is no need to nail the second rocker; indeed, if the ends of the strips are very evenly cut, there is no need for nailing at all. the horse (fig. ) can be cut out of cardboard and have one front leg and one back leg fitted into the slits. cardboard of medium thickness will just fit a saw-cut and no gluing is needed. if the horse is cut out of fret-wood or three-ply wood ( / inch thick) the saw-cuts must be enlarged with a file and the feet glued in. instead of horses, donkeys, tigers, lions, etc., can be fixed on rockers as just described. the rockers in fig. can also be built up of cardboard. =a rocking elephant.= on a piece of cardboard draw a circle - / inches in radius; on this draw an elephant as in fig. . colour the ball red and the elephant grey (both sides must be coloured) and cut out. cut out a piece of cartridge paper (fig. ), length equal to half the circumference of the circle in fig. , width, - / inches. fold in half along d e, cut out d b c e, as in diagram, the shaded portions being cut away. gum b d c e to disc h as in fig. , so that d f e g forms a rocker; make a similar rocker for the other side. two pieces of lead (a in fig. ) are cut out and glued on each side of the disc at the bottom, as in the figure. the lead must have paper suitably coloured pasted over it. the elephant will swing up and down at the slightest touch. instead of an elephant a clown can be drawn on the ball. fig. shows an elephant rolling on his back. this toy can be made in the same way as the first elephant. a circle ( - / inches radius) is drawn first, and the elephant drawn in the circle. these elephants can be cut with the fret-saw from satin walnut ( / inch thick). in this case the lead on each side must almost reach the diameter, as shown in fig. . another disc of wood ( - / inch radius) must be fret-sawed out of the satin walnut, sawn in two, and the halves glued one on each side of the lead, to make a base wide enough for the toy to rock upon without upsetting. no lead will then show, and it will look like a wooden toy. if these toys are cut out of thin wood, / inch thick, they still require at least twice as much lead as the cardboard toy. the elephant may also be drawn balancing a ball instead of a clown. children will delight in making these toys from cardboard, paper and lead for a toy circus. fig. shows a swan drawn in a circle; the shaded part represents the paper rocker on one side. this model requires no lead. a duck can be made in the same way. fig. shows a design for elephants on a see-saw. the elephants must be the same size as far as possible. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xvii moving figures fig. , "the washing day," shows a pattern that will please little english toy-makers. it can be cut from wood with the fret-saw, or with scissors from cardboard of medium thickness. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] _to make the design._ first cut two lengths of three-ply wood or cardboard, / inch by inches, a b and c d. next draw on wood or cardboard, and cut out, the two little washer-women (they are about - / inches high). they look more effective if painted. these are fastened to the strips of cardboard by means of paper-fasteners (size ; one gross sixpence); the holes for the fasteners are about - / inches from the ends. the holes in the little washer-women are exactly one above the other, so that when the paper-fasteners are in and a b is exactly above c d, the figures are upright. a washing tub, e, is cut out of cartridge paper (top of tub, inches, bottom - / inches); this can be painted brown or green and have a white rim round the top to represent soap-suds. this tub is gummed to c d, exactly between the two little washers. if the part of a b that comes behind the tub is cut away as in diagram the figures will work better. when the strips of cardboard are moved backward and forward the figures put their clothes in the tub and take them out again. the toy works best if a little space is left between a b and c d, as in fig. . if it is cut out of fret-wood the figures are fastened by rivets, as explained in chapter xv. fig. shows two ducks eating out of the same bucket; strips of cardboard, a b and c d, are the same size as those in fig. . the bucket is cut out of cardboard and gummed to c d. the sailors in fig. are made in the same way, holes are made in their hands, through which yarn is passed (the thicker the yarn the more like rope it is) or oars can be cut out of cardboard and fitted in the holes in their hands, when they will appear to row. fig. shows a man driving a donkey. it is made of cardboard, except the whip, a, which is thread tied into a hole in the cardboard at c. the whip will work better if a little piece of lead or something heavy is tied at the end of the thread. the reins, b, are of thread or yarn, and pass through holes in the donkey's mouth and in the man's hand. two fishermen can be made in the same way, the whip easily becomes a fishing-rod and a lead fish can be attached to the end of the line. in the case of the donkey-driver and the fishermen the strips of cardboard should be longer than shown in the figure, to leave room for holding. the strip for the donkey-driver should be about inches, the fishermen require at least inches if their lines are not to get entangled. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] children will readily think of other designs for this simple but interesting toy. chapter xviii some old-fashioned toys--a monkey-up-a-stick, a jack-in-the-box a monkey-up-a-stick is a very easy toy to make. first cut out a cardboard or wooden monkey as in fig. . see that the legs and arms turn freely on paper-fasteners, a and b. paint the monkey grey or brown. with a pin make holes, c and d, in the feet and hands. next saw two lengths of stripwood, one ´ Ã� / " Ã� / ", the other almost twice as long. drill a hole near one end of each of these sticks. pass a pin or piece of wire through the holes in the monkey's feet and the hole in the shorter stick; bend down the pin on each side to keep the feet from slipping off. (the point of the pin should be cut off with pliers.) in the same way fasten the monkey's hands to the longer stick. see that the limbs (note that they come one on each side of the stick) revolve freely on the pins or wire. the two sticks may be kept together by pieces of elastic; this however rather prevents the one stick from moving freely up and down the other. it is better first to file the sticks (or one of the sticks) round or to use dowel rods. these round rods can then be kept together by cardboard or wooden discs. the disc must have a hole in the middle large enough for the rod to move freely up and down in it. the thicker the piece of wood or cardboard the better. the hole must be made in the wood with a brace and bit (a bradawl will make the hole in cardboard, and it can be filed to the right size with a round file). the longer rod, a, fig. , goes through the hole; the bottom of the shorter rod, b, is glued and nailed to the disc. by moving the disc c up and down the monkey performs its usual antics at the top of the stick. the monkey, or a clown if preferred, looks very effective cut out of three-ply wood and riveted together. for a small model wooden meat skewers may be used as sticks. other suggestions for c in fig. are: a reel (though rod b when glued to a reel tends to break off); half a cork. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] more interesting than the "monkey-up-a-stick" is the monkey that climbs a rope, though this little animal has sometimes an irritating manner of swinging about on the rope, and going no higher. if he is carefully made according to the following directions he ought to climb. the monkey is cut out of cardboard in the same way as the first monkey, except that his two arms are gummed firmly on in the position shown in fig. , his legs only being free to move. pins or pieces of wire are passed through the holes at a, b, c, d. in the case of pins, the point is cut off with cutting pliers and the rest doubled back to prevent its coming out on one side, the head of the pin prevents it coming out on the other. tie a piece of thin elastic round the pins, a and b, so that it is only just on the stretch when the legs are drawn up parallel with the arms, as in the figure. a piece of wire is passed through at e and is bent over out-wards, drawing the hands fairly tightly together. a piece of thread is passed through the eye so formed, down and under the pin, c, then over the pin, d by alternately slackening and tightening the line the monkey will climb up the thread in a very life-like manner. care must be taken to nip the wire well together at the hands to get enough friction to hold the thread firmly while the elastic pulls the legs up, on the other hand the thread must be just loose enough to pass through e. =a jack-in-the-box.= the simplest way of making a jack-in-the-box is the following. get some ordinary wire (quite thin wire will do) about feet long or longer if a bigger jump is required. wind this tightly round a broom handle, keeping the rings of wire close together. slip it off. take a cork, cut it so that it is about - / inches high. file it round in the shape of a head as in fig. . mark the eyes and nose in ink, the mouth with red paint; or two beads can be glued in for the eyes. to make the hair, cut several short pieces of black wool, tie them in the middle at b, and glue or pin them to the middle of the head; tie back the side ends with yellow or red wool as in the figure. fasten one end of the wire spring in the centre of bottom of cork, as at a. a piece of muslin is then gummed round the cork to hide the spring, so that it is loose and folds easily. next make a box, - / inches high, or take the cardboard box that contains a bottle of le page's liquid glue, and cut off about one-third. cut off the cover and glue it on to one side (c in the figure). make loop of wire at d, and insert a paper-fastener at e to catch the wire loop. fasten the end of the spring to the bottom of the box, by passing it through the hole in one bottom flap, bending it over and gluing over it the other flaps that form the bottom. coloured paper or scraps may be gummed to the sides and top of the box. this is a suitable toy to be hung on a small christmas tree. a larger and stronger jack-in-the-box can be made from a wooden box about - / inches square. for this a piece of no. gauge wire about feet long is required; it is wound around a rolling-pin. this spring is then nailed by means of staples to a piece of wood made to fit the inside of the box. fasten a round piece of cardboard to the top of the spring, and either sew on to it a small doll's head, or make a doll's head of part of a stocking stuffed with wool and having eyes, mouth, etc., sewn on. a cap (a fool's cap looks best) is made to fit the head, and a loose jacket is sewn on to hide the spiral body. chapter xix little swordsmen fig. shows the principle on which this toy is made; the shaded portion represents the inside of a box. a good size for a box to make this toy is " Ã� - / " Ã� - / ". slits should be cut in the long side of the box at _a b_, _c d_, _e f_, _g h_. these slits may be made with a pen-knife, and a fret-saw file will make them wide enough for a piece of cardboard to slip up and down in. slits are then made in the short side exactly under the long slits, as _p n_ in fig. . widen these slits also with a file. next cut out the cardboard figures. draw head, body and one leg to be cut out in one piece; about inches of cardboard should be left below the foot (m and n in fig. ), the total length of figure being about inches. cut out another figure like this. make holes just below the foot as at d in fig. . next draw and cut out legs, f and h. notice that they do not project so far inside the box, their length being about - / inches. fasten these to the figures by paper-fasteners. next cut out a long strip of cardboard, a b, / inch by inches. pass this through the slits (_p n_ in fig. ) in the short sides of the box. see that it slides easily up and down in these slits. the portions marked m and n turn on pivots _h k_ and _m l_. these pivots pass through holes, d and e, in the figures and through holes made at each side of the box exactly opposite the short slits. steel knitting needles make good pivots, or pieces of cane. when the top is quite complete these pivots may be glued into the holes in the box for greater security. fasten pieces of lead at the bottom of m and n so that the figures swing easily on the pivots. when it is found that the pivots are in the right place, pass the strip of cardboard a b through the slits, and fasten the legs, f and h, to it by paper-fasteners, as at x and y. see that the needles are in the right holes and fasten up the box. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] (it is a convenience in making this toy to let the cover form one side, the cover being left off until all the inside arrangements are complete; the pivots can then be put into their holes in the cover, and the cover put on.) now if the projecting ends of a b are pushed backward and forward the figures fight in a very realistic manner. notice that a b has two movements: one backward and forward, the other up and down. the lead weights in m and n keep a b up. generally speaking, the longer the slits are the better the figure works. this, however, does not apply to slits _c d_ and _g h_. the slits need not be so close together as in the figure if it is desired that the swordsmen should fight at a greater distance. the arms are cut out of cardboard and fastened by paper-fasteners on each side of the figure; the swords may be cut out with the arms, or made separately and gummed on after-wards, pieces of cane making effective swords. a more difficult but more satisfactory way of putting on the arms is this: pass a very short piece of cane through the hole in the body, where the arms are to be fastened; see that it turns very easily in the hole; next seccotine the pieces of cane that project at each side into holes in the arms; see that one arm is up, the other down. to make the arms balance well, it may be necessary to fasten a small piece of lead to one hand. this toy is most amusing if carefully made. the following hints may be useful: ( ) draw and paint the little swordsmen as carefully as possible. ( ) see that the slits are perfectly straight and wide enough for the cardboard to pass through. ( ) see that the arms, legs and feet turn easily on their pivots, whether these pivots be paper-fasteners, cane or knitting needles. ( ) see that sufficient lead is attached. ( ) cover the box neatly with paper, but _not_ the slits. a piece of green paper looks well for the top. this toy may also be cut out of wood with a fret-saw. many other amusing toys can be made on the same principle. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xx some more fret-saw toys besides the numerous models already described that can be made with the fret-saw, endless further toys might be made, among others the following. . =a zoo or wild-beast show.= the animals for this may be jointed models like the elephant and giraffe (part i, chapter xx); in this case they will stand quite well; or they may be cut in one piece and glued to an oblong strip of wood for a stand, as the lion and other beasts in figs. to . three-ply wood or satin walnut / inch thick is suitable for these animals, which however may also be cut out of cardboard and glued into slits cut in a wooden stand. [illustration: fig. ] . =forest, jungle or desert scenes, etc.= (figs. to ). these trees, which have very characteristic shapes, can easily be cut out with the fret-saw. where the branches are slender and there is danger of their breaking, use three-ply wood. they should be painted green, with the markings indicated in the drawings put in with sepia or dark green. . =a farmyard=, with trees, ducks, cows, etc. figs. to are patterns of farmyard animals. there is considerable educational value in the drawing and cutting out of the simple outlines necessary in fret-wood trees or animals. it will help children to think in lines, as it were, and to draw boldly. [illustration: fig. ] teachers will find sets of fret-wood animals and trees of use in the nature study and geography lessons. . =soldiers, sailors, boy scouts, etc.= figs. to may be cut out and glued on stands in the same way. the small files used for fret-wood are useful to finish and 'clean up' these toys. [illustration: fig. the walnut] [illustration: fig. the palm (cocoa-nut)] [illustration: fig. the palm oil tree] [illustration: fig. the spruce fir] [illustration: fig. the elm] [illustration: fig. the lombardy poplar] [illustration: fig. the scots pine] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxi toys worked by sand for these toys a wooden box is required, a b c d (fig. ), about a foot or more square and inches deep. l is a wheel made like the overshot water-wheel in chapter vi. another way of making the buckets is shown in figs. , , and . these are glued close together between two circles of cardboard as shown in fig. . this method is somewhat easier if small wheels are required. the wheel should have ten or more buckets; the greater the number of buckets, the faster the wheel works. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows the construction of the reservoir, j, through which the sand runs. the size of it will depend upon the toy made. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] f is the flange for fastening it together, and e, d, c, b are flanges for fastening it to roof a b e f (fig. ). a round hole is filed out at a, after the reservoir is fastened together, through which the sand runs. the wooden side of box, a b e f, is taken off and a piece of cardboard is nailed to the box instead. this can have a hole cut in it, k in fig. , and the reservoir glued under it. g h is a bar of stripwood nailed across the front of the box, through which a hole, n, is bored. the axle of the wheel passes through this and through a corresponding hole in the back of the box. as the sand runs out of the reservoir, it falls into the boxes and so turns the wheel; hence the sails of a windmill, the hands of a clock, etc., fastened to axle, l m, can be made to turn. notice carefully that the hole at the bottom of the reservoir should be over the centre of the boxes of the sand-wheel and a little to one side of the wheel, as in fig. . part of the back of the box, p q r o, should be cut out to allow a tray to go in to receive the sand. [illustration: fig. ] =to make a bicyclist= (fig. ). cut two circles of cardboard, radius - / inches. mark on them the spokes of a bicycle. make two sand-wheels the same size as the bicycle wheels; their width should be about / inch to / inch. take a piece of stripwood / inch by / inch and the length of the box. make holes in it, inches, - / inches and inches from one end. nail the bar across the box inches from ground; make holes in the back of the box exactly opposite the holes in the bar. make wooden axles to pass right through these holes so that they turn freely in them. the sand-wheels should be glued to two of these axles. now cut out a piece of cardboard to fit over the front of the box; bore holes in it corresponding to those in the bar, g h. paint on it a suitable background, as in fig. . nail small pieces of stripwood, / inch by / inch, to the corners of the box (as at a and b in fig. ), to which the cardboard can be fastened by drawing-pins or glue. pass the axles of the sand-wheels through the first and third holes from the end of bar g h, and let them project about inch beyond the cardboard. to these ends the bicycle wheels must be glued. in making this toy it is better not to fasten pieces together too quickly, until all the various parts are ready. the figure of the cyclist should be cut out to the measurements given for the little gymnast in chapter xvi. the body and head could be cut out of thin three-ply wood, and the arms and legs of cardboard. the best method of joining limbs to the body so that there is the least possible friction is as follows. cut off a small piece of a pin, including the head, pass it through the holes, and apply to the cut end a tiny drop of sealing wax. make holes in the cyclist's feet at g (fig. ). cut a small cardboard wheel, f, about / inch in diameter: make a hole in its centre and one near the circumference. [illustration: fig. ] glue a piece of match stick into the hole near the circumference, the other end of this match stick must turn freely in the hole in cyclist's left foot. pass the axle already made through this wheel, to which it must be glued, and through the cyclist's right foot and through middle hole in the bar. make two small pulley wheels (_e.g._ slices of reels with cardboard flanges), one twice the size of the other. fig. shows how the toy is put together and how it works. a and b are the sand-wheels; axles, f g and f m, are glued into them and into the two bicycle wheels. k h is the axle passing through centre of pedal wheel. n o are pulley wheels glued to axles, f g and h k, respectively, and connected by an elastic band, e. when sand-wheel, a, turns round, wheel, n, turns and turns pedal wheel, f, in fig. , and as o is twice as big as wheel n, the pedal will revolve twice as slowly as the bicycle wheels. [illustration: fig. ] pulleys of equal size, c and d, might be added with advantage to connect the two sand-wheels, and a handle at f to start the wheels. fig. shows how the leg is fastened to the pedal wheel. to keep the cyclist's body steady cut a piece of stripwood " Ã� / " Ã� / ". glue one end to middle of cyclist's body and the other to the cardboard background. b (fig. ) is a thin piece of wood, passing over the projecting end of axle of wheel, e, its other end being glued to the bottom of the cyclist's body. a similar strip, a, is cut. this is fastened between his hands by a little piece of pin, and passes over the axle of wheel, d. c is a thin strip of wood or cardboard which passes over the axle of e and can be glued to the cyclist's right leg and pass behind wheel, f. [illustration: fig. ] make a platform as in fig. to support the cyclist. make two reservoirs as already described. cut a piece of cardboard to fit over the top of box and make holes in it, l and m in fig. . glue the reservoirs under these. make a cardboard tray to fit under the wheels for the sand to fall in. another wheel might be added to work the sails of the windmill in the distance. very fine sand must be used for working these toys, the best is silver sand and it should be kept as dry as possible. fig. shows another modification of this toy. b is a box turned upside down and placed in front of that containing the sand-wheel. a is the cardboard background, suitably coloured. the sailor's legs are cut in one piece and glued into a slit in the box. the body is fastened to them at f by a small paper-clip so that it moves very freely. the arm is fastened on at g. a small match stick passes through the hole in the hand and is glued in the hole in circumference of wheel e. the axle, m n, to which this wheel is glued passes through the cardboard or wooden standard, d, through a hole in the background, a, and through the centre of the sand-wheel. d is fixed to the box. the arm of the crane, c, made of cardboard or three-ply, is glued to d. a hole is made at g and a corresponding hole in a opposite g. pass a small stick of wood or cane, k, through these holes and glue it in. the crane should be about inch from the background. k keeps the arm of the crane steady. tie a piece of cotton to the axle of wheel e, pass it over k or over a small pulley wheel revolving on k g; tie to it a thin wire hook to which a paper box or barrel can be fastened. [illustration: fig. ] in the same way a sailor can be made to work a windlass and drag a paper boat up a sloping beach, a man can draw water from a well or turn a barrel organ, or a paper mouse gummed to a cardboard base can be drawn along until it disappears into its hole. [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxii toys worked by wheels, etc. fig. shows how a clown can be mounted on a cart so that when the cart is drawn along he dances and waves his arms. in toys of this kind, the wheels should be quite half-an-inch in thickness. they are glued on to round axles which turn freely in small screw-eyes or in holes in wooden blocks fastened under the car or cart. if any part of the axle projects beyond the wheel it gets in the way of the wires. the clown is made of cardboard or three-ply, according to design given in chapter xvi. it is then fastened securely to rod b, and the latter glued into a hole in the middle of the cart. fairly strong wire is fastened to the wheel by a nail with a broad head so that when the wire is looped round the nail it turns freely on the nail but does not come off. the wire is bent at right angles twice to bring it close to the figure, as shown at a. it must fit accurately into the holes in the figure. notice that one leg passes on each side of the post. the clown works best when cut out of wood. in this case the body e and post b may be cut out in one piece, one leg and one arm are then attached to the front of the body, and one leg and one arm behind. fig. shows a soldier on the march. he is made of three pieces of wood. head, body, arms and stand a are cut out in one piece, the legs are cut out separately and riveted loosely to the body; only two pieces of wire are needed, one on each side, to work the legs. the gun may be a piece of wire or wood fixed on after-ward. the wheels are / inch in thickness. other similar toys worked by wheels can be made by cutting a hole in the bottom of the cart. one axle of the cart must run exactly under this hole, it must be made of wire and bent as b c in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] d and e are pieces of tin nailed to the cart, through holes in which axle b c freely turns; or wooden blocks may be nailed on for the axle to turn in, if tin cannot be obtained. the ends of the axle are securely fastened into solid wooden wheels. as the wheels revolve they will push up and down a piece of wire or wooden rod, f, which is fastened to the bent part of the axle. now f can be used to work a number of simple toys, if its free end is fastened to the part which it is desired to move. for example by this means an animal's mouth may be made to open and shut as it is wheeled along, or its head to wag; a blacksmith may be made to strike his anvil, the drummer to beat his drum. the ingenious child will be able to adapt this simple piece of mechanism to many a toy. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a lively dog.= cut out with a fret-saw two pieces of wood as f in fig. , which represents the body and legs of a dog in one piece. now cut out the head h (notice length of neck behind body) and the tail k from wood / inch thick. now glue the two bodies to a piece of stripwood a ( / inch by / inch) placed along the tops of bodies inside (fig. ), and bevelled so that the legs of the dog will be further apart than the upper portion. the legs are joined by pieces of stripwood, m, / inch by / inch, about - / inches long. notice that the ends of these strips are bevelled. now make hole, e, in the head-piece; notice that there is the same length of wood above e as below it. make corresponding holes e in sides f. pass a piece of wire through the hole in the dog's head and see how it hangs; the head portion will be the heavier and sink. now take the head off, saw out a piece of wood at b, insert a piece of lead and try again. it is an easy matter if too much lead has been added to cut off a little. when the head is correctly balanced, as in fig. , bend over the wire so that it cannot come off. the tail, k, is attached in the same way. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] small wheels, n, cut from some convenient round rod are then nailed to m. the dog should be suitably coloured. when drawn along he wags his tail and bends his head. the legs look rather better if cut out separately and glued to the sides. =the tumbling clown or monkey.= cut out cardboard or wooden animals similar to those in part i, chapter xx, but use no lead. now, instead of swinging them on a perch, make a hole at b where they stand; take a piece of copper wire, about / inch thick and inches long. bend it slightly as in fig. . pass the wire through the hole in the animal, so that the animal fits tightly on it exactly in the middle of wire. the animals are best cut out of thick cardboard. fig. shows a suitable animal, and the following from chapter xx--figs. , , , and --can be adapted. as no lead can be used for the purpose to which we are now going to put them, animals that balance without lead, as in fig. , are the most suitable. therefore in designing them, one must take care that the hole b is exactly at the centre of gravity, and the bend of body, d (that is widest part of body), just below b. [illustration: fig. ] =to make the monkey tumble.= cut a piece of wood inches by - / inches, and fix parallel bars to this as in fig. . file or cut notches in the ends at a, to keep the monkey from tumbling off in his zeal. now put the wire with the monkey in the middle across one end of the rails. push the monkey head over heels and he will go on solemnly turning over and over, however long the rails are, until he lands in safety in the notches at the other end. it is the bend in the wire and carefully balanced body of the monkey that makes him behave so delightfully. the longer the stand is the better, for then two or three clowns, monkeys and cockatoos can follow each other rapidly. [illustration: fig. ] the bars must be high enough to allow the monkey to turn without touching the ground-- - / inches high will just do if length of monkey from b to c (fig. ) is - / inches. fig. shows two clowns swinging together; a variety of funny figures can be made to follow each other along the bars. chapter xxiii kites, gliders, and aeroplanes =kites.= perhaps one of the easiest kites to make is one which the children of annam and tonking delight to play with. to make it, three light bamboo canes are required--about feet in length--those used for flower-sticks will do quite well. tie them strongly together as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the backbone e f should be quite rigid, but the cross-pieces a b and c d are better if they are slightly curved. a sheet of light paper must now be pasted from a b to c d underneath e f in such a way that it is quite tight under e f, but rather loose between a c and b d. fig. shows how the paper should be cut. g h is the exact distance between e and f; j k and l m are wider than distances between a c and b d in fig. , so that when the flaps on the paper are pasted over the cross-bits the paper is loose between a and c and between b and d (fig. ). the secret of the balance is to have the flutter at the edges quite equal. fig. shows how the string is fastened. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. (a)] [illustration: fig. (b)] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a box kite.= this is a very common form of kite and quite easy to make. take four laths from to inches in length and four pieces about inches in length. the smaller pieces are fastened together with nails and glue, as in fig. (_a_) and (_b_). to the ends of these the long pieces are nailed and glued, as in fig. (_b_). mark off the long pieces into thirds and over the two end thirds sew strips of light material. tie on the string as shown in fig. . this kite is said to be an american invention. a similar kite may be made triangular in form. fig. shows another form of the box kite. here the material covers a little less than / of the strip a b. cross-bars e f and c d are tied across the middle and to the four sides, and wings are sewn on to them. figs. and are modifications of the triangular form of kite. in both these kites the long strips of wood are from - / to feet in length. notice that in fig. , a b is the same length as d e, f g = d h; e h = about / of e d. [illustration: fig. ] in fig. a b = c d. c e = about / of c d. f g equal about / of a b. f c = c e. a h and j k are light frames of stripwood covered with calico. the diagrams show how these kites are put together. =a chinese kite.= the kites used in china are very light and flimsy compared to our kites, as they are made of tissue paper and bamboo. in making one it is better to use somewhat stronger paper. the paper is cut out as in fig. , the two upper sides being slightly shorter than the two lower. leave two rectangular pieces a, a, at each end of the shorter sides. a piece of split bamboo, slightly flattened, is glued firmly to the paper from b to c. a second piece of bamboo tapering at the ends is used as a cross-piece d. this is bent as in the figure so that where it crosses the backbone, b c, it is only a few inches from the apex, b. it is tied to b c at d. its tapering ends are pasted down to the paper by means of the two flaps, a, a. bamboo b c should not be more than / inch in width, piece d, / inch. to prevent the paper getting torn in a good breeze, tie fine cotton round the border of the kite--_i.e._ from b to a, to c, to a, and to b again. paste a thin margin of paper over the cotton, enclosing it, and to the kite. this must be done so that the face of the kite is perfectly flat; it must not bag in any way. =to fly the kite.= much depends on the way in which the 'belly-band' is tied on. its upper string is tied to d, and the lower to the backbone, b c, almost anywhere below a line from a to a. if the two strings are very near together, the kite behaves in a more lively manner, darting about in all directions. the kite must be coaxed into the air by a series of jerks and pulls when the apex of the kite is facing upwards. it is inclined to turn round at first and some patience is required to learn when to pull and when to jerk. if one pulls at the wrong time it will dart down and then unless sufficient string is quickly let out, it will fall to the ground. [illustration: fig. ] when once the kite is up, it does not keep stationary like an english kite, but is always darting about; a skilful flyer can make a kite dart down and almost touch the roof of a house at a great distance off, and then dart up again almost overhead. it is not an easy kite to manage, but when once the art of flying it is mastered it is never forgotten. =gliders.= the earliest type of toy flying-machine consisted of a two-bladed tin propeller spun on a frame by unwinding string, as with a top, and suddenly let go. it is easily made, as shown in fig. , where a is a tin propeller nailed by nails c and c to a large reel b. in making this toy the nails must be driven into the reel first, their heads are then cut off and they are tightly fitted into holes in propeller a. d is the axle on which the reel spins and the handle for holding it; e is a washer. this flying-machine is worked by smartly pulling a length of string wound around the reel. [illustration: fig. ] modern aeroplanes are far more difficult to make than this; they need patience, skill and experiment, and besides a knowledge of how to twist and bend wood by steaming it; plenty of cane and whalebone wire, tissue paper or fine japanese silk, and catapult elastic, which is generally the motive power used in working model aeroplanes. (messrs gamage, holborn, w.c., stock skeins of specially prepared elastic.) in this chapter only the simple and well-known types will be very briefly described, the boy who is interested must get special books on this subject from his library. in the first place the beginner must know what the three types of machines used in designing models generally are--viz. ( ) the glider or motorless model, a glider being a winged structure, which when released from a height does not fall directly to the ground, but descends gracefully at a gentle slope; ( ) the monoplane, which is constructed more or less on the lines of a bird; and ( ) the biplane or double-winged aeroplane. gliders may be either of the monoplane or biplane type. experiments with gliders will enable boys to find out some of the principles on which aeroplanes are built, and will prepare them to undertake the construction of more difficult forms. in making one's first glider one cannot do better than copy a bird. on a piece of paper draw a circle, fold it in half, draw a bird on one half, as in fig. , cut it out, when the paper is opened it will appear as in the figure. if this bird is thrown head first toward the ground, it will probably fall. if two little bits of cardboard are gummed on each side of his head, he will make a better flight and land on the ground after making a gentle curve. a still better bird may be cut from cardboard, a half cut is then made along _a b_ to bend it, and the head is weighted with sealing-wax. how well this bird flies depends on the weight, and to some extent on the shape of the bird. birds of various shapes and with different amounts of sealing-wax should be tried, until one is made that glides to the ground in a long, graceful curve. in making bird gliders the following points should be remembered: ( ) draw the bird in a circle as already explained, this ensures that the wings will be exactly balanced. [illustration: fig. ] ( ) if the head in fig. is not long enough for a graceful flight, a longer head cut from cardboard can be pasted on. ( ) if the bird dives quickly down head first, you know that the head is too heavy, or the neck too long. ( ) if the bird rises and then falls the head is too light and probably not long enough. ( ) the wings can be made larger if necessary by the addition of tissue-paper wings gummed on as a in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =another glider.= cut out a piece of paper inches by inches, a b c d in fig. . mark b e and d f each inch; make cuts along the dark lines at e and f to the depth of inch. draw the broken lines along the paper, dividing it into four equal strips. bend sides a e and c f downward along dotted lines. bend e b and f d upward along middle dotted lines, and press side c f toward side a e, part way along this line, but leaving the part near the ends a c flat; to this end plane k will be gummed (fig. ). k is inches by inch. cut tail, g, and gum on as in diagrams. it can be weighted at h by gumming several strips of cardboard across or by affixing sealing-wax. although this is not a very graceful-looking glider it works most successfully, and will describe quite a graceful curve toward the ground. the child will find it interesting to make a number of these gliders and then go one day to a window or high place and let them glide to the ground and thus find out the bird that has the longest flight. or a number of children can have glider races and see who can make a glider that alights on the ground farthest from them. other forms of gliders can be made, but they are all on the same principle, a somewhat long body, wings and weight adjusted to keep them from falling. fig. shows a glider made from a dowel rod, with slits in it at each end through which two cardboard planes are passed and fastened. the cardboard must be of light weight and yet stiff enough not to flap. the size of the planes must be found by experiment, for their size will depend naturally upon the weight of the material used. the bigger plane should be in length about twice the smaller one. it is best to fasten the large plane on first and then adjust the smaller one to give a long, graceful flight. if a split pole can be found it is an easy matter to fasten the planes in. canes (bamboo) split readily and can be used as centre pole. this glider can fairly easily be made into an aeroplane and worked with a propeller. it may be mentioned here that model aeroplanes are generally worked with the propeller in front and not in the rear. =to make propellers.= these can be made of tin or wood. a tin propeller can be cut from any old tin with a pair of shears or strong scissors kept for the purpose. cut two blades to the shape shown in fig. . next cut an oblong block of wood (fig. ); notice that width _a b_ in fig. must equal _a b_ in fig. , therefore width of _a b_ must be a little less than _a b_ in fig. . slit each end diagonally as in fig. for about / inch to hold the blades. drill a hole through centre of block for the wire axle _d c_. insert the blades in the slots, bend the ends over slightly and nail them in the wood to keep them firm. fix the wire shaft firmly in the block as in fig. . the propeller is now ready to be attached to the glider. before this is done, however, we shall consider the making of a wooden propeller. this is rather more difficult to make. cut a piece of wood to the shape shown in fig. with a sharp pen-knife. the propeller must then be given the correct twist by means of the steaming kettle. take hold of the extreme ends of the propeller and hold it over the jet of steam so that steam plays upon the blades at each side of the thick central portion. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] when the wood is supple, twist it as in fig. . this sounds easier to do than it really is, the difficulty being to get the twist on one side exactly equal to the twist on the other. for this reason the tin propellers are more satisfactory to make. however suppose the correct twist has been given, the next thing to do is to sand-paper the wooden propeller carefully and file a groove around the middle at a; now wrap a piece of wire, a c, tightly around the propeller in this central groove, and put on the head, b. the propeller is now ready to be fastened to the glider shown in fig. . =to fasten propeller to glider.= cut a piece of tin to the pattern shown in fig. , bend along the dotted line; make a hole at f for axle, b c, to go through. bend portion e round the front end of the glider, keep it in its place by bending it with thread coated with glue; portion f with the hole is bent down at right angles as shown in fig. . now pass axle, a c, through hole f, bend end c into a hook. put screw-eye d in the rod about one-third of length of rod from the other end (see fig. ). fasten strands of elastic from hook c to d. it is best really to have a hook at d so that the elastic can be slipped over. the strands should be just loose enough to remain taut when unwound. when the propeller is in position the planes will probably have to be readjusted. the tin propeller can be attached in a similar way. these propellers will do for almost any simple design of aeroplanes. when the motor is wound up for flight, the number of turns to give to the propeller will depend upon the strength and number of the elastic strands used. about a hundred turns is a usual number. throw the motor forward in a slightly downward direction; because it is a glider it will tend to follow a gentle curve to the ground at first, but the whirling propeller will tend to carry it forward and upward. the first attempts may be failures, but these models are well worth many trials. =the hawk aeroplane= (fig. ) is a common flying toy worked as the above by elastic. cut two blocks of wood, a, a´; make holes in them as shown. into the square holes fix and glue two square rods c. through a´ bore a hole for the piece of cane, b b´, to pass through. f is a wire spindle with a hook at one end for elastic; it passes through the hole in block a´, through two beads, and through a piece of cork, f, into which it must be fixed. k is a piece of cane bent as in diagram, passing through a hole in cork, h. the bend is more _permanent_ if the cane is held to the spout of a boiling kettle; the ends of k should be slightly warped in opposite directions. into block a another wire hook is fixed and bands of elastic are passed over this hook and the opposite one, as in the diagram; the more bands the better. the cane b b´ is bent round at each end and fastened to the wooden rods, c c, by thread. the cane, k k, is fastened by thread as in the diagram; the thread can pass through a hole in the cork. spaces t, t, t, t are covered with thin tissue paper gummed to thread and cane by means of overlapping edges. the model is wound up and set going like the previous one. care must be taken to have it properly balanced, and it must be made as light as possible; the blocks a, a´ may very well be cut from cork. light bamboo cane can be used for posts, c c. at its best, however, the hawk aeroplane is not so good a flyer as the first model described. [illustration: fig. ] an ambitious and clever boy who has once grasped the principles on which flying-machines are made can think out many models for himself and copy some of the more elaborate ones. the biplane makes a very effective toy, but is omitted here because it is somewhat difficult to construct. chapter xxiv more old-fashioned toys =jacob's ladder.= this is a very old and ingenious puzzle and an amusing toy. it is very simply made. a number of blocks of wood must be made, " Ã� - / " Ã� / ". any number may be used, but not less than seven; twelve is a very good number. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] round the edges of the blocks and make them smooth with sand-paper, as in fig. . cut strips of tape about / inch wide and long enough to go over the rounded ends of the blocks, _a_, _b_, _b_, etc., in fig. . there are three tapes to each block. nail and glue tape _a_ to the centre of upper end of block a; it is then brought over and downward under the middle of the lower end of block b and fastened. tapes _b b_ are now fastened to the opposite end of a about / inch from the end on either side, and are then brought round the opposite end of b, as shown in the diagram. the centre tape _c_ is fastened to b and then brought down underneath to centre of the opposite end of c. the tapes must be arranged like this throughout the whole set of blocks. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how the blocks are held when they are all complete. top block a must be turned so as to bring the second block to the same level. the top of this block then falls, and it appears to pass rapidly down first on one side and then on the other, until it reaches the bottom. this is only what _seems_ to happen. what really happens is that the second block becomes reversed and falls back again, in its former position. this makes it come level with the third block, which at once falls over on the fourth, and so on to the end of the ladder. a very illusive effect is thus produced. the blocks might be coloured with some bright enamel paint, contrasting colours on opposite sides. =the trellis toy= (fig. ). the strips of wood for this toy should be as thin as possible. they are fastened together at points , , , , etc., by small pieces of wire, or by rivets bent down to prevent their slipping off, but not too tightly, so that the toy works easily. heads can be cut out of cardboard painted and glued to the wood. strips a and b should be wider at one end and have holes made in them for handles. =a running mouse.= this toy is made of fret-wood, two ordinary reels and elastic. choose two reels of about - / inches in length, diameter about inch. cut out a piece of wood, a, to measurements given (fig. ). with a fret-saw cut out the head (fig. ); slit b is a little wider than the thickness of the wood, so that the head wags about very easily when wired to the body (fig. ). cut out four legs as in fig. . the reels work behind these so that the shape of the leg partly hides them. nail the back legs to the body as shown in fig. . make a round axle to fit one of the reels so that it turns easily on it; cut it the exact length of the distance between the two back legs, pass it through the reel and glue its ends, c, to the legs so that the reel comes slightly below the legs and can run along easily. now make holes, d, in the front legs, and nail them to the body so that holes d are on a level with the axle c. make a hole through the body a, midway between the front legs, through which the string, e, will pass. make holes in the other reel and insert wire staples at each end as in fig. . fasten to and wind round the reel about a yard of string. pass rubber bands through each staple (f in fig. ) and through the holes d in the front legs and knot on the outside. pass the string through the hole in a (fig. ). =to fasten head on.= make two holes in the head exactly over each other, g and h in fig. . slip the head on to the body and make a hole through the body, between holes g and h, as shown in fig. . bend a piece of wire as in fig. , distance between bent ends being equal to distance between holes g and h; slip the wire through the hole in the body, pass the ends of the wire through holes g and h, then bend the ends over to the position shown by the dotted lines in fig. ; the mouse's head will then swing from side to side. make a hole in end at l (fig. ) and insert a tail of thick string. a piece of wood, m, shaped as in fig. , may be glued along part of the body, a, a little to one side so as not to interfere with string, e. the whole may be suitably coloured. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the toy works in this way. if it is placed on the floor and the string held, the weight of the toy will make the twine unwind, thus causing the elastic which supports the reel to twist. when the string is slackened, the elastic will untwist again, making the reel revolve and the toy run along the ground. figs. and show a black beetle that can be made in the same way; the antennæ may be made of wire. other suitable animals are a lizard and a crocodile. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] =a hygroscope.= the cottage is made of thin wood about / inch to / inch in thickness, according to measurements given in fig. . the sides are about - / inches. the platform or floor on which it stands, - / inches by inches. the sides of the roof are inches by inches, so that it projects slightly. the doors in front are - / inches wide and inches high, and are cut out with the fret-saw; about half-an-inch of the partition between the doors is cut away to allow the disc on which the figures stand to swing round. cut with fret-saw a circular disc of wood / inch thick, diameter inches. drill a hole through the centre and fit into it quite tightly a piece of wire bent into a loop as shown in fig. . drill a hole in the floor of the cottage, about an inch from the middle of the partition. the wire axle should fit into this so that it turns easily, but not too loosely, otherwise the disc on which the figures stand will wobble. just over this hole there must be another hole in the roof. this can be made by filing, with round fret-saw file, a little hollow (fig. ) in each of the top sides of the roof, so that when they come together a hole is formed. the back, sides, floor and roof may now be nailed and glued together. next cut out from three-ply wood with the fret-saw two little figures as in fig. ; they should be about inches to - / inches, and should be suitably coloured. these are glued to the wooden disc. the disc is hung from the roof by a piece of catgut; a knot is made at the end to prevent it slipping through, the other end being tied to the wire loop; the wire passes through the hole in the floor. the catgut must be long enough to allow the disc to turn round completely on its axis. four pieces of wood or four small reels are glued to the corners of the floor to prevent the wire axle from touching the ground. the front must not be put on until the model is found to work correctly. to do this, hang the disc so that it is parallel to the ground, and so that both figures are looking out of their respective doors; then tie the knot at the top and wait for a change of weather. supposing on a damp day the cricketer comes forward and the boy in mackintosh and sou'wester retires indoors, this is because the catgut is twisting the wrong way, therefore the end that is fastened to the roof must be fastened to the wire loop, and vice versa. now the front can be glued on. it can be suitably painted, showing door-posts, windows, bricks, etc. =why the hygroscope works.= catgut has the peculiar property of absorbing moisture from the air and twisting up and becoming shorter; when the air is dry it untwists to its original length; the damper the air the greater is the amount of the twist. hence in the model, as the catgut twists and untwists according to the state of the atmosphere, the little figures swing in and out of the cottage doors. chapter xxv lift, pont roulant, tower bridge [illustration: fig. ] =a lift.= there are a variety of ways of making a lift. one of the simplest is shown in this chapter. the first essential is a wooden box, oblong if possible, so that there can be many floors. the measurements given in this chapter are for quite a small model made from a shallow oblong box, - / inches by - / inches, and about - / inches in depth. sand-paper the inside and cover it with some pretty paper. mark off distances a c and b d (fig. ) equal to - / inches; rule lines a b and c d along the bottom of the box; glue pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch (a b and c d in fig. ) along the bottom of the box for the lift to run up and down between. the lift is made next. cut two pieces of wood - / inches by - / inches; nail to the corners of one piece four pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� ". fasten the other piece of wood to these four posts by means of screw-eyes. now leave the lift for a while. cut two pieces of cardboard, a b e f and c d h g, to divide the box into three long divisions, as in fig. . see that they project / inch beyond the box. divide these strips into three parts and draw and cut out doors as in the diagram; the line for the floors must, of course, be well above the top of the lift, while the height of the doors must correspond to that of the lift. now glue these strips of cardboard to the pieces of stripwood a b and c d as in diagram; see that the doors open into the rooms on each side, and not into the lift. see that the lift runs easily up and down between the cardboard strips; sand-paper it if it does not. make four holes in the top of the box, _a_, _b_, _c_, _d_ in fig. . tie thread or black yarn to the screw-eyes, cross it and pass it through the holes as in the figure, then pass the four cables through screw-eye k. when the lift is on the ground, pull the strings taut and tie a knot below the screw-eye. the lift can be raised by means of winding gear attached to the side as described in chapter v, on the crane; the weight of the lift will pull it down again, or if this is not enough it can be weighted with lead. fig. shows another way of working the model. screw-eyes can be fastened to the bottom of the lift and thread tied to them as before; these threads must pass through four holes in the bottom of the box, through a hole in the support l m and through screw-eye q; the bottom strings are then knotted to the top strings at r, and the lift can be lowered and raised by moving knot r up and down. the supports n p and l m are made of pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut a door out of cardboard as shown in fig. and glue it over the front of the lift. (in fig. the dotted lines are half cuts, the black lines are cut.) nail strips of wood / inch by / inch, e f and h g, in front of the lift and glue the pieces of cardboard to them. they keep the lift from falling forward. if the lift is moved up and down, as shown in fig. , it is best for it to fit fairly tightly so that it stays into whatever position it is pulled. cardboard floors, , , , (fig. ), are added, and kept in position by pieces of stripwood. the rooms on each side can be furnished according to taste and according to their size. the lift itself may be finished off with advertisements, directions to travellers, etc., according as it is intended for use in a railway station, a hotel, a store, etc. this toy, although so simply made, is very effective. =pont roulant at saint-malo.= this is a pretty model to make. first glue four pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", together (a a a a in fig. ). nail and glue to the corners of this framework four round rods, - / inches long and / inch in diameter. dowel rods such as these are somewhat difficult to nail on; however, should the wood of the little frame split, or the hole in the dowel rod be made too large for the nail, and so make the structure unsteady, the discs of cork (c in fig. ), which have a hole filed in the middle of them and are glued to the rods and the framework, help to consolidate the whole. similar discs of cork are placed round the middle of rods, b, and at the tops of the rods. these serve to hold the black yarn which rigs the structure. the pieces of cork at the top have the additional advantage of making a steadier base for the platform to rest on. if the poles are not all cut exactly the same length, the discs of cork can be raised above the shorter poles and the platform on top made perfectly horizontal. these cork discs also give a larger surface to glue the platform to. instead of dowel rods, iron wire / inch in diameter can be used. these wire rods must have cork discs on them like the wooden rods, but they must be glued into holes in the lower framework and in the platform. having fixed the rods in position, thread is tied underneath a bottom piece of cork (c^ in diagram), passed over the top of rod b^ and kept there by the cork disc at the top, round the bottom of post b^ and under the bottom cork, over the next post and so on, so that the threads cross each other as in the diagram. thread is also tied round the middle of the rods just above corks c^ , c^ , c^ , and c^ . thread is also tied from c^ to c^ , and c^ to c^ . pieces of stripwood, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", are glued across the frame a a a a. next the platform has to be made; this is a piece of wood - / inches square and / inch in thickness. before gluing it on to the four posts it is best to make and fasten to it the cabin, railings, etc. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the cabin, e, in the middle is inches square and inches high; it is cut out of cardboard. flanges must be left for gluing it to platform, and for gluing the roof to it. doors and windows are drawn round it or cut out. the cabin is then glued in the middle of platform d. the roof is a piece of cardboard - / inches by - / inches. fig. shows how it is cut out, half cuts are made along the dotted lines, and g, k, h, m are bent up to form the ornaments g, k, h, m in fig. . the roof is glued to the top of cabin, e, and to the tops of posts, n, which are pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ". triangular pieces of cardboard are glued in the corners, as p in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] the railings are inch high; they can either be made of strips of cardboard inch by - / inches supported at the corners and in the middle by pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ", with criss-cross lines drawn on them, or be made as in fig. , where a b and c d are strips of cardboard / inch wide, f is stripwood / inch by / inch, and , , , etc., are parts of match sticks glued to the cardboard strips. seats can be placed round the railings, and round the cabin where there are no doors. a piece of stripwood, r, / " Ã� / " Ã� - / ", is cut and filed as in fig. and glued to the middle of the roof. the platform is then glued to the tops of the posts with their surrounding corks. the frame, a a a a, is mounted on wheels - / inches in diameter and / inch in width. the axles are pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch, to which the frame a a is glued. the rails on which it runs (_a b_ in fig. ) are made in a similar manner to those described in chapter xiii, for the transporter bridge. it is pulled along by thread tied to screw-eyes x and y, and wound up by winding gear similar to that described in chapter xiii. [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows how high tide can be represented by means of boxes and cardboard; d, e, f are boxes which form a quay into which the car runs. a, b, c are pieces of cardboard resting on pieces of stripwood glued to boxes d, e, f, and similar boxes on the other side, or the cardboard can rest on boxes. if boxes cannot be found big enough for d, e and f, several boxes can be built up. slots _a b_ and _c d_ must be left wide enough for the supports to pass freely, and the threads must be omitted at front and back. the rails must lie exactly under slots _a b_ and _c d_. the pieces of cardboard a, b and c should be coloured blue. the thread from the car underneath the "water" can pass into box f and up through a hole in the top, where the winding gear can be placed, but, of course, it can be worked from below. sheets of cardboard a and c can be surrounded by boxes or fastened in a large box, or have cardboard walls built around it. =tower bridge.= a very simple and effective model of tower bridge can be made, which will prove a delightful plaything. the measurements given in this chapter need not be followed, but the bridge can be made larger or smaller according to taste. the whole structure can be of wood or of wood and cardboard. two small boxes are required, made of wood / inch thick, about inches in length, breadth and height. (if such small boxes cannot be found they must be made.) take off one side of box, a b c d in fig. , which shows the mechanism of the toy. into the edges d f and c e screw two small screw-eyes, g and h, about / inch from the top. [illustration: fig. ] now cut a piece of wood - / inches long for the bridge. the width of bridge _a b_ must be equal to width of interior of box. for the present model it will be - / inches. the wood used for the bridge should be about / inch thick. now rule a line - / inches from end _a b_. on this line screw in two small screw-eyes, k and l, of the same size as screw-eyes g and h. the axle, m n, may be either iron wire (in which case the bridge may work rather loosely) or, what is better, a wooden rod that just fits the screw-eyes. whichever axle is chosen cork discs should be placed at each end to prevent it slipping out. before the bridge is fastened on, screw-eyes o and p are screwed in it near the end _c d_. screw-eye p must be far enough from the edge _b d_ to clear screw-eye r when the bridge is upright. the same with screw-eye o. a piece of strong thread is tied to screw-eye p, passed through screw-eye r, and through a hole in the drawbridge above screw-eye r, but clear of axle, m n. a similar piece of thread is tied to screw-eye o, passed through q, and through a hole in the bridge. now cover up top, a b c d, with a piece of cardboard, but do not bring this quite up to b c, in order not to interfere with the working of the bridge. make holes in the cardboard for the strings to pass through. then cover up the front portion, d c f e, below the bridge with cardboard. the tower (fig. ) must next be made. this is formed of one piece of cardboard: height, _a b_, inches; width, _c d_, - / inches. in the sides facing the bridge large openings, e, are cut about - / inches high. small openings, f and g, about - / inches high and / inch broad, are cut for the overhead foot bridges. these are made of long pieces of cardboard inches broad, bent in three divisions to form the path and sides. the latter are marked to represent railings. they should be long enough to pass well inside the tower through openings f and g, and through the corresponding openings in the opposite tower. they can be glued into position by pieces of stripwood or left movable. a door, a, should be made in the top of the tower and a platform put in to make a compartment for working the bridge. the pieces of thread are brought up through holes in this platform and fastened to rod b, which passes through holes in sides of tower, and is kept from slipping out by cork discs. when this rod is turned the bridge will rise or fall. if a large model is being made a proper little windlass with a handle can be constructed inside the upper room of the tower. the threads pass up on each side of the tower so as not to interfere with the "traffic" passing under the arch of the bridge. the tower is fastened up with flanges and glued to the wooden box with the help of small blocks of wood. a square pyramid is placed on the top of the tower, and the whole is suitably coloured. a picture of the real tower bridge is a great help when finishing off the model. a similar bridge and tower are made for the other side. [illustration: fig. ] to keep the wooden boxes the right distance apart (that is, so that bridge x just touches bridge y) nail or glue them to a long strip of wood painted blue. there is, however, no need to fasten them permanently. the ingenious toy-maker will find a hundred ways of improving this toy. there are many additions that can be made if a picture of the tower bridge is consulted; cardboard paths can lead to bridge x, round the outside of the tower; railings can be added to bridges x and y (but see that they are not in the way when the bridge goes up!), and so on. the method of raising and lowering the bridges is capable of a number of modifications. it should be the pleasant business of the maker to improve this model, and not be content with too slavishly following the directions given. bridges are among the most interesting things in the world, and there are countless happy hours in front of the little toy-maker who sets to work to collect pictures and written accounts of bridges, and who tries to imitate these. chapter xxvi soldering. screw steamer. toys worked by wind and by convection currents =soldering.= a knowledge of soldering makes many more toys possible, besides being a useful acquirement in itself. the following are the materials needed: . a soldering iron (fig. ). this can be bought for sixpence at any ironmonger's. it is best to get one not too long in the stem, as otherwise it is difficult to hold it steady. . a strip of soft solder, price about three-halfpence. . soldering fluid or flux. this can be made at home from a pennyworth of spirits of salt (from an oil shop). put a little of the spirits into a separate bottle and drop a few scraps of zinc into it. when it has stopped "fizzing" it is ready for use. . a pennyworth of resin. . a piece of sheet tin. soldering is not nearly so difficult as people think. there is one thing really essential for its success, and that is unlimited patience in cleaning the metal surfaces to be joined together. solder will not adhere to dirty metal. the surfaces must be thoroughly scraped and cleaned with an old knife, then filed, rubbed with emery-cloth and protected by a coating of flux. the flux required for use should be kept in a shallow dish (_e.g._ a meat-paste jar), to prevent it being upset; it can be put on with a small brush. the copper bit of the soldering iron must be covered with a thin film of solder before any soldering is done; this is to ensure that it is perfectly free from dirt or dust. this process is called "tinning the bit." it is quite simple. heat the iron to a dull red heat, not quite red hot, as the solder would otherwise be destroyed. then quickly file the four faces of the point to remove any dirt or oxide that may have got on it and which would prevent the solder from sticking to the bit. next dip the bit for a second or two in the soldering fluid and melt off a drop of solder on to the piece of sheet tin on which is put a little piece of resin. turn the point of the bit round and round in the melted solder until it is completely coated. it is very important that the soldering iron should at no time be overheated, as this tinning would be burnt off; nor can it be repeated too often that the surfaces to be joined must be thoroughly cleaned; failure to do this is in most cases the cause of unsuccessful soldering. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] to solder handle a to b (fig. ). thoroughly clean that part of b to which a is to be fastened, and handle a, rubbing the edges of a with emery-cloth. place a on b and rub a little flux with a brush along the join. dip the bit into the flux and drop a spot or two of solder on the edges by applying the heated iron to the end of the strip of solder. apply the bit to the solder and trail the solder with the point of the hot iron round the join so that it is filled up. a little practice will soon enable this to be done successfully, and the skill thus acquired makes the following toy possible. =a steamer with a screw propeller.= fig. shows the size and shape of the steamer. it should be about inches wide amidships, - / inches deep, and hollowed out as thin as possible, according to directions given in chapter xiv. fig. shows the measurements for the stern. the bows should be sharp. this boat must be fairly large to take the tube which runs through it. fasten a strip of lead / inch thick to the bottom of the keel. paint the boat a suitable colour. when it is dry place it in the water and mark on the stern-post, a b (fig. ), the height to which the water comes, for the propeller must come just below this. midway between this point and the end of the keel bore a hole, c, in the stern-post, through the boat in the direction of the top of the bow. this hole should be / inch wide and can be made with a red-hot wire. a brass tube must now be bought from a gasfitter's, / inch [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] outside measurement, and long enough to reach from c to about - / inches beyond the end of the bow. now cut a piece of tin / inch wide and inches long. bend the middle of it round the tube and the ends outward (fig. ). punch holes in each end. solder this strip round the tube about - / inches from one end. at this end file four teeth, about / inch deep, as in fig. . now push the end that is not filed through the hole in the stern from the inside of the boat, so that it is flush with the wood, and fasten the other end to the stem of the boat by driving small nails through the holes in the strip of tin into the boat. to prevent water entering the boat put some putty round the tube where it passes through the wood. before fastening the tube in the boat, round out the end of the bow slightly so that the tube will rest securely on it without projecting too much above the gunwale. make the deck and fix it as described in chapter xiv. bore a hole, d, in fig. , near the stern right through the deck so that it comes out under the counter about inch from the stern-post. it should be large enough for a piece of stout wire to pass through. this is for the rudder. =to make the rudder.= cut a piece of brass wire about / inch thick, - / inches long. cut the rudder out of tin and shape as in fig. . solder it on to the wire so that the end of the rudder is flush with the end of the wire. pass the wire through the hole, d, and bend as in fig. . cut a strip of tin about / inch in width, punch holes in it, point the ends, bend them over and fasten them into the deck so that the strip is under the bend, e, of the tiller. press the tiller over and into one of these holes; thus the rudder can be held firm in its required position for steering. in the middle of the deck cut a hole about / inch in diameter for the funnel, which is a tube of tin about inches long. =the propeller.= cut a circle of tin inches in diameter and inscribe a hexagon; cut as in fig. , the shaded portions being cut away. punch a hole in the centre and into this fix, by soldering, a piece of brass wire ( / inch thick), inches long, to form an axle. warp the fans of the propeller out of the plane of the circle about / inch. make two pieces of wood shaped as in fig. . bore a hole through each and by filing with a small round fret-saw file enlarge it to / inch. put a glass bead, f (fig. ), on wire of propeller, and put the wire through one of the pieces of wood, bend the end into a small hook. take another piece of wire, pass it through the second piece of wood and bend it as in fig. . now take a piece of strong elastic, / inch wide and about - / feet long; tie the ends together. this must be passed through the tube in the boat. to do this, tie a piece of string to the elastic, and drop the string through the tube from the stern end, and by means of the string pull the elastic through, first hooking one end of it to the hook on the propeller wire, fig. . then push the piece of wood, g, into the tube, so that the screw clears the rudder. now hook wire, h (fig. ), into the elastic, and push wood, k, into tube. the wood must be cut away so that the handle, m, can catch in the teeth of the tube. to make the boat work, hold the propeller steady with one hand and wind up the elastic by the handle, m; put the handle in one of the teeth to keep the elastic twisted; set the rudder, put the boat into the water, let go the propeller and the boat will go on until the elastic is unwound. instead of one band of elastic, several thinner bands may be used, and more motive power can thus be obtained. =toys worked by the wind.= cut out of fret-wood ( / inch thick), or three-ply wood, a man reading a paper with one foot raised and resting on a box. the man should be about - / inches and his raised foot inch from the ground, as in fig. . the shoeblack is cut out in three pieces. first the kneeling portion, a (fig. ), is cut inches high and a hole made at _b_; then the head with part of the arm to the elbow attached, as h in fig. , about - / inches high, and with holes at _d_ and _e_; then the hand (with long shoe-brush) and arm to elbow, as k in fig. ; make a hole at _f_. length of k - / inches. now join k to h by wire or a rivet through holes _f_ and _e_, so that it swings loosely, then join h to a by a wire through holes _d_ and _b_. colour these two figures suitably. the base on which the figures rest is a piece of wood about inches by inches. the next thing to be made is the mechanism that works the figures. first cut a piece of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� ", a in fig. . the fan or propeller, b, is made by cutting a small circular piece of wood or cork about inch in diameter and securely fixing round it five wind flaps as shown. these flaps are best made of tin. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] now get a piece of stout copper wire (about / inch thick), d in fig. , and bend it as in diagram. the best way to effect this bend is first to make a sort of elongated =u=, as in fig. ; this can be done with pincers. then put part a in a vice and bend b c and d e out at right angles. cut it the right length so that the bend will come on a level with the shoeblack's brush and one end will come above post, a. the wire, d, should be pointed or well smoothed with a file at the lower end, so that it will turn easily on a piece of glass glued to the base. wire d is supported by two wire hoops or screw-eyes placed in post a. the holes through which it passes must not be too large or it will wobble and not turn smoothly. now all the parts are ready for putting together. glue the shoeblack on first, then opposite to him the man. see that the brush passes over the shoe. if for any reason this does not happen, a larger brush can be cut from wood or cardboard and pasted over the shoeblack's hand. now fasten post a behind the man so that the bend of the wire, d, will be in the right position; pass wire, d, through the wire loops or hooks (these are best made of copper wire); glue the top of it into the hole in the propeller. glue a piece of glass, e, under the other end. connect by a thin piece of wire the shoeblack's brush with bend in d. the figure will now work well in the wind. the shoeblack is the toy one most often sees worked in this way. a man sawing wood is another favourite model, and can be made in exactly the same way. two knights fighting can also be made; this involves, however, two propellers. =toys worked by convection currents.= these are less interesting toys because they do not admit of much variety. the toy is worked over a gas burner, where it acts as a ceiling protector. as the power available from convection currents is very slight, every care must be taken that the figure will work smoothly. as the toy is exposed to heat, the soldering must be well done. fig. shows how the toy is made. the little sailor is cut out of sheet metal (tinned plate); his limbs are fixed by means of rivets or eyelets (the latter are obtainable at a boot repairer's). take care that they move freely. they will do so if the holes are very smooth. the wire used is steel wire about / inch; this is fairly easy to bend. wire a b is bent as already described in the shoeblack. it passes through loops in the wire at a and d. it is kept from slipping through at a by a ring of wire soldered on the top. [illustration: fig. ] the propeller at b is simply a tin disc with radial cuts, each sector being twisted at an angle by a pair of pliers. the propeller is held by a turn in the wire and by a touch of solder. notice that the feet of the figure are turned round the wire on which it stands. they can be soldered for greater security. the hand is also curled round the crank pin, but it must be free to turn on it. the wire framework, e, is soldered to a circle of tin, c, which fits on the top of the lamp. as the figure has to be small it should be as long as possible. a pair of scissors should be kept for cutting tin, or tinman's snips can be used; cutting pliers and centre punches will also be needed. holes, however, can be punched in tin with strong round nails and a hammer. round files are needed for making holes smooth. empty tin canisters form a supply of tin plate. adjustable cycle spanners are useful for bending wire at right angles; a hide mallet is a great convenience. before making a toy like one of those described it is well to practise bending wire with vice, hammer and mallet. in the last toy, if tinned plate and tinned steel wire are used, the soldering is a fairly easy matter, because the tinning has already been done. chapter xxvii buildings at home and abroad =a farmhouse.= young children, having cut out of cardboard or fret-wood the animals and trees described in chapter xx, having constructed a bridge, a well, a dove-cot, and other small models scattered through this volume, take considerable pleasure in arranging their toys into pretty groups and attractive combinations. at this stage the lack is often felt of some object of central interest, of something to 'pull the composition together,' as an art critic would put it: the farm scene requires a farm, the domestic scene a villa, the eastern animals and trees an indian temple, or some such building, to complete the picture. with regard to home scenes, children may be advised at this stage to make for themselves any house or building that suits their fancy. the basis of the toy will always be the four walls plus a roof described in the noah's ark (part i, chapter x); more complicated cardboard work has already been studied in the castle (part ii, chapter x), so children who are ambitious to achieve something more picturesque than the noah's ark may be advised to go out into the suburbs or the country, and sketch any simple building, or set of buildings, which they would like to reproduce. such work, once attempted, becomes extremely fascinating, and leads to very picturesque and delightful results. to do really good work, however, children must accustom themselves to _plan_ very carefully what they propose to do, and to convert their sketches into a set of drawings to scale, which, in the case of a building, should include at least a ground plan and a couple of elevations. figs. and show how to lay down the plan and elevations of a simple building of the 'noah's ark' type, to which have been added a front and a back door, with porches, bay and storm windows, chimney-stacks, and an outhouse at the back. fig. is the front elevation to half scale. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] the addition of another entirely detached outhouse with wide door at one end, for a cowshed, to face the back of the main building and form the third side of a square, will give the nucleus of quite an attractive farm. when once the plans have been drawn, a scale is plotted below to suit any size to which it is intended to build; all the dimensions shown in plan and elevation are then taken as required with dividers, read off on the scale, taken anew on a foot-rule, and transferred to the wood or cardboard. the scale given on the figure is for quite a large house, the ground plan of the main building measuring inches by inches, and that of the outhouse inches by inches. these two buildings had best be constructed on separate bases, and need not be permanently joined; the roof of the outhouse can be carried rather further into that of the main building than is indicated by the line c h e, and the main roof alone cut carefully to the line c h e. if the main roof is made detachable, building a b c d will form a receptacle for the outhouses and the whole farm stock. the broken line surrounding a b c d and c e f g indicates the dimensions. a house of this size is best built with a base and walls of wood obtained from some grocers' boxes.[ ] if the scale be marked so that points , , read , - / , , giving a reduction to three quarters, the main building will measure - / inches by - / inches, and may be built entirely of cardboard. if the scale be marked so that points , , read , , , a b and a d measuring respectively - / inches and inches, we shall have a small model that can be built of very light materials, such as stout cartridge paper on a cardboard base. [ ] an excellent and very strong material for model-building is manufactured by messrs james spicer and sons limited, under the name of rough cast building board. it has a most realistic white 'rough-cast' surface. it is obtainable in the size - / inches Ã� inches from messrs richardson and co., stationers, charing cross road. the bay window will, of course, be made separately, and gummed into position by means of flanges. the porches may be detachable, like the outhouse; the front-door porch is built of eight pillars of stripwood, nailed and glued to a wood or cardboard base and to cross-beams above; between the pillars may be fixed a couple of seats, one on each side of the door. the back-door porch is supported by four pillars. the roofs are of cardboard. the ground-floor windows, indicated at w, may be either painted or cut out; in the latter case they may be made to open or may be fitted with celluloid window-panes; these you can beg from any amateur photographer of your acquaintance; he is sure to have plenty of 'waster' films. the doors should, of course, be made to open. the storm windows are easily made; the sides, k l m, are cut with angle l k m = half the angle k o p, the latter being in the present instance °. the shape of the window roofs can be arrived at by experimenting with a paper template, but more accurately by plotting them out to scale. thus: draw q' r' v' = q r v, r' t' = r t, q' s' and v' s" = q s; join s' t' and s" t'; then q' v' s" t' s' (fig. ) is the exact shape (leaving the flanges out of account) to which the storm-window roofs should be cut. the roofs over the front porch and the bay window, the chimney stacks, etc., are thought out and plotted in the same manner, the solving of these little problems being excellent practice, which may be turned to good account in after life. the village church, the village inn, if it is old and picturesque, should form good subjects for study and reproduction on the lines indicated above. for young people who have exhausted the possibilities of their immediate surroundings we give a few models from lands more remote. =the taj mahal, agra.= this is one of the most famous buildings in india, and was erected by the emperor shah jehan over the body of his favourite wife. a very pretty model which closely resembles it can be made as follows:-- in fig. the dome, a, is a plain india-rubber ball, circumference about inches. four india-rubber balls, circumference about inches, are needed as b b, and four, circumference about - / inches, for the four columns (c in fig. ) which surround the temple. cut a piece of fairly thick cardboard, inches square, for the roof of the temple. cut off the corners as in fig. . in the centre describe a circle with radius - / inches, and round it four smaller circles of radius / inch. cut a strip of thin cardboard inches by inches. cut as in fig. , leaving flanges of / inch. roll round and fasten together with seccotine and two small paper-clips, size . this forms the part of the temple marked d in fig. . it is glued to the roof by the flanges, etc., and ball, a, is glued into it. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] before fastening it together, mark on it in ink the pattern indicated in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] cut four strips of thin cardboard - / inches by - / inches; mark off / inch for flanges; cut each as in fig. ; bend them round and fasten together; glue the smaller balls, b, b, into them and glue them on the roof just over the smaller circles. cut four strips of cardboard inches by inch; cut and mark as in fig. , and glue this round the smallest balls, c. measure distances _ha_, _ab_, _bc_, _cd_, etc. (fig. ), on a piece of cardboard, and mark out as in fig. . make half cuts along the dotted lines and leave flanges as shown. distance _ak_ = _ah_ and _lb_ = _bc_ = _cm_ = _nd_. make and cut out the windows and arch. cut another piece of cardboard similar to this. these two bent round and joined together form the sides of the temple. now cut a piece of cardboard as in fig. , leaving flanges all round. bend it round and gum it together. this is gummed underneath the roof, before fastening on the outer walls, and serves a double purpose; it helps to support the roof on which the domes rest, and prevents the temple from looking too hollow when the windows are cut out. =to make tower=, c e (fig. ). it consists of three rolls of thin cardboard, e f g, each about inches high, circumference - / inches. circular pieces of cardboard, big enough to project about / inch beyond the columns, form the platforms, h, j, k. underneath each platform triangular pieces of cardboard are glued, as in fig. . four of these columns stand round the central building. it is a great improvement if rings of cardboard, / inch wide, are made and glued round all the smaller domes, as shown in fig. . round the sides of the building strips of paper, l, m, n, o (fig. ), are gummed, rising about / inch from the roof, with patterns drawn on them as in fig. . little cardboard turrets (fig. ) are cut out and gummed in each corner, p and q (fig. ). little cones of paper, made by rolling together a circle cut as in fig. , may be glued to the tops of the domes. the whole should be mounted on a platform made of a piece of stout cardboard, x y, about a foot square or a little larger, supported on match-boxes placed two together. a row of these across the middle will prevent the platform from sagging. trees can be cut out as in chapter xx, figs. and , to stand round the temple. =a pagoda=, or memorial tower, in the province of quei chow in china (fig. ). this is made of nine hexagonal prisms. the bottom one is inches high, the sides being also two inches; the dimensions of the next are / inch less, the next another / inch less, and so on. the last prism has side / inch, height / inch. an ornament for the top can be filed from a cork or piece of round wood. the platforms project about / inch beyond the prisms; the supports may be cardboard or pieces of thin wood. the prisms are fastened together as described in the case of the lighthouse (chapter xiii). the whole should be painted to represent stones, and doors marked on as in fig. . [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. ] fig. shows a =mosque= in an oasis in the sahara desert. here the dome, a, an india-rubber ball, is let into a circular hole in the roof. the towers or minarets are prisms of cardboard on top of each other, surmounted by a piece of dowel rod, one end being rounded to a point. trees can be cut out as in the figure to form a background. fig. shows a =japanese pagoda=. this is built up in a similar manner to the chinese pagoda. parts a b c d are square prisms about inch high; e f g are truncated square prisms. they are made like the reservoir described in the models worked by sand (chapter xxi), but the upper parts have been cut off; they are glued to the squares of cardboard which rest upon the tops of a, b, c and d. a piece of cardboard is glued over the top of e so that b can rest upon it, and so on with the others; pieces of paper cut out as at h j are gummed round the edges. there are many interesting models that can be made in this way. almost any good illustrated geography book will provide plenty of material from which pretty and interesting foreign scenes can be built up. [illustration: fig. ] chapter xxviii a theatre this is a toy that will provide hours of happy play. there are many effective ways of making a toy theatre, and the planning and designing of one is a pleasant piece of work. this chapter gives a few suggestions to future theatre builders, who must adopt those that appeal most to them. a large stage is the most necessary part, so that there is plenty of room to set up the scenes and room for the actors. a small stage limits the choice of plays considerably. a pretty and useful theatre can be made thus. get a wooden box - / inches wide, about foot long and - / inches deep. (the theatre described in this chapter was made from a wooden box containing fry's nut milk chocolate--this box is exactly the right size.) this box forms the basis of the platform; stand it bottom upward, nail to the back of it a piece of wood, g h c d, which is foot square (see fig. ). the platform, a b l m, is a piece of stiff cardboard or wood, a b is length of box, l m is feet. this makes a fine large platform for arranging scenes. pieces of stripwood / inch by / inch are glued across the platform, a l b m, each strip a little over a / inch from the other (the / inch side is glued to platform). about eleven strips can be thus glued across; their ends should project about / inch beyond the platform. the grooves thus formed are for running the actors up and down in. a piece of wood, _a b c d_, is now cut feet by - / inches. holes are drilled along the top of it about / inch in diameter, and red paper gummed at the back of them for the footlights. panels or a pretty design of some kind should be painted on it, or it may have coloured paper pasted on it. this piece of wood is glued to k j e f so that its ends project equally on each side. [illustration: fig. ] now cut two pieces of stripwood / " Ã� / " Ã� - / " (_e b_ and _f d_ in fig. ). bevel the top ends to hold up cardboard roof _e f_ g h (the measurements for which can be easily found). the roof is secured by a flap glued behind a g h b, the roof is also glued to the tops of the strips _eb_ and _fd_. these posts are glued to sides of _abcd_. before they are glued on, however, they must have holes drilled near their upper ends for pole, n o, to pass through. the curtain must be made of fairly thin stuff glued to pole, n o. it can be pulled up and down by means of pulley wheels attached on each side. (for making pulley see part i, chapter xiv.) pieces of lead can be sewn in the corners to make the curtain run down more easily. saw cuts are made across the strips of wood that cover the platform along lines b m and a l. into these slits the side scenes fit. these side scenes are cut out of cardboard and have drawings and painting on them according to the story that is being acted. they must have slits cut in them (corresponding to the grooves in the platform), the number of slits depending on the number of actors. for example in fig. side scene h _f_ b m has an open door through which red riding hood can be pushed. she is cut out of either cardboard or wood, and glued to the end of a piece of stripwood, / inch by / inch, by means of which she is pushed from the side along the groove in the stage and so off through the corresponding slit in scene g _e_ l a. (in fig. the wolf is looking through this slot.) the window in scene h _f_ b m can be made to open and show the grandmother inside. the cardboard scene, g h a b, is kept in its place by pieces of wire (_h_, _h_, _h_, _h_) fastened at the back and bent over. almost any story can be acted in this theatre. all the actors are fastened to lengths of stripwood by means of which they are passed in and out. sometimes two, three or more may be fastened to one length. the number of openings in the side scenes will, of course, depend on the story being acted. trees, etc., can also be cut out as described in chapter xx (part ii), and stood about. [illustration: figs. and ] [illustration: fig. ] a sea scene looks very effective. waves can be cut out of cardboard and placed in every groove, as in fig. , and a ship drawn across. a shipwreck forms an exciting scene. indeed, there is no end to the scenes--soldiers marching past, stories and scenes from history and literature, etc., etc. the ingenious owner of the theatre will think of many, and add many improvements. it must not be forgotten that the stage is large enough to hold small objects--trees, etc.--to make the scenes look more realistic. also holes or slits can be made in the roof if it is necessary to pull anything up or hang anything. fig. shows how a fringe of paper, a, can be fastened to the roof and bent over to hide the pole on which the curtain is wound. fig. shows how the scenes are worked; as the witch is pushed on from one side, the weeping cinderella is pushed off; when she has quite gone and only the witch remains, a radiant cinderella comes on, followed by a coach, etc. lastly, fig. shows a proscenium, which may be built up of either cardboard or wood, and fixed to the front of the theatre. the sides should project sufficiently to hide the working of the strips by means of which the actors are moved on the stage. * * * * * here, for the present, we take leave of the reader, having given him or her some insight into a subject both pleasant and profitable. the preceding pages are no more than an introduction to the art of making toys, and of making the most of simple tools and simple materials, and their real purpose is to encourage our young people not only to copy but also to create, or at any rate to copy not only from our book but from the world around them. dolls' houses and furniture, railways, boats and other vehicles offer endless possibilities of original and attractive design, and mechanical toys, whether driven by wind, water, elastic or the works of an old clock, offer an equally wide field for invention. at a later age girls will no doubt be ambitious to devise useful articles for the home, while boys may become interested in engineering and electrical models, optical toys, etc.; the deftness of hand, acquaintance with elementary principles, and self-confidence acquired through the simple work which we have described, should stand them in good stead. self-reliance and ingenuity are valuable assets with which to start upon the more serious tasks of life, and if our hints on toy-making contribute in any way to the development of these qualities this book will not have been written in vain. * * * * * transcriber's note: punctuation and spelling were made consistent when a predominant preference was found in this book; otherwise they were not changed. simple typographical and spelling errors were corrected. p. added "or" between "bridges," & "picture". seemed to make more sense than "and" which could also have been used. toy craft toy craft leon h. baxter director of manual training, public schools st. johnsbury, vt. author of boy bird house architecture, and elementary concrete construction [illustration] the bruce publishing company milwaukee, wisconsin copyright the bruce publishing company printed in the united states of america introductory notes the purpose of such a book as mr. baxter's "toy craft" is to furnish definite instructions for the making of toys for boys and girls by the children themselves. miniature furniture, wooden dolls, carts and animals--of how much greater value is one such plaything actually put together by a child than any number of toys made in a factory or imported from some foreign country? truly a step forward has been taken in putting before the people a book which will unconsciously instill in the minds of the children the value of the hand-made in preference to the machine-made article. not only is mr. baxter peculiarly fitted to publish such a volume as "toy craft" in the light of his knowledge of manual training, but also because of his understanding of the spirit behind the production of toys, which bring such joy to the hearts of boys and girls. to the satisfaction of actually making some wooden cart, or bird, or animal may be added the happiness of doing the work for some other child. it is this vision of service for others which mr. baxter has already caught and demonstrated, and we feel sure that this little volume will do much to promote the improved individual construction of toys by children, at the same time instilling into the hearts of the boys the joy of making something for somebody else, of experiencing the truth, "it is more blessed to give than to receive." mabel e. turner, field representative for junior service, new england division, american red cross. * * * * * one of the hard problems in manual training, for boys up to twelve years of age, is to find worth-while things to make, within the capacity of boys of this age. having been engaged in this kind of work for over twenty years i can appreciate the problems of the manual training instructor in the grades. after carefully examining the cuts and directions for the various projects as given in "toy craft," and having seen the boys at work, as well as the completed articles, in mr. baxter's department, i can readily see how the great interest that is inspired in the boys is derived. i heartily commend this book to all manual training teachers as a great help in the solution of their problems with boys. stanley j. steward, m. e., director, st. johnsbury vocational school. preface each year american parents spend millions of dollars for toys for the children. in a short time a large part of these toys are broken, and lie in the corner or the back yard. this is because of the destructive habits children have developed. these same habits have been formed because, since birth, toys have cost these children nothing. children, like grown-ups, value things and form habits in proportion to the cost to them. they break up what costs them nothing, and cherish and keep repaired what they, themselves, have made or purchased with self-denial or self-earned money. the breaking of toys is bad, but the effect upon the character of the child is infinitely worse. destructive tendencies are developed, while constructive ability is allowed to lie dormant and inactive. the remedy for this is to develop the constructive rather than the destructive in children by buying them working outfits and books of instruction with which they can make and repair things for themselves. in other words, buy tools, equipment and supplies rather than finished toys. carlisle said, "man without tools is nothing; man with tools is all." education is to children what civilization is to the race. what to buy for each particular child depends upon the age and tendencies of the child and is a matter parents must determine for themselves. the important test is, "is it something that the child can use to make things for himself, for others and for the home?" when purchasing tools it is an excellent plan to leave some part of the outfit for the children to make or to buy from money they themselves have earned. in other words, co-operate with the children instead of doing it all for them. the writer speaks not only from the teacher's point of view, but from the parent's as well. the problems offered in this book are not only within the capabilities of the average child, but are all tested and proven as being worth-while and appealing strongly to the child's ideals and imagination. leon h. baxter. st. johnsbury, vt. table of contents page history of toy-making - equipment - laying out work transferring a design - adapting the problem to the boy's ability finish and color - staining - method of jointing wood - supports for holding coping saw work support to be held in vise - supports for table use the bench hook - simple tool sharpening - coping saw work - dowel sticks picture puzzle construction - pelican duck goose rhinoceros elephant rabbit lamb goat rooster camel method of enlarging figures - dippy duck - monitor - merrimac - child's snow shovel - the periscope - doll's ironing board (size a) - doll's ironing board (size b) - doll's ironing board (size c) - doll's clothes rack - child's wash bench - child's step ladder - doll's table with drawer - colonial doll's table - colonial doll's chair - ring-the-hook game - five post ring toss - bean bag game - dart board game - darts - wind mill - wind mill (type b) - sand or water mill - doll's cradle - colonial doll cradle - doll's bed - two types of stilts - child's cart - child's dump wagon - child's wheelbarrow (type a) - child's wheelbarrow (type b) - clown running wheel - cock horse - rocking rooster - kiddie kar - kiddie koaster - ski skooter - method of bending runners - ski skippers - doll sleigh - child's table - child's chair - [illustration: girls making toys for a red cross christmas sale.] [illustration: a christmas sale of toys for the red cross.] [illustration: boy toy makers and some of their products.] [illustration: making toys in the school shop.] toy craft history of toy-making. to tell the history of toy-making from its earliest days it would be necessary to follow the story back through many centuries, for the archaeologists, in delving among the tombs of ancient greece and egypt, have made the surprising discovery that children played with dolls, and jointed dolls at that, more than five thousand years ago. moreover, by the side of these dolls scientists have unearthed other playthings that children still crave: doll's furniture, animal toys and toys with wheels, illustrating the methods of transportation of those early days. these same scientists claim that the custom of playing with dolls and other toys is as old as the world itself and that playthings are, and always have been, just as necessary a constituent of human health and development as either food or medicine. they claim that the reason that boys and girls crave toys is that nature requires them, and to deprive children of such playthings would be to retard their mental growth and development. the latin word =trochus= means a hoop for children. the hoops of roman children were made of bronze and iron and were rolled by a sort of a crooked stick and sometimes had small bells attached. =pupa=, the latin word meaning "a little girl," applies to dolls which were made from rags, wood, wax, ivory and terra cotta. when the greek girls of that time married they dedicated their dolls to artemis; the roman girls, to venus; but, if they died before marriage, their dolls were buried with them. the latin word =crepundia= meant children's playthings, such as rattles, dolls, toy hatchets and swords. the toys made during the middle ages for the children of noble families and rich merchants, show special care and fine workmanship. many of them were of a religious nature in the form of the cross of the crusaders, or military in origin, like miniature knights on horseback. the toys of this period were generally carved by goldsmiths. the american indians and the esquimaux made dolls from bits of skin and fur of wild animals and gaily decorated them with shells, beads and feathers. they also carved small models of animals and human beings from wood and bone. the oldest european toy manufacturing center is nuremberg, germany. this town is especially noted for its metal playthings, like the lead soldiers, which were the delight of our childhood. sonneburg, in germany, is the greatest european center for the manufacture of wooden toys. winchendon, mass., is the greatest toy manufacturing center in the united states, nearly every enterprise in that town being toy-making. in spite of the early origin of toys the progress of manufacturing playthings has been so slow that, even as late as one hundred years ago, the types of toys were few in number, simple in construction and extremely expensive, especially in the united states. there was no systematic manufacture of such articles, and, as the cost of importation was very high, comparatively few persons could afford such means of amusement for their children. the children of those days accepted more primitive things, dolls that were often merely pieces of cloth folded and pinned in such a manner as to suggest the outline that was not there. a few other toys such as hoops, jumping-jacks, tenpins, marbles, battledore-and-shuttlecock and alphabet blocks, represented the limit of the toy-makers' stock. in america the toy-making industry is of quite recent origin. before more than ninety per cent of the toys sold in this country were of foreign manufacture, and those that were made here were never exported to other countries. today, however, about five per cent of the toys sold here are made abroad and the rest are manufactured here in our own country. up to there was not a doll factory in the united states. today, while we import some dainty toys from france, germany and switzerland, nearly all the newest, unique and mechanical productions are made in america. simple toys are mostly made of wood and metal, and the same principles employed by mechanical engineers, in duplicating parts of machinery, are used in making duplicate parts of toys. when a design has been decided on, it is reduced to its most simple element. jigs are then made so that each piece will be an exact duplicate of every similar piece, and the construction is pushed through on the american factory system. some toys are very elaborate, costing several hundred dollars. these are readily purchased, however, by people of means. in the author's opinion the best kind of toys are those which suggest rather than fulfill, and those with which the child can really do something. mechanical toys, which supply their own energy, should not be allowed to take the place of those into which the child must infuse part of his own life and energy. it follows naturally, then, that the toys made by the children themselves are the ideal ones. equipment. the following drawings vary in difficulty from those within the ability of a nine or ten-year-old child to those which should not be attempted by a child under junior high school age. of course there are younger boys, who possess especial ability in this line of work and who can successfully carry through projects which the ordinary child of a like age would fail to satisfactorily complete. such boys are, however, the exception. for the younger workman the following outfit is ample: one coping saw frame. one dozen saw blades. a sloyd knife or a pocket knife with a small stone to keep it sharp. some no. sandpaper, a small can of glue and some one inch brads. the whole outfit will cost about a dollar. a small plane is very convenient, but it is not absolutely necessary for work for younger children. a board on which the sawing is done, to prevent marring the table, can be made from a piece of boxwood / " × " × ". a hole should be bored about three inches from one end and half way between the sides, and a v-shaped notch should be cut from the end of the board to the hole. the photograph on page shows the sawing board in use and illustrates two methods of constructing and holding the board. see also plate for method of making these boards. if a vise is available matters are very much simplified. with the above described outfit, toy animals, toy furniture, jumping-jacks and other simple toys of a like nature can be made. the material should be thin wood from the thickness of cigar box wood (which by the way is especially good to use for some of the toys), up to one-half inch in thickness. composition board, such as beaver board and similar wall board, is very good for the smaller toys but lacks strength and cannot be handled roughly. three-ply veneered wood may be obtained from firms which specialize in veneer. it is strong and serviceable but a little more expensive than the plain wood. bass and pine are excellent woods to use in toy-making, as they work very easily and are light in weight. for the older boy, who will no doubt be handy about the house, the following tools are suggested: rip saw. turning saw. claw hammer. screw driver. half round file, no. . ruler. jack, or smooth, plane. brace, set of bits and countersink. a / " and " chisels. try square. pair of " dividers. knife. this outfit should cost about $ . other tools may be added by the boy himself as the necessity arises. if a bench is not available at first, a temporary one may be made from a stout dry goods box and a more satisfactory one purchased later with money earned by the boy by making things for others. cheap tools are an expensive investment as they are never satisfactory. a few tools of good quality should be purchased to start with, and others should be added as necessity demands and funds permit. laying out work. for the young beginner it will be necessary to have patterns of animals and other toys to trace around, before cutting out the forms. in the author's opinion originality should be always encouraged in a boy when the original designs can be successfully worked out to completion by the boy. with beginners, however, considerable tact must be used in leading them on to work out original ideas through the medium of the sketching pencil. only very few have the ability to carry out an idea which they may have, and if allowed to attempt it without a trial on paper the resulting product is most always a failure. as stated before, the first work should be tracings from well-designed patterns. these, then, can be successfully worked out, and the result is satisfying to the mind of the child and not a discouraging failure. transferring a design to wood. a design may be traced by placing a piece of transparent paper over the desired drawing and outlining it with a pencil. the resulting tracing is cut out, placed on a stiff piece of cardboard or fiber board, and redrawn on this. the board is then cut carefully with scissors or a sharp knife. this pattern may be used for a long time and other patterns may be made from it in a similar manner. another simple method is to place a piece of carbon paper beneath the desired drawing, carbon side down, and to go over the lines of the drawing with a medium-hard pencil. this transfer may be made directly on the wood or on a piece of cardboard which is to be cut out and used as a pattern. for cut-up picture puzzles the picture is pasted directly on the wood and, after drying, is cut at random. see plate . adapting the problem to the boy's ability. as the child's efficiency increases and he leaves the simpler toy forms for others of increasing difficulty, he should be encouraged to read the working drawings of the article which he intends to make. show him how to discover from the drawing the lengths, widths, thicknesses of the pieces to be made and, after carefully checking him up, let him work out his own salvation for a while. in other words, do not do it all for him. let the result be at least per cent the boy's own work. be ready, however, to assist at the right moment and never turn a deaf ear to the persistent question, "why"? by following this logical method of procedure in teaching, the writer has found that the young craftsman is ready a great deal earlier to work out original ideas and designs to a practical and successful conclusion. finish and color. after all cutting with edged tools has been completed, all pieces should be carefully sanded to insure the removal of all scars, pencil lines and other imperfections. sandpaper should be used on a small block. care should be taken that no paper hangs over the block, thus rounding the edges of the work being finished. in sanding over a first coat of shellac or paint a block is not used, but the sandpaper is folded two or three times and used under the finger tips. care must be taken especially not to wear through the finish on the edges. paint is difficult and unsatisfactory for younger children to use. colors handled by beginners will run together and will be "dauby" in appearance and a detriment rather than a finish to a toy. added to this is the likelihood of a generous application on the painter's hands and clothing. the writer has had excellent results in using the ordinary colored wax crayons on toys. crayon is easy to apply, has a pleasing color tone, is clean and very satisfactory for the beginner. after all of a toy has been colored a fairly heavy line may be drawn free-hand, at the point of contact of the colors, with an ordinary drafting pen and india ink. pains should be taken to see that the ink is dry in one place before applying in another. if the crayon has been put on with pressure and uniformly deposited over the surface the ink will "take" without spreading and the result is a clean-cut finished appearance. for more advanced workers the toys should be painted with either commercial or enamel paints, which are available on the market in all colors, or with colors mixed by the boy himself. if the boy mixes his own colors much of the mystery of the ready-mixed paints is done away with. by adding to white enamel a small amount of a selected color, ground in oil, various tones of the color may be obtained. in painting any object a first or priming coat is applied. flat white is an excellent all-round primer. after the priming coat has dried thoroughly on a toy, it should be sanded lightly to remove any rough places with no. sandpaper and dusted. then the final coat should be applied. gray is also very good for the first coat except where a white or very light colored paints are to be used for the finished coat. when painting small toys or parts of larger toys it is economy to have a string or wire stretched between two hooks six or seven feet from the floor, on which to hang the painted article. [illustration: careful painting is as essential to the success of a toy as good construction.] drive an inch brad into some part of the toy that will not be seen, such as the lower edge of the animal toys, and attach a short length of string or wire to this and hang up as before described. this nail will be handy to hold the toy by while painting and when hung up is out of the way, is not touching anything to cause marks on the paint, and is high enough up to be where the temperature of the room will assist in the drying process. remove this nail after the toy is dry. if possible toys should dry in a special room where it is quiet, with no dust stirring or drafts blowing, and where the temperature is fairly uniform, not falling below degrees. paint should be applied with the tip of the brush, holding the brush nearly vertical, using a uniform stroke and taking care to prevent "tears" or surplus paint running over an edge. the brush should be in proportion to the size of the article painted, and the strokes should be outward toward the edges rather than from the edges inward. features and fine lines on the toys may be placed with no. round sable brush or with india ink in an ordinary drafting pen. the latter method of outlining and drawing in features has proved most successful with the writer's classes, as the solidity of the pen allows a firm pressure on the surface of the work and insures a uniform line. fine or coarse lines may be made by adjusting the pen to suit the desired need. considerable skill is needed to satisfactorily place lines with a fine pointed brush held in the hands of an inexperienced boy, and the drafting-pen method simplifies the problem immensely. adjoining colors, outlined by this method, improve the appearance of the toy fifty per cent. dull colors may be "livened up" by applying a coat of white shellac or varnish. toys having parts of various colors, such as carts, etc., should have the different parts painted before assembling. staining. before attempting to stain a toy, the wood should be carefully examined to see that all scars, glue or scratches have been removed. this is very important as the stain will show up all imperfections in the wood very plainly. enough stain should be poured in a shallow cup for the piece of work at hand and should then be applied with a brush with the grain of the wood in long narrow bands from one end of the work to the other. the stain should be wiped with a piece of waste or cloth soon after being applied, removing all surplus stain and thus bringing out the grain of the wood. pains must be taken when staining the edges not to allow the stain to run over on the adjacent surface. if it does the stain should be quickly wiped off with a piece of waste before it causes the surface to be unevenly stained. there will probably be no necessity in toy construction to use filler on the wood so the method of applying this will be omitted. next apply a coat of white shellac (reduced by one part of alcohol to three parts of shellac), brushing it on quickly with the grain of the wood. do not have too much shellac on the brush. if laps or runs show, work them out with the brush. after the shellac has dried eight or ten hours it should be rubbed lightly with no. sandpaper. be careful not to sand through the shellac, particularly on the edges. a second coat may be applied if desired. for the last coat apply a coat of either hard or liquid wax, the latter being preferable. shake the can or jar before applying liquid wax. apply evenly with a soft cloth and allow it to dry for an hour. rub down to the proper luster with a soft clean cloth. two or more coats of wax may be applied if desired. method of jointing wood. if, on account of width, certain pieces of work cannot be obtained from material at hand, two pieces may have to be joined together. one edge of each piece to be joined should be carefully planed square and straight. keep trying the two edges together until a satisfactory joint is obtained, one so satisfactory that when the edges are placed together no joint line is visible. when such a joint is obtained we are ready to take the next step--to locate holes for dowels. this method is shown in plate , fig. a. here the two pieces are placed face to face and lines are squared across the two edges, planning enough space to insure a strong job. two or three dowels are usually sufficient. locate the centers of all these lines so that the spur of the bit will come equidistant from each edge, as shown. bore the holes at least twice as deep as the wood is thick. thus for half inch stock the holes should be at least an inch deep. for half inch and three-eighths inch wood the hole should be bored with a quarter inch bit, for wood three-quarter inch to one inch thick a half inch bit should be used. take extreme care in boring the holes to see that the bit is at right angles to the edge of the wood, otherwise difficulties will arise when we come to put the work together. after all holes are bored, the round sticks called dowels should be cut, one-eighth inch shorter than the combined depths of the two holes. this allowance is made so that glue may work under the ends of the dowels and also that the dowels may not be too long and thus prevent the edges of the joint from coming together. apply glue to the dowels and insert them in the holes and spread glue on both of the edges, as shown in fig. b, plate . [illustration: _plate ._ _method of jointing wood_] place the work in clamps, if available, protecting the edges of the wood from the iron of the clamps with small pieces or blocks of soft wood. fig. c shows the clamps in position. if no clamps are at hand a makeshift clamp may be made, as shown in fig. d. in using this clamping arrangement a strong piece of wood should be nailed to the floor, where such nailing will do no harm, driving the nails only about three-quarters of the way in. place the wood to be clamped against this and nail two wedge shaped pieces about an inch and a half away, as shown. prepare other pieces, also of wedge shape, of a proper size to drive into place, as indicated. by a careful study of fig. d the important features of such a method of clamping will be understood. the cold glue that comes in cans ready for use will be found most convenient for the beginner to use. the clamps should remain on the work overnight, and when removed the two surfaces of the wood must be cleaned of all glue and planed. supports for holding coping saw work. in plate are shown two devices for holding work while using the coping saw. fig. a is a type of support suitable for use in a vise and is of a height that will enable the workman to stand while sawing. fig. b is lower, and the sawing is done while sitting in a chair. this type is designed for use where there is no vise and is held secure by a clamp, as is shown in the sketch. [illustration: boys using correctly the supports for coping saw work detailed in plate .] support to be held in vise. in making this support the following method should be followed: the back piece is first made / " × - / " × ". the top is made / " × - / × " and the brace / " × " × - / ". this brace tapers to a point at the lower end. two small cleats are / " × - / " × - / " and are attached to the upright piece - / " up from the bottom edge. this allows the support to set firmly in the vise. measure in from one end of the top piece " and have this point come half way between the sides. at this point a hole is carefully bored with a / " bit. on this same end measure in from each edge - / ". from these points draw lines tangent to the edges of the circle, as shown. cut out this v-shaped notch. [illustration: _plate ._ _supports for holding coping saw work_] bore all holes shown on the drawing with a bit that will allow using - / " or - / ". no. flat-head screws. have all surfaces sanded smoothly and assemble with glue and screws. support for table use. for the support shown in fig. b, plate , we make the upright / " × - / " × - / ". the top is cut / " × - / " × " and the base / " × " × - / " and the upright brace / " × " × ". the top has the same v-shaped notch cut in it as the other form of support. bore all necessary holes, sandpaper and assemble. the clamp shown in the sketch answers the purpose very nicely and may be purchased for a small sum at any hardware store. the bench hook. the bench hook is a very useful article to have about the work bench. it is made of hard wood, preferably maple. the drawing is shown in plate . the main piece is made / " × " × ". two cross cleats are made, one being / " × - / " × " and the other / " × - / " × ". holes are bored and countersunk at the places shown in the drawing. great care must be taken in cutting these three pieces of wood to see that every edge is square and true. one of the cleats is attached on one side of the board even with the end, while the other is placed on the other side on the opposite end. these are held in place with glue and - / " no. flat-head screws. by referring to the drawing and the sketch the idea may be readily seen. it will be noticed that the short cleat has its end even with the left-hand edge, thus leaving a space of an inch at the right. when used with this side up it is for the purpose of sawing off small pieces of wood with the back saw, and when used with the other side up, on which the long cleat is attached, it is for the purpose of planing the end of a piece of wood across the grain. [illustration: _plate ._ _the bench hook_] if a piece of wood is set up in a vise for end planing and the planing is done across the grain, the fibers on the further edge have no support but break away, as shown in fig. c, plate . in using the bench-hook the wood lies flat on the board and fits tight against the long cleat, and the plane is laid flat on its side and pushed back and forth. (plate , fig. a.) it can be readily seen that supported as it now is, the piece of wood being planed will not splinter or break on its further edge. pains must be taken, however, to keep the plane flat on its side, not raising it on its edge at all, for by so doing the resulting planed edge will not be square. this bench-hook may be made quite easily by the beginner and besides being a good problem, is a very helpful addition to the tool outfit. it works very well when planing wood not over six or seven inches wide. wood wider than this should be planed as follows: place the piece of wood upright in the vise with the end grain uppermost, and plane about three-quarters of the way across the edge. then turn the piece and plane the remaining part back in the opposite direction. by so doing the end of the wood will not be split. figures a and b, plate , show the operation of the bench-hook for both sawing and planing. simple tool sharpening. in order to do good, clean-cut, accurate work it is very necessary that all cutting tools be kept sharp. and it is important that every boy who undertakes toy making have an elementary knowledge of the subject, especially an understanding of how to properly sharpen the knife, the chisel and the plane blade. if the tool is very dull, with nicks in the cutting edge, it should be ground first on the grindstone. it is quite important that the blade be held at the proper angle, about degrees on the stone. a suitable tool holder, such as is shown in the illustration on page , is a very useful article to have in the tool equipment. the tool is held in place, bevel side down, by thumbscrews, and projects beyond the holder a little over half an inch. the grindstone should be thoroughly wet to prevent heating the tool and also to insure the washing away of the fine particles of steel from the surface of the stone. the round shape of the stone causes the bevel of the tool to be concave if held steadily in one position, as shown in fig. a, plate . fig. b shows the incorrect result if the blade is not held evenly on the stone. it can be readily seen that the latter result will not make a very sharp cutting edge. care should be taken when grinding not to round the corners of the tool. the theory of the cutting edge of the tool is the same as that of the wedge; the thinner the wedge the easier it is to drive it. however, the wedge, as well as the tool, must be thick enough to stand the strain of being driven into the wood, or the material which is to be split or cut. too long and thin a bevel, while sharp at first, soon loses its edge through usage, while too blunt an edge makes the tool unsatisfactory to work with. [illustration: _plate ._ _simple tool sharpening_] the grindstone leaves the tool edge rough, or with a wire edge, as it is called. this roughness is removed on the oil stone. one or two drops of thin stone oil should be placed on the stone and the tool placed bevel side flat on the surface of the stone. work with a circular motion, bearing on the tool with uniform pressure. turn the blade over, bevel side up, seeing that the blade lies perfectly flat on the stone. work with a similar motion. repeat these operations until the blade is as sharp as desired. wipe the oil from the tool and test by drawing the blade lightly across the thumb. if the blade clings to the skin it will be found sharp enough. fig. c, on plate , shows the correct and incorrect methods of oil-stoning the tool blade. always wipe the stone dry after using, as the oil will dry and gum up the grinding surface if not kept clean. tool grinding is an important and rather difficult operation at first and skill comes only with continued practice. in sharpening a knife-blade on an oilstone care should be taken to keep the blade nearly flat on the stone in order to get a thin, sharp edge. the knife should be sharpened first on one side and then on the other, until the desired edge is obtained. fig. d, plate , shows the right and wrong methods of holding the knife blade on the stone. figures e and f show the results of careless sharpening. fig. g is sharpened correctly. [illustration: grinding tool on grindstone using tool holder.] coping saw work. the following plates of birds and animals (plates to ) are especially interesting to the beginner and are excellent for the novice to prove and improve his skill with the coping saw. wood from / " to / " in thickness is best for this type of toy, / " being a good medium thickness to use. pulp board, such as beaver board, is also very good, as there is no grain and, therefore, little liability of splitting. pulp board saws very easily and takes paint nicely. all of these toys are mounted on a wood base, made of / " wood, of a size shown on the various drawings. the animal is attached to the base with glue and - / " brads. wheels can be made from a round stick (called a dowel) an inch in diameter by carefully sawing off pieces / " thick. holes are bored at the middle point of these wheels large enough to allow them to turn easily on a " no. round-head blue screw. washers should be placed on the screws on both sides of the wheels. plate gives a general idea of the toy base. dowel sticks. dowel sticks are very useful to the toy maker and an assortment of various sizes should be kept on hand. they are very handy in many ways in toy making and furniture construction. they come in sizes from / " to " in diameter or larger, in " lengths, and cost from two to three cents apiece. dowel sticks are usually carried in stock by local hardware men or may be obtained from manufacturers of mill work. picture puzzle construction. the problem illustrated in plate is very interesting and especially good for the beginner. first, select a picture of the size desired from a calendar or discarded magazine. colored pictures are the best. prepare a piece of / " soft wood, such as bass or pine, and glue the picture to the surface, rolling and pressing out air bubbles and smoothing away all wrinkles. place a weight on the picture and allow it to dry overnight. holding the coping saw so that the blade is straight up and down, or in other words, at right angles with the surface of the work, saw out irregular shaped pieces similar to those shown in the accompanying drawing. if these pieces are placed in a neat christmas box, such as may be purchased at the five-and-ten-cent store, it will make a very pleasing christmas gift. [illustration: _plate ._ _picture puzzle construction_] [illustration: _plate ._ _pelican_] [illustration: _plate ._ _duck_] [illustration: _plate ._ _goose_] [illustration: _plate ._ _rhinoceros_] [illustration: _plate ._ _elephant_] [illustration: _plate ._ _rabbit_] [illustration: _plate ._ _lamb_] [illustration: _plate ._ _goat_] [illustration: _plate ._ _rooster_] [illustration: _plate ._ _camel_] [illustration: _plate ._ _method of enlarging figures_] method of enlarging figures. if a figure shown in a book or in any picture is to be enlarged the following method is very simple: enclose the figure in a rectangle and divide it in quarter inch squares, like the drawing of the duck in plate . if the drawing is to be enlarged twice the original size, draw a rectangle on a piece of paper or cardboard twice as large as the picture. divide it into exactly the same number of squares, which will now be twice as large as before, or one-half inch on a side. letter and number all parts to agree. start now and sketch the enlarged figure, having the lines pass through the same places in the squares of the large rectangle as in the small. with a little patience it will be surprising how accurate a copy can be made. a picture may be reduced by the same method. dippy duck. this toy is larger than the regular cut-out figure and has added action by the placing of the inner piece off-center on the larger wheel, thus causing the duck to move up and down as the toy is pulled along on the floor. as shown in the drawing (plate ), the base is made of four separate pieces, because it is easier to construct it this way than to cut out the slot from a solid piece. the wood used is / " pine, the two long pieces being - / " wide by " long and the two end pieces - / " wide by - / " long. these are glued and chamfered. a small chamfer is planed around the top edge, as shown. the small base piece on which the duck rests is made / " × " × - / ". a hole is bored " from one end with a / " bit and the slot is sawed out. the opposite end is rounded. a hole is bored in the end where the slot is cut / " from the end, of a size that will take a piece of -penny nail tightly. the nail is cut one inch long and serves as an axle for the large wheel. a similar hole is bored, / " from the other end, with a larger drill so that the nail used at this point will be smaller than the hole, allowing the base piece to move easily upon it. the large wheel is made by cutting a piece from a curtain rod - / " in diameter or by turning down a piece to this diameter on the lathe. this wheel is cut / " thick. the four main wheels are - / " in diameter and / " thick. these wheels have a small hole bored exactly in their center, of a size large enough to allow a shingle, or a screw, nail to turn easily within. the wheels are attached two inches from the ends and the nails are driven in straight so as to insure the wheels turning evenly. a screw eye is placed at the front end, as shown, to which is attached a string to pull it by. [illustration: _plate ._ _dippy duck_] all parts should be nicely sanded before assembling and then given two coats of paint. a suggested color scheme is given on the drawing. [illustration: _plate ._ _monitor_ (_revolving turret_)] the monitor. this design is what might be called an amphibious toy, which means one that is at home both on the land and water. the base, or hull, is made from a piece of / " board, - / " wide and " long. at a point on the long edges, - / " from the ends, a center is taken with a compass, or pair of dividers, set at - / " radius, as shown in the drawing. strike all of these curves and cut to the line with a coping saw and finish smooth. the main turret and the two smaller blocks are either turned on a lathe or cut from a cylindrical piece of wood. if care is used the pieces can also be cut with a turning saw from a piece of wood of the required thickness. the two smaller pieces are cut from a piece of / " board and are - / " in diameter and are attached with " brads and glue, - / " from each end. for the main turret, which is to be movable, a hole is bored in the hull exactly in the middle. in boring, a bit a little larger than the size of a - / " no. flat-head screw is used, in order that the screw shank will move easily. this hole is countersunk on the under side. a smaller hole is started on the under side of the turret to receive the screw and, when the pieces are assembled, the screw is not screwed up tight, but enough play is left so that the turret will revolve fairly easily. [illustration: the monitor and the merrimac and animal toys.] the two "guns" may be cut from / " dowels, - / " long, or may be turned on a lathe. two holes are bored, on opposite sides of the turret, / " deep, to receive the guns which are glued in. the two pieces to which the wheels are attached are made / " × / " × ", and are secured in place " from bow and stern with shingle nails and glue. [illustration: _plate ._ _merrimac_] the four wheels are cut from " dowels, / " thick. a hole is bored exactly in the middle of each wheel a little larger than the wire of a shingle nail, which is used to hold them in place on the base. a small piece of / " dowel about - / " long, is inserted in a hole, bored with a / " bit, / " from the bow. this is the flagstaff, and just in front of this is placed a small screw eye to attach the string for pulling the toy. give the entire toy two coats of black paint. the merrimac. the confederate ironclad is a little harder to make than the monitor, but it is well within the ability of a sixth grade boy. the hull is made / " × - / " × ", and is sawed to a point at the bow and stern, sloping from the center point of both ends to points - / " from either end. the upper works are made from a block of wood - / " thick, - / " wide and - / " long. this is beveled so that the top is - / " × - / ". the two smokestacks are made from pieces of / " dowel, cut - / " long and inserted in holes bored / " deep, " from the sides of the upper deck and - / " from the ends. these are held in place with glue. the flagstaff is cut from a piece of / " dowel, - / " long, inserted in a hole, bored with a / " bit, / " from the bow. just in front of this, / " from the end, is placed a small screw-eye to which a string may be attached. the ten "guns" are made from / " dowels, cut " long, and at an angle so that the lower side is / " long. this is so that they will fit against the sloping sides of the turret. a hole is bored from end to end of each gun, in their centers, so that a - / " finish nail will fit in nicely. the guns are held in place with these nails and with glue at the points indicated on the drawing. the upper works and hull are held together with " brads and glue, in such a manner that the gun turret is equally distant from the ends and sides of the hull. the pieces which hold the wheels are made / " × / " × " and are nailed and glued in place, - / " from bow and stern. the wheels are / " thick, cut from " dowels, and are held by shingle nails driven into the axle in such a way that they will turn freely. the holes for the nails, in the wheels, are bored exactly in their centers with a bit a little larger than the nail to be used. after sanding and assembling give the boat two coats of black or battle ship gray paint. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's snow shovel_] child's snow shovel. this problem is simple and of interest to young people during early winter. (plate .) the handle may be made square in section first and then gradually rounded with a plane and then filed and sanded; or a discarded handle from some other implement may be utilized. the handle should be " long, and a hole should be bored and a rivet inserted - / " from one end. this is to reinforce the handle where the saw cut comes. this cut is made directly along the center of the handle and stops " from the end. if this cut is not made exactly in the center, the spreading, when the grip is inserted, will be unequal, and the shovel will not be in balance. the two ends of the shovel are rounded, as indicated, and the lower end is cut at an angle to fit the surface of the shovel. the grip should be cut from a " dowel and then cut to fit the angle formed by the spreading sides of the shovel. this is held in place by - / " no. round-head screws with washers, as indicated. the broad part of the shovel is cut from one piece, if possible, / " × " × - / ", and the front end cut an angle which is reinforced with a piece of zinc, - / " × ", bent over and held by rivets and washers, as shown. the brace under the handle is cut / " × - / " × " and then planed from an upper edge to within an inch of the opposite lower edge and secured in place with screws. the handle is attached to the blade with rivets and washers, as shown on the drawing. the periscope. this is an interesting problem and demonstrates a scientific principle. for a periscope of the size shown in the drawing (plate ), two pieces of looking glass must be first cut - / " × - / ". pieces a are cut / " × " × - / "; pieces b are / " × - / " × - / "; pieces c, / " × - / " × - / "; pieces d, / " × " × - / "; pieces e, / " × - / " × - / "; and pieces f, / " × - / " × - / ". two grooves / " deep, and of a width to receive the thickness of the glass used, should be cut at an angle of degrees, where indicated on the drawing. this groove is cut in pieces a only. all pieces should be thoroughly sanded with no. sandpaper and finished with no. . assemble, as shown on the drawing, using glue and " brads. the final finish may be stain or paint. whatever finish is used should be of a dark color as best suited for a periscope. [illustration: _plate ._ _periscope_] [illustration: the periscope in use.] doll's ironing board. (size a.) this problem has proven very popular in toy-making classes and has been one of the best sellers at toy sales. it folds up compactly and is strong and serviceable. plates , and show the ironing board in three sizes for children of varying ages. plate is for children of about three years of age, and the material is prepared as follows: the top is first made of / " lumber and is " wide and " long. set the dividers with a " radius and strike an arc just touching the end and two sides of the board. do the same on the other end, using a - / " radius. [illustration: the three types of ironing boards.] connect these arcs with straight lines and saw and plane carefully just to the lines all around. the turning saw may be used on the ends. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's ironing board_ (_size a_)] slightly round the upper edge of the surface which is to be uppermost. the legs are next cut to size, the two longer ones being / " × " × " and the two shorter ones / " × " × - / ". one end of each is rounded by striking an arc with a - / " radius, at the extreme end. the other ends of the legs are cut off at an angle, as shown in the drawing. holes are bored in the rounded ends of the long legs, / " from the ends with a no. bit. another hole of similar size is bored - / " from the one previously bored. these holes are all / " from the edges. on the short legs the only holes necessary are bored - / " from the rounded end. the long legs are attached by screws to a cleat which itself is screwed to the underside of the top of the board, as shown. this cleat is / " × - / " × - / " and is glued and held to the top by - / " flat-head screws, two of them being sufficient. these are countersunk. the separating piece at the other end of the long legs is / " × " × - / " and is held in place by - / " brads and glue. it is attached " from the ends. two separating pieces are next made for the short legs, / " × " × - / ", and these are attached in the same manner as the piece between the long legs. a cleat / " × " × - / " is attached with glue and - / " flat-head screws, " from the small end of the board. this holds the short legs in position. all pieces should be thoroughly sanded with no. / sandpaper before being assembled. no further finish is necessary. doll's ironing board. (size b.) the method of constructing this board is identical with the method suggested for board a. the difference is in the size of the pieces. (plate .) this type of ironing board is suitable for a child from four to six years of age. the top is / " thick, - / " wide and - / " long. the curved ends are struck with the dividers in the same way as in the preceding problem. the legs are next cut to dimension, the longer ones being / " × - / " × ", and the shorter / " × - / " × - / ". one end of each leg is rounded by setting the dividers at / " and cutting to the line and cutting the opposite ends at an angle, as shown in the drawing. bore holes with a no. bit in the rounded ends of the long legs, / " from the ends and a similar hole is bored - / " from the hole previously bored. these holes are all / " in from the edges. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's ironing board_ (_size b_)] on the short legs the only holes bored are made with the same bit, - / " from the rounded ends. the long legs are attached to a cleat by - / " no. round-head blue screws, with washers under both the heads of the screws and between the screws and the cleat. the cleat is / " × - / " × - / " and is glued and screwed to the under side of the top with - / " no. flat-head screws. these are countersunk. the separating piece at the other end of the long legs is / " × - / " × - / " and is held in place by - / " brads and glue, and is attached " from the end. two separating pieces are next made for the short legs, / " × - / " × - / ", and these are attached in the same way as the piece between the longer legs. a cleat / " × - / " × - / " is attached with glue and - / " flat-head screws, " from the small end of the board. this holds the short legs in position. refer to the detail on the drawing of the size a ironing board (plate ) for the method of making the button which holds the board rigid. all pieces should be thoroughly sanded with no. / sandpaper before being assembled. no further finish is necessary. doll's ironing board. (size c.) the method of constructing this size board is similar to the other two types. (plate .) this size board is suitable for children from six to eight years of age. the top is made / " thick, " wide and " long. the dividers are set with a - / " radius and an arc is struck to touch the end and two sides of the board. a similar arc is struck at the opposite end with a - / " radius. these arcs are connected with a straight line, and the outline is cut with a saw and finally planed to the lines. the curved ends can be cut with a turning saw and finished with a chisel and file. the upper edges are slightly rounded with a file and sandpaper. the legs are next cut to size, two being / " × - / " × - / ", and the other two / " × - / " × ". one end of each is rounded by striking an arc with a / " radius, at the extreme end. the other ends of the legs are cut at an angle, as shown in the drawing. holes are bored in the rounded end of the short legs, / " from the ends, of a size that will take a - / " no. round-head blue screw. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's ironing board_ (_size c_)] another hole of similar size is bored " from this. these holes are all / " from the edges. on the other two legs the only two holes necessary are bored - / " from the rounded ends. the shorter legs are attached by screws to a cleat which itself is screwed to the underside of the board, - / " from the large end. this cleat is " × - / " × - / " and is held in place with glue and - / " flat-head screws, countersunk. two of these screws are sufficient. the separating piece at the other end of the legs is / " × - / " × - / ", and is held in place by - / " brads and glue, and is attached - / " from the ends. two separating pieces are next made for the long legs, / " × - / " × - / ", and these are attached in the same manner as the pieces between the other set of legs. a cleat - / " × - / " × - / " is attached with glue and " flat-head screws, - / " from the small end of the board. this holds the short legs in position. the wood button, shown on the drawing for the size a ironing board (plate ), is attached to this cleat and prevents the board from collapsing. all pieces should be thoroughly sandpapered with no. / sandpaper before being assembled. no further finish is necessary. doll's clothes rack. this folding clothes rack is an interesting toy and requires some skill in assembling. (plate .) [illustration: playing house is real fun with such a dolls' clothes rack, ironing board, wash bench, table and stepladder.] the four legs are cut / " × / " × " and each end is rounded by first striking semicircles on the ends, using a / " radius, and then finishing with a chisel carefully to the line. holes are bored in these legs with a / " bit in the following places: / " from the top, - / " beyond this, - / " beyond this, and - / " beyond this. extreme care must be taken not to split the wood. bore through from one side until the spur of the bit just starts to come through, then remove the bit and bore back from the other side. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's clothes rack_] next cut the four top pieces to size, two being / " × / " × " and two / " × / " × ". these are also rounded on both ends. holes are bored / " from each end of all of these and also half way between their ends, as shown in plate . these pieces should be carefully sanded with no. sandpaper. the cross pieces are cut from / " dowels as follows: four pieces, - / " long; six pieces, " long; and one piece, - / " long. the long dowel sticks are the ones that go at points a, b, c and d, plate , on the outside legs. the " dowels go at points e, f, g, h, i, and j. the single short dowel goes at point k. examine the drawing carefully and see that the four top pieces are placed on the correct dowels. hold all dowels, which are not at movable points, with / " brads. be sure every piece is in its proper position before driving in the brads and then be positive that no brad is being driven at a point where the dowel must be free to move in the hole. it is always best to assemble the rack completely and by closing and opening it learn clearly just where the brads are to be placed. no further finish is necessary. child's wash bench. this bench may be made in various sizes to fit different heights of children. the top consists of three slats and for the size bench shown in plate , the slats are made / " × - / " × ". these slats have screw holes bored - / " from the ends and / " from the edges, as shown. these are countersunk to receive " no. flat-head screws. two braces are made / " × / " × ". these are to support the slats. one inch from one end of these braces, and / " from the edges, a hole is bored with a / " bit. the same distance from the other end a similar hole is bored and a piece is sawed out, as shown in the drawing, to receive and support the dowel rod. the legs of the bench are cut / " × " × - / ". one-half inch from one end a hole is bored with a / " bit. one and one-half inches from the other end a similar hole is bored and " from the same end the third hole is bored, making three in each leg. care must be taken in boring these holes not to split the work as the bit goes through. bore through on one side until the spur of the bit just starts through on the opposite side. remove the bit and place the spur point in the small hole made by the spur and bore back in the opposite direction. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's wash bench_] the two cross slats forming the braces are / " × / " × ". a center lap joint is made by cutting through half way on both slats at such an angle as will cause the outer edge of the slats to be about five inches apart. the ends of the slats should be sawed at such an angle as will make them flush with the sides of the legs and small holes drilled and countersunk so that they may be attached with / " no. flat-head screws. two / " dowel rods should next be cut, one being - / " long and the other " long. these dowels should be held in place in the legs by / " brads, care being taken not to nail where there is to be a moving joint. all pieces should be carefully sanded with no. / sandpaper. no other finish is necessary. child's step ladder. this step ladder may be made in various sizes, the one shown here being suitable for children up to seven or eight years of age. (plate .) the two front legs should be cut first, / " × - / " × ". it will be noticed that the two ends are cut off at an angle. this angle is obtained by measuring back on one side " and drawing to this point from the opposite corner. make all of these angles equal and if possible cut them in a miter-box. the two rear legs, or braces, are cut / " × - / " × - / ", and the two ends are rounded. the semicircle is marked out by setting the dividers, or a compass, at a / " radius and striking the curve tangent to the sides and ends of the legs. two holes are bored with a no. bit, / " from one end of the rear legs and - / " from the other end, as indicated, care being taken not to split the wood. the top step is next made / " × - / " × - / ", and the top edges slightly rounded. two holes are bored with a small drill, - / " from the ends of this step and " from the rear and front edges of both ends. these should be countersunk. later, when assembled, this top is screwed to the braces with " no. flat-head screws, as shown in the front view. (plate .) two braces are next made / " × " × - / ", and are cut off at either end at the same angle as were the ends of the front legs. these are attached to the inside of the legs, at the top, as shown in the side view, with four " no. flat-head screws and glue. care should be taken to get them just even with the front and top sides of the legs. before the braces are attached a hole should be bored with a no. bit / " from the top edge and " from the left-hand edge to receive the dowel stick on which the rear leg swings. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's step ladder_] while boring this hole the end should be held with a clamp to prevent splitting. the two lower steps are next made. these are / " thick and are cut " wide. the width is greater than is needed, and is provided that the steps may be planed even with the edges of the legs later. the steps are cut " in length. the next operation is cutting grooves for the steps to set into the legs, and this requires considerable care. the lower step is - / " from the lower end of the legs. this dimension is measured off on each leg, and a line is drawn parallel with the lower end of the leg. this may be done by either using a t bevel, set at the angle of the lower end of the legs, or the dimension, - / ", may be measured up on both sides of the leg and a line drawn across. next take the lower step and mark one end a and the other end b. place the end a, of the lower step, evenly on this line and make a mark above the first line a little less than the thickness of the step. the groove is marked a little less than the thickness of the step so that, in case the saw cut is made a little wide, the step will not be likely to fit loosely. square lines across both edges of the edge from the end of the lines previously drawn and measure down from the surface a distance of / " on the edges. draw a line through this point parallel to the edge of the leg. next saw carefully on the lines, first drawn, down as far as this last line and cut the wood out with a half-inch chisel. if the step will not fit in the slot, plane a very slight amount from the surface of the step until it fits snugly into the groove. end b is fitted to the opposite leg in a similar way and the second step is placed in a like manner, - / " above the lower step. if the drawing is examined, as these directions for placing the steps are read, the explanation will be greatly simplified. the two narrow cross braces are next made, / " × / " × - / ". these are crossed at their middle point in a middle-lap joint, a groove being cut half through each piece wide enough to insure a tight joint. these braces are attached to the rear legs, - / " from their lower ends, with / " no. flat-head screws, the holes being previously bored and countersunk. cut the ends of the braces even with the ends of the legs. holes are bored with a small bit in the grooves in the legs, / " in from the sides, as shown. these holes are for the round-head screws which hold the steps in place. the steps are held in the grooves of the legs with glue and " no. round-head blue screws. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's table with drawer_] the dowel sticks are now cut - / " long from a / " dowel and, after all pieces of wood are carefully sanded with no. sandpaper, the step ladder is assembled. a / " brad should be driven into the edge of the rear legs so that it will penetrate and hold the dowel in place. a piece of small chain should be fastened to each front and rear leg, as shown, of a length sufficient to have the front legs of the ladder set flat on the ground. also take care that the two chains are even with each other and parallel with the ground. no further finish is required. doll's table with drawer. while this table may be made in various sizes, the one shown in the accompanying drawing has proven very popular. the four legs are first made / " × - / " × ". measure down " from one end and taper the legs equally from this point to a width of / " at the opposite ends, as shown. the two side rails are made / " × - / " × - / ". the two front rails above and below the drawer are cut / " × / " × ". on the side and rear rails, centers for dowels are located / " from the top and lower edges and half way between the sides. an inch brad is driven in a short distance at these points, and the head is cut off about / " above the surface of the wood. these ends are now placed so that their upper edges are even with the top of the legs. press down lightly on the rails and a mark will be made on the surface of the legs. remove the brads and bore the dowel hole with a / " bit, - / " deep. the two drawer rails are treated in the same manner and the holes are bored. the top will no doubt have to be made of two pieces of wood jointed and glued together, and reinforced with dowels. the finished dimensions are / " × " × ". short blocks of wood are screwed to the rear and two side rails even with their tops, and screws are later put through these from their under side to hold the top in place. a / " no. screw is placed in the center of the upper drawer rail to assist in holding the top in place. (see plate for details of the method of attaching the top.) two strips of wood / " wide, and thick and long enough to fit tightly between the front and rear rails, are made to serve as drawer slides. similar strips of wood are glued to the inner part of the end rails to cause the drawer to run evenly. these strips are just thick enough to bring their surface even with the edge of the leg. all rails should be thoroughly sanded and then assembled with glue, screws, and brads as directed, the rails and legs being clamped for several hours to insure a tight fit. if the various parts of the table have been accurately made, the drawer should be now constructed to the dimensions called for in the drawing. if there has been any error in the making of the several pieces, of course the drawer must be made to fit the space in that individual table. the drawer front is / " × - / " × ". the sides are / " × - / " × - / ". these dimensions may all have to be trimmed down somewhat to secure an easy sliding fit. the drawer construction is clearly shown in the sketch. bottom pieces of / " wood are cut to fit, and after sanding, all pieces are glued and bradded together. handles of the size shown in the drawing may be turned on the lathe or made by hand, and placed as indicated. as this type of table is patterned after the ordinary kitchen table it may be left unfinished. colonial doll's table. this table, with the accompanying chairs shown in plate , makes a very artistic and interesting problem in toy-making. the table and chairs work up very nicely if made of oak and stained a mission brown. they may also be made of soft wood and stained or painted. directions for staining may be found in the front part of the book. the top (plate ) is made / " × " × " and, if a piece of wood " wide is not obtainable, two narrow pieces will have to be joined. (see method of joining wood on page .) the four uprights are made " × " × - / ", and the four cross pieces / " × " × ". the ends of the cross pieces are cut at a bevel, as shown, and notches are cut - / " from each end, / " deep, to receive the ends of the upright. care must be taken to get a snug fit. it is better to have the notches a trifle too small than too large. if cut a little small, the uprights are easily made to fit the grooves by planing a slight amount from their edges. four bottom pieces are made / " × - / " × - / ", to be attached to the lower cross piece, as shown, allowing / " projection all around. they are fastened with / " brads and glue. when attaching, see that the grain of the little square pieces runs the same as the cross pieces. on account of the thinness of the wood, holes may have to be bored for the brads. if no small drill is at hand a brad may be used as a drill. [illustration: _plate ._ _colonial doll's table_] holes are bored in the two upper cross pieces, / " from their ends. these are countersunk to receive / " no. flat-head screws, when assembling, and are to hold the top in place. holes are likewise bored for the same size screws, - / " from each end of the four cross pieces, which brings the holes in the center of each notch. these holes are also countersunk. the long lower brace is made / " × - / " × ". when assembling, this piece is located as shown in the drawing and is held in place with glue and / " brads. sand all pieces carefully with no. sandpaper first and finish with no. . if stain is to be used, it may be found easier to stain the pieces before assembling. assemble as previously described, using glue where necessary and turning all screws up tightly. apply final finish as desired. colonial doll's chair. this chair goes with the colonial table shown in the preceding drawing (plate ), and at least two chairs should be made to form the set. the sides are first cut from / " material, " wide and - / " long. a freehand curve, following the general design of the one shown, should be traced on a piece of paper, cut to the above size. after the outline is satisfactory, the design should be traced on the wood preparatory to cutting out. the cutting should be done with a coping saw, cutting to the line for a finish. place the two sides together to see if they match. variations should be trimmed down so that the pieces are exact duplicates. the back is next made, / " × - / " × - / ". the seat is made / " × - / " × - / ", and the front board of the seat measures / " × - / " × - / ". the seat is rounded on the front edge, and the front board of seat is beveled at top and bottom to set snugly under the seat, at the slight angle shown. this angle is obtained by measuring in - / " from the front, as shown in the side view. sandpaper all pieces thoroughly and assemble the sides and back first, with glue and / " brads. set these brads below the surface and fill the cavity with hard beeswax. assemble the seat and front board next, and then nail these between the sides of the chair, as shown in the drawing. finish as desired. see pages to for method of staining and painting. [illustration: _plate ._ _colonial doll's chair_] ring-the-hook game. this game is very simple in construction yet affords a great deal of pleasure to young people. (plate .) the desired outline, the dimensions for which are given in the drawing, is sketched on a piece of folded paper, as is shown by the sketch, and the design is then cut out and traced on a piece of wood cut from stock / " × " × ". the cutting should be roughly done with a turning saw and finished carefully to the line with a chisel and file. a small chamfer gives a finished appearance if placed on the front edge. the board should be thoroughly sanded with no. sandpaper first, and then finished with no. . the final finish may be several coats of shellac or two coats of a bright lively color of paint. if a shellac finish is used, the numbers should be lettered in with water-proof india ink, after the first coat of shellac is dry, and the second coat should be applied over this. if paint is the finish selected, the numbers may be put on with the ink after the final coat is dry. hooks are located at the various points shown on the drawing, and pains should be taken to get them in perpendicular to the surface of the board. place a screw-hook at the top to hang up by. the rings used are the ordinary preserve jar rings and ten should constitute a set. the board should be placed on the wall, about five feet from the floor and the contestants should stand about six feet from it. the idea is to toss the rings in such a manner that they will land over the hooks. the best results are obtained by holding the ring between the thumb and the first two fingers, at right angles to the floor. throw in such a way that the ring will strike flat against the board. with a little practice considerable accuracy can be developed in placing the rings. a score of one hundred should constitute a game. five post ring toss. although the game of ring toss is an old one, yet it never loses its attraction for many young people, and older ones as well. the type of ring toss shown in the accompanying plate is a little variety from the regular form, each post being painted and numbered with the points scored by ringing that particular post. (plate .) the middle post, painted black, is a minus score, the ring falling on this causing a loss of five points. [illustration: _plate ._ _ring the hook game_] the rings, five in number, are painted at their joining points with colors similar to the posts. if a ring falls over a post of the same color as that painted on the ring the score is doubled. a black ring on the black post doubles the loss. the board should be set on the floor about eight feet from the contestants. the best results can be obtained by holding the rings by the thick, heavy part, parallel to the floor, and tossing quite high in order that they may fall flat from a point above the posts. [illustration: the ring toss.] the posts are made with a tenon, which fits snugly in a mortise, and are removable so that they may be taken out when not in use. the rings may be made of various materials, such as rope and rattan. a very satisfactory ring is made by the writer's classes, by using chair spline. this is a rattan, light, cheap and easily bent, and may be bought of any firm dealing in upholstery and chair-seating materials. a piece about " long is bent in circular form, overlapping about an inch and held with two / " brads, cleated on the underside, as shown. wrap with white friction tape. the base of the ring toss is first cut / " × " × ". the center of each side and end is located and these points are connected, forming a diamond shape. cut to this line and plane the edges smooth. plane a / " chamfer around the upper edge. post a is made " × " × - / "; posts b and c are " × " × - / "; post d, " × " × - / "; and post e, " × " × - / ". all of these posts are chamfered about / " at the top. it will be noticed, by referring to the drawing of the side view, that each post is an inch square for a certain distance up and from that point they taper to / " square at the top. these measurements are figured from the shoulder where they rest upon the board, there being a / " tenon below. these tenons are cut so that they will be / " square and / " long. all holes or mortises are located - / " directly in from the corner or point at which they rest, except the center post, which is at the center point of the board. these mortises should be a fairly tight fit, yet allowing for the removal of the uprights when not in use. [illustration: _plate ._ _five post ring-toss_] the color scheme is suggested on the drawing but may be changed to suit the individual taste. after painting or shellacking the board the first coat, the numbers should be lettered in, using waterproof india ink, and then the second coat applied. bean bag game. this is another very popular and interesting game and gives the girls in the domestic science course a little opportunity to show their skill in making the bags. these should be cut so that they will finish about four inches square and one end left open so that they may be filled about three-fourths full of beans, peas or small pebbles. the end is then sewed up. burlap, ticking or any odd pieces of cloth may be used for the bags. the board itself will, no doubt, have to be glued up from two or more boards in order to have the finished size " wide by " long. (plate .) half inch bass or whitewood is suitable. a piece of paper should be cut " × " and folded so that it is " × ". trace the outline on this paper, cut and unfold and lay on the board and trace around this. cut to the line, using a turning saw and chisel and perhaps a wood file on the curves. [illustration: boys as well as girls enjoy the bean bag game.] the openings are located, as shown by the drawing. the centers are first obtained, and then the widths and lengths are measured from these center lines. holes are next bored, as shown by the small sketch, with a / " bit, and either a turning or a keyhole saw is used to cut out the pieces. if a turning saw is used, the blade must first be unfastened at one end, inserted in the hole and re tightened on the opposite side. finish carefully to the line with chisel and file. [illustration: _plate ._ _bean bag game_] a small block / " × - / " × - / " is attached to the back of the board with / " no. flat-head screws. this is to hold the hinge. the long brace is made / " × - / " × - / " and is held to the small block by the hinge spoken of previously. a screw-eye is placed about " from the lower end of this brace and a wire or stout cord runs from this to similar screw-eyes, placed on the back of the main board about " from the bottom edge and " from the side edges. the cord or wire should be of sufficient length to cause the board to tip at about degrees. after the board has been carefully sanded with no. sandpaper first and then finished with no. , the whole board should receive a coat of white shellac. after allowing this to dry over night, it should be rubbed down lightly with fine sandpaper and the numbers , and lettered on with black waterproof india ink. apply another coat of shellac, or two more if necessary. paint may be used instead of shellac as a finish, in which case the numbers should be put on with paint of a contrasting color to show up well. the little sketch in the drawing shows the back braces made the same as those on the dart game board. while this is a little more difficult than the simple screw-eye and wire arrangement, it is much more satisfactory. dart board game. this game has proven very popular, not only with the young folks, but with the grown-ups as well. any game where skill and accuracy may be developed has a strong appeal to both boys and girls as well. the board illustrated in plate , should be made of soft wood--bass, pine or white wood is suitable--and cut to " wide by - / " long, from / " material. the top edge is chamfered / ". the surface should be thoroughly planed and sanded and given a coat of white shellac. while this is drying, the rear supporting braces may be gotten out. the main support is / " × - / " × ". a hole is bored with a no. bit, - / " from the end, and a piece is sawed out / " wide from the opposite end to this hole. see the drawing for detail. a piece of / " dowel is glued in the end to reinforce the piece, as shown. the smaller piece y is cut / " × / " × " and is held to piece x by a quarter-inch dowel, as shown. a brass cup hook is screwed into the end which is connected with a brass screw-eye placed in the back of the board, - / " from the bottom edge. [illustration: the dart board in use.] the small block x is / " × - / " × - / " and is attached, as indicated, with glue and two - / " no. flat-head screws. the long brace x is attached to this by a " butt hinge and " flat-head screws. this folding arrangement has proven very satisfactory. the board packs nicely and stands rigidly when in position for playing. however, a simpler bracing may be used. the long brace x may be a solid piece / " × - / " × ", with a screw-eye on the underside from which a wire can run to a similar screw-eye on the back of the board. the wire can be adjusted so that the board will slope at the proper angle. after being sanded, the surface of the board should be given a coat of shellac and after drying should be rubbed down with no. / sandpaper. the circles should now be struck with a compass and waterproof ink, the diameters given, using a fairly heavy line. after the ink is dry give another coat of shellac. when this is dry the board is ready to have the colors applied to the circles. first paint circle a black and circle c red, painting just to the circle edge. allow this to dry thoroughly, and then paint circle b yellow and circle d green. when these are dry, it may be necessary to strike all the circles again with ink. where shown, letter in the numbers to score the game. it will be noticed that the small outside circles are minus numbers. give the entire board and braces a finishing coat of shellac. darts. the darts may be whittled out by hand, but the most satisfactory ones are turned out on the lathe to the dimensions shown. a - / " brad should be driven half its length into the rounded end, the head cut off with cutting pliers, and the end pointed with a fine file. [illustration: _plate ._ _dart game board_] at the opposite end two holes should be drilled of a size large enough to receive the ends of wing or tail feathers of some accommodating fowl. these should be dipped in glue and pressed into place. about six of these darts should be made and the wooden parts painted in bright colors. birch or maple are good woods to use. the board should be placed on the floor, about ten feet from a given station point, and each contestant should be allowed to throw the six darts. the score should then be counted. darts landing on a line should be credited to the lower number. one dart landing on and sticking to another, doubles the score of the first dart. darts not sticking in the board are not allowed to be re-thrown. darts knocked out by other darts lose their score. one thousand points should constitute a game. the points of the darts may be sharpened from time to time with a fine file. wind mill. this is an interesting toy to place on the top of the shed or garage where the wind will have a chance to revolve the brightly colored wheel at a good rate. it also serves as a weather vane. [illustration: three kinds of wind mills and the sand or water mill.] the main part of the mill (plate ) is made up of four pieces of half inch stock, two being - / " × - / " and two - / " × - / ". the two larger sides taper to - / " wide at the top and the two smaller pieces to / ". the top piece forming the roof is made from a piece of wood - / " thick. if wood of this thickness is not available, several thinner pieces must be glued together. it is cut - / " × - / " and a line is drawn around the edge / " from the lower sides. from this line the roof tapers to a point directly over the middle of the piece, as shown. [illustration: _plate ._ _wind mill_] the long support, on which the mill rests, is made / " × - / " × - / ". two holes are bored and countersunk for the screws which hold it to the mill base. a similar hole is bored from the opposite end for the screw which holds in place the round piece a. the circular piece marked a on the side view, is made / " × - / ". a hole is bored / " deep with a quarter inch bit on the edge. the piece c is a quarter inch dowel, - / " long. a hole is bored with a quarter inch bit in the roof, at a slant, as is shown in the side view. this hole is / " deep. the dowel piece c fits in these holes when assembled, being held with glue. the smaller base piece, which is attached to the bottom of the mill with glue and " brads, is made / " × " × ". the small piece, on which the vanes of the mill turn, is made from a piece of half inch dowel, cut - / " long. a hole is bored in the roof piece / " deep to receive this. a smaller hole is drilled in the outer end of this dowel to receive a - / " no. round-head screw on which the vanes revolve. a piece is now cut / " × / " × " to serve as the supporting piece on which the whole mill turns. on one end a notch is cut, as shown in the drawing, / " deep and - / " long. two screw holes are bored in this notch to allow the piece to be attached to the shed or roof. on the opposite end a hole is bored in the center, / " deep and with a drill that will insure a -penny nail fitting very tightly. one of these nails should be driven in and the headed end cut off so as to allow a projection of " beyond the end of the wood. the end of this nail should be filed smooth and round. a hole is bored to receive this in the base pieces, as shown in the drawing, extending through both pieces and large enough for the nail to turn freely within. a washer should be placed over this to insure the mill turning easily. the two pieces for the vane of the mill are made / " × " × - / ". each vane is chiseled at an angle, sloping in one direction at one end and in the opposite direction at the other, allowing at least / " for the thickness. considerable pains should be used in shaping these vanes to insure even balance. file and sand these smooth. a middle lap joint is made exactly in the center of each vane, cutting half through on each piece and making a smooth, flush fit. hold the vanes together with glue and / " brads at this point and carefully bore a hole at the center large enough to allow a - / " no. round-head screw to turn easily. a small washer is placed under the head of the screw and one between the rear of the vanes and the end of the supporting dowel. turn the screw up tight enough to allow the vanes to clear nicely. all pieces should be carefully sanded with no. sandpaper first and finished with no. . paint all pieces before assembling. a suggested color scheme is shown in the drawing. wind mill. (type b.) this is another interesting action toy and makes a very pleasing addition to the top of a garage or barn. (plate .) children also enjoy toys of this sort at the beaches where they can build up little villages in the sand. the four long uprights are made / " × / " × ". the top piece, which is eight sided, is first made / " × - / " × - / ". then / " is measured in from each corner and these points are connected and the lines cut carefully with a saw. a hole is bored in the center with a bit a little smaller than a - / " no. screw. the piece to which the long uprights are attached is next made, / " × - / " × - / ". measure in from each corner, on the upper surface, / ", and from each corner on the lower edge measure in / ". draw these sloping lines from top to bottom points and saw these corner pieces out very carefully. a hole is bored in the center of this piece similar to the hole bored in the previous piece. attach the long uprights to this piece with glue and - / " brads, trimming the top ends of the uprights with a chisel and file until they are flush with the surface of the top piece. carefully spread the uprights until they are - / " apart from outside to outside, as shown. mark off points on the inside edges " up from the bottom ends and - / " above the first marks. these points are to locate the places where the cross pieces go. cut the eight cross braces / " × / " and sufficiently long to fit nicely at these points between the uprights. it will be noticed that they will have to be cut at a slight angle. attach these braces with glue and - / " brads, seeing that they are all even and parallel with the floor when setting upright. the angle braces are made / " × / " × " and cross each other with a halved joint, as shown. the ends are cut at an angle to conform to the slope of the uprights and are attached to them by " brads and glue. piece e is now made, - / " × - / " × ", and is tapered to / " square at the upper end. this is done by measuring in / " from each upper corner and drawing to the lower corners and cutting to the line. a small hole is bored in the center of the upper end to start the screw which holds piece b in place. [illustration: _plate ._ _wind mill_ (_type b_)] piece b is made / " × / " × - / " and has a slot cut in it, / " wide and - / " long, as shown. the inside end of the slot is cut at a slight angle to receive the slope of tailpiece c. a hole is bored - / " from the slot end of this piece, of a size to turn freely on a - / " no. round-head screw. tail c is made / " × " × " and then / " is measured up from the lower right end corner and / " measured in from this point toward the left and a dot is placed. draw lines from this dot to the lower-left-hand corner and to the upper-right-hand corner. round all of these corners, using a / " radius and carefully finish to the lines all around. the vanes a must be very carefully made to insure a close fit and proper balance. two pieces are cut / " × - / " × ". the method of forming the vanes will be more easily understood by referring to the detail, where every measurement is plainly given. the two vanes are joined with a middle lap joint, which requires considerable skill in forming. each piece is cut half way through at its middle point, seeing that the groove is no wider than the width of the piece that goes within it. the two vanes are joined with glue and four / " brads. a hole is bored in the center, of a size that will turn easily on a - / " no. round-head screw. sand all pieces well with no. / sandpaper. paint the various pieces as suggested in the color scheme and attach the tail c to piece b with glue and / " brads. the vanes a are attached to piece b with a - / " round-head screw, with washers under the screw head and between the vanes and piece b. piece b is attached to block e with a - / " round-head screw, with washers under the screw head and between b and e. have all movable parts so that they will move freely. a finish nail may be placed in the lower part of each leg to secure the mill to the desired location. sand or water mill. this is an interesting beach toy as either fine sand or water may be used to operate it. (plate .) it is very simple to construct and is made as follows: the base is constructed of / " pine, - / " wide and - / " long; and the four blocks which are glued and bradded to the corners, are / " × " × ". the two uprights are / " × / " × - / ", and the two cross supports at the tops measure / " × / " × - / ". [illustration: _plate ._ _sand or water mill_] two holes are bored in the base for the screws that hold the uprights in place. these holes are - / " from the end and - / " from the sides. holes are bored in the little top braces / " from the two ends and one just in the middle, or - / " from the ends. these are for the screws that hold the braces to the uprights and to the top piece. all holes are bored with a drill suitable to take - / " no. flat-head screws, and all are countersunk on the side where the screw enters. the top piece is made / " × - / " × - / " with the two front corners slightly rounded, as shown. a hole is bored of a size to receive the funnel used, - / " from the front edge and - / " from the sides. a hole is drilled in each upright piece, - / " from the lower end, of a size that will insure a driving fit to the wire used, in this case being a piece of no. copper-dipped, - / " long. a piece of / " dowel is cut off / " long and a similar hole is bored about two-thirds of the way through, as shown. four holes are bored, as indicated on the drawing, for the quills, which are later glued in place. feathers from the poultry yard will furnish these. sand all pieces with no. sandpaper and first assemble the top, the two uprights and the two cross supports. paint these two coats of red paint. attach the cross blocks to the base with glue and / " brads and paint two coats of yellow. paint the tunnel two coats of bright green. while these are drying construct the paddle wheel. the piece through which the wire axle runs is / " × / " × - / ". the four blades are / " × - / " × - / ". after these are sanded and a hole is bored through the center piece, nail the blades to the center piece, in the position shown in the side view. use / " brads and glue for fastening the blades. paint two coats of yellow. when the parts so far assembled are thoroughly dry, finish the assembly, using - / " no. flat-head screws and glue. the toy is now ready to operate. doll's cradle. a cradle built according to plate is suitable for a doll sixteen or seventeen inches in length. the two sides should be first made / " × - / " × ". these are later beveled slightly on their lower edge to conform to the slope of the head and foot board. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's cradle_] measure from one end along the top edge - / " and from the other end - / ". from this last end the width of the side is cut down to - / ", as far as the - / " measurement previously made. connect the point which is - / " from the left end with the point which is - / " from the right end. this gives a slope of approximately degrees, as is shown in the side view. slightly round the corners, as indicated. the head board is next made / " × " × - / ". measure in, on one of the long edges, an inch from either corner, and from these points draw straight lines to the upper corners. cut carefully to this line. this makes the lower edge - / " long. the upper corners are rounded, as shown. the foot board is made in a similar manner, first cutting it / " × " × ". place the head and foot board together to see if they exactly correspond. if not, plane or saw them while together so they are exactly alike, except in height. the four pieces so far completed may now be assembled, using glue and " brads. see that this frame sets flat when placed on a level surface. the base is next made / " × - / " × ". the two rockers are cut / " × - / " × - / ". it is a good plan to cut a piece of paper the above size, fold across the short way and sketch on the folded surface one-half the rocker shape. when this has been done in a satisfactory manner it may be unfolded, cut out and drawn on wood. the rocker ends have a slight shoulder of / ", as shown. in sloping the rockers, get them alike and make the curve such as will cause them to rock with a very slight pressure. [illustration: two types of doll cradles.] holes are bored with a small drill in the base, - / " from the ends and - / " from the sides. a hole is also bored half way between the two, as shown, and all are countersunk on the upper side. attach the rockers with glue and " no. flat-head screws. see that they project equally on the sides and are square with the edges. now nail the rocker base to the upper frame previously made, using " brads and glue. have the base project equally from the upper frame on each side and come flush with the ends. all pieces should have been carefully sanded, of course, before assembling. the next, and last step is the final finish. if paint is to be the finish, select the desired color and apply a priming and a finish coat. follow directions in the front of the book for painting. colonial doll cradle. the type of cradle, shown in plate , is similar in many ways to the one on the last plate. it is, however, more artistic and somewhat more difficult to make. follow directions on the last plate for making rockers, base and footboard. the headboard is cut / " × - / " × - / ". place a center line, longways of the piece, as shown in the end view. at the top measure - / " each side of the center line and make a dot. at the base measure - / " each side of the center line and place a dot. measure - / " from the top edge, on each side. connect these points, as shown in the end view. cut carefully to the lines. test the head and footboard to see if they compare. make the two sides of the cradle next / " × - / " × ". seven inches from one end and - / " from the lower edge strike a circle - / " in radius. from the lower edge of this circle draw a line parallel to the base. this will make the narrow part of the sides - / " wide. from the point directly over the center of the circle, square a line to the top edge of the side. the outline of the side is now ready to be cut out. if an expansive bit is obtainable, bore the hole from the center of the circle with the bit set at - / " radius. if this bit is not obtainable, the hole must be cut out with a key-hole or a turning saw after first cutting to the circle, along the other lines previously drawn. the short top edge of the sides should now be beveled to conform to the slope of the head board. next make the two top pieces which form the sloping part of the roof. these are / " × - / " × - / ". these must be planed at their top edge to quite a sharp bevel until they are even with the top of the head board. the top piece is the final piece cut, and this is / " × - / " × - / ". the pieces should now be carefully sanded with no. / sandpaper and the sides and ends assembled with glue and " brads. [illustration: _plate ._ _colonial doll cradle_] the roof pieces are next placed. be sure that the top piece sits flat and overhangs equally on both sides. holes are bored in the bottom piece for screws, - / " from the ends and - / " from the sides. a third hole is bored at each end half way between the other two, as shown, and all are countersunk. attach the rockers with glue and " flat-head screws, being careful that they project equally on both sides and are at right angles with the edges of the base. the final finish is optional, but if the cradle is to be painted or enameled it should first receive a priming coat of flat white. see directions for painting in the first part of the book. doll's bed. the bed illustrated in plate , is suitable for the ordinary size doll, " to " in length. the four legs should first be cut, the two long ones being / " × / " × " and the two short ones / " × / " × - / ". these should be planed up square and smooth and the top edges chamfered / ", as shown. the two side rails are next made / " × - / " × - / ". the four cross rails, two on the head board and two on the foot board, are made / " × / " × - / ". seven slats are next made / " × - / " × ". two long supporting slats, on which the seven slats previously made rest, are now made / " × " × - / ". three upright slats are now made for the head board, two being / " × - / " × ", and one / " × " × ". three similar slats are made for the foot board, two / " × - / " × - / " and one / " × " × - / ". seven holes should be carefully bored where the cross rails and legs are joined. use a small drill about / " in diameter. these holes are - / " up from the bottom end of the legs and " down from the top ends. in assembling these parts, use glue, brads and - / " no. round-head screws, as shown on the drawing. next place the slats, as indicated, using glue and - / " brads. take pains to space these properly and center them on the cross piece. all brad holes, wherever placed, should be set with a nail set and the hole filled with hard beeswax. in nailing in the brads, rest the bottom support on the corner of the bench, so as not to strain the cross piece or legs in pounding with the hammer. next attach the long side rails, having their ends come flush with the outer side of the leg. use glue and " brads. see that the rails are attached square with the long edges of legs. the two shorter supporting rails ( / " × " × - / "), are next nailed to the lower cross pieces at the head and foot of the bed, and close up against the long side rails. a few brads, " long, should be driven through from the side rails into these to help secure them in place. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's bed_] the seven cross slats are carefully spaced, glued, and nailed in place with / " brads. while nailing, place a block of wood beneath the ends for a bearing. all pieces should have been sanded previous to assembling, and the bed may now be either stained or painted. if painted, a priming coat should be applied first. after this has dried it should be carefully sanded with no. sandpaper and the finish coat applied. considerable care should be taken in the painting to insure a good, clean-cut job. refer back to the first of the book for necessary instructions for painting. there is an opportunity here for the older sister to help in preparing the bedding. two types of stilts. (type a stilt.) most every boy knows there is a certain fascination in walking on stilts, but they may prove a dangerous pastime if not strongly made. in this style of stilt (type a, plate ) the uprights are held beneath the arm pits. the upright pieces should be made / " × - / " × ', or as long as the boy desires. hard pine or ash make strong, durable stilts. the edges of the upright should be slightly rounded so that they will fit the hand nicely. [illustration: two kinds of stilts.] holes are bored with a / " bit, " from the lower end and - / " apart, as shown. the upper hole is countersunk to receive a - / " no. flat-head screw. [illustration: _plate ._ _stilts_] the foot rests are made " × - / " × " and shaped, as indicated on the drawing. they are secured to the uprights with screws and / " × " round-head stove bolts. several holes at various heights could be bored to allow of adjusting the foot rest to suit the user of the stilt. the uprights can be painted red and the foot rests green, or the whole can be left plain, according to the desires of the maker. a touch of paint, however, not only adds to the appearance of any article, but also preserves it and lengthens its life. (type b stilt.) type b stilt (plate ) is made shorter than type a and is to be strapped to the leg just above the knee. the uprights are " × - / " × ", or longer if desired. round the edges of the uprights and bore holes at the same places and of the same size as in type a. a strap is screwed on, as is shown in the drawing, to support the feet, and another strap, long enough to go around the leg beneath the knee, is attached at the upper end, " from the top. sandpaper thoroughly and finish to suit. a pole about seven feet long should be carried to balance and steady oneself. [illustration: two kinds of carts and a dump wagon (in front).] child's cart. carts always appeal to youngsters and the one given here (plate ) is of simple construction. make the side pieces first / " × " × ". on one long edge measure in - / " and from this point draw a line to the upper corner. cut carefully to this line. the front piece is made / " × " × " and the end piece / " × " × - / ". this end piece is beveled to conform to the top and bottom edges of the cart, as shown in the side view. the bottom piece is made / " × " × - / ". [illustration: _plate ._ _child's cart_] the piece to which the wheels are attached, is made / " × " × - / ". this piece has two holes bored and countersunk in it for screws, - / " from the ends and half way between the sides. two small blocks are made / " × " × - / " and tapered / ", as shown. these blocks have holes bored and countersunk for screws. bore the holes in such a manner that they will not come directly opposite each other, otherwise the screws will be likely to hit each other. holes are bored in the front piece of the cart and countersunk on the inner side. these pieces are " from either side, the first one being - / " from the upper edge and the second an inch below the first. the handle measures / " × " × ". a hole is bored / " from the front end with a half-inch bit and the extreme end of the handle is slightly chamfered for a finish. the opposite end of the handle is cut at an angle of °, as shown. a piece of dowel, / " in diameter and " long, is cut and inserted in the hole in the handle and secured by driving an inch brad in from the under side of the handle. the wheels are / " × " and may be cut out with a turning saw and trimmed to the line with a chisel, or, if a lathe is available, they can quickly be cut to size. if they are to be sawed out, a circle should be struck with a divider or compass set at a - / " radius and then carefully cut to the line. the axle is attached to the bottom piece with glue and - / " no. flat-head screws. bore a hole in the end of the axle, exactly in the center, using a drill slightly smaller than the screw that is to hold the wheels in position. bore a hole in each wheel, at the center point, a little larger than the screw that is to be used. attach the wheels with - / " no. round-head blue screws, using a small washer under the screw head and also between the wheel and the cart body. tighten the screw just enough to allow a little play for the wheels to turn easily. sand all pieces thoroughly before assembling, using no. sandpaper first and finishing with no. . assemble the body part of the cart with glue and " brads. a suggested color scheme is given in the drawing. child's dump wagon. this toy at once appeals to the children as it only requires a simple turn of the crank to quickly dump the load of sand. each part of this toy is completely detailed in plate , while plate gives the assembly drawing. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's dump wagon_] the two sides are first made / " × - / " × ", and the two ends / " × " × - / ". the sides are beveled about / " on the lower edge so that they will conform to the angle of the end piece. the ends taper from - / " long at the top to - / " at the bottom. this angle is obtained by measuring in / " from either side and drawing to the opposite upper corner. saw and finish to this line and slightly round the upper corners, as shown. bore a hole with a / " bit at the point indicated. the bottom piece is made / " × - / " × ". sand these five pieces and assemble, using - / " brads and glue. plane the side edges of the bottom board to the same angle as the slope of the sides. the two end uprights are now made / " × - / " × ". measure up - / " on the short edges and place a dot. connect these points with a sloping line and saw and finish to the outline shown. bore holes with a / " bit at the place indicated. locate and bore a screw hole / " up from the center of the lower edge to attach brace block. make two small supporting blocks / " × - / " × - / ". bore a / " hole carefully in the center and drill four smaller holes to receive - / " no. flat-head screws, / " from each other, as shown. countersink these four holes. glue and screw these blocks to the end of the wagon box, - / " from the top edge, as shown. make two brace blocks by first cutting out a square / " × " × " and cutting this in two diagonally from corner to corner. glue and screw these blocks to the end uprights, using " no. flat-head screws. the underbody should next be made / " × " × - / ". measure in - / " from each corner on the long edge, and with the dividers set at - / ", strike a quarter circle and connect these arcs with straight lines, making the width in the middle - / ". saw this out with a coping saw and finish smoothly to the line. locate and drill the twelve screw holes shown, with a drill the size of a no. screw. countersink all holes, except the four holes which hold the supports for the cart handle. these four are not countersunk as " no. round-head screws are used at these points. attach the end uprights to the underbody with glue and " no. flat-head screws, eight in all. next make the two axles / " × " × - / " and bore and countersink the three holes, on the narrow edge, at the points indicated. glue and screw these in place, - / " from the front and rear ends, using - / " no. flat-head screws. these axles project / " beyond the sides of the underbody, on all sides, so as to allow the wheels to turn without interference. the wheels may be made on a lathe or with a turning saw, / " thick and all exactly " in diameter. bore a hole in their center with a drill a little larger than the wire of a " no. round-head screw. when assembling, use a washer on each side of the wheel. [illustration: _plate ._ _details of dump wagon_] a hole should be started about / " deep in the center of the ends of the axle to insure the screws going in properly. the cart handle is made / " × " × ", with one end rounded and the opposite end chamfered / ". on the latter end measure in / " on the wide side and bore a hole carefully with a / " bit. cut a piece from a / " dowel, - / " long, and insert it in this hole, keeping it in place with glue and one / " brad. bore a hole / " from the rounded end with a / " bit. the two pieces which hold the handle are now made / " × / " × - / ". a / " hole is bored in the / " edge of these pieces, / " from the end. these holes, and the hole in the handle, are to receive a round-head stove bolt, which is / " × - / ". glue and screw these two pieces in place in the center of the front end of the underbody, leaving about / " space between the handle and the edges of the blocks for freedom of movement. the dumping handle is made of pieces of dowel, the main piece being " in diameter by - / " long. the other pieces are cut from a half-inch dowel, " and - / " long, respectively. on the main dowel bore holes with a / " bit, / " from the ends, to receive the shorter dowels. glue and insert the - / " dowel and bore a small hole to receive a / " no. round-head screw. place this screw and then insert the dowel through the front upright into the front supporting block and flush with the inner surface of the front box end. hold in place in the block with glue and a - / " no. round-head screw. glue and screw the " dowel in place for the grip. a piece of / " dowel, " long, is similarly placed through the rear upright, thence into the rear supporting block and box end. this is also held with glue and a - / " no. round-head screw through the block. sand and apply two coats of paint before assembling the wheels and handle. child's wheelbarrow. (type a.) the child's wheelbarrow, shown in plate , is very serviceable and quite easy to make, and, if the directions are followed carefully, the result will be a toy that will outlast a majority of the toys ordinarily found on the store shelves. first, make the handles / " × - / " × ". chamfer the handles, as shown, for four inches from one end. the two sides are made / " × - / " × " and - / " is measured in on one long edge and a line drawn from this point to the lower corner. saw and plane to this line and round the upper corner with a chisel and file. the end is / " × - / " × - / ". the bottom is first cut / " × " × ". on one end measure in - / " from one side and a like distance from the other side. connect these points with the opposite extreme corners and finish to these lines. the bottom is now tapered to - / " wide at the front end. assemble the sides, the bottom and the end with glue and - / " finish nails, setting the front piece back / " from the end of the sides, as shown in the drawing. set all nails below the surface and fill the holes with beeswax. place the assembled part on the handles in such a manner that the front end of the box part of the wheelbarrow is " from the front end of the handles, and the handles at the front end are " apart inside, and at the grip end " apart outside. while in this position, which is the permanent assembling position, mark the position of the six screw holes, which are bored with a drill of a size to receive a " no. flat-head screw. countersink these holes. the two legs are made / " × " × - / " and beveled / " at the lower end. on the upper end a notch is cut out / " deep by - / " long. two holes are bored, as indicated, to attach the leg to the handle. this is done with glue and " no. round-head screws. [illustration: wheelbarrows.] a / " dowel rod runs between the legs to brace them, and a hole is bored / " deep in each leg, - / " from the lower end. the dowel is " long and is held in place with glue, and a / " brad is driven in the leg to hold it firmly in place. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's wheelbarrow_ (_type a_)] [illustration: _plate ._ _child's wheelbarrow_ (_type b_)] a hole is bored very carefully - / " from the front end of the handles to receive the wheel axle. it will be noticed, by referring to the top view of the drawing, that on account of the taper of the handles this hole must be bored slightly on a slant and about half way through. the bit should be of a size to allow a piece of sixteen-penny nail to turn freely, as the axle should be made of a nail of this size, cut " long. the wheel is best made of hard wood, such as maple, / " thick and " in diameter. bore the hole in the center with the same drill just used. next cut two pieces from a / " dowel, / " long, and bore a similar hole exactly through their center. these two pieces of dowel are glued to the wheel and serve to make it run in the center. when assembling, place a small washer between the dowels and handle, as shown. all pieces should have been carefully sanded before assembling, and the wheel should be painted red and allowed to dry before being put in place. the remainder of the wheelbarrow should be painted bright green. apply two coats, rubbing down the first coat when dry with no. sandpaper before applying the second. child's wheelbarrow. (type b.) this style wheelbarrow (plates and ) is planned exceptionally strong and sturdy and will stand a large amount of hard usage. it is made larger and stronger than type a, and is naturally a little more difficult to make, but well within the ability of an eighth grade boy. this type has removable sideboards. the plate of details gives exact information how to make each piece, so it will not be necessary to give the directions here. after all pieces are correctly made and all holes are bored at the places indicated, each part should be sanded very carefully and made ready for assembling. care should be taken to get good tight joints on the front brace, the wheel supports and the tops of the legs. the metal braces can be made from strips of zinc " × ", bent over the braces w, allowing a little freedom for removing the sideboards. holes should be drilled in these braces, where shown, to receive / " no. round-head screws. first attach the bottom boards to the handles with " no. flat-head screws, placing the ends of the handles even with the front of the bottom board and flush with the side edges. next fasten the front and rear brace in place with - / " no. flat-head screws, on the under side, and with - / " no. round-head screws and washers from the outside of the handle to the brace ends. [illustration: _plate ._ _details of type b wheelbarrow_] fasten one wheel brace in its proper place with " no. flat-head screws from the upper side of the bottom board. place the axle of the wheel in the hole and attach the other wheel in the same manner. glue and screw the front uprights in place, as indicated, with " no. round-head screws, and place the top cross piece on these and hold in place with glue and " round-head blue screws. place the sides in position, with the front ends flush with the outer edges of the front braces. place the metal braces over the supporting pieces and screw in place, using " no. round-head blue screws. braces x, which run from the wheel supports to the front piece of the wheelbarrow, are screwed in place, as shown, using - / " no. round-head screws. it will be noticed that the hole for the dowel stick in the leg only extends in / ". place one leg in position, - / " from the ends of the handles, using glue and " no. round-head blue screws. insert the dowel stick in this leg and also in the second leg and secure the second leg in place. the dowel should have glue placed on its ends, and, after the legs are in place, an inch brad should be driven into each leg, through the dowel, to hold it firmly in place. the color scheme given in the drawing is a pleasing one. the wheel is painted two coats of red before being placed in position. clown running wheel. this has proven a very popular toy and is not hard to construct. the legs and body may be made of pulp or beaver board, a material which is very good, as it saws easily and will not split. wood, however, may be used, if preferred. the details of the body and legs are full size and these may be transferred to the wood by the tracing method described at the beginning of the book. these pieces, when done, may be painted, if desired, and allowed to dry while the rest of the parts are being made. bore all necessary holes shown in the drawing. the wheels are best turned on a lathe to " in diameter and a hole bored in the center of each of a size that will allow a / " dowel to fit tightly. if no lathe is available, the wheel can be cut out with a turning saw and finished with a chisel and file. the wheels are best made from / " maple. two pieces of / " dowel are cut / " long and attached / " above the center of the wheel, as shown. this is done on both wheels, and the piece is attached with glue and / " brads. it is a good plan to bore holes for these brads and thus prevent the possible splitting of the wood. the dowel that goes between the wheels is made / " × / " and is glued securely in the holes in the wheels later. another piece of / " dowel is cut " long, and is fitted to support the body of the clown on the handle. [illustration: _plate ._ _details for clown running wheel_] [illustration: _plate ._ _details for clown running wheel_] the handle is made / " × - / " × ", and the grip is rounded and shaped, as shown on plate . in the opposite end of the handle a slot is cut / " wide and - / " long. this is to receive the strip of zinc which runs between the wheels. this strip of zinc is made of / " material, " wide and - / " long. triangular pieces are cut from one end, / " on a side, as shown on the detail sheet. this strip is held in the slot in the handle by first drilling through both the wood and the zinc, with a drill the size of a / " brad, and afterwards gluing and bradding the zinc into position with / " brads. a hole, / " in diameter, is also drilled in the opposite end of the zinc, / " from the end and / " from the sides. this goes over the axle of the wheel. a hole is bored with a / " bit, - / " from the end of the handle, as shown on plate , and at an angle, as indicated. a similar hole is bored in the seat of the clown. the parts are now ready to sandpaper, paint, and after drying, assemble. [illustration: clown running wheel.] [illustration: cock horse.] the color scheme is given on the drawing. after the paint has dried, the lines where the various colors join, should be accented with a pen, using india ink. the upper legs of the clown are attached to the body with - / " copper rivets and the lower legs are held to the upper by / " rivets. when putting the rivets in place, hold the end which has the washer against some hard, metal body and strike with a hammer, taking care not to get the washer so tight that the legs will not move. a / " no. round-head screw holds the feet to the projecting dowel on the wheel. it is best to bore the hole for the screw in the piece of dowel a little smaller than the size of the screw so as to prevent splitting. glue the supporting dowel in both the clown and the handle. cock horse. the cock horse is a modern version of the old hobby horse, and affords the children, between the ages of four and six, unlimited pleasure. the head is made of a piece of / " bass or pine, - / " wide and - / " long. the features may be enlarged from the size drawn in plate , by the method given at the beginning of the book for enlarging; or, if one is apt at free-hand drawing, the outline may be copied offhand. cut the features out right to the line with a coping saw and smooth the edges and surfaces with no. / sandpaper. the stick is made / " × " × ", and the front end is chamfered / ". holes are bored for - / " no. flat-head screws, the first - / " from the front end and the other two - / " apart. two smaller pieces, which are made / " × / " × - / ", are to hold the wheel in position. holes are bored in these two pieces to take - / " no. round-head screws, the first one being / " from the end and the next two / " apart. on this same end a piece is cut off at an angle, as shown. a hole is bored at the opposite end of these two pieces to receive a - / " × / " round-head stove bolt, on which the wheel turns. the wheel is made / " thick and " in diameter, either on a lathe or with a coping saw. a hole is bored in the center a little larger than the / " × - / " stove bolt, so that the wheel will turn easily upon it. glue and screw the two side pieces to the long stick, using - / " round-head blue screws. give these two coats of natural varnish. paint the wheel two coats of bright red. paint the head one coat of flat white, and after drying give one or two coats of white enamel. after this has dried thoroughly, paint the comb and wattles bright red. paint the beak and outer circle of the eyes yellow, and the feathers about the neck black. where the colors join, outline with a drafting pen and india ink. a hole is bored, in the head where shown, to receive a piece of / " dowel, " long. this serves as a handle. glue this handle in place, taking care that it projects equally on both sides. [illustration: _plate ._ _cock horse_] rocking rooster. this very interesting action toy is especially suitable for children as young as two years of age. it is simple in construction and perfectly safe. (plate .) the seat board is made / " × " × ". measure " in from one end on both long edges, and at these points narrow the front end to - / " wide by sawing out a piece on both sides - / " wide. round the corners where the taper comes, also the other four corners of the top. similarly, round the upper edge of the top. the two rockers are made / " × - / " × ". measure down / " on the two ends, and from these points carefully sketch a free-hand curve with its highest point directly in the center of the lower edge. be sure this curve balances equally and that the two rockers are exactly alike. the rooster's head is made / " × " × - / " and the outline is sketched upon it similar to the one shown on the drawing. cut out the features with a coping saw, taking pains to have the saw at right angles to the surface of the wood at all times. a hole is bored in the head, for the handle, about - / " from the top and - / " from the rear edge. a / " bit is used. [illustration: the rocking rooster is safe as well as interesting.] be sure and bore this hole perfectly straight. the handle is made " long and / " in diameter, shaping it as shown in the front view. if this cannot be turned on a lathe, the handle may be made from a " piece of / " dowel, rounding the ends slightly with a file. holes are now bored for the - / " no. flat-head screws which hold the rockers and head to the top. the locations of these holes are clearly shown in the drawing. countersink the holes on the side from which the screws enter. the little separating block, which goes between the rockers, is made / " × " × - / ", and is held in place with glue. sand all pieces thoroughly. [illustration: _plate ._ _rocking rooster_] assemble all pieces carefully, seeing that the rooster's head is centered well and placed two inches from the front end. the rockers are attached - / " from the ends and so placed that they are just an inch apart. paint the whole toy one coat of flat white and sand lightly with no. sandpaper when dry. paint in the comb and wattles of the rooster bright red and the feathers on the neck, green. after these colors have dried, apply another coat of white, where indicated, this time using white enamel. use a small brush for the details. the beak and the circle about the eye are painted yellow and the other circle about the eye is painted black. if the paint does not seem to have the proper sparkle when the last coat is dry, apply another coat of each color. outline the edge of the comb and wattles with a drafting pen and india ink. outline also, the beak and eyes. this causes a sharp contrast where the two colors meet and sets off the features. the top and rockers are treated with two coats of white enamel on top of the priming coat. kiddie kar. it is hardly necessary to speak of the popularity of this toy. its construction is well within the ability of the average eighth grade boy. the seat board (plate ) is made of / " stock and is first cut - / " wide and - / " long. half the outline of the curve at the front should be traced on a folded piece of paper, the proper size, and cut out and traced on the wood. this outline should now be carefully sawed and chiseled to the correct shape. [illustration: kiddie kars.] the top edge of the seat should be rounded. the rear support should have half its outline traced on a folded piece of paper and cut out and traced on a piece of wood / " × " × - / ". finish to the line. the brace is cut / " × " × - / ". mark out the outline of the curves, as shown, and saw and chisel to the line. the wheels and steering gear should be turned on a lathe to the dimensions shown on the drawing. a hole is bored in the seat board, - / " from the front end and half way between the sides, with a / " bit. this is to allow the steering post, which is turned to / " diameter, freedom to turn. holes are drilled through the under part of the rear brace, as shown, to secure the same to the top. holes are likewise bored half way between the sides of this brace, to engage with the curved supporting piece. the curved supporting piece has two holes bored - / " from the small end, " apart. this is for the screws that go into the top. holes, bored with a small bit, should be started in the lower part of the rear brace, to receive the large screws which hold the rear wheels in place. it is quite necessary to make these holes, using a bit a trifle smaller than the screw to be used, as it is very difficult to force a screw of this size into wood of this hardness. these holes must be bored exactly straight, otherwise the wheels will turn unevenly. washers should be used between the screw heads and the wheels and between the wheels and any part they are likely to come in contact with. a hole is bored in the steering rod, directly below the top board, for a screw to be placed to hold the upper and lower part of the steering rod firm. glue is also used when assembling the two parts of the steering apparatus. the handle is also held in place with a screw and glue, as shown. a hole is bored in the handle, of a size suitable to receive the steering rod. washers should be placed in the steering gear, above and below the seat board, to prevent wear. in preparing the slot to receive the front wheel, a hole should first be bored with an inch bit so that the top edge of the slot comes - / " from the bottom of the steering gear. this slot should be very carefully sawed out and smoothed up so that the wheel, which is / " thick, will turn accurately. the holes in all the wheels must center accurately and be larger than the screw or bolt which goes through them. the front wheel turns on a / " × - / " round-head stove bolt. the color scheme may be varied to suit individual tastes. the one suggested in the drawing has red wheels with the remaining parts of the kiddie kar finished natural with spar varnish. all parts should be thoroughly sanded before assembling. two coats of paint should be applied to the wheels and two coats of varnish to the remainder. sand in between coats with no. sandpaper. [illustration: _plate ._ _kiddie kar_] kiddie koaster. this lively toy is somewhat different from the three-wheeled kiddie kar and is suited for children of eight or over. if desired, this toy may be made up with three wheels like a velocipede. if this type is made, a piece of dowel rod, of hard wood, is cut about six or eight inches long and an inch in diameter. this dowel should go through a hole in the rear brace, and the wheels should be attached to the ends with " no. round-head screws and washers. the following directions are for the two-wheel kiddie koaster shown in plate . the front supporting piece is first made of a piece of hard wood, " × - / " × ". a distance of " is measured up from the lower end and / " is measured beyond this. from this point the remainder of the brace is thinned to one inch in thickness. the top end is rounded and the bottom end chamfered, as shown. a hole is carefully bored with an inch bit, - / " from the lower end. an allowance of / " is made for the thickness of each fork and the remaining inch is removed with a saw up to the hole previously bored. a hole is bored for the handle, - / " from the top, with a / " bit. another hole is bored on each side, - / " from the lower end with a / " bit, / " deep. [illustration: the kiddie koaster.] these two holes are for the foot rests. small holes are bored one inch from the lower end to receive a / " × - / " round-head stove bolt. a / " bit should be used to bore these. the rear support is made " × - / " × - / ". from a point - / " from the lower end this is thinned down to one inch thick, the same way as the front support. at the upper end measure down on one edge / " and draw to the opposite corner. [illustration: _plate ._ _kiddie koaster_] cut off at this angle so that it will come on a line with the cross piece. a hole is bored with a / " bit, one inch from the lower end to take a / " x - / " round-head stove bolt. chamfer / " from the lower end. bore a hole - / " from the lower end with an inch bit and remove the wood to form the rear fork, in the same manner as was done for the front. the cross piece between the front and rear support, on which the seat rests, is first made / " x " x - / ". measure in two inches from the upper corner and draw a line to the lower corner. saw squarely on this line to get the proper slant. measure from this upper left-hand corner - / " and draw a line from here to the lower right-hand corner. saw to this line. on this last end sawed, measure in / " and make a tenon, as indicated in the side view. this tenon should be / " thick. the other dimensions for the tenon are given on the drawing. on the rear support a mortise is now cut of a size to receive the tenon tightly, and to make the top edge of the cross piece and upper end of the rear support on a line. this tenon should be cut with a / " bit, boring so as to make the mortise about / " deep. remove the extra wood with a small chisel until the tenon fits snugly within the mortise. later, when assembling, this joint is glued and / " brads are driven in from the side to pin it in place, as indicated. the seat is made / " × " × ". it is shaped, as shown in the sketch, cutting the outline with a turning saw and finishing to the line with a chisel and file. two holes are bored and countersunk to receive - / " no. flat-head screws which hold the seat in place. the seat is stuffed with tow, excelsior or other suitable material and covered with brown burlap or with imitation leather, as desired. a piece of braid, to match the material used, is tacked around the lower edge with upholstery tacks to match. the handles and foot rests are best turned out on a lathe, although they may be whittled out with a jack-knife. the dimensions for these are clearly shown. the front wheel is - / " in diameter, made from wood / " thick. the rear wheel is " in diameter, the wood being / " stock. these wheels should be made of hard wood or wood glued up three-ply. these are best turned on a lathe, although they may be cut with a turning saw and chiseled to the line and finished with a file. a special hinge may be obtained from most any toy manufacturing firm, to place between the front support and the cross-piece. in the author's classes, hinges of this special type were obtained in various sizes, without any trouble. the size indicated in the drawing is five inches long and costs fourteen cents. if these special hinges are not used, the ordinary butt hinges may be substituted, two being used. a groove of the proper length and depth, to fit these hinges, can be drilled and chiseled out in the front brace. a saw cut can be made in the cross piece, across the end, in which to insert the hinge. when assembled, screws should be placed so as to accurately engage with the screw holes in the hinges. before assembling, all pieces should be thoroughly sanded and painted two coats. a suggested color scheme is given on the drawing. ski skooter. the ski skooter, shown on plate , is best made of ash. the runner is first made / " × - / " × " and thinned down, for ten inches from the front end, to / " thick. the runner is steamed, bent and grooved by the method shown in plate . the upright piece is made / " × - / " × - / " and one of the bracing pieces / " × - / " × " and the other / " × - / " × ". these are cut at an angle of degrees at each end, as shown. [illustration: the ski skooter is great sport on a moderate hill.] the seat is made / " × " × ", and the top edges are slightly rounded. two grips, which also have their lower edges rounded, are made / " × / " × ". [illustration: _plate ._ _ski skooter_] [illustration: _plate ._ _method of bending runners_] two strengthening pieces are made / " × / " × - / " and their ends are cut at degrees, as shown. these are attached to the upright directly under the seat. bore all holes, where shown in the drawing, and countersink them. assemble with glue and screws of a size shown on the drawing. the color scheme is given on the drawing, but may be changed to suit individual tastes. two coats of paint are applied, sanding carefully between coats. the seat can be upholstered if desired. method of bending runners. place the ends in a washboiler, about half full of boiling water, and allow them to remain about five hours. place the tip, or front end of the runners, under the back edge of the top step of a step ladder. slowly bend the runner downward until it lays flat on the front edges of the other steps. secure this in place either with clamps or by pieces of rope and wood. plate shows two methods of bending the runners. regular skis may be bent in the same manner. leave the runners in the clamps overnight. ski skippers. the ski skipper affords a lively form of winter amusement, and great speed can be obtained on the surface of the snow, especially when the crust is covered with a small amount of light snow. [illustration: the ski skipper will please boys as well as girls.] the runners are best made of white ash, from half-inch material, - / " wide and " long. (plate .) the front end of the runners is tapered, starting about five inches from the end. the extreme tips are blunt, being / " wide. [illustration: _plate ._ _ski skipper_] starting about twelve inches from the front end, the runners are thinned down with a plane, on the upper surface, to / " thick. both runners have a groove cut along their counters from the rear end to the point where they curve upward. this groove is / " deep and / " wide, and may be cut by various methods. it may be cut with a grooving plane; it may be scored with a sharp-pointed gauge and the inner part removed with a chisel; or, if a power saw is available, it may be easily cut with a dado saw. the upper edge of the runners may be chamfered about / " for a finish. when the foregoing operations are completed, the runners should be bent, using the method shown in plate . the slats forming the seat top are now made / " × - / " × ", and the single slat for the foot rest / " × - / " × ". the seat slats have holes bored and countersunk / " from the edges and - / " from the ends, to receive " no. flat-head screws. the foot slat has a similar hole bored - / " from the ends and centered between the edges. the seat supports are first cut / " × - / " × - / " and then an inch is measured in on the top edge on each side and lines are drawn to the lower corners, as shown. saw and plane to this line, making the taper as shown in the side view. the cross brace is made / " × " × ". the supports for the foot rests are first made / " × " × - / ". on the upper edge, which is - / " long, measure in / " from each end and draw the sloping lines to the lower corners, making the taper, as indicated. round these upper corners. bore holes in the runners for attaching the uprights at places where they will engage with the uprights, at points shown on the drawing. there should be three screws in each large upright and two in the smaller front support. assemble with glue and - / " no. flat-head screws at all places except where the cross slats are held. at these points " no. flat-head screws will be long enough. it will be noticed, in examining the top and front views, that the supporting uprights are not placed directly half way between the edges of the skis, but are offset so that they come nearer the outside edge of the runner. this is done so that the screw will not come in the groove. two blocks of wood to hold the screw eyes, to which the rope is attached, are made from / " material, - / " square. two holes are bored in these blocks, as shown, and they are attached eight inches from the front end of the runner with / " no. round-head screws. a screw eye is placed in each block, of a size sufficient to receive a / " rope. it is best to bore the hole for the screw eye first, in order to prevent splitting the block. a suggested color scheme is shown in the drawing. two coats of paint should be applied. doll sleigh. while this drawing (plate ), to all intents and purposes details a doll sleigh, yet by increasing the dimensions slightly the sleigh will be suitable for a small child. first, make the runners of / " spruce, or other suitable wood, cutting them " wide by " long. on the upper edge measure back - / " and from this point draw to the corner of the lower edge. saw to this line and slightly round the corners, as shown. with the dividers set at a radius of - / ", strike a circle very lightly on the opposite end of the runners, so that it will be just tangent to the edges and end of the board. measure up from the lower edge of the runner - / " and draw a line parallel to it until it strikes the circle. cut to this line and also saw to the curve of the circle, forming the outline of the runner. finish to the line with a chisel and file. see that the two runners are exact duplicates. bevel slightly on the top edge to allow the runners to flare. [illustration: the doll sleigh may be made larger to carry a baby brother or sister.] next make the sleigh bottom / " × " × - / ". two braces, to go below the sleigh bottom, are made / " × " × - / ". these braces are cut at an angle at each end, as shown. the angle is obtained by measuring in / " on one edge and drawing to the opposite lower corner from this point and sawing to the line. the sides of the sleigh are made / " × " × ". on the top edge measure in - / " and place a dot. measure down from the right-hand lower corner of the sides - / " and from this point, draw to the right-hand upper corner. from the left-hand lower corner measure in - / " and place a dot. from the same corner measure up on the left-hand edge six inches and make another dot. connect these two dots to form the slope of the front end. from the last dot placed, square a line in from the left-hand edge - / " long. from this point sketch a free-hand curve, as is shown in the side view of the sleigh (plate ) to the point first located on the upper edge. cut to the outline, being sure both sides match. the front edge of the sleigh is made / " × " × " and the rear end / " × " × - / ". on the lower edge of the rear end measure in - / " from each corner and draw to the upper opposite corners. saw and plane to these lines. this will give the taper of the rear end. place the board from which the front is to be cut on the backboard and trace the slope of the sides and carefully finish to the line. the two handles are made / " × - / " × - / ", and the top piece, or grip, " × - / " × ". the uprights are mortised into the grips / ", as shown on the drawing. holes are bored in the center of the curve of the runners with a medium-size drill, and at these points an inch dowel is cut long enough to fit snugly between the runners, after the sleigh is assembled. the ends of the dowel are cut at a slope to conform to the pitch of the runners. this dowel is held with glue and - / " no. round-head screws. holes are bored, where indicated in the side view (plate ), to hold the brace in place. holes are also bored in the handles to attach to the body of sleigh at places most convenient. holes are bored in the sleigh bottom to attach the same to the cross braces, using " no. flat-head screws. use - / " no. round-head screws on the outside of the runners. the handles are attached with / " × - / " round-head stove bolts. all other parts should be secured with glue and three-penny fine finish nails. if desired the bottom of the runners may be covered with / " strap iron. various finishes may be used after the parts are thoroughly sanded. if stain is to be the finish, apply it according to the directions in the front of the book and, after drying eight or ten hours, apply two coats of shellac. sand between coats with no. sandpaper. after the last coat of shellac is dry apply one coat of spar varnish. [illustration: _plate ._ _doll's sleigh_] if paint is to be used as the finishing material, decide on the color scheme and apply first a priming coat of flat white, after which one or two finish coats may be applied when dry, sanding lightly between each coat. child's table. this is a very useful and practical problem and has been made up in large numbers by seventh and eighth grade boys. the chair shown in plate fits compactly under the table and takes up but little room. the top is joined by gluing several boards together and finishes " in diameter. basswood, / " thick, is very good material to use. the boards must be carefully jointed and held together with / " dowels. hot glue is the best to use, although the cold glue will answer. leave the pieces in the clamps overnight. the top may be cut to shape with a turning saw and finished to the line with a sharp chisel and file. the four legs are / " × - / " × - / ". two cleats, which are screwed to the underside of the table, are next made, these being / " × " × ". these cross each other in the middle with a middle lap joint, as indicated at a, on the drawing. a notch is cut on the ends of these braces at c, as shown, to receive the legs. the legs are held in place with glue and - / " no. round-head blue screws. [illustration: children's table and chairs.] the braces are attached to the top of the table with a sufficient number of - / " no. flat-head screws to insure a strong job. the legs are notched / " deep, " up from the bottom, to receive the lower leg braces. see sketch b, plate . these lower braces are / " × - / " × ", joined at their center with a middle lap joint, the same as the top braces, and are held in the notch in the legs with glue and - / " round-head screws. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's table_] all parts should be carefully sandpapered, first with no. sandpaper and then finished with no. . the final finish is optional. it may be stained and varnished or it may be finished in enamel. if enamel is used there should first be a couple of coats of flat white applied, each coat being sanded when dry, with no. sandpaper, and the final coat of enamel applied. some appropriate design, in a grayed color, may be put on with stencil if desired. child's chair. plate gives directions for making the chairs to match the table in plate . the rear legs should first be cut out of / " stock, - / " wide and " long. the two connecting rails are - / " × - / ". the lower rail is notched into both front and rear legs, " from the lower ends, / " deep. the upper rail, on which the seat rests, is notched in / " deep, and " above the lower rail. the pieces so far completed may now be sanded and assembled, using glue and - / " no. round-head screws. it is well to reinforce the joints by driving an eight-penny finish nail each side of the screws. these should be set below the surface, and the hole should be filled with hard beeswax before painting. while this is drying, the front and rear rails can be made. these rails, five in number, are all / " × - / " × - / ". the wide back rail is made of / " material, - / " wide by - / " long. holes should next be bored for the various screws, where indicated on the drawing. a cross cleat, which runs between the upper side rails and helps support the seat, is made / " × " × - / ". this is attached, as shown in the sketch of the joinery of the legs and rails, and is screwed to the under side of the seat with - / " no. flat-head screws. the seat is made / " × " × - / " and is notched at the corners to receive the rear legs. the top is rounded slightly on its rear edges. next assemble the two sides with glue and screws of proper size, as shown. all surfaces should be carefully sanded and the finish should be treated as described for the table. [illustration: _plate ._ _child's chair_ (_to match table on preceding plate_)] index adapting the problem to the boy's ability, bean bag game, - bench hook, - camel, child's cart, - ; chair, - ; dump wagon, - ; snow shovel, - ; step ladder, - ; table, - ; wash bench, - ; wheelbarrow (type a), - , (type b), - clown running wheel, - cock horse, - colonial doll's chair, - ; cradle, - ; table, - coping saw work, - darts, - dart board game, - dippy duck, - doll's bed, - ; clothes rack, - ; cradle, - ; ironing board (size a), - , (size b), - , (size c), - ; sleigh, - ; table with drawer, - dowel sticks, duck, elephant, equipment, - finish and color, - five post ring toss, - goat, goose, history of toy-making, - kiddie kar, - ; koaster, - lamb, laying out work, merrimac, - method of bending runners, - ; of enlarging figures, - ; of jointing wood, - monitor, - pelican, periscope, - picture puzzle construction, - rabbit, rhinoceros, ring-the-hook game, - rocking rooster, - rooster, sand or water mill, - simple tool sharpening, - ski skippers, - ski skooter, - staining, - support to be held in vise, - ; for holding coping saw work, ; for table use, transferring a design, - two types of stilts, - wind mill, - ; (type b) - transcriber's note. the equals sign has been used to show 'bold' in this etext. a few minor typographical errors were amended. "heighth" changed to "height". "sonnenburg" changed to "sonnenberg" title of plate illustrations were taken from drawings with inconsistent punctuation and this was systematised. [illustration: to doctor & mrs. m. g. slutter with cordial greetings of the author, geo. h. warren minneapolis, aug. , ] [illustration: geo. h. warren] the pioneer woodsman as he is related to lumbering in the northwest _by_ george henry warren minneapolis press of hahn & harmon company copyright by george henry warren i dedicate this book to the memory of william s. patrick, guiding friend and helpful counselor of my earlier manhood years. foreword. the aim will be to take the reader along on the journey of the pioneer woodsman, from comfortable hearthstone, from family, friends, books, magazines, and daily papers, and to disappear with him from all evidences of civilization and from all human companionship save, ordinarily, that of one helper who not infrequently is an indian, and to live for weeks at a time in the unbroken forest, seldom sleeping more than a single night in one place. the woodsman and his one companion must carry cooking utensils, axes, raw provisions of flour, meat, beans, coffee, sugar, rice, pepper, and salt; maps, plats, books for field notes; the simplest and lightest possible equipment of surveying implements; and, lastly, tent and blankets for shelter and covering at night to protect them from storm and cold. incidents of the daily life of these two voluntary reclusionists, as they occurred to the author, and some of the results obtained, will be told to the reader in the pages which are to follow. table of contents. chapter page i. sowing the germ that i knew not. ii. preparations for the wilds of wisconsin. iii. entering the wilds of wisconsin. iv. surveying and selecting government timber lands. v. gaining experience--getting wet. vi. a birthday supper. vii. a new contract--obstacles. viii. a few experiences in the new and more prosperous field. ix. tracing gentlemen timber thieves--getting wet--fawn. x. does it pay to rest on sunday? xi. indian traits--dog team. xii. wolves--log riding. xiii. entering minnesota, the new field. xiv. an evening guest--not mother's bread. xv. a hurried round trip to minneapolis--many incidents. xvi. the entire party moves to swan river. xvii. methods of acquiring government land--an abandoned squaw. xviii. united states land sale at duluth--joe lagarde. xix. six hundred miles in a birch canoe. xx. effect of discovery of iron ore on timber industry. xxi. forest fires. xxii. white pine--what of our future supply? xxiii. retrospect--meed of praise. illustrations. george h. warren. _frontispiece_ facing page w. s. patrick. the "v" shaped baker is a valuable part of the cook's outfit "the almost saucy, yet sociable red squirrel". "i found several families of indians camping at the end of the portage." "in the vermilion country, dog trains could sometimes be advantageously used." s. d. patrick. "there were many waterfalls". "we succeeded in crossing burnt side lake". "we started out with two birch canoes". "the party subsisted well, until it arrived at ely". "my three companions and i ... had gone to survey and estimate a tract of pine timber." the journey had to be made with the use of toboggans. "our camp was established on the shores of kekekabic lake". "the memorable fire ... which swept hinckley". "the fire ... destroyed millions of dollars worth of standing pine timber". this illustration kindly loaned by department of forestry, state of minnesota. "one of the horses balked frequently". "our camp was made in a fine grove of pig-iron norway". "these little animals were numerous". "we saw racks in minnesota made by the indians". "the roots of the lilies are much relished as a food by the moose." "we have seen the moose standing out in the bays of the lakes." "white pine--what of our future supply?" "he motors over the fairly good roads of the northern frontier." "friends whom he had known in the city who are ready to welcome him." "he camps by the roadside on the shore of a lake". the midday luncheon is welcomed by the automobile tourists. "here he brings his family and friends to fish". "prepare their fish just caught for the meal, by the open camp fire." "he continues his journey ... to the very source of the mississippi river". the pioneer woodsman as he is related to lumbering in the northwest. _by_ george henry warren chapter i. sowing the germ that i knew not. "this superficial tale is but a preface of her worthy praise." early environment sometimes paints colors on the canvas of one's later life. fifty years ago in western new york, there were thousands of acres of valuable timber. the country was well watered, and, on some of the streams, mills and factories had sprung into existence. on one of these were three sawmills of one upright saw each, and all did custom sawing. my father was a manufacturer, especially of carriages, wagons, and sleighs. there were no factories then engaged in making spokes, felloes, whiffletrees, bent carriage poles, thills or shafts, and bent runners for cutters and sleighs. these all had to be made at the shop where the cutter, wagon, or carriage was being built. consequently the manufacturer was obliged to provide himself with seasoned planks and boards of the various kinds of wood that entered into the construction of each vehicle. trips were made to the woods to examine trees of birch, maple, oak, ash, beech, hickory, rock elm, butternut, basswood, whitewood, and sometimes hemlock and pine. the timber desired having been selected, the trees were converted into logs which in turn were taken to the custom mill and sawed into such dimensions required, as far as was possible at that period to have done at these rather primitive sawmills. beyond this the resawing was done at the shop. thus, almost unconsciously, at an early age, by reason of the assistance rendered to my father in selecting and securing this manufactured lumber from the tree in the forest to the sawed product of the mill, i became familiar with the names and the textures of many kinds of woods, the knowledge of which stood me in good turn in later years. chapter ii. preparations for the wilds of wisconsin. in the city of detroit, early in june, , was gathered a group of four veteran woodsmen of the lumbermen's craft, and two raw recruits, one, a student fresh from his father's law office in bay city, and the other, myself, whose frontier experiences were yet to be gained. a contract, by william s. patrick of bay city, the principal of this group, had been made with henry w. sage, of brooklyn, new york, to select and to secure by purchase from the united states and from the state of wisconsin, valuable pine lands believed to be located in the wilds of northern wisconsin. tents, blankets, axes, extra clothing, cooking utensils, compasses, and other surveying implements were ordered, and soon the party was ready for the start. at that time no passable roads penetrated the northern woods of wisconsin from the south. the country to be examined for available pine lands at the commencement of our work was tributary to the head waters of the flambeau river. to reach this point in the forest it was thought best to enter the woods from the south shore of lake superior. also, the united states land office controlling a part of this territory, was located at bayfield, wisconsin, and at that office must be selected such township plats as would be needed in the examining of lands in that portion of the bayfield land district. the quickest line of transit at that date was by railroad to chicago, and thence to st. paul over the chicago, milwaukee & st. paul railway, crossing the mississippi river at prairie du chien, wisconsin, to mcgregor, iowa, and thence north to st. paul. there was no other railroad then completed from chicago to st. paul. the only railroad from st. paul to lake superior was the st. paul and duluth. from duluth, passage was taken by steamer to bayfield. township plats were here obtained from the government land office. provisions of pork, flour, beans, coffee, rice, sugar, baking powder, dried apples, pepper and salt, tobacco, etc., for one month's living in the woods for nine men, were bought and put into cloth sacks. our original number of six men was here augmented by three half-breed indians of the bad river indian reservation, who were hired as packers and guides over a trail to be followed to the flambeau indian reservation. a lake superior fisherman was then engaged to take the party and its outfit in his sailing boat from bayfield to the mouth of montreal river, which is the boundary between wisconsin and michigan. the distance was about thirty-five miles. [illustration: w. s. patrick] chapter iii. entering the wilds of wisconsin. the party disembarked at a sand beach, but the sailboat drew too much water to permit a close landing. here it was that the two tenderfeet got their first experience with lake superior's cold water, since all were obliged to climb or jump overboard into three feet of the almost icy water, and to carry on heads and shoulders portions of the luggage to the dry land. here was to begin the first night of my camp life. dry wood was sought, and camp fires were kindled to be used, first, to dry the wet clothing, and second, to cook the food for the first out-of-door supper. to avoid mosquitoes, orders were given to prepare beds for the night on the sand beach away from the friendly tall trees that stood near by. one mattress served for the whole party and consisted of as level a strip of the sandy shore as could be selected. promise of fair weather rendered unnecessary the raising of tents which were made to serve as so much thickness to keep the body from contact with the sand. that night the stars shone brightly above the sleepers' faces, the waters of superior broke gently along the beach, and the tall pines lent their first lullaby to willingly listening ears. "the waves have a story to tell me, as i lie on the lonely beach; chanting aloft in the pine-tops, the wind has a lesson to teach; but the stars sing an anthem of glory i cannot put into speech. they sing of the mighty master, of the loom his fingers span, where a star or a soul is a part of the whole, and weft in the wondrous plan." the next morning broke bright and clear, and the sun sent a sheen upon the dimpled waters of old superior that gave us a touch of regret at the parting of the ways; for the members, one by one, after a well relished breakfast, shouldered their packs and fell into single file behind the indian guide who led the way to the trail through the woods, forty miles long, to the flambeau reservation. two days and the morning of the third brought the party, footsore in new boots and eaten by mosquitoes, to the end of the trail. now, lakes must be crossed, and the flambeau river navigated for many days. in the indian village were many wigwams, occupied by the usually large families of two or three generations of bucks, squaws, children, from the eldest down to the liquid-nosed papoose, and their numerous dogs that never fail to announce the approach of "kitchimokoman," the white man. some of the old men were building birch canoes, and many birch crafts of different ages and of previous service were to be seen in the camp. from among them, enough were bought to carry all of the men of the party and their outfits. the last canoe bought was a three-man canoe, which leaked and must be "pitched" before it could be used. at this point let it be explained that every woodsman, trapper, pioneer, settler, or camper who depends upon a birch canoe for navigation should, and generally does, provide himself with a quantity of commercial resin and a fireproof dish in which to melt it. the resin is then tempered by adding just enough grease to prevent the mixture, when applied to the dry surface of a leaky spot on the canoe, and cooled in the water of the lake or river at the time of using, from cracking by reason of too great hardness. the surface must be dry or the "pitch" will not adhere firmly to the leaky seam or knot in the bark of the canoe. the drying is quickly done by holding a live ember or firebrand close to the surface of the wet bark. mr. patrick had bought the canoes from different owners and had paid for them all except the leaky three-man canoe. it was the property of a fat squaw of uncertain age. the price agreed upon for this canoe was twenty dollars. mr. patrick and the squaw were standing on opposite sides of the canoe as mr. patrick took from his pocket a twenty dollar bill to hand her in payment. just then he discovered that the pan of pitch (resin), which had been previously placed over the live coals, was on fire. he placed the twenty dollar bill on the canoe in front of the squaw, and quickly ran to extinguish the fire in the burning pitch. when he returned to the canoe, the bill had disappeared, and the wise old squaw claimed to know nothing of its whereabouts. a second twenty dollar bill was produced and handed to the squaw, when mr. patrick became the owner of a forty dollar birch canoe. chapter iv. surveying and selecting government timber lands. our party of land surveyors, or "land lookers" as they were often called, being thus supplied with water transports, proceeded in their canoes a short distance down the flambeau river, where the work of selecting government or state lands timbered with pine trees was to begin. the questions have been so often asked, "how do you know where you are when in the dense forest away from all roads and trails, and many miles from any human habitation?", "how can you tell one tract of land from another tract?", and "how can you tell what land belongs to the united states and what to the state?", that it seems desirable to try to make these points clear to the reader. [illustration: the "v" shaped baker is a valuable part of the cook's outfit. (page .)] the continental congress, through its committee appointed expressly for the work, inaugurated the present system of survey of the public lands in . for the purposes of this explanation it will be sufficient to recite that the system consists of parallel lines six miles apart running north and south, designated as "range lines"; also of other parallel lines, six miles apart running east and west, designated as "township lines". any six miles square bounded by four of these lines constitutes a "township". the territory within these two range lines and two township lines is subdivided into "sections", each one mile square, by running five parallel lines north and south across the township, each one mile from its nearest parallel line, and, in like manner, by running five other parallel lines east and west across the township from the east range line to the west range line, each line one mile from its nearest parallel line. in this manner, the township is subdivided into thirty-six sections each one mile square. the four township corners are marked by posts, squared at the upper end, and marked on the four sides by the proper letters and figures cut into the four flat faces by "marking irons", each flat surface facing the township for which it is marked. in addition, one tree in each of the four township corners is blazed (a smooth surface exposed by chopping through the bark into the wood) on the side of the tree facing the stake, and the same letters and figures as are on the nearest face of the stake are marked thereon. these letters and figures give the number of the township, range and section touching that corner. on another blaze below the first, and near the ground, are marked the letters "b t", meaning "bearing tree". the surveyor writes in his field book the kind and diameter of tree, the distance and direction of each bearing tree from the corner post, and these notes of the surveyor are recorded in the united states land office at washington. even if the stake and three of the bearing trees should be destroyed, so that but one tree be left, with a copy of the notes, one could relocate the township corner. the section corners within the township are marked in a similar manner. midway between adjacent section corners is located a "quarter corner", on the line between the two adjacent sections. this is marked by a post blazed flat on opposite sides and marked "¼ s". there are also two "witness trees" or bearing trees marked "¼ s". by running straight lines through a section, east and west and north and south, connecting the quarter corners, the section of six hundred and forty acres may be divided into four quarter sections of one hundred and sixty acres each. these may in turn be divided into four similar shaped quarters of forty acres each called "forties", which constitute the smallest regular government subdivisions, except fractional acreages caused by lakes and rivers which may cut out part of what might otherwise have been a forty. in such cases the government surveyor "meanders" or measures the winding courses, and the fractional forties thus measured are marked with the number of acres each contains. each is called a "lot" and is given a number. these lots are noted and numbered on the surveyor's map or plat which is later recorded. the subdivision of the mile square section is the work of the land looker, as the government ceases its work when the exterior lines are run. on the township plat which one buys at the local united states land office, are designated by some character, the lands belonging to the united states, and, by a different character, the lands owned by the state. the country presented an unbroken forest of the various kinds of trees and underbrush indigenous to this northern climate. the deer, bear, lynx, porcupine, and wolf were the rightful and principal occupants. crossing occasionally, the trail of the first named, served only to remind us of our complete isolation from the outside, busy world. the provisions yet remaining were sufficient to feed our party for less than three weeks. in the meantime two of the indians had gone down the river in a canoe with mr. patrick to the mouth of the flambeau, to await the arrival of fresh supplies which he was to send up to that point from eau claire by team. the experienced and skilled woodsmen had divided the working force into small crews, which began subdividing the sections within the townships where there were government or state lands, to ascertain whether there were any forty acre tracts that contained enough valuable pine to make the land profitable to purchase at the land offices. two thousand acres were thus selected during the first cruise, but, on our agent reaching the land office where the lands had to be entered, only twelve hundred acres were still vacant (unentered), other land lookers having preceded our representative and arrived first at the land office with eight hundred acres of the same descriptions as our own. as there were many land lookers at this time in the woods, all anxious to buy the good pine lands from the government and the state, conflicts like the above were not unusual. through a misunderstanding of orders, our working party, now nearly out of everything to eat, assembled at the forks, a point forty-five miles above the mouth of the flambeau, and waited for the indians to bring up fresh supplies. they did not come, and, after waiting three days, while each man subsisted on rations of three small baking powder biscuits per day, all hands pushed down to the mouth of the river where the indians were awaiting us with plenty of raw materials, some of which were soon converted into cooked food of which all partook most heartily. corrected plats, showing the unentered lands of each township which we were directed to examine, were sent to us. chapter v. gaining experience--getting wet. some field experience which i had acquired in surveying when a sophomore in college, assisted me greatly in quickly learning how to subdivide the sections, while my knowledge of timber gained at an early age, when assisting my father in choosing trees in the forest suitable for his uses as a manufacturer, aided me greatly in judging the quality and quantity of the pine timber growing in the greater forests of the northwest. freshly equipped with provisions, and with plats corrected up to date, we returned to the deep woods. there we divided into parties of only two--the land looker and his assistant. the latter's duty was chiefly to help carry the supplies of uncooked foods, blankets, tent, etc., to pitch tent at night, and, ordinarily, to do the most of the cooking, though seldom all of it. on some days much good vacant (unentered) pine was found, and on other days none at all. several miles of woods were at times laboriously passed through, without seeing any timber worth entering (buying). some portions would consist of hardwood ridges of maple, oak, elm; some of poplar, birch, basswood; others of long stretches of tamarack and spruce swamps, sections of which would be almost without wooded growth, so marshy and wet that the moss-covered bottom would scarcely support our weight, encumbered as we always were by pack sacks upon our backs, which weighed when starting as much as sixty pounds and sometimes more. their weight diminished daily as we cooked and ate from our store which they contained. [illustration: "the almost saucy, yet sociable red squirrel". (page .)] windfalls--places where cyclones or hurricanes had passed--were sometimes encountered. the cyclones left the trees twisted and broken, their trunks and branches pointing in various directions; the hurricanes generally left the trees tipped partly or entirely to the ground, their roots turned up and their trunks pointing quite uniformly in the same relative direction. the getting through, over, under, and _beyond_ these places, which vary from a few rods to a possible mile across, especially in winter when the mantle of snow hides the pitfalls and screens the rotten trunks and limbs from view, tries the courage, patience, and endurance of the woodsman. all of the time he must use his compass and keep his true direction as well as measure the distance, otherwise he would not know where he was located. without this knowledge his work could not proceed. sometimes we would come to a natural meadow grown up with alders, around the borders of which stood much young poplar. a stream of water flowed through the meadow, and the beavers had discovered that it was eminently fitted, if not designed, for their necessities. accordingly, they had selected an advantageous spot where nature had kindly thrown up a bank of earth on each side and drawn the ends down comparatively near to the stream. small trees were near by, and these they had cut down, and then cut into such lengths as were right, in their judgment, for constructing a water-tight dam across the narrow channel between the two opposite banks of earth. the flow of water being thus checked by the beaver dam, the water set-back and overflowed the meadow to its remotest confines, and even submerged some of the trunks of the trees to perhaps a depth of two feet. out further in the meadow and amongst the alders where had flowed the natural stream, the water in the pond was much deeper. these ponds sometimes lay directly across the line of our survey and inconvenienced us greatly. we disliked to make "offsets" in our lines and thus go around the dam, for the traveling in such places was usually very slow and tedious. the saving of time is always important to the land hunter, since he must carry his provisions, and wishes to accomplish all that is possible before the last day's rations are reached. it was not strange, then, if we first tried the depth of the water in the pond by wading and feeling our way. while we could keep our pack sacks from becoming wet, we continued to wade toward the opposite shore, meantime remembering or keeping in sight some object on the opposite shore, in the direct course we must travel, which we had located by means of our compass before entering the water. sometimes a retreat had to be made by reason of too great depth of water. during the summer months we did not mind simply getting wet clothes by wading; but once in the fall just before ice had formed, this chilly proposition of wading across, was undertaken voluntarily, and was only one of many uncomfortable things that entered into the woodsman's life. subjected thus to much inconvenience and discomfort by those valuable little animals, we could but admire their wisdom in choosing places for their subaqueous homes. they feed upon the bark of the alder, the poplar, the birch, and of some other trees. these grew where they constructed their dam and along the margin of the pond of water thus formed. they cut down these trees by gnawing entirely around their trunks, then they cut off branches and sections of the trunks of the trees, and drew them into their houses under the ice. most trees cut by the beaver are of small diameter. i once measured one beaver stump and found it to be fourteen inches in diameter. i still have in my possession a section of a white cedar stump measuring seventeen inches in circumference that had been gnawed off by beavers. it is the only cedar tree i have ever known to have been cut down by these wise little creatures. chapter vi. a birthday supper. flambeau farm was located on the right bank of chippewa river opposite the mouth of flambeau river. there old man butler kept a ranch for the especial accommodation of lumbermen and land hunters, who included nearly everyone who came that way. it was at the end of the wagon road leading from chippewa falls and from other civilized places. canoes, dugouts, batteaus--all started from butler's ranch at flambeau farm for operations up the flambeau and its tributaries, or for either up or down the chippewa and its branches. one rainy afternoon in october our party of three started from butler's ranch in a dugout (a long, narrow canoe hewn out of a pine tree), to pole down the chippewa river to the mouth of jump river, a distance of about ten miles. notwithstanding the rain, everything went smoothly for the first hour, when, without warning, the bow of the canoe struck the edge of a sand bar which caused the tottlish craft to tip. the man in the stern jumped overboard to save it from capsizing, expecting to strike his feet on the sand bar, but, in the meantime, the frail craft had drifted away from the bar, and we were floating over deep water which resulted in our comrade's disappearing under the surface. he soon rose hatless, and with a few strokes swam to where he seized the stern of the boat to which he was obliged to cling until we could paddle to the shore, as any attempt on his part to have climbed in would have resulted in capsizing the boat, and would have cost us all of our supplies. we built a fire, and partly dried his wet garments, after which we proceeded on our journey. entering the mouth of jump river, we flushed a small flock of wild geese, one of which we shot and gathered into our dugout. a little farther on, we were fortunate in bringing down a fine mallard. by this time the snow had begun to fall very rapidly, so that when we had reached a suitable place to camp for the night, the snow was fully three inches deep. here, near the bank of the river, we found an unoccupied claim shanty built of logs, and containing a very serviceable fireplace. we took possession of it for the night, in consequence of which it was unnecessary to pitch our tents. we began the usual preparations for our evening meal and for comfortable beds upon which to lie. the latter were soon prepared by going outside into a thicket of balsam fir trees, felling a few with our axes, and breaking off the soft, springy boughs which were stacked in bunches, carried into camp, and spread in the convenient bunks to constitute the mattresses over which the blankets were later laid. [illustration: "i found several families of indians camping at the end of the portage." (page .)] while thus busy, an indian hunter clad in a buckskin suit came down the trail by the river bank, bringing with him a saddle of venison. owing to the indian's natural fondness for pork, it was very easy to exchange a small piece of the latter for some nice venison steaks. i remember that because of the wet condition of the snow, the indian's buckskin pants had become saturated with water, causing them to elongate to such an extent that he was literally walking on the bottom ends of them. his wigwam was not far down the river, to which point he soon repaired. then the cook made a short calculation of the menu he would serve us for our supper after the very disagreeable experiences of travel during the day. he decided to broil the mallard and cook some venison steak. besides this, he boiled rice, some potatoes, some dried peaches, and baked a few tins of baking powder biscuits. the land hunter's or surveyor's outfit of cooking utensils invariably includes a nest of tin pails or kettles of different sizes fitted one within the other, and sufficient in number to supply the needs of the camp; also a tin baker, so constructed that when set up before an open fire, it is a tilted "v" shaped trough of sufficient length to place within it a good sized baking tin, placed horizontally and supported midway between the two sides of the "v" shaped baker, so that the fire is reflected on the bright tin equally above the baking pan and below it. the snow had ceased falling, and, by building a rousing camp fire outside of the claim shanty, we were soon able to dry our clothing. having partaken of a sumptuous meal, we "rolled in", contented and happy, for a night's rest. to me, this th day of october was a red letter day, and in memory ever since has been because it was the birthday of my then fiancée, who, not many years subsequent, became and ever since has remained my faithful and loving wife. the second and final trip of that season in open water was made several weeks later when we again poled up the chippewa river in a dugout, taking with us our supplies for the cruise in the forest. the current in that part of the river was so swift, not infrequently forming rapids, that we were obliged always to use long poles made from small spruce trees from which the bark had been removed, and an iron spike fastened at one end to aid in securing a hold when pushed down among the rocks. the water was so nearly at the freezing point that small flakes of ice were floating, and the atmosphere was so cold, that, as the pole was lifted from the water, ice would form on it unless the pole at each stroke was reversed, thus allowing the film of ice formed on the pole to be thawed when immersed in the slightly warmer water beneath. the day spent in this manner was attended with very great discomfort, and when night came, each man found himself tired and hungry, and glad that the day had come to an end. we camped that night at a french-canadian logging camp. our party was too fatigued to pitch its own tents and prepare its own meal, and gladly accepted the foreman's hospitality at the rate of two dollars a day each, for some of his fat pork, pea soup, and fairly good bread. on the morning following, we found the ice had so formed in the river that further journeying in the dugout was impossible, so the latter was pulled up on shore, covered with some brush, and abandoned, at least for the winter, and, as it proved in this instance, for always, so far as it concerned our party. we finished this cruise on foot, and returned about two weeks later to eau claire. there were not many men living on government lands in that part of wisconsin. those who had taken claims and were living on them depended on their rifles for all of their fresh meat. some of them made a practice of placing "set guns" pointing across deer trails. one end of a strong cord was first fastened to a tree, or to a stake driven into the ground some distance from the deer trail. the cord was then carried across the trail which was in the snow, for a distance of one hundred feet or less. here, the gun was set firmly, pointing directly in line with the cord or string. the barrel of the gun was sighted at such an elevation as to send the bullet, when fired, across the deer trail at a height from the trail sufficient to penetrate the body of the deer. the string was then carried around some stationary object and fastened to the trigger of the gun, the hammer of which had been raised. the pressure of the deer's body or legs against the string would be pretty sure to discharge the gun, thus causing the innocent and unsuspecting deer to shoot itself. while running a compass line one day, we discovered, just ahead of us, a cord or string at right angles to our line of travel. i stopped immediately, while my companion, tom carney, followed the cord to its end which he found fastened to the trigger of a rifle. he carefully cut the cord, raised the rifle to his shoulder, and fired it into the air. he next broke the gun over the roots of a tree. further examination showed that the cord was stretched across a deer trail which we would have reached in a minute more. with the return of winter the sage-patrick contract was about completed. chapter vii. a new contract--obstacles. "to him who in the love of nature holds communion with her visible forms, she speaks a various language; for his gayer hours she has a voice of gladness, and a smile and eloquence of beauty, and she glides into his darker musings, with a mild and healing sympathy, that steals away their sharpness, ere he is aware." my life, up to the time of my contract with mr. patrick to go with him into the wilds of wisconsin as an apprenticed land hunter and timber examiner, had been spent on the farm, in my father's shop, at school and college, and in teaching. the change of occupation and manner of living will therefore be seen to have been radical. in six months of contact with nature, i had been born into a new life, a life of initiative, of daring, and of hardships, insuring health and inspiring hope of financial success in a way honorable and helpful. i loved the forms of nature all about me, untouched by the hand of man. i therefore sought for and found an associate with capital sufficient to permit me to continue in the same line of work. the late robert b. langdon then became my partner, and this relationship was most pleasantly continued to the end of mr. langdon's life. [illustration: "in the vermilion country, dog trains could sometimes be advantageously used." (page .)] late in december, , my first trip under the new contract for securing pine timber, was undertaken. the ice in the rivers and lakes had now become firm and safe for travel thereon. considerable snow had already fallen, and the roads were heavy in consequence. our work, as planned, lay many miles up the chippewa river. in order to reach the desired locality with sufficient supplies to enable us to be gone a month or six weeks, it was necessary to take them on a toboggan made expressly for the uses of this proposed trip. four men were needed to push and pull the load. after a week of hard labor, our party arrived at the point where the work of surveying the lands was to begin. a place to camp was chosen in the thick woods not far from the river bank, where water would be near by and convenient for the use of the camp. a small, but strong warehouse of logs was first constructed, in which to store the supplies not necessary for immediate use. having thus secured the supplies for future use from the reach of any wild beasts roaming in the forests, we put enough of them into our pack sacks to last for a ten days' absence from our storehouse camp. we were about to start, when abbot, one of our axmen, in chopping a stick of wood, had the misfortune to send the sharp blade of the ax into his foot, deep to the bone. the gash was an ugly one and at once disabled him for further usefulness on this trip. the man must be taken out of the woods where his foot could receive proper care. how was this to be accomplished? two men alone could possibly have hauled him on the toboggan. the distance to the nearest habitation where a team of horses could be obtained was seventy-five miles. there was but one tent in the outfit and not sufficient blankets to permit of dividing our party of four men. it seemed, therefore, that there was nothing possible to do but for the whole party to retrace its steps to the point where it had been obliged to leave the team behind. the wound in abbot's foot was cleansed and some balsam having been gathered from the fir trees, the same was laid on a clean piece of white cotton cloth, which, used as a bandage, was placed over the wound and made secure. the wound having been thus protected, abbot was placed on the toboggan and hauled to the ranch seventy-five miles down the river. cruising in the woods is always expensive, even when everything moves on smoothly and without accident. the men's wages are the highest paid for common labor, while the wages of compassmen are much more. the wages of the man of experience and knowledge sufficient to conduct a survey, as well as to judge correctly of the quality and quantity of timber on each subdivision of land selected for purchase, are from seven dollars to ten dollars a day. he must determine the feasibility of bringing the pine logs to water sufficient to float them when cut, and the best and shortest routes for the logging roads to reach the banks of the rivers, or possibly the lakes where the logs are unloaded; and, in these modern days of building logging railroads, he must also locate the lines of the railroads and determine their grades. at the time above alluded to, no logging railroads were in existence, and that part of the expense did not have to be borne. the trip proved to be a very expensive one, and there had not been time before the accident to choose one forty-acre tract of land for entry. after arriving at eau claire where the land office was located, and being delayed some days by other business, we found on going to the land office, that many entries had just been made of lands within the townships in which we had planned to do our work, when the accident to abbot occurred. this fact necessitated the choosing of other townships in which to go to search for vacant lands on our next trip. having acquired from the land office the necessary plats, and having secured a new stock of provisions, we started again to penetrate another part of the pine woods. this trip occupied several weeks in which we were more than ordinarily successful in finding desirable lands, and we hastened to eau claire in order that we might secure these by purchase at the land office. rumors had been afloat for some time previous, that there were irregularities in the conduct of the office at eau claire. these rumors had grown until action was taken by the general land office at washington, resulting in the temporary closing of the eau claire land office for the purpose, as reported, of examining the books of that office. [illustration: s. d. patrick] many crews of men came out of the woods in the days that followed, with minutes or descriptions of lands which they desired to enter, each in turn to find the land office closed against them. in this dilemma, advice was taken as to what course to pursue. after having taken counsel, i, as well as several others, sent my minutes, together with the necessary cash, to the general land office at washington, with application to have the same entered for patents. our minutes and our money, however, were returned to us from washington with the information that the entry could not be thus made, and that public notice would be given of the future day when the land office at eau claire would reopen for the transaction of the government's business. all land hunters of the eau claire district were therefore obliged to suspend operations until the time of the reopening of the land office. this occurred on the first of may following. i was there early and in line to enter the office when its doors should be open at nine o'clock in the morning, and reached the desk simultaneously with the first few to arrive. all were told that in due time, possibly later in that day, they could call for their duplicate receipts of such lands as they were able to secure. there was present that morning, a man by the name of gilmore, from washington, who, so far as my knowledge goes, had never before been seen at the eau claire land office. my descriptions which i had applied for at the land office on that morning had all been entered by the man from washington, resulting in the loss of all of my work from january until may. i was not alone in this unlooked for experience, as i was informed by others that they had shared the same fate. thus baffled, and believing that there was no prospect of fair treatment in that land office district, i determined to change my seat of operations and to go into some other district. i did so, going next onto the waters of the wisconsin river, the united states land office for which district, was then located at stevens point. here i remained for many months, operating with a good degree of success, and found the land office most honorably and fairly conducted for all. the registrar of the land office was horace alban, and the receiver was david quaw. it was always a pleasure to do business with these two gentlemen. chapter viii. a few experiences in the new and more prosperous field. the life of the land hunter is at nearly all times a strenuous one. he daily experiences hardships such as working his way up rivers with many swift waters, and crossing lakes in birch-bark canoes, in wind storms and in rain; fording streams when he has no boat and when the banks are too far apart to make a temporary bridge by felling trees across the channel; building rafts to cross rivers and lakes; climbing through windfalls; crossing miles of swamp where the bog bottom will scarcely support his weight, and where, when night overtakes him he must temporize a bed of poles on which to lay his weary body to protect it from the wet beneath him; and traveling sometimes all day in an open and burnt country with his bed and board upon his back, the sun's hot rays pressing like a heavy weight upon his head, while myriads of black flies swarm about him and attack every exposed inch of his skin, even penetrating through the hair of his head. these are a few of his experiences, and, if these had not their offsets at certain times, his life would become indeed unbearable. his health, however, and his appetite are generally as good as are enjoyed by any class of the human family. possessing these advantages gives him much buoyancy of spirit, and, when a good piece of country in the timber is encountered, he is quick to forget the trials and the hardships of the hour before, and to enjoy the improved prospects. there is doubt whether or not anything finer enters into the joy of living than being in the solitude of the great unbroken forest, surrounded by magnificent, tall, straight, beautiful pine trees, on a day when the sun is casting shadows through their waving tops, listening to the whisperings, formed almost into words, of the needle-like fingers of their leafy boughs, to the warbling of the songsters, and to the chirping of the almost saucy, yet sociable red squirrel who is sure to let one know that he has invaded his dominion. such days, with such scenes and emotions, do come in the life of the woodsman, the land hunter, who is alone in the forest, except that if he be at all sentimental, he approaches nearer to the great creator than at almost any other time in his life's experiences. those who have read the books of john borroughs, john muir, or ernest thompson seton, may appreciate somewhat the joy that comes to the woodsman in his solitude, if he be a lover of nature. those only, who have been through the experience, can fully realize how anxious the land looker is to secure the descriptions of valuable lands that he has found when out on one of his cruises, for he knows full well that it is probable that he is not the only man who is in the woods at that time, for the same objects as his own. sometimes, but rarely, two such men may meet in the forest while at their work. when this occurs, it is a courteous meeting, but attended with much concealed embarrassment, for each knows that the other has found him out, and, if either is in possession of a valuable lot of minutes which he hopes to secure when he reaches the land office, he assumes that the other is probably in possession of the same descriptions, or, at least, a part of them. it then becomes a question which one shall outwit or outtravel the other, from that moment, in a race to the land office where his minutes must be entered, and to the victor belong the spoils, which means in this instance, to the one who is first there to apply for the entry of his land descriptions. while on one of these cruises on a tributary of the wisconsin river, with one man only for help and companion, i had left my man, charlie, on the section line with the two pack sacks, while i had gone into the interior of the section, to survey some of its forties, and to make an estimate of the feet of pine timber standing on each forty. it was in midsummer and in a beautiful piece of forest. thrifty pine trees were growing amongst the hard woods of maple, birch, and rock elm. having completed my work in the interior of the section, and having returned, as i believed, to a point within a hundred yards of where charlie was, i gave the woodsman's call, then listened for charlie's answer, in order that i might go directly to the point whence it should come. on reaching charlie, i picked up my pack and started following the section line. we had traveled less than a quarter of a mile on the line, when i saw on the ground, a pigeon stripped of its feathers. i picked up the bird and found that its body was warm. immediately i knew that other land lookers were in the same field and had undoubtedly been resting on that section line at the time i had called for charlie, and they, hearing our voices, had hastily picked up their packs and started on their way out. there was much pine timber in this township that yet belonged to the government and to the state of wisconsin. i, at this time, had descriptions of more than four thousand acres of these lands which i was anxious to buy. my interest and anxiety, therefore, became intense when i knew that my presence had been discovered by the parties who had so unintentionally left that bird on their trail. there were no railroads in that part of the country at that time, and stevens point, the location of the government land office, lay more than sixty-five miles south of where we then were. twenty-five miles of this distance was mostly through the woods and must be traveled on foot. it was then late in the afternoon and neither party could make progress after dark. the route through the woods led through a swamp, and, upon reaching it, the tracks of two men were plainly to be seen in the moss, and in places in the wet ground. one man wore heavy boots, with the soles well driven with hobnails, which left their imprints in the moist soil. coming to a trail that led off into a small settlement, we saw the tracks of one of the two men following that trail. the tracks of the man with the hobnails kept directly on in the course leading to the nearest highway that would take him to wausau, a thriving lumber town, forty miles distant from stevens point. we reached this road at about three o'clock in the afternoon of the next day. we called at the first house approached, and asked the woman if she could give us some bread and milk, and, being answered in the affirmative, we sat down for a rest, and inquired of her if she had seen a woodsman pass. she replied that she had, and that he had left there within an hour of the time of our arrival. the tracks of the boots with the hobnails could be seen occasionally along the road, and, knowing that the stage, the only public conveyance from wausau to stevens point, was not due to leave wausau for stevens point until four o'clock the next morning, we had no further anxiety about overtaking the woodsman who had left there an hour in advance, since we reasoned that he would probably take the stage at its usual hour of leaving, the next day. [illustration: "there were many waterfalls". (page .)] from that time on, the journey was leisurely made, and we entered wausau at a late hour, when most of the laboring community had retired for the night. having gone to my accustomed hotel, and changed my clothes, i next walked over to a livery stable and hired a team which i drove to stevens point during the night, arriving there in time for breakfast. i then went to the home of the land officer before eating my breakfast, told him that i wished to make some entries that morning, and asked him at what hour the land office would be open; and, seeing that my time agreed with that of the land officer, told him that i would be there promptly at nine o'clock, the legal hour for opening the office. i made entry of the list of lands belonging to the united states government, and was told to return at eleven o'clock to compare the duplicate receipts with my application to enter the lands. while i was thus engaged, the stage from wausau arrived, and a man came into the land office, wearing a pair of boots with hobnails that looked very much the size of the tracks that i had been previously observing on my way out from the woods to wausau. he immediately asked for the township plat which represented the lands which i had been so anxious to secure. he began reading the descriptions of the lands he wished to enter, and, as he read them, i heard with much interest, the same descriptions that were in my own list, but there were some that were different. whenever a description was read that checked with one in my list, the land officer replied that those lands were entered. this occurred so many times that he soon inquired when the lands had been entered. he was told, "at nine o'clock this morning." in his perplexity he had also read some of the descriptions that belonged to the state of wisconsin and which had to be purchased at the land office at madison, the capital of the state. "well," he remarked, "this is hard luck, but i may secure my state land descriptions." i always kept a balance of money with the state treasurer at madison, with which to pay for lands whenever i should send a list by mail or otherwise, when i did not care to go personally with the descriptions. the man having left the land office, i repaired immediately to the telegraph office and wired the descriptions of the lands i wished to enter, to the chief clerk of the land office at madison, authorizing him to draw on my account with the state treasurer, to pay for the same. the train left stevens point that afternoon for madison, and both interested parties were passengers. arriving at the land office, i found the lands telegraphed for, to have been duly secured. this instance is given to show by how slender a thread a matter of great interest sometimes hangs. had the pigeon not been left on the section line, or had it not been discovered by the competing land hunter, the man with the hobnails in his boots would have been the victor, and his would have been the joy of having won that which he had striven hard to attain. chapter ix. tracing gentlemen timber thieves--getting wet--fawn. i have said that the country tributary to the waters of the wisconsin river constituted a good field for the selection of valuable government pine-timbered lands. it is equally true that it was a country where the custom had grown among lumbermen to enter a few forties of government land, sufficient at least to make a show of owning a tract of timber on which to conduct a winter's operation of logging, and then to cut the timber from adjacent or near by forty-acre tracts of land yet belonging to the government. this method of trespassing upon the timber not owned by the operator, but being the property of the united states, was carried on to a greater extent there than in any other section of the state in which i was familiar with the methods and practices of logging pine timber. many logging jobbers having formed this habit of helping themselves to government timber, found it difficult, after the government lands had been entered by private purchase of others than themselves, to discontinue their practice of taking timber that was not their own. reforms of such habits do not come voluntarily nor easily, as a rule, but generally under some sort of pressure. in the years following my purchase of considerable tracts of timber on these waters, i found it necessary, annually, to make a trip into the country where our timber lands were situated, to ascertain whether or not there had been near-by logging camps during the preceding winter, and if so, to carefully run out the lines around our own timber, to determine whether or not trespass had been committed on any of them. in many instances i found that this was the fact. one spring i found a very considerable number of the best pine trees cut from the interior of forty acres of excellent timber, so that the selling value of the whole tract was injured far more than the full value of the amount of timber that had been unlawfully cut and hauled away. the trespass had been committed by a man prominent in the community and well-known among the lumbermen of the wisconsin river. the late gust wilson of wisconsin, a fine man, a lawyer of much experience in lumber cases in that state, and whose counsel was considered of a high order, was retained to bring suit to recover the value of the timber trespassed. not only that, but, annoyed at the boldness of the trespass, i wished also to have him prosecuted criminally for theft. mr. wilson said in reply to the request, "now, don't try that. all of those fellows have had 'some of them hams,' and you can't get a jury in all that country that will bring you in a verdict of guilty, no matter how great and strong your evidence may be." there was nothing left to do under mr. wilson's advice but to cool off, keep smiling, and collect the best price for the stumpage taken (not stolen), so as to be polite to the gentlemanly wrongdoer. one spring, accompanied by mr. w. b. buckingham, cashier of one of the national banks at stevens point, who also owned interests in valuable pine timber lands adjacent to, or near by those in which i owned interests, i went into the countries of the spirit and willow rivers. the snow was melting and the waters nearly filled the banks of the respective streams. wishing to cross the spirit river, we found a point where an island occupied the near center of the stream, on which was a little standing timber. a tree was felled, the top of which landed on the island. having crossed on the tree to the island, we felled another tree which reached from the island to the farther shore. it was not large in diameter, and, under the weight of mr. buckingham, who first proceeded, it swayed until he lost his balance and fell into the water and was obliged to swim to the opposite shore. i was more fortunate in this instance, and stayed on the tree until i reached the shore. [illustration: "we succeeded in crossing burnt side lake". (page .)] swimming in ice water is never found comfortable, and we hurried to a close at hand, deserted logging camp, where, fortunately, we found a large heating stove set up and ready for use, and near by a fine pile of dry wood for the stove, which had been left over from the recent winter's operations of logging. in a few minutes, a rousing fire was made, and, after removing his garments and wringing them as dry as possible, we hung them on lines about the stove and quickly dried them and made them ready for use. this was necessary, as no change of clothing had been provided for this intended short excursion into the woods. by the time our work was finished, the snow had mostly melted away. the ice was all out of the rivers, and we found ourselves one morning on the banks of the tomahawk river, wondering how we were to cross it, if possible, without the delay of constructing a raft sufficiently large to carry us. the tote-road leading to merrill, which we wished to follow, was on the opposite side of the tomahawk from where we approached it. we finally discovered an old birch canoe hidden in the brush. it was leaky and in very bad repair, so we set ourselves to work gathering pitch from the ends of a pile of freshly cut pine logs lying on the bank of the river, banked there to be pushed into the stream by the log drivers. this we put into a dish with a little grease and boiled until it was of the right consistency to stick to the bark of the canoe. patches of cloth were laid over the riven places in the bark, and pitched until the boat was made waterproof--for temporary use at least. with our small belongings, we got into the canoe and started down the tomahawk, intending to stay in it as long as it would hold together and take us on our journey, saving us that much walking. unfortunately, however, for us, we soon came to a long strip of rapids with which we were not familiar. selecting what we believed to be the best water, we permitted the frail craft to float into the rapids, and our fast journey down stream had begun almost before we realized the fact. all went well until nearly to the lower end of the rapids, when the old canoe struck a sharp rock slightly hidden under the water, and split in two. partly by swimming and partly by wading, we reached the coveted shore, wetter and wiser than when an hour before we had taken an old canoe that was not our own, in which to cross the stream, instead of spending considerably more time to construct a raft on which we could safely and with dry clothes, have reached the opposite shore. the usual woodsman's process of drying clothes was again gone through with, since it was too cold, at that season of the year, to travel all day in our wet garments. one early summer day while traveling through a part of this same country, watered by the willow river, my companion and i stopped in a majestic forest of towering white pine trees, interspersed with the more spreading hemlocks. it was nearing twelve o'clock, and we were both hungry. while my companion was collecting wood for a fire, i went in search of water with which to make a pail of hot coffee. returning, i climbed over a large hemlock tree that had fallen, probably, from old age. there, nestled in the moss and leaves, lay a spotted fawn. it made no effort to get up and run from me, so i carefully approached it and gently caressed it. then i lifted the handsome little creature, with its great, trusting brown eyes, into my arms, and carried it near to our camp fire. while my helper was preparing dinner, i fondled this beautiful infant of the forest that yet knew no fear. i sweetened some water to which i added just a sprinkle of meal, then fed it from a spoon to this confiding baby animal. after this, when i moved, the trusting little creature followed me. when it came time for us to resume our work i carried my little newly found friend back to the spot where its mother had probably left it and put it down in its mossy, leafy bed, and, carefully climbing over the log, left it to be better cared for than it was possible for me to do. chapter x. does it pay to rest on sunday? "with what a feeling deep does nature speak to us! oh, how divine the flame that glows on her eternal shrine! what knowledge can we reap from her great pages if we read aright! through her god shows his wisdom and his might." it was in the summer of , while i was at the united states land office at bayfield, wisconsin, and was having some township plats corrected previous to going into the woods in that district to hunt for pine timber, that john buffalo, chief of the red cliff band of chippewa indians, a friend of the united states land officers, made his quiet appearance at the land office. i had asked where i could find a reliable, trustworthy, and capable man to accompany me on this cruise, planned to cover a period of not less than two weeks. captain wing, receiver of the land office, asked the indian chief, "john, wouldn't you like to earn a little money by going into the woods to help this man for a couple of weeks or more?" to this the chief gave his consent with the usual indian "ugh." during that day provisions were bought and placed in individual cloth sacks. a strong rowboat was secured and the journey begun. camp was made the first night on one of the apostle islands in lake superior. the day following, our destination was reached at the mouth of the cranberry river, where our boat was carefully cached. it rained for several days, in consequence of which the underbrush was wet most of the time, and in passing through it we became wet to the skin. before leaving home i had bought for use on the trip what i believed to be a fine pair of corduroy trousers. they looked well, and the brush did not cling to them, a desirable condition when traveling through thickets often encountered in the woods. it rained the first day that we were out. at night we pitched our tent, prepared the evening meal, and at an early hour retired. on retiring, it is usually the custom for men camping, to remove their outer garments and put them out of the way at one side of the tent. both were very tired and soon fell asleep. i was awakened by a very disagreeable odor within the tent and walked out into the fresh air. returning, i lay down and remained thus until early daylight, experiencing only a disturbed sleep during the night. my feeling was that i had chosen an undesirable bedfellow, and, as later developments proved, it would have been reasonable if the indian chief had arrived at the same conclusion. [illustration: "we started out with two birch canoes". (page .)] during the next day it again rained. after the rain the sun came out bright and warm, causing a rapid evaporation to take place on our wet garments. it was under these circumstances that the discovery was made that the very disagreeable odor experienced during the preceding night was again present, and was emanating from the wet coloring matter that had been used in the manufacture of the corduroy trousers. the best possible defense--which i felt it was necessary to make--was to call attention to the fact that the strong odor was coming forth from the corduroy cloth. on reaching camp that evening, the new corduroys were hung out on the limb of a tree where they were last seen by our small camping party. it is not customary for land hunters to work less on sunday than on other days, for the principal reason that all of their provisions must be carried with them on their backs, and, that by resting on sunday, the provisions would disappear as rapidly, or more so, than they would if work continued on that day. however, toward the end of our trip which had been a very successful one in point of finding desirable government timber lands to enter, we decided that we would rest on the next day, which was sunday, just previous to our taking our boat to make our return trip on lake superior waters to the land office at bayfield. as a precaution, lest other land lookers should discover our presence, our camping ground was selected in the interior of the section. we had eaten our dinner, and were enjoying a siesta when we heard voices. listening, we heard men discussing the most direct line to take to reach their boat, hidden somewhere on the shore of the lake. time sufficient was given to allow them to get so far in our advance, that any movement on our part would not be heard by them. soon, thereafter, we packed our tent and all of our belongings and started for our boat. we did not reach it until nine o'clock the following morning. we were then forty-five miles from bayfield by water. soon after we had rowed out into the lake, a northeasterly wind began to blow and did not cease blowing during the entire day. the sandstone bluffs around that portion of the south shore of lake superior in many places are nearly vertical and rise to very considerable heights, preventing any possible way of escape from the water's edge for miles in extent. it was with the greatest effort that we, pulling with all our might, could keep the boat out into the lake, so powerful was the wind, and so increasingly great were the waves. besides, it was not possible to take a rest from our labors for, the moment we ceased rowing, our boat began rapidly drifting toward the rocks on the south shore. thus we labored until near the middle of the afternoon, when we got under cover of the first of the friendly apostle islands. after resting awhile, before dark we were able to reach the red cliff indian agency, where we spent the night at the chief's wigwam. the next morning early, we resumed our boat and rowed into bayfield, arriving in time to be present at the opening of the land office. with much anxiety, i made application to enter the vacant lands that had been selected on this trip, fearing that the men whom we had overheard talking in the woods two days before, might have arrived in advance of me and have secured at least a part of the same descriptions. with great satisfaction, however, i found the lands to be still vacant, and all of the minutes chosen while on this strenuous cruise, i bought. a little before noon of this same day, two well-known land hunters from chippewa falls came in, in their boat, off the lake, and, on going to the land office, applied to enter nearly all of the lands which i had secured a few hours before. the moralist might point with justification to the fact that had we not rested on sunday, more than likely we should not have known of the presence of any competitors in the field, and should not, therefore, have worked so many long hours in our boat on that windy day, nor should we likely have reached the land office in advance of the two men who arrived there only a few hours later than ourselves. "by the shores of gitche gumee, by the shining big-sea-water, stood the wigwam of nokomis, daughter of the moon, nokomis. dark behind it rose the forest, rose the black and gloomy pine-trees, rose the firs with cones upon them; bright before it beat the water, beat the clear and sunny water, beat the shining big-sea-water." chapter xi. indian traits--dog team. chief john buffalo was a superior indian, always pleasant, companionable, and willing to do a full day's work. he seemed to prefer the society of the white men, and therefore spent much of his time with them. the indian grows to manhood schooled in superstition. i recall that during the first long trip from the mouth of montreal river to the flambeau reservation, and thence to the mouth of the flambeau river, on one evening the party camped near by a natural meadow where the grass had ripened and was dry. our three indians went out with their knives, to gather armfuls of the grass to spread in our tents to soften our beds for the night. while thus engaged, antoine, one of the indians, encountered a blow-snake. this reptile, when defending itself, emits an odor which is sickening, but among white men is not considered very dangerous. there was no question but that antoine was made sick for that evening by the snake, which had not touched him but had been very near to him. ed and frank, the other two indians of the party, told us that evening that it was too bad, for antoine surely would die within the year as a result of his having gotten this odor from the blow-snake. two years subsequently, i landed at bayfield from a lake superior steamer, and one of the first persons i met on the dock was antoine, who looked as hale and hearty and well as he was before his experience with the blow-snake. on congratulating him for his victory over the dire calamity predicted, because of his encounter two years previous with the blow-snake, he was considerably embarrassed, but made no explanation why he was yet alive. during the first half of the seventies, there was no railroad to the shores of lake superior in bayfield county. in january, , it was necessary for me to reach bayfield on important business. a very poor road had been cut through the woods from old superior to bayfield, crossing the streams running north into lake superior. united states mail was carried on toboggans drawn by dogs, and conducted by indian runners. [illustration: "the party subsisted well, until it arrived at ely". (page .)] the snow was deep, and no trail was broken on the morning that i arrived at superior hoping to secure some kind of conveyance to take me through to bayfield, but i found no one who would volunteer to make the journey. in this dilemma i sought the owners of dog teams, and succeeded in purchasing two rather small dogs that were young and full of life, as well as well trained. these i hitched to a toboggan and started on my journey of ninety-five miles to bayfield. the morning was mostly gone when the start was made, and that night was spent in a small cabin on the brule river. the cabin had been erected for the use of the indian mail carriers, and was unoccupied. it contained a stove, however, and wood was handy outside. the next morning an early start was made, and our train reached bayfield, as i remember, about one o'clock in the afternoon. the return journey was made by the same route. i had become acquainted with the smart dog team, so that the return journey was rather enjoyable than otherwise. i took advantage of the down grades to get a little rest by throwing myself flat upon the toboggan, dismounting as soon as the up grades were reached. i had become greatly attached to the dogs, therefore i put them in the express car, on my return from duluth, and brought them with me to minneapolis. the thought to do this was prompted by thinking of the little daughter at home, then two and one-half years old, and of her baby brother, yet in arms. a suitable sled was at once ordered made, with a seat for little sister. to the sled, the dogs were harnessed abreast, and the dogs and child were never happier than when out on the streets for exercise. there were only two miles of street car track in minneapolis at that time, and that little track was remote from the family home. the city was then small. passing teams on the streets were infrequent, so that it was perfectly safe for her to be out in her tiny conveyance, accompanied always either by her father or by her admiring uncle. chapter xii. wolves--log riding. many experiences of meeting or seeing the more dangerous of the wild animals have been related by men whose occupation as woodsmen has made it necessary at times to go for days, unaccompanied into the woods, and miles distant from any human habitation. personal experience leads me to believe that man is safe, nearly always, except when such animals are suffering from hunger. early one spring, while the snow was yet deep in the woods, i was scaling some trespass of timber that lay about three miles away from my headquarters camp. in going to my work, mornings, i passed along a trail near to which, in the deep snow, was the carcass of a horse which had belonged to the owner of a near-by lumber camp. i noticed, one morning, that it had been visited during the night by a pack of wolves that had fed upon it and had gone away, using the trail for a short distance and then leaving it, their tracks disappearing into the unbroken forest. the following morning, having gotten an early start, on passing this same place, i saw the wolves leaving their feeding place and disappearing by the same route as the tracks indicated on the preceding morning. the animals seemed to be as anxious to get out of my sight, as i was willing to have them. had it not been for their full stomachs, their actions, likely, would have been different. returning, on a subsequent day just before nightfall, tired from a long day's work, and, probably, because of the late hour, thinking of my near by neighbors, the wolves, i committed an act that came near costing me my life. the ice had gone out of the streams, and the spring drive of logs was at its height. to reach camp by the usual way, it was necessary to follow up the stream one mile and cross on a dam that had been constructed by the lumbermen to hold back water to use in driving logs out of this stream, which at this point was about two hundred and fifty feet wide. the gates were open, and the water was running high within the banks of the stream. seeing, in the eddy close to the bank of the river, a large log that would scale at least one thousand feet board measure, i was seized with the idea that i could, with the assistance of a pole, step onto that log, push it out from shore, and guide it across the stream to the opposite shore. it was a log that had been skidded to the bank of the river and rolled in. on such logs, the bark on the under side is always removed to reduce the amount of friction produced by one end of the log dragging, while it is being hauled to the water's edge. the "log driver" belongs to a class of men that has produced many heroes, and some of their exploits are among the most thrilling recorded among the exigencies of a hazardous occupation. i never was of that class, and was almost entirely without experience in trying to ride logs in open water. i had pushed the log out into the stream some distance and all was lovely, as every minute it was approaching nearer to the opposite shore. suddenly it entered the current of the river which quickly revolved the log under my feet, bringing the peeled side uppermost, at which instance i was dropped into the stream. the first thing i did on rising to the surface, was to swim for my hat, which had been pulled off as i sank under the water. having secured it, i commenced swimming for the opposite shore. my clothing was heavy and grew more so as it became soaked with water, so that by the time i had attained the further shore--in the meantime watching constantly to see that no floating log bumped me, thereby rendering me unconscious--i was nearly exhausted. [illustration: "my three companions and i ... had gone to survey and estimate a tract of pine timber." (page .)] during these years from to , the woods of wisconsin were thoroughly traveled over by land hunters, and nearly all of the desirable timber was entered at the respective land offices, so that there remained no further field for exploit. a new field was therefore looked for, and this i found in minnesota. chapter xiii. entering minnesota, the new field. in the summer of , i went to the head waters of the big fork river with a party of hardy frontiersmen, in search of a section of country which was as yet unsurveyed by the united states government, and which should contain a valuable body of pine timber. having found such a tract of land, we made arrangements through the surveyor-general's office, then located in st. paul, to have the land surveyed. the contract for the survey was let by the united states government to mr. fendall g. winston of minneapolis. the logging operations on the mississippi river in minnesota at this period extended from a short distance above princeton on the rum river, one of the tributaries of the mississippi river, to a little above grand rapids. to reach grand rapids from minneapolis, the traveled route was by way of the st. paul and duluth railroad to northern pacific junction, thence, over the northern pacific railroad, west to aitkin. from this point the steamboat pokegama plied the mississippi to grand rapids, the head of navigation at that time. for many years this steamboat was owned and operated by captain houghton, almost wholly in the interest of the lumber trade. later, captain fred w. bonnes became its owner. subsequently, the old pokegama burned, when captain bonnes built a new boat, using the machinery of the pokegama, and naming it aitkin city. at a still later period he built the larger steamer, andy gibson. in those days, the lumber-jack was a very interesting type of man. men from maine and new brunswick were numerous. scotchmen, irish-americans, and french-canadians constituted a considerable portion of all the labor that went to the logging camps of minnesota. as early as the month of july, they began their exodus from minneapolis to the woods for the purpose of building new camps, cutting the wild grass that grew along the natural meadows, and making it into hay for the winter's use for oxen and horses. some of these men worked at the sawmills in summer, but there was not employment for all at this work, and many spent their time in idleness and not infrequently in drunken carousal. on leaving the city for the logging camps, they were pretty sure to start out, each with one or two bottles of whiskey stored away in his tussock, which was ordinarily a two bushel, seamless sack, with a piece of small rope tied from one of its lower corners to the upper end of the sack. in this were placed all of the lumber-jack's belongings, except what were carried in his pockets, including one or two additional bottles of whiskey. not all of the lumber-jacks drank whiskey, but this was the habit of very many of them. by the time the train had arrived at northern pacific junction, where a change of cars was made, and where the arrival of the northern pacific train from duluth, west bound, was awaited, many of our lumber-jacks were well under the influence of john barleycorn. disputes would frequently arise while waiting for the train. these would be settled by fist fights between the disputants, their comrades standing about to see that each man had fair play. on one of our trips to the pine forests north of grand rapids, we arrived at aitkin on a train loaded with this class of men, as well as their bosses, and proprietors of the lumber camps. aitkin at that time was not much more than a railroad station for the transfer of the lumbermen and merchandise to the steamboat. a few men had preempted lands from the government and had made their homes where now is the city of aitkin. the late warren potter was one of them. he kept a large store which was well stocked with lumbermen's supplies, and which was the rendezvous for the lumbermen. his preemption claim was only a short distance in the woods from his store. he had been east to buy goods and had returned by train that day. he found that his preemption claim had been "jumped" by one, nat tibbetts, whom he found occupying the potter cabin. an altercation took place between the two men, resulting in tibbetts blacking potter's eye. the only representative of the law was a justice of the peace, a man whose name was williams. before him, potter swore out a warrant for the arrest of tibbetts, charging tibbetts with assault with intent to do bodily harm. potter asked me to act as his attorney to prosecute his case. this honor was politely declined, and i assured him that he would find a better man for the occasion in the person of s. s. brown, the well-known log jobber, who was in town. mr. brown having consented to act in the interest of mr. potter, and mr. tibbetts having secured some other layman to defend his case, all parties repaired, as i remember, to an unoccupied building which was temporarily used as a court of justice. as almost the entire community that evening was a floating population of lumbermen of various sorts, waiting for an opportunity to start up the river on the steamboat the following day, it will readily be seen by the reader that this occasion was one of unusual interest and bade fair to furnish an interesting entertainment for a part of the long evening. tibbetts demanded a jury trial. the jury was chosen, and the prosecution opened the case by putting on the stand, a witness who had seen the encounter, and who proved to be a good witness for mr. potter. the case proceeded until the evidence was nearly all presented. at this juncture, in the back end of the improvised court room, a tall lumber-jack who was leaning against the wall, and who was considerably the worse for whiskey, cried out, "your honor! your honor! i object to these proceedings." everything was still for a moment, and all eyes turned toward the half drunk lumber-jack. justice williams attempted to proceed, when the lumber-jack repeated his calls and his demands to be heard. every one present knew that any attempt on the part of the constable to quiet this man would have resulted in starting a general fight, where there were so many who were under the influence of liquor. some one, therefore, said to the justice, "your honor, you had better hear the man's objections." justice williams then said, "you may state your objections, sir." the lumber-jack replied, "i object, your honor, because that jury has not been sworn." this was true. the jury was then sworn, and the trial of the case was begun anew. the witnesses having again given their evidence under oath, the case was soon argued by the improvised lawyers. the justice gave a short charge to the jury, and, without leaving their seats, and while the spectators waited, they notified the justice that they had agreed upon a verdict of guilty. the justice fined mr. tibbetts one dollar, and this frontier court of justice adjourned. the question of the ownership of the claim was not before the court. my recollection, however, concerning it, is that mr. potter ever after had peaceful possession of the land. [illustration: the journey had to be made with the use of toboggans. (page .)] the ride up the mississippi to grand rapids on the steamer pokegama, which tied up each night, occupied two days and a half. the distance was one hundred and ninety-five miles. the steamer was crowded, and men slept everywhere on the deck, on their blankets or without them, as best fitted their condition. whiskey and cards were plentiful. the table was well supplied with good things to eat. grand rapids at that time consisted of a steamboat landing, a warehouse, and a ranch or stopping place kept by low seavey, whose wife was a half-breed. these were on the left bank of the river just below the falls or rapids. on the opposite side of the river was a small store, a new enterprise, and owned by a man whose name was knox. i met mr. winston and his assistant surveyors at grand rapids about the middle of august. there were no roads leading into the country that we were to survey, and, as our work would extend nearly through the winter, it was necessary to get our supplies in sufficient quantity to last for our entire campaign, and take them near to our work. this was accomplished by taking them in canoes and boats of various sorts. our first water route took us up the mississippi river, into lake winnibigoshish, and from that lake on its northeasterly shore, we went into cut-foot sioux, or keeskeesdaypon lake. from this point we were obliged to make a four mile portage into the big fork river, crossing the winnibigoshish indian reservation. from an indian encampment on this reservation, at the southwest shore of bow string lake, we hired some indians to help pack our supplies across the four mile portage. before half of our supplies had been carried across the portage, the indian chief sent word to us by one of his braves, that he wished to see us in council and forbade our moving any more of our supplies until we had counseled with him. although the surveyors were the agents of the united states government, for the sake of harmony, it was thought best to ascertain at once what was uppermost in the chief's mind. that evening, a conference was held in the wigwam of the chief. first, the chief filled full of tobacco, a large, very long stemmed pipe, and, having lighted it with a live coal from the fire, took the first whiff of smoke; then immediately passed it to the nearest one of our delegates to his right, and thus the pipe went round, until it came back to the chief, before anything had been said. the chief then began a long recital, telling us that the great father would protect them in their rights to the exclusive use of these lands. the chief said that he was averse neither to the white man using the trail of his people nor to his using the waters of the rivers or lakes within the boundaries of the reservation, but, if he did so, he must pay tribute. in answer to his speech, the chief surveyor of our party, fendall g. winston, replied that he and his men had been sent to survey the lands that belonged to the great father; and, that in order to reach those lands, it was necessary that his people should cross the reservation which the great father had granted to his tribe; nevertheless, that they felt friendly to the indians; that if they were treated kindly by himself and his tribesmen, they should have an opportunity to give them considerable work for many days, while they were getting their supplies across his country to that of the great father, where they were going to work during the fall and winter; and that they would also make him a present of a sack of flour, some pork, some tea, and some tobacco. he was told, too, that this was not necessary for the great father's men to do, but that they were willing to do it, provided that this should end all claims of every nature of the chief, against any and all of the great father's white men, whom he had sent into that country to do his work. this having been sealed with the chief's emphatic "ugh," he again lighted the pipe, took the first whiff of smoke, and passed it around. each, in token of friendship, did as the chief had already done. this ended the conference, and we were not again questioned as to our rights to pass over this long portage trail, which we continued to use until our supplies were all in. as nearly as i can now recall, our force was made up of the following men: fendall g. winston, in whose name the contract for the survey was issued; philip b. winston, brother of fendall g. winston; hdye, a young engineer from the university of minnesota; brown, civil engineer from boston; coe, from the troy polytechnic school of engineering; charlie, a half-breed indian; franklin, the cook; jim flemming, frank hoyt, charlie berg, tom jenkins, george fenimore, tom laughlin, joe lyon, will brackett, miller, and myself. flemming, poor fellow, was suffering with dysentery when he started on the trip. on reaching grand rapids, he was no better, and it was thought best not to take him along to the frontier, so he was allowed to go home. miller was not of a peace loving disposition, and, having shown this characteristic early, was also allowed to leave the party. it was best that all weaklings and quarrelsome ones should be left behind, because it was easily foreseen that when winter closed in upon the band of frontiersmen, it would be difficult to reach the outer world, and it would be unpleasant to have any in the party that were not, in some sense, companionable. considerable time was consumed in getting all of our supplies to headquarters camp, which consisted of a log cabin. the first misfortune that befell any one of our party came to frank hoyt, who one day cut an ugly gash in the calf of his leg with a glancing blow of the ax. the cut required stitching, but there was no surgeon in the party. will brackett, the youngest of the party, a brother of george a. brackett, and a student from the university, volunteered to sew up the wound. this he did with an ordinary needle and a piece of white thread. the patient submitted with fortitude creditable to an indian. some plastic salve was put on a cloth and placed over the wound, which resulted in its healing too rapidly. proud flesh appeared, and then the wisdom of the party was called into requisition, to learn what thing or things available could be applied to destroy it. goose quill scrapings were suggested, there being a few quills in the possession of the party. brackett, however, suggested the use of some of the cook's baking powder, because, he argued, there was sufficient alum in it to remove the proud flesh from the wound. "dr." brackett was considered authority, and his prescription proved effectual. hoyt was left to guard the provision camp against possible visits from the indians, or from bears, which sometimes were known to break in and to carry away provisions. it is never necessary for surveyors whose work is in the timber, nor for timber hunters, to carry tent poles, because these are easily chosen from among the small trees; yet nine of our party one time in october, with the rain falling fast and cold, found themselves, at the end of the four mile cut-foot sioux portage, on a point of land where there were no poles. all of the timber of every description had been cut down and used by the indians. the indian chief and several of his family relations lived on this point. they had built the house of poles and cedar bark, in the shape of a rectangle. its dimensions on the ground were about twelve by twenty feet; its walls rose to a height of about five feet; and it was covered by a hip roof. [illustration: "our camp was established on the shores of kekekabic lake". (page .)] our party must either obtain shelter under this roof or must get into the canoes and paddle nearly two miles to find a place where it could pitch its tents. at this juncture the hospitality of the indians was demonstrated. the chief sent out word that we should come into his dwelling and remain for the night. the proffer was gladly accepted. when we had all assembled, we found within, the chief and his squaw, his daughter and her husband, the hunter, his squaw and two daughters, besides our party of nine, making a total of seventeen human beings within this small enclosure. a small fire occupied a place on the ground at the center of the structure, an ample opening in the roof having been left for the escape of the smoke and live sparks. indians can always teach their white brothers a lesson of economy in the use of fuel. they build only a small fire, around which, when inside their wigwams, they all gather with their usually naked feet to the fire. it is a physiological fact that when one's extremities are warm, one's bodily sufferings from cold are at their minimum. our party boiled some rice and made a pail of coffee, without causing any especial inconvenience to our hosts, and, after having satisfied hunger and thirst, the usual camp fire smoke of pipes was indulged in, before planning for any sleep. our party had been assigned a portion of the space around the open fire, and our blankets were brought in and spread upon the mats that lay upon the earth floor. the additional presence of nine indian dogs has not previously been mentioned. before morning, however, they were found to be live factors, and should be counted as part of the dwellers within the walls of this single room. they seemed to be nocturnal in habit, and to take an especial delight in crossing and recrossing our feet, or in trying to find especially cozy places between our feet and near to the fire, where they might curl down for their own especial comfort. it was not for us, however, to complain, inasmuch as the hospitality that had been extended was sincere; and it was to be remembered by us that it was in no way any advantage to the indians to have taken us in for the night. therefore, we were truly thankful that our copper colored friends had once more demonstrated their feelings of humanity toward their white brothers. they had been subjected to more or less inconvenience by our presence, but in no way did they make this fact manifest by their actions or by their words. the rain continued at intervals during the entire night, and it was with a feeling of real gratitude, as we lay upon the ground, and listened to it, that we thought of the kindly treatment we were receiving from these aborigines. in the morning we offered to pay them money for our accommodations, but this they declined. they did, however, accept some meat and some flour. while we were crossing the lake, one day, in canoes loaded with supplies of various descriptions, an amusing, yet rather expensive, incident happened in connection with one of the canoes. its occupants were george fenimore, a mainite yankee, and joe lyon, a french-canadian. both were good canoemen, but only fenimore knew how to swim. they had become grouchy over some subject while crossing the lake, and, as they neared the opposite shore from which they had started, in some manner which i have never understood, the canoe was overturned. little of its contents was permanently lost, except one box of new axes. the water was about eight feet deep under them. each man grasped an end of the overturned canoe, and clung to it. then an argument began between the two disgruntled men, about getting to shore. lyon wanted fenimore to let go of the canoe and swim ashore; but this, the latter refused to do. finally, after considerable loss of time, joe lyon, who was nearest to shore, turned his body about, with his face toward the shore, and, letting go of the canoe, went to the bottom of the lake and floundered to gain the shore. he had only to go a short distance before the water became sufficiently shallow for his head to appear, but he was winded, and thoroughly mad. i have always believed that fenimore purposely overturned the canoe, but if so, he never admitted the fact. the pine timber lying east of bow string lake, and included in the survey of and , was all tributary to waters running north, into the big fork river, which empties into the rainy river. levels were run across from bow string lake into cut-foot sioux river, and considerable fall was found. the distance, nearly all the way, was over a marsh. it was shown that a dam could easily be thrown across from bank to bank of the river at the outlet of bow string lake, and by thus slightly raising the water in the lake, plus a little work of cleaning out portions of the distance across the marsh, from bow string lake to cut-foot sioux, the timber could be driven across and into the waters of the mississippi river. all of this engineering was before the advent of logging railroads. however, before the timber was needed for the minneapolis market, many logging railroads had been built in various localities in the northern woods, and their practical utility had been demonstrated. when the time came for cutting this timber, a logging railroad was constructed to reach it; and over its tracks, the timber was brought out, thus obviating the necessity of impounding the waters of bow string lake. chapter xiv. an evening guest--not mother's bread. i have previously mentioned the presence of nine dogs at an indian camp, where members of our party spent a night. one of these animals is deserving of special mention, for the reason that he was a stranger among a strange people, and he was evidently so against his own choice. he had at one time been a fine, large mastiff. his history was never learned in full, but from an account of the animal, gained by questioning the indians who had him in captivity, it was learned that the dog had belonged at some lumber camp. it often happens that the midday meal for most of the men in a large logging crew must be taken out on a sled, usually drawn by a single horse, for a distance of not infrequently three or four miles from the cook's camp. this is the work of the cookee; and, at the logging camp where the mastiff had belonged, the animal had been used instead of a horse, to pull the load of the midday meal out to the men at work. in what manner he had been left behind when the camp broke in the spring, was not learned. [illustration: "the memorable fire ... which swept hinckley". (page .)] he was about the size of two or three ordinary indian dogs, and was correspondingly less sprightly in his movements. he was very poor when members of our party first saw him. indian dogs never get enough to eat, and this poor fellow with his large frame, had the appearance of not receiving any more for his portion of food than an average indian dog, if as much. he looked as though he were hungry, and probably was, every day. the particular action that impressed itself upon every member of our party, was this animal's almost human desire for sympathy that he sought from this party of white men, when he and they first met at the indian camp. he wagged his tail and passed from one member of our party to another, with an expression of unusual joy. he rubbed against us and almost begged to be caressed. every man of our party pitied him and would gladly have sent him out to the white man's country, had it been at all practicable to have done so. later in the fall, i was camped for a single night, some three hundred yards distant from the indian encampment, on the shore of a lake that i must cross the following morning. while i was preparing my evening meal, this mastiff made his appearance, wagging his tail, and wishing by his actions to say, "i am glad to see you, and have come to call on you." it is the custom of the land hunter, as well as other frontiersmen, when paddling his canoe across a lake, to throw out a trolling line; and not infrequently, in those northern lakes, a catch of several fish may thus be made. on that day, such had been my experience, and i had in my possession, several fine wall-eyed pike that i intended to take through to the main camp, which i should reach on the following day. i also had a small bag of corn meal, which i sometimes used as a substitute for oatmeal, in cooking a porridge for my own use. while preparing my supper, i took the largest kettle, filled it with water, and placed it over the fire. i then cut into small pieces, a number of the fish, and put them in the kettle to boil. later i added some corn meal and cooked all together. when it was sufficiently done, i removed one-half of the pail's contents and spread it out on a large piece of birch bark to cool. when it had cooled sufficiently, i invited my welcome guest, the mastiff, to partake of the food. every mouthful eaten was accompanied by a friendly wag of the animal's tail. the portion remaining in the pail i hung on a limb, high enough up in the tree to be out of reach. the dog remained about the camp, and when i lay down in my blankets for the night, he curled down at my feet and there remained until morning. while i was preparing my own breakfast, i took the pail from the tree and placed it over a small fire, that i might give my guest a warm breakfast. i spread out on the same birch bark, all that remained in the pail, and it was eaten to the last morsel by the grateful animal. having placed all my belongings in my birch canoe, i pushed out into the lake without the dog, who tried hard to follow, and, as the canoe went farther from the shore, the homesick animal commenced to whine at his loss of companionship. by every means possible to a dumb beast, this dog had expressed his dislike for his enforced environment and his longing to be back with the white man. i could not help but believe that the feelings expressed by this dog were akin to those of many a captive man or woman who had fallen into the hands of the aborigines. our frail birch canoes had been abandoned as cold weather approached, and we had settled down to the work of surveying. sometimes, however, we came to lakes that must be crossed. this was accomplished by cutting some logs, and making rafts by tying them together with withes. sometimes these rafts were found insufficiently buoyant to float above water all who got onto them, so that when they were pushed along there were no visible signs of anything that the men were standing on. when on a raft, hyde was always afraid of falling off, and would invariably sit down upon it. this subjected him to greater discomfort than other members, but as it was of his own choosing, no one raised any objection. one day, several of the party had gone to the supply camp to bring back some provisions which the cook had asked for. returning, not by any trail, but directly through the unbroken forest, we found ourselves in a wet tamarack and spruce swamp; and, although we believed we were not far from the camp where we had left the cook in the morning, we were not certain of its exact location. mr. f. g. winston said he thought he could reach it in a very short time, and suggested that we remain where we were. he started in what he believed to be the direction of the camp, saying that he would return in a little while. we waited until the shades of night began to fall; and yet he did not come. preparations were then made to stay in the swamp all night. the ground was wet all around us, nor could we see far enough to discern any dry land. we commenced cutting down the smaller trees that were like poles, and with these poles, constructed a platform of sufficient dimensions to afford room for four men to lie down. then another foundation of wet logs was made, on which a fire was kindled, and by the fire, we baked our bread and fried some bacon, which constituted our evening meal. a sack of flour was opened, a small place within it hollowed out, a little water poured in, and the flour mixed with the water until a dough was formed. each man was told to provide himself with a chip large enough on which to lay the piece of dough, which was rolled out by hand, made flat, and then, having been placed in a nearly upright position against the chip in front of the fire, was baked on one side; then turned over and baked on the other. in the meantime, each man was told to provide himself with a forked stick, which he should cut with his jackknife, and on it to place his piece of bacon and cook it in front of the fire; thus each man became his own cook and prepared his own meal. there was no baking powder or other ingredient to leaven the loaf--not even a pinch of salt to flavor it. but the owner of each piece of dough was hungry, and, by eating it immediately after it was baked and before it got cold, it was much better than going without any supper. the following morning, the party resumed its journey, and met mr. winston coming out to find it. he had found the cook's camp, but at so late an hour that it was not possible for him to return that night. chapter xv. a hurried round trip to minneapolis--many instances. after leaving grand rapids about the middle of august, we saw very few white men for many months following. in october, on our survey, local attraction was so strong on part of our work, that it was necessary to use a solar compass. this emergency had not been anticipated; it, therefore, became necessary to go to minneapolis to secure that special instrument. philip b. winston, afterwards mayor of minneapolis, and i started in a birch canoe, and in it, made the whole distance from our camp on bow string lake to aitkin, minnesota, on the mississippi, the nearest railroad station. we were in minneapolis but two days, when we returned, catching the steamer at aitkin, and going up the mississippi to grand rapids, the head of navigation for steamboats. captain john martin of minneapolis, the well-known lumberman and banker, wished to return with us for his final fishing trip in open water, for that season. he fished successfully for a number of days, and, at the end of each day, personally prepared and cooked as fine a fish chowder as anyone would ever wish to eat. on the day of his departure, i took the captain in my canoe, and landed him on the four-mile portage with an indian escort who was to take him to grand rapids, whence he would return by steamer to aitkin, a station on the line of the northern pacific railroad. i was left alone in my canoe and must return to camp, crossing the open water of bow string lake. on my arrival at the main lake, the wind had increased its velocity, and the whitecaps were breaking. i hired an indian, known as "the hunter," to help me paddle across the lake and up a rapid on a river flowing into bow string, up and over which it was not possible for one man to push his canoe alone. the annual payment to the indians by the united states government was to occur a few days subsequently, at leach lake, and the indians were busy getting ready to leave, to attend the payment. the hunter's people were to start that day, and he seemed to realize when half way across the lake, that, owing to our slow progress, because of the heavy sea, he would be late in returning to his people at camp. he said so, and wished to turn back, but i told him that he must take me above the rapid, which was my principal object in hiring him. after sitting stoically in the bow of the canoe for a few moments, he suddenly turned about, and, drawing his long knife, said in chippewa, that he must go back. i drew my revolver and told him to get down in the canoe and paddle, and that if he did not, he would get shot. there was no further threat by the indian, and we made as rapid progress as possible over the rapid, landing my canoe--his own having been trailed to the foot of the rapid. both stepped ashore. then he said in chippewa, "me bad chippewa; white man all right"; and bidding me good-by, hurried off to his canoe at the foot of the rapid. [illustration: "the fire ... destroyed millions of dollars worth of standing pine timber". (page .)] once more, during the fall of , i had to reckon with this wily indian, the hunter, as will soon appear in this narrative. perhaps the most convenient pack strap used by the woodsman when on an all day's tramp, is one that is commonly known as the indian pack strap. it consists of a strap of leather about three inches wide and about three feet long, from each end of which, a tapering piece of leather, either sewed or buckled to it, extends finally to a narrow point no wider than a whip-lash. each of these added narrow strips is from five to six feet in length, so that the whole strap is about fourteen feet long when straightened out. a blanket or a tent is folded into shape, about four feet by six feet. this is laid on the ground, and the strap is folded double with a spread at the wide part, of about three feet, which is the length of the wide strap. the narrow ends are then drawn straight back over the blanket, across its narrow dimension, leaving the wide strap, which in use becomes the head strap, at the outer edge of the blanket. then the blanket is folded from each end over the narrow straps, the two ends of which project out and beyond the blanket at the opposite side from the head strap. the articles to be placed within the blanket, which generally consist of small sacks of beans, flour, pork, sugar, coffee, and wearing apparel, and blankets, are then carefully stacked upon the blanket, within the spread of the two narrow lines of the pack strap. when this is done, the blanket is folded over, and the two outer edges are brought as near to the center of the pile of things to be carried within it, as is possible. then the two tapering ends of the pack strap are brought up and over, to meet the opposite ends of the narrow straps, which, as has been explained, are either sewed to, or buckled onto the wide head strap. drawing these ends firmly together puckers the outer edge of the blanket on either side, and draws the blanket completely over the contents piled in the center, and makes, ordinarily, nearly a round bundle. this load, or pack, the man then throws over his shoulder, onto his back, and brings the wide strap across his forehead, or across his breast, or across the top of his head, when he is ready to begin his journey. before he has traveled long with this load, which weighs ordinarily from fifty to one hundred pounds, according to the ability of the man to bear the burden, he will be found shifting that wide strap to any one of the three positions named, and will have used all of those positions many times before the party as a whole, stops for a moment's rest. i had taken with me, on going north on this long campaign, an extra fine red leather pack strap that i had had made to order at a minneapolis harness shop. i had kept it coiled up, and carefully stored in my belongings, waiting for an emergency when the more common straps would no longer be of service. a number of times the indians had seen this strap and had admired it, and, as it later proved, not always without envy. one day the strap was missing, and i could find it, neither by searching, nor by open inquiry of my fellow white men, nor of the indians, whom i occasionally met. on one occasion, while portaging my canoe to another lake, i found several families of indians camping at the end of the portage. among them was the hunter who has been previously mentioned. while stopping a moment for a friendly talk with the indians, i saw protruding from under the coat of the hunter, nearly two feet of one end of my missing pack strap. i knew it so well that i was sure that it was no other pack strap. nevertheless, i deliberated slowly what action i should take to recover the strap, not wishing by any possibility to make a mistake. having surely concluded that the strap was mine, and that the hunter had not come into possession of it honestly--he having previously denied, when questioned, that he knew anything of the whereabouts of the strap--i decided upon a course of action. going up quietly behind the hunter, and twisting the end of the protruding strap twice around my wrist, and grasping it firmly in my hand, i started with all my might to run with the strap. the effect was to make a temporary top of my friend, the hunter, who whirled about until the other end of the pack strap was released from his body. it was too good a joke, even for the indians to remain unmoved, and the majority of them broke into merriment. the hunter at first was disposed to take it seriously but soon looked sheepish and ashamed, and tried to smile with the rest of his tribe, as well as with myself. [illustration: "one of the horses balked frequently". (page .)] having wound the strap carefully around my own body, and having made sure that the ends did not protrude, i bade my friends, including the hunter, good day, got into my canoe and pushed out into the lake. this proved to be the last time i ever saw the hunter, but it was not the last time that i ever thought of the incident. in justice to the indians as compared with white men, i am glad to be able to say, that, after mingling with them more or less for many years, and becoming sufficiently familiar with their language to be able to use it on all necessary occasions, i believe that the indians are as honest and as honorable as the men with whom they mingle, who have not a copper skin. captain martin was the last white man whom any one of our party saw for four months. winter closed in on us before the beginning of november. the snow became very deep, so that it was absolutely necessary to perform all of our work on snowshoes. the winter of and is shown to have been the coldest winter in minnesota, of which there is any record, beginning with up to, and including, . the party was mostly composed of men who had had years of experience on the frontier, and who were inured to hardship. with a few, however, the experience was entirely new, and, except that they were looked after by the more hardy, they might have perished. as it was, however, not one man became seriously ill at any time during this severe winter's campaign. all of the principal men of the party wore light duck suits, made large enough to admit of wearing heavy flannel underwear beneath them. either boot-packs or buckskin moccasins, inside of which were several pairs of woolen socks, composed the footwear. boot-packs or larigans, as they are commonly called by the lumber-jack, are tanned in a manner that makes them very susceptible to heat, and the leather will shrivel quickly if near an open fire. it cost one of the party several pairs of boot-packs before he could learn to keep sufficiently far away from the open fire, on returning to camp from his work. it will be surmised by the reader that he was one of the inexperienced of the party. many incidents, amusing to others, happened during the winter to this same man. he had started on the trip in the summer months, with a supply of shoe blacking and paper collars. the crossing of one or two portages with his loaded pack sack on his back was sufficient to convince him that there was no need of carrying either shoe blacking or paper collars, and they were thrown out to reduce weight. each man carried a hank or skein of thread, a paper of needles, and a supply of buttons. soon after winter set in, this man, who might ordinarily be termed a tenderfoot, complained of lameness in one of his feet. as the weather became more severe, he added from time to time, another pair of socks to those he already had on, never removing any of previous service. this necessitated, not infrequently, his choosing a larger sized boot-pack. before the campaign was over, although he was a man of low stature and light weight, his feet presented the appearance of being the largest in the party. still he complained of lameness in the hollow of his foot, and no relief came until march, when the work was completed. arriving once more back in civilization, he removed his much accumulated footwear. there, under this accumulation of socks, and against the hollow of his foot, was found his skein of thread, the absence of which, from its usual place, had necessitated his borrowing, whenever he had need of it, from some one of his companions. before starting out on this campaign, he had been one of the tidiest of men about his personal appearance. one evening in midwinter, when sitting around the camp fire, by reason of the pile of wood for the evening being largely composed of dry balsam, we were kept more or less busy, extinguishing sparks that are always thrown out from this kind of wood when burning. sometimes one would light on the side of the tent near by, and unless immediately extinguished, would eat a large hole in the cloth. that evening, fendall g. winston and i were sitting side by side, when we saw a live spark more than a quarter of an inch in diameter light in the ear of our friend who sat a little way from, and in front of us. it did not go out immediately, neither did it disturb the tranquillity of the young man. mr. winston and i exchanged glances and smilingly watched the ember slowly die. the time to clean up had not yet arrived for at least one of the party. the compassman's work that winter was rendered very laborious from the fact that his occupation made it necessary for him, from morning until night of every day, to break his own path through the untrodden snow, for it was he who was locating the line of the survey. i was all of the time running lines in the interior of the sections, following the work of the surveyors, and choosing desirable pine timber that was found within each section. i had no companion in this work, and thus was separated most of each day from other members of the party, but returned to the same camp at night. in the morning, each man was furnished by the cook, with a cloth sack in which were placed one or two or more biscuits, containing within, slices of fried bacon and sometimes slices of corned beef, also, perhaps, a doughnut or two. this he tied to the belt of his jacket on his back and carried until the lunch hour. ordinarily a small fire was then kindled, and the luncheon, which generally was frozen, thawed out and eaten. under such mode of living, every one returned at night bringing an appetite of ample dimensions. one of the most acceptable of foods to such men at the supper hour was bean soup, of a kind and quality such as a cook on the frontier, alone, knows how to prepare. plenty of good bread was always in abundance at such time. usually there was also either corned beef or boiled pork to be had by those who wished it; generally also boiled rice or apple dumplings, besides tea and coffee. in a well-regulated camp, where men are living entirely out of doors in tents, a bean hole is pretty sure to be demanded. the bean hole is prepared by first digging a hole in the ground, sufficiently large, not only to make room for the pail, but also for several inches of live coals with which it must be surrounded. after supper is over, the beans are put into a large pail made of the best material, with ears always riveted on, so that the action of heat will not separate any of its parts. the beans are first parboiled with a pinch of soda in the water. as soon as the skins of the beans become broken, the water is poured off; then the beans are placed in the bean pail, a small quantity of hot water is added together with a sufficiently large piece of pork; and, when a tight cover has been put on the pail, it is placed in the bean hole. the live coals are placed around it, until the hole is completely filled and the pail entirely covered several inches deep. then ashes or earth are put on the top of it all, to exclude the air. thus the pail remains all night, and, in the morning when the cook calls the men to breakfast, the beans, thoroughly cooked and steaming, are served hot and furnish an acceptable foundation for the arduous day's work about to begin. [illustration: "our camp was made in a fine grove of pig-iron norway". (page .)] the work of the frontiersman is more or less hazardous in its nature, and yet bad accidents are rare. occasionally a man is struck by a falling limb, or he may be cut by the glancing blow of an ax, though he learns to be very careful when using tools, well knowing that there is no surgeon or hospital near at hand. sometimes in the early winter, men unaccompanied, yet obliged to travel alone, drop through the treacherous ice and are drowned. few winters pass in a lumber country where instances of this kind do not occur. one day, when alone, i came near enough to such an experience. i was obliged to cross a lake, known to have air holes probably caused by warm springs. the ice was covered by a heavy layer of snow, consequently i wore snowshoes, and before starting to cross, cut a long, stout pole. taking this firmly in my hands, i made my way out onto the ice. all went well until i was near the opposite shore, when suddenly the bottom went out from under me and i fell into the water, through an unseen air hole which the snow covered. the pole i carried was sufficient in length to reach the firm ice on either side, which alone enabled me, after much labor, impeded as i was by the cumbersome snowshoes, to gain the surface. the next absolutely necessary thing to do, was to make a fire as quickly as possible, before i should become benumbed by my wet garments. the survey went steadily on, the snow and cold increased, and rarely was it possible to make an advance of more than four miles in a day. frank hoyt remained at the warehouse and watched the supplies which were steadily diminishing. one day, philip b. winston, two men of the crew, and i, set out to the supply camp to bring some provisions to the cook's camp. the first day at nightfall, we reached an indian wigwam that we knew of, situated in a grove of hardwood timber, near the shore of a lake, directly on our route to the supply camp. our little party stayed with the indians and shared their hospitality. it was a large wigwam, covered principally with cedar bark, and there was an additional smaller wigwam so close to it, that a passage way was made from one wigwam to the other. in the smaller wigwam lived a young indian, his squaw, and the squaw's mother; in the larger wigwam lived the chief, his wife, his daughter, son-in-law, and the hunter, his wife, and two daughters, all of whom were present except the hunter. there was an air of expectancy noticeable as we sat on the mats around the fire in the wigwam, after having made some coffee and eaten our supper outside. presently the chief informed us that an heir was looked for that evening in the adjoining tent. before nine o'clock it was announced that a young warrior had made his appearance, and all were happy over his arrival. the large pipe was brought forth, filled with tobacco, and, after the chief had taken the first smoke, it was passed around to their guests, and all the men smoked, as well as the married women. the next morning, we continued our journey across the lake and on to hoyt's camp, where, it is needless to say, he was glad to see some white men. their visits were rare at his camp. filling our packs with things the cook had ordered, we started on our return journey, arriving at the indian camp at nightfall. as we left the ice to go up to the wigwams, we met the mother of the young warrior who had made his first appearance the preceding night, going down to the lake with a pail in each hand to bring some water to her wigwam. the healthy young child was brought into the wigwam and shown to the members of our party, who complimented the young mother and wished that he might grow to be a brave, worthy to be chieftain of their tribe. that evening a feast had been prepared at the chief's wigwam, in honor of the birth of the child, to which our party was invited. the menu consisted principally of boiled rice, boiled muskrat, and boiled rabbit. the three principal foods having been cooked in one kettle and at the same time, it was served as one course, but the guests were invited to repeat the course as often as they desired. this invitation was accepted by some, while others seemed satisfied to take the course but once. i have always found the hospitality of the chippewa indian unsurpassed, and more than once, in my frontier experiences, i have found that hospitality a godsend to me and to my party. chapter xvi. the entire party moves to swan river. it was in the month of february, , when the surveying party completed its work east of bow string lake, and finished, one afternoon, closing its last lines on the third guide meridian. at the camp, that afternoon, preparations were being made for a general move of considerable distance. it is not always possible for the frontiersman to reach his goal on the day that he has planned to do so. an instance in point occurred next day, when our surveying party was moving out to grand rapids. the snow was deep and the weather intensely cold when we broke camp that morning, hoping before nightfall to reach one of hill lawrence's logging camps. some indians had been hired to help pack out our belongings. our course lay directly through the unbroken forest, without trail or blazed line, and the right direction was kept only by the constant use of the compass. all were on snowshoes, and those of the party who could be depended upon to correctly use the compass, took turns in breaking road. each compassman would break the way through the snow for half an hour, then another would step in and break the way for another half hour, and he in turn would be succeeded by a third compassman. this change of leadership was continued all the way during that day. about the middle of the afternoon, the indians threw down their packs and left our party altogether, having become tired of their jobs. this necessitated dividing up the indians' packs and each man sufficiently able-bodied taking a part of these abandoned loads in addition to his own pack; and thus we continued the journey. night was fast approaching, and the distance was too great to reach the lawrence camp that night. fortunately, there were some indian wigwams not far in advance. these we reached after nightfall, and, as our party was very tired and carried no prepared food, we asked for shelter during the night, with the indians. they soon made places where our men could spread their blankets around the small fire in the center of the wigwams. then we asked if we could be served with something to eat. we received an affirmative "ugh," and the squaws commenced preparing food, which consisted solely of a boiled rabbit stew with a little wild rice. it was once more demonstrated that hunger is a good cook. after having partaken of the unselfishly proffered food, and, after most of our party had smoked their pipes, all lay down about the fire, and fell asleep. even the presence of indian dogs, occasionally walking over us in the night, interfered but little with our slumbers. the next morning our party started out without breakfast, and by ten o'clock reached the lawrence camp, where the cook set out, in a few minutes' time, a great variety of food, and an abundance of it, of which each man partook to his great satisfaction. [illustration: "these little animals were numerous". (page .)] from lawrence camp we were able to secure the services of the tote team that was going out for supplies, which took our equipment through to grand rapids. from that point, we were able, also, to hire a team to take our supplies to the swan river. crossing this we went north to survey two townships, which would complete the winter's contract. it has been stated that this winter of and was the coldest of which the weather bureau for minnesota furnishes any history. besides the intense cold, there were heavy snows. nevertheless, no serious injury or physical suffering of long duration befell any member of our band of hardy woodsmen. not one of our number was yet thirty years old, the youngest one being eighteen. two only of the party were married, fendall g. winston, and myself. on leaving grand rapids in august, we separated ourselves from all other white men. the party was as completely separated from the outside world as though it had been aboard a whaling vessel in the northern seas. no letters nor communications of any kind reached us after winter set in, until our arrival in grand rapids in the month of february following. letters were occasionally written and kept in readiness to send out by any indian who might be going to the nearest logging camp, whence they might by chance be carried out to some post office. whether these letters reached their destinations or not, could not be known by the writers as long as they remained on their work, hidden in the forest. i had left my young wife and infant daughter, not yet a year old, in minneapolis. either, or both might have died and been buried before any word could have reached me. it was not possible at all times to keep such thoughts out of my mind. of course every day was a busy one, completely filled with the duties of the hour, and the greatest solace was found in believing that all was well even though we could not communicate with each other. as i recall, no ill befell any one of the party nor of the party's dear ones, during all these long weeks and months of separation. every man of the party seemed to become more rugged and to possess greater endurance as the cold increased. it became the common practice to let the camp fire burn down and die, as we rolled into our blankets to sleep till the morning hour of arising. not every night was spent in comfort, however, though ordinarily that was the average experience. the less robust ones, of whom there were very few, sometimes received special attention. it was during the arduous journey, getting away from the scene of our first survey to that of the upper waters of swan river, that one of our men fell behind all of the others, on a hard day's tramp. p. b. winston, who had all the time been very considerate of him, observing that he was not keeping up to the party, but was quite a long way back on the trail which the men were breaking through the snow, said that he would wait for him until he should catch up. concealing himself behind a thicket close to the trail, he quietly awaited our friend's arrival. he told the following incident of the poor fellow's condition: mr. winston allowed him to pass him on the trail, unobserved, and heard him saying, as he rubbed one of his legs, "oh lord, my god, what ever made me leave my comfortable home and friends, and come out into this wilderness!" at this instant mr. winston called out, "what is the matter ----?" "oh, i'm freezing, and i don't know that i shall ever be of any use if i ever get out," he replied. he did live to get out and to reach his friends, none the worse for his doleful experience. he did not again, however, go north into the forest, but tried another portion of the western country, where he became very prosperous. long living around the open camp fire in the winter months, standing around in the smoke, and accumulating more or less of the odors from foods of various kinds being cooked by the open fire, invariably result in all of one's clothing and all of one's bedding becoming more or less saturated with the smell of the camp. this condition one does not notice while living in it from day to day, but he does not need to be out and away from such environments for more than a few hours, before he becomes personally conscious, to some degree, that such odors are not of a quality that would constitute a marketable article for cash. on arriving in minneapolis at the close of the winter's campaign, without having changed our garments--as we had none with us that had not shared with us one and the same fate--mr. p. b. winston and i engaged a hack at the railroad station, and drove to our respective homes. [illustration: "we saw racks in minnesota made by the indians". (page .)] it was mr. winston's domicile that was first reached, and it happened, as the driver stopped in front of his house, that his fiancée, miss kittie stevens (the first white child born in minneapolis), chanced to be passing by. of course their meeting was unexpected to either, but was a pleasant and joyous one, though somewhat embarrassing to mr. winston. the wind was blowing, and i noticed that he took the precaution to keep his own person out of the windward. he had been a soldier in the confederate army, and i smiled with much satisfaction as i observed his splendid maneuver. on meeting me next day, mr. winston inquired whether his tactics had been observed, and, being assured that they had, he said that that was the embarrassing moment for him, for he did not know but that the young lady might have considered that she had just grounds for breaking the engagement. both of us, however, knew better, for she was a young lady possessed of a large degree of common sense and loveliness. the young people later were married, mr. winston becoming mayor of minneapolis, remaining always, one of its best citizens. often, afterwards, incidents of that winter's experience, a few of which have been herein recorded, were gone over together with great pleasure by the parties interested. chapter xvii. methods of acquiring government land--an abandoned squaw. for many years it was the practice of the united states government, after its lands had been surveyed, to advertise them for sale at public auction on a date fixed by the government. time sufficient was always given to allow parties interested to go themselves, or send men into the woods, to examine the lands, and thus to be prepared on the day of sale, to bid as high a price on any description as each was willing to pay. after the time advertised for the lands to be thus offered, had expired, and after the land sale had been held, all lands not bought in at that sale became subject to private entry at the local land office. it was this class of lands that i bought in wisconsin. after the civil war, by act of congress, each union soldier was given the right to homestead one hundred and sixty acres of land, the government price of which was one dollar and twenty-five cents per acre. it sometimes happened that the soldier found only forty acres, or possibly eighty acres, or one hundred and twenty acres, lying contiguous, that he cared to take as a homestead. later, congress passed another law enabling the soldier, who had thus previously entered fewer than one hundred and sixty acres, to take an additional homestead claim of enough acres, which, when added to his previous homestead, would make a total of one hundred and sixty acres. the soldier was not obliged to live on this additional piece of land, but had the right to sell his certificate or scrip from the government, to anyone who might choose to buy it, and the purchaser, by power of attorney from the soldier, could with this scrip, himself enter the land. this became a common practice, covering a period of several years, and it was with the use of this kind of scrip that very much of the land that was surveyed about the time i have been describing, was entered. in the following winter--that of and --i was in the woods of minnesota west of cloquet, accompanied by an indian named antoine, and, while breaking trail on snowshoes in the deep snow along an obscure road that had been cut through to grand rapids, on the mississippi, i came to a small indian tepee close by the side of the road. a little smoke was curling from its peak, and a piece of an old blanket was hanging over its entrance. calling aloud, i heard a faint voice of a woman answering from within. entering the wigwam, we found there an impoverished, half-clad, half-frozen, perishing squaw. she told us that her feet had been frozen so that she could not walk, and that her family had left her to die. she had food enough, and possibly fuel enough, to last her about two more days. i was at a loss to know what was the wisest and most humane thing to do. we were far in the woods, and away from every human inhabitant. it was as easy to proceed to grand rapids as it was to retrace our steps to duluth. a decision was soon made, and that was, that we would cut and split, and bring inside the wigwam a large pile of good wood, with plenty of kindling, and would leave the poor woman supplies from our pack sacks, of things most suitable and most convenient for her to use, as whatever she did, must be done on her hands and knees. having provided her with a liberal supply of rice, pork, crackers, some flour, sugar, tea, and a package of smoking tobacco--for all squaws smoke--besides melting snow until we had filled an old pail with water, we felt that she could keep herself alive and comfortable for several days, at least. i then took out of my pack, a new pair of north star camping blankets, and cutting them in two, left one-half to provide additional warmth for the unfortunate squaw. as is the custom of her people when something much appreciated has been done for one of them, she took my hand and kissed it. leaving her plenty of matches, we bade her good-by, and resumed our journey toward grand rapids. once more on the trail, i asked antoine how old he believed the squaw to be. he said maybe forty; i should have judged her to have been seventy, but no doubt i was mistaken, and the indian's judgment was far better. arriving at grand rapids, i wrote the authorities at duluth, and at fond du lac indian reservation, telling them of the poor woman's situation and where she was located. i afterwards learned that she had been sent for, and brought out by team, and that she had been subsequently taken to her band of indians. i have been told by different indians, that the sick and the aged are sometimes abandoned when the band is very short of provisions, and when to take the helpless with them, would prove a great burden. chapter xviii. united states land sale at duluth--joe lagarde. during the summer of , the united states government had advertised that it would offer at public auction, many townships of land lying along the border between minnesota and canada, in cook, lake, st. louis, and itasca counties. this country was difficult to reach. the distance from duluth to lake vermilion was upwards of ninety miles. there was not even a road through the woods, over which a loaded team could be driven. men were obliged to take their supplies upon their backs and carry them over a trail, all of this distance. from lake vermilion, it was possible to work both eastward and westward, by using canoes and making numerous portages from one lake to another, and so on for seventy-five miles in either direction along the boundary. supplies were soon exhausted, so that it was necessary to keep packers on the trail, bringing in on their backs, fresh supplies from duluth to vermilion, where now is located the city of tower. in the vermilion country, dog trains could sometimes be advantageously used. estimators of timber were employed either for themselves or for others, in surveying the lands, and in estimating the pine timber in these various townships that were to be offered at public sale in the month of december. this work continued almost to the day when the sale was to begin. that sale was held at the local land office at duluth, and there were present men interested in the purchase of pine timber, from maine, pennsylvania, new york, michigan, wisconsin, minnesota, and some men representing canadian capital. the competition was vigorous, and uncle sam's lands were bid in at a round price. during the fall of , while preparing for the approaching land sale at duluth, the only son of william s. patrick, simeon d. patrick, a veteran land examiner in my employ, and i, made a short trip west of duluth, exploring a section of country south of where now is the station of cornwall, on the northern pacific railroad. our packer and handy man who carried part of our supplies, was an indian of considerable note, by the name of john lagarde, familiarly known as joe lagarde. he was a fine specimen of chippewa indian trapper, tall, straight, muscular, and a good burden bearer, but rather averse to long days' work. he was handy about camp, but, being an indian, and accustomed to lying down at night with his feet close to a few live embers, he did not share with the white man the wish for large piles of wood to last through the cold nights that prevailed during this trip. [illustration: "the roots of the lilies are much relished as a food by the moose." (page .)] it happened that one evening we pitched our tent near a small stream, in a grove composed principally of young birch, but interspersed with large and shaggy ones. everyone at all familiar with the birch knows there is much of it, on which the outer bark peels naturally, and it is no uncommon thing to be able to peel, with the use of the hands only, large quantities of the bark. there was almost an inexhaustible supply of just such bark near this camping ground. joe was either tired or indisposed to work that evening, and when bedtime arrived, the pile of wood looked very scant for the long hours of the night. no one likes a little innocent fun better than my friend patrick. looking at the small woodpile, then at joe, patrick gave me a twinkle of his eye, started out into the semidarkness, and commenced peeling bark off the birch trees. he busied himself thus, until he had peeled off and brought in near our tent, a huge pile of this beautiful birch bark. no matter how rainy the weather may be, or how deep the snow in winter, if the frontiersman is fortunate enough to be camped in a grove of live birch, he knows that this ever friendly and useful birch bark will afford him a sure means of kindling a fire. it carries much oil and burns readily when a match is applied to it. the fire was fixed for the night, and patrick and i lay down in our tent under our blankets to sleep. joe, as was his custom, curled up at the foot of the tent and left his bare feet sticking out toward the fire. his requirement of blanket was less than half of what would satisfy a white man. as long as his feet were warm, the indian did not suffer from cold. about midnight the fire had burned very low, when patrick emerged from the tent and commenced dropping pieces of birch bark on the fast consuming fire logs. i was well back in the tent, propped up a little on my elbows, enjoying the glow of the fire, and watching it, as well as watching the indian. as the fire increased and the flames rose higher, the indian's feet began to twitch, and to draw up closer to his body. soon the heat was so tremendous that the tent was in danger, when, like a missile, thrown by a strong spring, the indian shot out of his blanket and into the woods, muttering his imprecations in chippewa. he did not swear, for praise be to the chippewa language, it contains no such words; but a madder indian and a happier white man are seldom seen. the sequel to this episode was plenty of good fuel to burn during all of the following nights of this cruise in the forest. we employed lagarde on other and later trips, and his services were always satisfactory. he has since gone to the happy hunting ground, and, with his passing, a tinge of sadness steals over us, for his memory is dear, and we have no right or wish to count him as other than our brother. he was always true to the white man, and deserves his meed of praise. an account of his death appeared in the duluth herald, february th, , from which the following summary is gathered: his age is given in the death certificate, as one hundred years. he was born on the red lake indian reservation, near thief river falls. his mother was a full-blooded chippewa, and his father a half-breed with a french-canadian name. in , when about twenty-four years old, he came with his mother, to the head of the lakes, and settled at the historic john jacob astor trading post, at fond du lac. three years later, while trading at madeleine island, near bayfield, he met liola chievier, a half-breed, whom he afterwards married and brought to fond du lac. there were seven children to this union, but only three are now living. the youngest, aged fifty-five, lived at fond du lac with his father. the other two were located on the white earth reservation. they were moses and simon. the old man's wife died about thirty-eight years ago. lagarde lived in fond du lac about seventy-seven years. he possessed a remarkable physique. his chest was well developed, his body straight as an arrow, and he stood six feet two inches in height. being a chippewa, lagarde loved peace more than war, and he never took part in any indian outbreak. as far back as the memory of any white man of the suburb goes, he had a reputation of being honest in all his transactions with the white traders. his body was buried in the indian burying grounds, at the fond du lac indian reservation near cloquet. chapter xix. six hundred miles in a birch canoe. the following summer, i hired a number of men to pack some supplies from duluth to the shores of lake vermilion. i had with me one white man to assist me in a reestimate of the pine timber that i had bought at the land sale in december. canoes were purchased of the indians, and i employed some of them to go as packers and canoemen. the work first took the party eastward a distance of fifty miles. not only was the timber reexamined, but the character of the streams was carefully noted, with reference to their feasibility for floating out the timber, whenever the time should come for it to be cut and brought to market. all of that country is very rugged and much broken. the shores of the lakes are bold and rock-bound. islands exist in nearly all of the lakes, and at that time they were thoroughly wooded, many of them containing fine bunches of pine timber. the country was picturesque and the scenery most enchanting. aquatic birds of various species were frequently startled from the water as our canoes came in sight of them. fish were abundant and could be taken in almost any one of the lakes, by throwing out a line. there were caribou and moose in the country, but no deer at that time. bands of indians were living along these waters, most of them belonging to the united states, but, as we turned and went westward, on the waters of lake la croix we met many canadian indians. they all spoke the same language, though sometimes with great difference in accent. there were many waterfalls, and around these, in every instance, a portage had to be made of all our supplies and of our canoes. one day's experience was much like that of its predecessor or like that of the one to follow. on the whole, the work was less arduous than that in a country which is mostly land and not cut up by numerous lakes, as is the condition in all of the northern woods in minnesota. a camping ground would be selected on a shore of a lake, and, from this one camp, it was often our experience that several days' work could be economically accomplished before it was necessary to again move. the timber that we wished to examine often lay on either side of the lake on the shore of which the camping ground had been selected. thus the work continued until the party reached rainy lake. this lake is fifty-five miles long, and at its foot, at that time, on the canadian side, was fort francis. much of this water route was then known as the dawson route. it had been used by the canadian government to reach the canadian northwest with its soldiers, at the time of the riel rebellion. the shattered remains of a number of french batteaus were seen on the rapids between different lakes, where an attempt had been made to navigate the waters, which had disastrously failed. [illustration: "we have seen the moose standing out in the bays of the lakes". (page .)] just below fort francis, which is at the beginning of the rainy river which flows into lake of the woods, we found a canadian farmer. he had been an engineer on board a canadian steamer that plied from rat portage to fort francis. when the rebellion was over, and there was no longer use for steamboating, this man determined to take a homestead under the canadian land laws. this was at the latter end of july. while our party was preparing dinner on the bank of the river at the edge of the settler's meadow, he came down to see us. it was seldom that he saw any of the white race, and, when one chanced to pass by, he was always glad, he said, to see him and learn something of the outside world. he invited us to go back into his meadow where, he assured us, we should find an abundance of ripe, wild strawberries. this we found to be true, and the berries were indeed a luxury to a lot of men who had been living on nothing better than dried peaches or dried apples, stewed and made into sauce. the work of examining lands was now completed for this trip, but the easiest way out was to continue down rainy river into lake of the woods, and across lake of the woods to rat portage, where a train on the canadian pacific could be boarded and the journey continued to winnipeg, and from thence by rail back to minneapolis. at that time no logs had been driven down the rainy river to mar the beauty of its shore lines which were the most beautiful of any river i have ever seen in minnesota or in canada. in some places for half a mile at a stretch there would be a continuous gravel shore. its waters were deep and clear. near the mouth of rainy river, our party overtook colonel eaton and his helper, a man from wisconsin, whose name, i believe, was davis. colonel eaton was united states government inspector of lands, and was on a tour of inspection to ascertain to what extent the land laws relating to homestead entries were being complied with. each was glad to meet the other, and in company, we traveled from that time until we finally arrived at rat portage. lake of the woods is a very large body of water, and not everywhere is it safe to venture out upon it in small boats or canoes. colonel eaton had a staunch rowboat. at rainy lake i had paid off and dismissed most of my helpers, so that i had but one canoe remaining. this was occupied by myself and the white man, my assistant, whom i had taken at the beginning of the journey. for a considerable distance, the party was able to keep behind the islands and away from the open lake, until it arrived at a point that is known as a traverse, a wide opening between islands, where the westerly winds, if blowing heavily, have a tremendous sweep. our party found the whitecaps rolling in across this traverse, on the top of waves so high that neither of our crafts could possibly live, if out in them. here, on this island, we went ashore and made our camp as comfortable as possible while waiting for the wind and waves to subside. both parties had been long from home, and were practically without food to eat. we were obliged to stay on that island three nights and two days before the water had calmed sufficiently for us to cross the traverse. in the meantime, we had eaten the last of our supplies, and were subsisting wholly upon what blueberries we were able to find growing on the island. some public work was about to begin up the rainy river, and we had been informed that a steamer from rat portage, loaded with various articles of merchandise, was liable to come up the lake to enter the river at almost any time; consequently we were continually on the lookout for the steamer, it being the only source from which we could hope to get anything to eat, before we should arrive at rat portage. finally the steamer was spied on the afternoon of the second day of our unforeseen residence on the island. with towels tied to poles, our party, hoping to be able to signal the passing steamer, went to the shore of the island. it was well out on the lake from our shore, and our hopes began to wane as we saw it steam by us, not having given us any indication that it had seen our signal. suddenly, however, our fears were turned to hope and joy as we saw its bow turning in our direction. it made a long sweep on account of the high sea, and came in behind our island where the water was deep, and the nose of the steamer was brought almost to our shore. we quickly told the captain our plight, and asked only that we might purchase of him a little flour and a little meat, a little tea and a little coffee, sufficient to take us to rat portage, including a possible longer delay on the island because of the wind that was yet blowing. this he gladly gave us, refusing to accept any compensation; and with grateful hearts, we waved him adieu as the boat resumed its course. the following morning, early, the lake was quite calm; and, after a hasty breakfast, we pulled out from shore, crossed the traverse, and once more got behind the friendly islands. from this time on to rat portage, our journey was without special interest, the party returning together by rail to minneapolis. chapter xx. effect of discovery of iron ore on timber industry. during the same year that the united states government offered its lands in the northern counties of minnesota at public auction, new interests effecting the market for pine timber were created by the discovery of iron ore of a marketable quality, near the south shore of lake vermilion, where now is the city of tower, minnesota. historically, the first mention of iron ore in northern minnesota dates back to the report of j. g. norwood, made in , in which he mentioned the occurrence of iron ore at gunflint lake, but claimed no commercial importance in his discovery. the geological and natural history survey of minnesota, volume , page , records the following: "h. h. eames, state geologist of minnesota in and , was the first to observe and report iron ore on both the vermilion and mesabi ranges, and to consider it of any value. in his report for , he describes the ore outcroppings near the southern shore of lake vermilion, and in his report, published the following year, is an account of the ore at prairie river falls, on the western end of the mesabi, and several analyses showing it to be of good quality." [illustration: "white pine--what of our future supply?" (page .)] as early as , professor a. h. chester, in the interest of private parties, made a personal examination of the vermilion iron range, and predicted that an iron ore district of immense value and importance would be found to exist on that range. george c. stone of duluth, one of the parties who had employed chester to make the examination for iron ore, was elected a member of the minnesota legislature, and, through his instrumentality, in , a law was passed, "to encourage mining in this state, by providing a uniform rate for the taxing of mining properties and products." this law provided for a payment of a tax of fifty cents for each ton of copper, and one cent for each ton of iron ore, mined and shipped or disposed of; each ton to be estimated as containing two thousand two hundred and forty pounds. the duluth and iron range railroad was constructed from two harbors, on lake superior, to tower, minnesota; and in august, , the first shipment of iron ore was made from the minnesota mine at tower. promising outcrops of iron ore bearing rocks were found east of tower, where now is the flourishing town of ely. work was begun on these outcrops, resulting in the finding of the chandler mine, by captain john pengilly, from which, in , the first shipment of iron ore was made, the railroad having been extended from tower to ely, for the purpose, primarily, of shipping the iron ore to two harbors, and thence to the eastern markets. other mines were later found in this vicinity. the building and equipping of this railroad created a demand for manufactured lumber, for railroad ties, and for telegraph poles. sawmills were built at different points along the line of the railroad and at its terminals, so that the years immediately following were busy ones for those dealing in standing timber and its manufactured products. my associates and i had acquired interests in these localities, so that much of my time for nearly a decade, was actively employed along the line of the vermilion range. during these years from to , the most practical modes of travel, and almost the only ones, were either by birch canoe and portaging from lake to lake in summer, or by dog train during the winter. sometimes these trips were pleasant ones, but quite as often they were attended by incidents not always agreeable. on one of these occasions late in october, accompanied by one white man known only as "buffalo," i started to travel east from tower, on lake vermilion, along the route followed by the indians, to the foot of fall lake, a distance of forty-five miles. it was some time after noon when we pulled out from shore in our two-man canoe, a small craft, affording just room for two men to sit, and to carry their pack sacks and scant supplies. soon it began to rain, and the wind commenced blowing. we were approaching an island, when buffalo, who had had much experience on the great lakes as a sailor, insisted that we could not reach our landing at the easterly end of the lake, before dark, without the use of a sail. arriving at an island, we pulled our canoe ashore, and buffalo quickly improvised a sail, which was hoisted in the bow of the canoe and the boat was again launched. in this manner we sailed and paddled at a much accelerated speed, but all of the time we were in imminent danger of being capsized, it being my first experience of riding in a birch canoe carrying a sail. fortune favored the undertaking, however, and we made a safe landing in time to pitch our tent and make our camp for the night. during the night the cold increased, and when we arose in the morning, we found that ice had formed on the water in the little bay of the lake. we made a number of portages that day, the cold increasing so that in all of the little bays, ice was forming. we succeeded in crossing burnt side lake and entering the river leading to long lake as it was getting dark. we were then six miles from what we knew to be a comfortable ranch near the lower end of long lake, which buffalo strongly urged we should try to reach that night, although to do so meant that we must pass between some islands where, in places, we knew the rocks projected out of the water, and therefore were perilous to our birch canoe. we decided to make the effort, and soon after pushing out from shore, we were only able to faintly discern the outlines of the islands that we must pass. fortunately, these were soon alongside of us, and we had passed the last dangerous reef of rocks. then, to our great satisfaction, we saw the light from the lantern which had been hung out on a pile driven close by the outer end of the dock at the foot of the lake, about four miles distant, where the ranch, that we hoped to reach that night, was located. the wind had died down so that the surface of the lake was comparatively smooth, but we noticed that our mittens, which had become thoroughly wet, were freezing on our hands. for one hour we paddled in silence, when the light toward which we had been steering, became much more visible, and soon we landed at the little dock, thankful that we had made our journey safely. our appetites were keen for the good, broiled steak and hot potatoes that previous experience had taught us we were pretty sure to receive, and in this we were not disappointed. the following summer, i passed over this same canoe route under quite different circumstances. my work of examining lands and timber all lay near to the shores of several lakes. my wife's father, j. h. conkey, and her brother, frank l. conkey, had often expressed a wish to see that northern country. accompanied by them and also by my son, frank merton, who was then a boy in short pants, we journeyed by rail to tower. before leaving duluth for tower, mose perrault was added to our number. perrault was a fine specimen of man, six feet in height, well-proportioned, of middle age, and thoroughly familiar with frontier life. at tower, we started out with two birch canoes, and after dinner, on a pleasant afternoon in august, we pushed our canoes out into the waters of lake vermilion, from the same point from which we had left in the rain, the previous october. we reached the east end of vermilion early, portaged into mud lake, went up the river, and camped on the high ground west of burnt side lake, in a pine grove where we were surrounded by blueberry bushes laden with their large, ripe fruit. [illustration: "he motors over the fairly good roads of the northern frontier." (page .)] our party was made up of two classes of people; one out to examine timber, the other, to fish and have a good time. while crossing one of the portages, my brother-in-law, frank l. conkey, who knew almost nothing about canoeing or portaging, but was willing, and full of hard days' work, picked up two pack sacks, one of which was strapped to his shoulders, and the other was placed on top of his shoulders and the back of his head. thus burdened, he started across mud portage, the footing of which, in places, was very insecure. at an unfortunate moment, he caught his foot in a root and tumbled, the top pack sack shooting over his head and breaking open at its fastenings, thus spilling its contents on the ground. all that could be found of these, were gathered together and replaced in the pack sack, and the journey was resumed. mose perrault was the cook, and on arriving at the camping ground at night, he began preparations for making bread and getting the evening meal. the pack sack that had broken open, originally contained two tin cans, one filled with baking powder, and the other, with fresh live worms buried in earth, that had been gathered for bait for the fishing party. perrault wanted the baking powder with which to leaven the dough. the fishermen wanted their worms with which to bait their hooks. the latter were gratified, but nowhere could the baking powder be found, and we were forced to the conclusion that it was one of the lost articles on the portage. that night and the next day, we lived on bread made without any leaven, which from a number of experiences, i feel competent to state, is never a great success. the fishing, however, was good, and on the portages enough partridges were shot within revolver range to afford plenty of good meat for the party. these we cooked with bacon and dressed with butter, of which we had a goodly supply. there were plenty of crackers and carolina rice, with blueberries close at hand for the picking, so that the party subsisted well, until it arrived at ely, where the three fishermen bade perrault and me farewell, returning to their homes by railroad train, after a pleasant outing. in february, , my three companions and i had a very different experience, away east of ely, where we had gone to survey and estimate a tract of pine timber. the snow was deep, and the journey, which had to be made with the use of toboggans, was a hard one. i had, as my associate and chief timber estimator, s. d. patrick. in addition were the cook, and buffalo, a man whose name has appeared on a previous page. this man is worthy of more than passing notice. his true name i never knew. he always said, "call me 'buffalo'." he claimed to have been born at buffalo, new york, and to have spent his childhood and early youth in that city. he was an irish-american and was possessed of the typical irish wit on all occasions. he was never angry to the extent of being disagreeable, but he had no patience for any man in the party who refused or neglected to do his full share of the work. he claimed that when a boy, he had earned money at the steamboat landings at buffalo, by diving under the water for coins thrown to him by passengers on board the ships at anchor in the harbor, as did also the late daniel o'day of the standard oil company. he too, was an irish-american, born and raised near buffalo, and at his death left millions of dollars. he once told me that when a youth he had earned many dimes and quarters by diving for them alongside the passenger ships in buffalo harbor. buffalo was always ready to act promptly and to do, or to undertake to do, anything that was requested of him. on this occasion he had an opportunity to demonstrate these good qualities. the trip was attended with the greatest of hardships, of heavy work, and of exposure to intense cold. buffalo was a good axman, and not one night did he fail to cut and pile near to the camp, enough wood to last until after breakfast the next morning. our camp was established on the shores of kekekabic lake, in township n., range w., for several days and nights. there were many partridges in this section of the forest. they would come out on the borders of the woods next to the lake. it was possible to shoot one or more nearly every day, so that the camp was supplied with fresh game. the cook and buffalo remained at the camp, while mr. patrick and i went out each day to examine timber, returning at night. the daylight covered none too many hours, so that we arose early and started on our journey after breakfast, as soon as we could see to travel, in order that the day's work might be accomplished, and the return to camp made before dark. it was not possible to calculate the day's work so as to be sure that we could reach camp before nightfall, but, owing to the intense cold that prevailed at this time, it was only the part of wisdom to plan so as to return to camp while we could yet see where to travel. nearly every day's work was, in part at least, over a new tract of land, to which a new trail must be broken in the morning as we went out to the work. one day our work lay directly north of our camp, through the woods, out onto a small lake, and again into the woods. we knew, before leaving camp in the morning, that it would require our best efforts to accomplish the work and to return before nightfall. for this reason, we started at daybreak, and, after having done our best, it was night before we commenced to retrace our steps. the cold had increased all day, so that we were obliged to summon our courage at times, to keep our feet and hands from freezing. we were only two miles from camp when our return journey began; but two miles in an unbroken wilderness, in deep snow, with the only path to follow being the tracks made by two men passing once over it, is a long distance to travel when daylight has disappeared, and when to leave those tracks at such a temperature, would probably prove fatal. within a few minutes from the time of our beginning to retrace our steps, each step was taken by the sense of feeling. we were both clad in moccasins, which made it possible, through the sense of feeling, to distinguish between the unbroken snow and that which had been stepped upon during the morning hours of that day. being in darkness, we dared not proceed whenever we were not certain that our feet were in the path that we had made on going out to our work. a few times we lost the path. immediately we stopped, one man standing still, in order that we might not lose our location, while the other felt around until the path was regained. we knew that if we should lose it, the one thing remaining for us would be to walk around a tree, if it were possible to do so, until morning light should appear. we went slowly on, never giving up hope. it was getting late in the evening, so that buffalo, at camp, became alarmed for our safety. his wits were at work, and he commenced to build a large fire. then he found, near by, a dead pine stub. about this he piled kindling until he got it on fire. it is not possible to write words describing the satisfaction and joy with which we two lonely travelers finally spied the illumination, penetrating the dark forest for a short distance only, it is true, yet far enough. soon we walked into camp, to the joy of all of the party, and there we found an excellent supper awaiting us. buffalo's big wood pile was in waiting at all the hours of that night, and some one was astir to keep the fire going. it was the only night of my long experience of living in the woods, when it was impossible, for more than a short period, to be comfortable away from the fire, and even then, we each in turn revolved our bodies about the open fire, first warming one side, and then the other, and slept but little. after our work was completed, and we had gotten back in touch with the civilized world, we were told by residents at tower, that the thermometer on that night, had indicated from ° to ° below zero. [illustration: "friends whom he had known in the city who are ready to welcome him." (page .)] the following summer, on one of my trips to this then picturesque country in northeastern minnesota, i tried the experiment of taking my wife, who had long been an invalid, and my son, frank merton, then a boy in his early teens, with me, in the hope that the trip would prove beneficial to the wife and mother. the experiment was in no way disappointing, although on one occasion when the rain had poured incessantly, leaving the woods drenched, in crossing a rather blind and unavoidable portage, mrs. warren's clothing became thoroughly wet. in the absence of a wardrobe from which to choose a change of garments, the expedient was resorted to of requesting her to remove one garment at a time, which vincent de foe, a half-breed, and james o'neill, an old and trusty friend, held to the open fire, until it was dry. this she replaced, when another wet garment went through the same process, until all had been dried. no ill effects followed; on the contrary, mrs. warren's health continued to improve. at the end of the trip i was so happy over the results that i sent the following account of some of its incidents to dr. albert shaw, then of the minneapolis tribune, and at present, editor of the review of reviews. this little account appeared in the tribune of saturday, september , : "in the wilds of minnesota. mrs. g. h. warren's travels in the northeastern part of the state. mrs. g. h. warren and her son frank returned to the city monday from a two weeks' tour of the vermilion iron range, north of lake superior. their trip was both interesting and novel. from ely, the eastern terminus of the duluth & iron range railroad, they embarked in birch canoes, traversing ten lakes, thirteen portages and three small rivers as far as they were navigable for birch canoes. the whole distance thus traveled included over one hundred miles. pike, pickerel, bass, white fish, or landlocked salmon abound in all these lakes of rugged shores. master frank reports the capture of a twenty-seven inch pike and a thirty-seven inch pickerel. in one of the bays of basswood lake--a beautiful body of clear water thirty miles in length and extending several miles into canada--the indians were seen gathering wild rice. this is accomplished by the male indian standing upright in the bow of his canoe, and paddling it forward through the field of rice, the stalks of which grow from three to four feet above the water; while his squaw sits in the stern of the canoe, and with two round sticks about the size, and half the length of a broom handle, dexterously bends the long heads of the rice over the gunwale of the canoe with one stick, while at the same instant, she strikes the well filled heads a sharp, quick blow with the other, threshing out the kernels of rice, which fall into the middle portion of the canoe. this middle portion is provided, for the occasion, with a cloth apron, into which the rice kernels fall. the apron will hold about two bushels, and is filled in the manner above described in less than three hours' time. the rice is next picked over to free it from chaff and straw, after which it is placed in brass kettles and parched over a slow fire; then it is winnowed, and is ready for future use. mrs. warren is the first white woman to penetrate so far on the frontier of wild northeastern minnesota, and though never before subjected to uncivilized life, or the primitive mode of travel, she endured the walks over the portages, slept soundly on beds of balsam fir boughs, ate with a relish the excellent fish and wild game cooked at the camp fire, and returns to her home in the city with health much improved, and enthusiastic over the many beauties of nature in this yet wild, but attractive portion of minnesota." chapter xxi. forest fires. the terrible forest fires that swept over much of wisconsin and minnesota during the summer of , resulting in such an appalling loss of life at hinckley and vicinity, will always be remembered by the people living in the northern half of minnesota. one who has never been in the forest at a time when the fires within it extended over many miles of area, cannot appreciate the danger and the anxiety of those who are thus placed. i vividly recall two days during the summer of the peshtigo fire, when i was in the burning woods of wisconsin. the sun was either entirely obscured, or it hung like a red ball above the earth, now penetrating the clouds of smoke, now again being hidden by them. the smoke came at times in great rolls at the surface of the earth, then was caught up by the breeze and lifted to higher altitudes, and at all times was bewildering to those whom it surrounded. no one could tell from what point of the compass the distant fire was most dangerous, nor in what direction it was making most rapid progress toward the point where he was located. at times one became choked by the thick smoke. for many hours, during one of these days, i moved with my face close to the ground, that i might get air sufficient to breathe. when finally i came to an open country where the currents of wind could lift the smoke, i experienced a feeling of the greatest thankfulness that i was delivered from the condition of the two last days, surrounded with so much uncertainty as to my safety. the memorable fire of september st, , which swept hinckley and all its surrounding country, resulted in the death of four hundred and seventeen human beings, left destitute two thousand two hundred, and extended over an area of four hundred square miles. the financial loss was upwards of one million dollars. that loss does not include the great losses of timber situated in the northeastern part of minnesota, extending all along its boundary and reaching into canada. the fire in northeastern minnesota destroyed millions of dollars worth of standing pine timber, much of which was entirely consumed, while portions of it were killed at the root. such timber as was thus killed, but not destroyed, had most of its value yet remaining, provided that it were cut and put in the water, during the first one or two seasons following. later than that, most of its value would have been destroyed by worms boring into the dead timber. on account of these fires, it was necessary for all timber owners to make a careful examination of all timber lands within the burnt district. for this purpose, accompanied by s. d. patrick, and e. a. white, timber examiners to assist in the work, and my son, frank merton, then a senior in the university of minnesota, besides packers, i went, in , into the burnt districts in northeastern minnesota. [illustration: "he camps by the roadside on the shore of a lake." (page .)] as a result of these forest fires, one of the worst pests that the frontiersman meets is the black fly, which flourishes in a burnt country. this little insect is apparently always hungry, is never tired, and wages a relentless fight upon every inch of the white man's epidermis that is exposed to its reach, even penetrating the hair and beard of a man, and leaving the effects of its poisonous bite. so terrible were these little pests, and so numerous were they on two days of the excursion, that one eye of each of three of the white men in the party was so badly swollen by the bites of the insects, that it was closed. no remedy has ever been offered that effectually protects the woodsman from injuries inflicted by this insect. while our party was on that expedition that summer, reestimating the timber in the burnt district, mr. patrick came close to a large bull moose standing in some thick woods. the animal had not yet discovered mr. patrick's presence, consequently he was able to carefully examine and study this great beast of our northern woods. below the animal's hips, on either side, at a point where he could in no wise protect himself from the ravages of this insect pest, the poor beast's flesh was raw and was bleeding. the indians claim that their dogs frequently go mad and have to be killed as a result of the bites inflicted by these insects. in proof of the wide range of their activities i will briefly relate one experience with them in wisconsin. joseph mcewen and i left wausau one morning, riding out behind a livery team twenty miles to the big eau plaine river, in search of desirable cranberry marsh lands. the country we traveled over was flat. fires had recently killed the timber, and black flies formed one vast colony over this territory. our driver had trouble controlling the horses, so fierce was the attack of the black flies upon them. we arrived at the nearest point of our work that could be reached by team about ten o'clock in the forenoon, and dismissed our driver. we then proceeded on foot into this burnt, marshy country, attacked continuously by swarms of flies. they penetrated our ears, our noses, and our mouths if we opened them. they worked themselves into our hair, up our sleeves, under our collar bands, over the tops of our socks and down into them until they found the end of our drawers where, next, was our naked skin. we camped at night in the marsh. the next morning the attack was renewed as vigorously as it had been waged on the previous day. at eleven o'clock we stopped for our dinner. mcewen wore a heavy beard all over his face; my face was bare. he looked at me as we were eating our dinner, then dryly remarked, "i don't know how i look, but you look like the devil; the black flies have bitten you everywhere; your face is a fright." we went out to the main road, and secured a conveyance by which we reached wausau about five o'clock that afternoon. i went immediately to my accustomed hotel, owned and managed by charles winkley. he had known me well for years, and i had left him less than forty-eight hours previous to my entering on that afternoon. mr. winkley was behind his desk. i greeted him and asked him how business was. he answered me quite independently that his house was full, and that he had not a vacant room. i then asked him if there was any mail for me, giving him my full name. he looked at me in astonishment, then exclaimed, "my god! what is the matter of you?" i said, "black flies." then he continued, "i mistook you for some man with the small-pox and was planning to notify the authorities and have you cared for. go right to your room and stay there. mrs. winkley will care for you and have your meals brought to you. i will go to the postoffice every day for your mail." my face was one blotch of raw sores. my eyes were nearly closed because of the poison from the black flies. the best remedy or preventive we have ever found against all insect pests of the northern woods, is smoked bacon rubbed onto the bare skin in generous quantities. its presence is not essentially disagreeable. objection to its use is prejudice, since it is no less pleasant than is the oil of cedar or pennyroyal which are often prescribed by druggists for the same purpose, and which are not half as continuous in their efficacy, because a little perspiration will neutralize all of the good effects of the latter named remedies. soap and water will remove the bacon grease when protection from flying insects is no longer desired. there are other and more interesting living things in the northern woods than black flies, to which statement i am willing to testify. i had been running some lines one summer, for the purpose of locating a tote road to some camps where work was to be prosecuted the following fall. it was known among the homesteaders, as well as trappers, that a large bear lived in that vicinity. on one occasion he had been caught in a "dead-fall" that had been set for him, and he had gotten out of it, leaving only some tufts of his hair. alone, and while blazing a line for this proposed road, one sunny afternoon, i came onto a table-rock, in a little opening in the woods, where fifty feet in front of me lay a large pine tree that had blown down. as some small brush crackled under my feet, a bear, which i have ever since believed from descriptions that had previously been given me, was the much wanted great bear, stood up in front of me, close by the fallen tree. presumably he had been awakened from an afternoon nap. the only weapon that i possessed was what is known as a boy's ax, the size and kind usually carried by land examiners. i had not sought this new acquaintance, nor did i at that moment desire a closer one, but mentally decided, and that quickly, that the wrong thing to do would be to make any effort to get to a place of safety. i therefore decided to stand my ground and to put up the best fight possible with my small ax, in case the bear insisted on a closer acquaintance. why i should have laughed on such an occasion as this, i never have known, but the perfect helplessness of my situation seemed so ridiculous, that i broke into a loud laugh. i have often wondered why that bear at that moment seemed to think that he had seen enough of the man whom he faced. certain it was, that he turned on his hind legs, leaped over the log, and disappeared, leaving only the occasional sound of a twig breaking under his feet. so well pleased was i with the less distinct notes of the breaking twigs, that i waited and listened until i could no longer hear any of the welcome, receding music. the excitement having subsided, an inspection of the little ax revealed the fact that the head was nearly, but not quite off its handle. this incident has always been sufficient to convince me that i have no desire to approach nearer to this animal of the northern woods. [illustration: the midday luncheon is welcomed by the automobile tourists. (page .)] in the summer of , some special work was required north of grand rapids, minnesota. accompanied by my son, frank merton, and a cook named fred easthagen, i left grand rapids on a buckboard drawn by two horses and driven by dan gunn, the popular proprietor of the pokegama hotel. our route was over a new road where stumps and pitch holes were plentiful. the team of horses was said to have been raised on the western plains, and objected strenuously to being driven over this stump road. one of the horses balked frequently, and, when not standing still, insisted on running. the passengers, except easthagen, became tired of this uneven mode of travel, and preferred to walk, being able to cover the ground equally as fast as the team. easthagen, however, sat tight through it all; he having come from the far west, refused to walk when there was a team to pull him. our camp was made in a fine grove of pig-iron norway, near to which dwelt mr. and mrs. sandy owens, settlers upon government land. from this camp we were able to prosecute our work for a long period of time. the late summer and autumn were very dry. both wolves and deer abounded in this vicinity, and not far away ranged many moose. large lumbering camps were about ten miles away. oxen had been turned loose for the summer, to pasture in the woods and cut-over lands. passing, one day, a root house built into the side of a hill, we pushed open the door, and in there found the remains of an ox. the animal had probably entered the root house to get away from the flies, and, the door having closed behind him, he had no means of escape, so that the poor beast had perished of hunger and thirst. the ground was dry, and all the brush, and twigs, and leaves lying thereon, had become brittle and crackled under the feet of every walking creature. this interfered much with the ability of the wolves to surprise the deer, rabbits, or other animals on which they are accustomed to feed, so that they were hungry. on this account they had become emboldened, so much so, that they would, at nightfall or toward evening, venture near enough to show themselves. my son was coming in alone, from work one evening, when a pack of wolves followed him for some distance, occasionally snapping out their short yelp, and had he been less near the camp, he might have been in great danger. as it was, however, they kept back from him in the woods, but not so far as to prevent his hearing them. an interesting article appeared in one of the numbers of "country life in america," on the subject of breeding skunks for profit. from their pelts is made and sold a fine quality of fur, known, to the purchaser, at least, as stone martin. the nearest approach to a natural farm of these animals that i have ever known was that existing at sandy owen's cabin, and immediately adjacent to it. these little animals were numerous in the norway grove in which we were camped. my son and i slept in a small "a" tent which at night was closed. on one occasion i was awakened by feeling something moving across my feet on the blankets, covering us. i spoke quietly to my son, requesting him to be careful not to move, for something was in the tent, and probably, that something was a skunk. with the gentlest of motions, i moved just sufficiently to let the animal know that i was aware of its presence in the tent. immediately the animal retreated off of my legs, while we remained quiet for some time in the tent. then a match was struck and with it a candle lighted, when a small hole was discovered at the foot of the tent where evidently the animal had nosed its way in, and through which it had retreated. in the morning when my son and i arose, unmistakable evidence was discovered, near where our heads had lain, that his skunkship had visited us during the night. mr. and mrs. owens left their cabin to visit another settler, several miles distant, leaving the key with the cook, and telling him that he could use it if he had occasion to do so. coming in one evening from a cruise, the cook went to the cabin to make and bake some bread in mrs. owen's stove. a small hole had been cut in the door, to admit the owens' cat. on entering, easthagen saw a skunk sitting in the middle of the floor. the animal retreated under the bed, while the cook kindled a fire in the stove and began mixing the dough for the bread. he baked the bread and cooked the evening meal for three persons, considerately tossing some bits of bread and meat near to where the skunk was concealed. our party ate supper outside the door a short distance from the cabin. the animal remained in the cabin that night and until after breakfast, a portion of which latter the cook fed to it, when taking the broom, he, by easy and gentle stages, pushed the skunk toward the door, removing the animal without accident. the state of minnesota has some excellent laws to prevent the destruction of game animals by the pothunter. notwithstanding this fact, a greater or less number of market hunters have been able to subsist by killing unlawful game and selling the meat to the lumber camps at about five cents per pound. many men interested in the ownership of timber lands, have been aware of this fact and have been desirous of preventing the unlawful killing of moose and deer. some lumbermen, also, have refused to buy the meat from these market hunters. it has not been safe, however, for such people to offer evidence against these hunters. there have been two principal reasons that have deterred them from so doing. one is, that the informant's personal safety would have become endangered, and the other reason is, that his timber would have been in danger of being set on fire. it rests, therefore, with the game wardens, to ferret out and prosecute to the best of their ability, all offenders against the game law. in the latter part of the season of , my son and i, accompanied by james o'neill, a frontiersman and trusty employee, made a canoe trip from winton down the chain of lakes on the boundary line between minnesota and canada, as far as lake la croix. we camped at night and traveled by day, being always in minnesota. we saw racks in minnesota made by the indians, on which to smoke the meat of the moose they had killed. we counted twenty-one moose hides hung up to dry. the moose had doubtless been killed as they came to the lakes to get away from flies and mosquitoes. all these animals were unlawfully killed. a more pleasant sight than the one just related was once accorded us while working in this same country. we were quietly pushing our canoes up a sluggish stream that had found its bed in a spruce swamp. there, in many places, pond lilies were growing, their wide leaves resting on the surface of the water. the roots of the lilies are much relished as a food by the moose. we have seen the moose standing out in the bays of the lakes, and in the almost currentless streams, where the water was up to the animal's flanks, or where its body was half immersed, and poking its head deep below the surface in search of the succulent roots of the lilies. on this day, a mother moose and her twin calves had come to this stream to feed. she was in the act of reaching down under the water for a lily root, as we pushed our canoes quietly over the surface of the water into her very presence. the first to observe us was one of the young calves not more than two days old, that rose to its feet, close by on the shore. the mother looked toward her calf before she saw us; then, without undue haste, waded ashore. at this moment the second calf arose, shook itself, then, with the other twin, joined its mother. the three moved off into the spruce swamp as we sat quietly in our canoes, enjoying to the fullest this most unusual opportunity of the experienced woodsman, accustomed as he is to surprises. our only regret on this occasion was, that we had no camera with us. [illustration: "here he brings his family and friends to fish". (page .)] chapter xxii. white pine--what of our future supply? it is claimed that where dartmouth college is, in the town of hanover, new hampshire, on the bank of the connecticut river, there once stood a white pine tree two hundred and seventy feet in height. that is said to have been the tallest white pine of which there is a record. of the thirty-seven species of pine that grow in the united states, the white pine is the best. nature was lavish in distributing this beautiful and useful tree on american soil, for it has been found growing in twenty-four states of the union. the following quotation is from bulletin of the forest service of the united states: "white pine occurred originally in commercial quantities in connecticut, delaware, georgia, illinois, indiana, kentucky, maine, maryland, massachusetts, michigan, minnesota, new hampshire, new jersey, new york, north carolina, ohio, pennsylvania, rhode island, south carolina, tennessee, vermont, virginia, west virginia, and wisconsin. the cut has probably exceeded that of any other species. several timber trees have a wider commercial range, and at the present time two yield more lumber yearly--douglas fir and longleaf pine--but white pine was the leader in the market for two hundred and fifty years. though to-day the original forests of this species are mere fragments of what they once were, the second growth in small regions is meeting heavy demand. in massachusetts, for example, the cut in was two hundred and thirty-eight million feet, and practically all of it was second growth. it is not improbable that a similar cut can be made every year in the future from the natural growth of white pine in that state. it might be shown by a simple calculation that if one-tenth of the original white pine region were kept in well-protected second growth, like that in massachusetts, it would yield annual crops, successfully for all time, as large as the white pine cut in the united states in . to do this would require the growth of only twenty-five cubic feet of wood per acre each year, and good white pine growth will easily double that amount. the supply of white pine lumber need never fail in this country, provided a moderate area is kept producing as a result of proper care. "during the past thirty years the largest cut of white pine has come from the lake states, michigan, wisconsin, and minnesota." it is shown in the government's reports that forty-eight per cent of the total lumber output of the united states in was pine. if something near this ratio is to be maintained, it must be by planting and growing the trees. under the present system of taxation, neither individuals nor corporations will undertake the work. the investment, at the shortest, is one of thirty years before returns may be looked for, while twice that time is better business. owners of pine forests are obliged now, and have been in past years, to cut their timber lands clean because of excessive taxation. to encourage the planting and cultivation of new pine forests, it would be better to levy no tax upon the individual's or corporation's young trees until the time that the timber has grown to a size fit to be marketed, and then only on that portion which is cut into lumber. even with this encouragement it is an enterprise that belongs largely to the state, and from it must emanate the aggressive movement upon land belonging to the state. on the subject of "reforestation with white pine," prof. e. g. cheyney, director of the college of forestry in the university of minnesota, states: "like everything else, a tree does better on good soil, but the pine tree has the faculty of growing well on soil too poor for any other crop.... on the best quality of soil the white pine tree has produced m feet per acre in europe. on the third quality soil it makes from to m feet. our forest soils are, on the whole, of better quality than those devoted to forests in europe. "the forest experiment station at cloquet, under the control of the college of forestry, is now studying this reforestation policy, and the state forest service is looking after the forest fires and expects to begin the reforestation of our state forests this spring. "there are now two national forests in minnesota aggregating about , , acres and only , acres of state forest. these state forests should be increased to at least , , acres." chapter xxiii. retrospect--meed of praise. it is hoped that the foregoing pages have thrown some light upon the peculiar occupation of the pioneer woodsman as he is related to lumbering in the northwest. there has been no attempt to do more than to give a plain recital of some of the events that have occurred in the experiences of one man while pioneering in this special field of the great timber and lumbering industry of the northwest. another, engaged in the same pursuit, might easily relate his personal experiences of equal or greater scope than have been herein portrayed, for not all has been said that might be of the woodsman's secluded life. the occupation of this type of man is fast being eliminated, and soon his place will be known no more. in fact, the time has already arrived when there is no longer any primeval forest in the northwest into which he may enter and separate himself from others of his own race. railroads have been built in many directions into these vast forests, and the fine, stately pine trees have been cut down and sent out over the lines of these railroads. men and their families have come from various states and from foreign countries, and are still coming to make for themselves homes on the lands now denuded of their once majestic forest trees towering high, and overshadowing all the earth beneath with their green branches and waving plumage. [illustration: "prepare their fish just caught for the meal, by the open camp fire." (page .)] the neigh of the horse, the low of the cow or the ox, and the laugh or song of the child is now heard where twenty years ago in summer time, stalked fearlessly the moose and the deer, where roamed the bear at will, unmolested, safe from the crack of the white man's rifle. the schoolhouse springs into existence, where a year ago were stumps and trees. the faithful teacher, fresh from one of the normal schools or colleges of the state, comes into the settlement to train the minds and to help mould the characters of the future farmers, mechanics, statesmen, or financiers; of the doctors, lawyers, judges; or honored wives and mothers. from this ever increasing supply of the newly-born northwest, are coming and will continue to come, some of the most valued accretions of good citizens to the commonwealth of minnesota. farms are yielding their first crops to the sturdy husbandman. pleasant, comfortable homes meet the eye of the tourist from the city in summer as he motors over the fairly good roads of the northern frontier. he enters little towns carved out of the woods, and finds, now living happily, friends whom he had known in the city, who are ready to welcome him. he camps by the roadside on the shore of a lake, or on the bank of the mississippi whose waters flowed on unobstructed in the earlier days herein recorded, but now are harnessed for the better service of man. here he brings his family and friends to fish and to lunch, or, better still, to prepare their fish just caught for the meal, by the open camp fire. he continues his journey through this unbroken wilderness of less than a generation ago, over improving roads, to the very source of the mississippi river that is within five minutes' walk of lake itasca. here is a refreshing bit of natural pine forest, owned and preserved by the state of minnesota, where he and his friends may find shelter for the night, and for a longer period if desired. in concluding this subject, i am actuated by a desire to manifest my appreciation of the fine manhood possessed by many men whom i have known, the best part of whose lives has been spent similarly to my own, in the extensive forests that once beautified and adorned the great northwest. the occupation is one which demands many of the highest attributes of man. he must be skillful enough as a surveyor to always know which description of land he is on, and where he is on that description. he must be a good judge of timber, able to discern the difference between a sound tree and a defective one, as well as to estimate closely the quantity and quality of lumber, reckoned in feet, board measure, each tree will likely produce when sawed at the mill. he must examine the contour of the country where the timber is, and make calculations how the timber is to be gotten out, either by water or by rail, and estimate how much money per thousand feet it will cost, to bring the logs to market. the value of the standing pine or other timber in the woods is dependent on all of these conditions, which must be reckoned in arriving at an estimate of the desirability of each tract of timber as an investment for himself, or for whomsoever he may represent. possessing these qualifications, he must also be honest; he must be industrious; he must be courageous. he must gain the other side of rivers that have no bridges over them, and he must cross lakes on which there are no boats. he must find shelter when he has no tent, and make moccasins when his shoes are worn and no longer of service, and new ones are not to be obtained; he must be indefatigable, for he will often be tempted to leave some work half finished rather than overcome the physical obstacles that lay between him and the completion of his task. on the character of this man and on his faithfulness, his honesty, his conscientiousness, and on the correctness of his knowledge concerning the quality, quantity, and situation as to marketing the timber he examines, depends the value of the investments. hundreds of thousands of dollars are invested on the word of this man, after he has disappeared into the wilderness and emerged with his report of what he has seen. the requisitions of manhood for this work are of a very high degree, and, when such a man is found, he is entitled to all of the esteem that is ever accorded to an honest, faithful, conscientious cashier, banker, or administrator of a large estate. [illustration: "he continues his journey ... to the very source of the mississippi river". (page .)] is he required to furnish an illustrious example to prove the worthiness of his chosen occupation, let him cite to the inquirer the early manhood days of george washington, who penetrated the forests from his home in virginia, traveling through a country where savages roamed, pushing his course westward to the ohio river in his search for valuable tracts of land for investment, and surveying lands for others than himself. his occupation is an honorable one, and those who pursue it with an honest purpose, are accorded a high place in the esteem of those whom they serve, and with whom they associate. the pines. "we sleep in the sleep of ages, the bleak, barbarian pines; the gray moss drapes us like sages, and closer we lock our lines, and deeper we clutch through the gelid gloom where never a sunbeam shines. wind of the east, wind of the west, wandering to and fro, chant your songs in our topmost boughs, that the sons of men may know the peerless pine was the first to come, and the pine will be last to go! we spring from the gloom of the canyon's womb; in the valley's lap we lie; from the white foam-fringe, where the breakers cringe, to the peaks that tusk the sky, we climb, and we peer in the crag-locked mere that gleams like a golden eye. gain to the verge of the hog-back ridge where the vision ranges free; pines and pines and the shadow of pines as far as the eye can see; a steadfast legion of stalwart knights in dominant empery. sun, moon and stars give answer; shall we not staunchly stand even as now, forever, wards of the wilder strand, sentinels of the stillness, lords of the last, lone land?" transcriber's notes inconsistencies in the placement of quotes before or after periods have not been changed. pp. , : "fiancé" changed to "fiancée". p. : "empounding" changed to "impounding" (the necessity of impounding the waters). p. : "sufciently" changed to "sufficiently" (i moved just sufficiently). p. : "similarily" changed to "similarly" (similarly to my own). available by internet archive (https://archive.org) note: project gutenberg also has an html version of this file which includes the numerous original illustrations. see -h.htm or -h.zip: (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h/ -h.htm) or (http://www.gutenberg.org/files/ / -h.zip) images of the original pages are available through internet archive. see https://archive.org/details/timeitsmeasureme arth transcriber's note: text enclosed by underscores is in italics (_italics_). the notation "_{n}" means that n is a subscript. small capital text has been converted to all uppercase. time and its measurement by james arthur reprinted from popular mechanics magazine copyright, , by h. h. windsor chicago, contents chapter i historic outline time as an abstraction. -- ancient divisions of day and night. -- night watches of the old testament. -- quarter days and hours of the new testament. -- shadow, or sun time. -- noon mark dials. -- ancient dials of herculaneum and pompeii. -- modern dials. -- equation of time. -- three historic methods of measuring time. -- "time-boy" of india. -- chinese clepsydra. -- ancient weather and time stations. -- tower of the winds, athens, greece page chapter ii japanese clocks chinese and japanese divisions of the day. -- hours of varying length. -- setting clocks to length of daylight. -- curved line dials. -- numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for same. -- daily names for sixty day period. -- japanese clock movements practically dutch. -- japanese astronomical clock. -- decimal numbers very old chinese. -- original vertical dials founded on "bamboo stick" of chinese clepsydra. -- mathematics and superstition. -- mysterious disappearance of hours , , . -- eastern mental attitude towards time. -- japanese methods of striking hours and half hours page chapter iii modern clocks de vick's clock of . -- original "verge" escapement. -- "anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "remontoir" clock. -- the pendulum. -- jeweling pallets. -- antique clock with earliest application of pendulum. -- turkish watches. -- correct designs for public clock faces. -- art work on old watches. -- -hour watch. -- syrian and hebrew hour numerals. -- correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- design for -hour dial and hands. -- curious clocks. -- inventions of the old clock-makers page chapter iv astronomical foundation of time astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- reasons for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our -hour day. -- year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. -- precession of the equinoxes. -- earth's rotation most uniform motion known to us. -- time stars and transits. -- local time. -- the date line. -- standard time. -- beginning and ending of a day. -- proposed universal time. -- clock dial for universal time and its application to business. -- next great improvement in clocks and watches indicated. -- automatic recording of the earth's rotation. -- year of the seasons as a unit for astronomers. -- general conclusions page illustrations page portrait of james arthur interpretation of chinese and japanese methods of time keeping portable bronze sundial from the ruins of herculaneum noon-mark sundials modern horizontal sundial for latitude °- ´ the earth, showing relation of dial styles to axis modern sundial set up in garden "time-boy" of india "hon-woo-et-low," or "copper jars dropping water"--canton, china modern sand glass or "hour glass" tower of the winds, athens, greece key to japanese figures japanese dials set for long and short days japanese striking clock with weight and short pendulum japanese striking clock with spring, fusee and balance japanese clock with vertical dial, weight and balance japanese clock with vertical dial having curved lines, weight and balance japanese vertical dials japanese striking clock with two balances and two escapements "twelve horary branches" and " celestial stems" as used in clocks key to " horary branches" and " celestial stems" dial of japanese astronomical clock use of "yeng number" and animal names of hours public dial by james arthur dial of philadelphia city hall clock verge escapement de vick's clock of anchor escapement american anchor escapement dead beat escapement remontoir clock by james arthur remontoir clock movement antique clock, entirely hand-made , double-case watch of repoussé work triple-case turkish watches watch showing dutch art work triple-case turkish watch watches showing art work antique watch cock "chinese" watch musical watch, repeating hours and quarters syrian dial hebrew numerals twenty-four hour watch domestic dial by james arthur local time--standard time--beginning and ending of the day universal time dial set for four places [illustration: james arthur mr. arthur is an enthusiastic scientist, a successful inventor and extensive traveler, who has for years been making a study of clocks, watches, and time-measuring devices. he is not only a great authority on this subject, but his collection of over timepieces gathered from all parts of the globe has been pronounced the finest collection in the world. mr. arthur is a pleasing exception to the average business man, for he has found time to do a large amount of study and research along various scientific lines in addition to conducting an important manufacturing business in new york city, of which he is president. mr. arthur is years of age.--h. h. windsor.] chapter i historic outline time as an abstraction. -- ancient divisions of day and night. -- night watches of the old testament. -- quarter days and hours of the new testament. -- shadow or sun time. -- noon mark dials. -- ancient dials of herculaneum and pompeii. -- modern dials. -- equation of time. -- three historic methods of measuring time. -- "time-boy" of india. -- chinese clepsydra. -- ancient weather and time stations. -- tower of the winds, athens, greece. time, as a separate entity, has not yet been defined in language. definitions will be found to be merely explanations of the sense in which we use the word in matters of practical life. no human being can tell how long a minute is; only that it is longer than a second and shorter than an hour. in some sense we can think of a longer or shorter period of time, but this is merely comparative. the difference between and steps a minute in marching is clear to us, but note that we introduce motion and space before we can get a conception of time as a succession of events, but time, in itself, remains elusive. in time measures we strive for a uniform motion of something and this implies equal spaces in equal times; so we here assume just what we cannot explain, for space is as difficult to define as time. time cannot be "squared" or used as a multiplier or divisor. only numbers can be so used; so when we speak of "the square of the time" we mean some number which we have arbitrarily assumed to represent it. this becomes plain when we state that in calculations relating to pendulums, for example, we may use seconds and inches--minutes and feet--or seconds and meters and the answer will come out right in the units which we have assumed. still more, numbers themselves have no meaning till they are applied to something, and here we are applying them to time, space and motion; so we are trying to explain three abstractions by a fourth! but, happily, the results of these assumptions and calculations are borne out in practical human life, and we are not compelled to settle the deep question as to whether fundamental knowledge is possible to the human mind. those desiring a few headaches on these questions can easily get them from kant and spencer--but that is all they will get on these four necessary assumptions. evidently, man began by considering the day as a unit and did not include the night in his time keeping for a long period. "and the evening and the morning were the first day" gen. , ; "evening and morning and at noonday," ps. lv, , divides the day ("sun up") in two parts. "fourth part of a day," neh. ix, , shows another advance. then comes, "are there not twelve hours in a day," john xi, . the "eleventh hour," matt. xx, to , shows clearly that sunset was o'clock. a most remarkable feature of this -hour day, in the new testament, is that the writers generally speak of the third, sixth and ninth hours, acts ii, ; iii, ; x, . this is extremely interesting, as it shows that the writers still thought in quarter days (neh. ix, ) and had not yet acquired the -hour conception given to them by the romans. they thought in quarter days even when using the -hour numerals! note further that references are to "hours;" so it is evident that in new testament times they did not need smaller subdivisions. "about the third hour," shows the mental attitude. that they had no conception of our minutes, seconds and fifth seconds becomes quite plain when we notice that they jumped down from the hour to nowhere, in such expressions as "in an instant--in the twinkling of an eye." before this, the night had been divided into three watches, judges vii, . poetry to this day uses the "hours" and the "watches" as symbols. this hours of daylight gave very variable hours in latitudes some distance from the equator, being long in summer and short in winter. the amount of human ingenuity expended on time measures so as to divide the time from sunrise to sunset into equal parts is almost beyond belief. in constantinople, to-day, this is used, but in a rather imperfect manner, for the clocks are modern and run hours uniformly; so the best they can do is to set them to mark twelve at sunset. this necessitates setting to the varying length of the days, so that the clocks appear to be sometimes more and sometimes less than six hours ahead of ours. a clock on the tower at the sultan's private mosque gives the impression of being out of order and about six hours ahead, but it is running correctly to their system. hotels often show two clocks, one of them to our twelve o'clock noon system. evidently the jewish method of ending a day at sunset is the same and explains the command, "let not the sun go down upon thy wrath," which we might read, do not carry your anger over to another day. i venture to say that we still need that advice. this simple line of steps in dividing the day and night is taken principally from the bible because everyone can easily look up the passages quoted and many more, while quotations from books not in general use would not be so clear. further, the neglect of the bible is such a common complaint in this country that if i induce a few to look into it a little some good may result, quite apart from the matter of religious belief. some chinese and japanese methods of dividing the day and night are indicated in fig. . the old japanese method divides the day into six hours and the night also into six, each hour averaging twice as long as ours. in some cases they did this by changing the rate of the clock, and in others by letting the clock run uniformly and changing the hour marks on the dial, but this will come later when we reach japanese clocks. it is remarkable that at the present time in england the "saving daylight" agitation is virtually an attempt to go back to this discarded system. "john bull," for a long period the time-keeper of the world with headquarters at greenwich, and during that time the most pretentious clock-maker, now proposes to move his clocks backward and forward several times a year so as to "fool" his workmen out of their beds in the mornings! why not commence work a few minutes earlier each fortnight while days are lengthening and the reverse when they are shortening? this reminds me of a habit which was common in scotland,--"keeping the clock half an hour forward." in those days work commenced at six o'clock, so the husband left his house at six and after a good walk arrived at the factory at six! don't you see that if his clock had been set right he would have found it necessary to leave at half past five? but, you say he was simply deceiving himself and acting in an unreasonable manner. certainly, but the average man is not a reasonable being, and "john bull" knows this and is trying to fool the average englishman. [illustration: fig. --interpretation of chinese and japanese methods of time keeping] now, as to the methods of measuring time, we must use circumstantial evidence for the pre-historic period. the rising and the going down of the sun--the lengthening shadows, etc., must come first, and we are on safe ground here, for savages still use primitive methods like setting up a stick and marking its shadow so that a party trailing behind can estimate the distance the leaders are ahead by the changed position of the shadow. men notice their shortening and lengthening shadows to this day. when the shadow of a man shortens more and more slowly till it appears to be fixed, the observer knows it is noon, and when it shows the least observable lengthening then it is just past noon. now, it is a remarkable fact that this crude method of determining noon is just the same as "taking the sun" to determine noon at sea. noon is the time at which the sun reaches his highest point on any given day. at sea this is determined generally by a sextant, which simply measures the angle between the horizon and the sun. the instrument is applied a little before noon and the observer sees the sun creeping upward slower and slower till a little tremor or hesitation appears indicating that the sun has reached his height,--noon. oh! you wish to know if the observer is likely to make a mistake? yes, and when accurate local time is important, several officers on a large ship will take the meridian passage at the same time and average their readings, so as to reduce the "personal error." all of which is merely a greater degree of accuracy than that of the man who observes his shadow. [illustration: fig. --portable bronze sundial from the ruins of herculaneum] the gradual development of the primitive shadow methods culminated in the modern sundial. the "dial of ahas," isa. xxxviii, , on which the sun went back "degrees" is often referred to, but in one of the revised editions of the unchangeable word the sun went back "steps." this becomes extremely interesting when we find that in india there still remains an immense dial built with steps instead of hour lines. figure shows a pocket, or portable sundial taken from the ruins of herculaneum and now in the museo national, naples. it is bronze, was silver plated and is in the form of a ham suspended from the hock joint. from the tail, evidently bent from its original position, which forms the gnomon, lines radiate and across these wavy lines are traced. it is about in. long and in. wide. being in the corner of a glass case i was unable to get small details, but museum authorities state that names of months are engraved on it, so it would be a good guess that these wavy lines had something to do with the long and short days. in a restored flower garden, within one of the large houses in the ruins of pompeii, may be seen a sundial of the armillary type, presumably in its original position. i could not get close to it, as the restored garden is railed in, but it looks as if the plane of the equator and the position of the earth's axis must have been known to the maker. both these dials were in use about the beginning of our era and were covered by the great eruption of vesuvius in a.d., which destroyed pompeii and herculaneum. modern sundials differ only in being more accurately made and a few "curiosity" dials added. the necessity for time during the night, as man's life became a little more complicated, necessitated the invention of time machines. the "clepsydra," or water clock, was probably the first. a french writer has dug up some old records putting it back to hoang-ti b.c., but it appears to have been certainly in use in china in b.c., so we will be satisfied with that date. in presenting a subject to the young student it is sometimes advisable to use round numbers to give a simple comprehension and then leave him to find the overlapping of dates and methods as he advances. keeping this in mind, the following table may be used to give an elementary hint of the three great steps in time measuring: shadow time, to b. c. dials and water clocks, b. c. to a. d. clocks and watches, to a. d. i have pushed the gear wheel clocks and watches forward to a.d., as they may last to that time, but i have no doubt we will supersede them. at the present time science is just about ready to say that a time measurer consisting of wheels and pinions--a driving power and a regulator in the form of a pendulum or balance, is a clumsy contrivance and that we ought to do better very soon; but more on this hoped-for, fourth method when we reach the consideration of the motion on which we base all our time keeping. it is remarkable how few are aware that the simplest form of sundial is the best, and that, as a regulator of our present clocks, it is good within one or two minutes. no one need be without a "noon-mark" sundial; that is, every one may have the best of all dials. take a post or any straight object standing "plumb," or best of all the corner of a building as in fig. . in the case of the post, or tree trunk, a stone (shown in solid black) may be set in the ground; but for the building a line may often be cut across a flagstone of the footpath. many methods may be employed to get this noon mark, which is simply a north and south line. viewing the pole star, using a compass (if the local variation is known) or the old method of finding the time at which the shadow of a pole is shortest. but the best practical way in this day is to use a watch set to local time and make the mark at o'clock. [illustration: fig. --noon-mark sundials] on four days of the year the sun is right and your mark may be set at on these days, but you may use an almanac and look in the column marked "mean time at noon" or "sun on meridian." for example, suppose on the bright day when you are ready to place your noon mark you read in this column : , then when your watch shows : make your noon mark to the shadow and it will be right for all time to come. owing to the fact that there are not an even number of days in a year, it follows that on any given yearly date at noon the earth is not at the same place in its elliptical orbit and the correction of this by the leap years causes the equation table to vary in periods of four years. the centennial leap years cause another variation of years, etc., but these variations are less than the error in reading a dial. sun on noon mark, ------------------------------------------------------- clock clock clock date time date time date time ------------------------------------------------------- jan. : may : sep. : " : " : oct. : " : " : " : " : june : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : nov. : " : " : " : " : july : " : feb. : " : " : " : " : dec. : mar. : aug. : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : sep. : " : " : " : " : apr. : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : " : ------------------------------------------------------- the above table shows the variation of the sun from "mean" or clock time, by even minutes. [illustration: fig. -- -inch modern horizontal sundial for latitude °- ´] [illustration: fig. --the earth, showing relation of dial styles to axis] the reason that the table given here is convenient for setting clocks to mean time is that a minute is as close as a dial can be read, but if you wish for greater accuracy, then the almanac, which gives the "equation of time" to a second for each day, will be better. the reason that these noon-mark dials are better than ordinary commercial dials is that they are larger, and still further, noon is the only time that any dial is accurate to sun time. this is because the sun's rays are "refracted" in a variable manner by our atmosphere, but at noon this refraction takes place on a north and south line, and as that is our noon-mark line the dial reads correctly. so, for setting clocks, the corner of your house is far ahead of the most pretentious and expensive dial. in fig. is shown a modern horizontal dial without the usual confusing "ornamentation," and in fig. it is shown set up on the latitude of new york city for which it is calculated. this shows clearly why the edge fg of the style which casts the shadow must be parallel to the earth's axis and why a horizontal dial must be made for the latitude of the place where it is set up. figure is the same dial only the lines are laid out on a square dial plate, and it will give your young scientific readers a hint of how to set up a dial in the garden. in setting up a horizontal dial, consider only noon and set the style, or o'clock line, north and south as described above for noon-mark dials. [illustration: fig. --modern sundial set up in garden] a whole issue of popular mechanics could be filled on the subject of dials and even then only give a general outline. astronomy, geography, geometry, mathematics, mechanics, as well as architecture and art, come in to make "dialing" a most charming scientific and intellectual avocation. during the night and also in cloudy weather the sundial was useless and we read that the priests of the temples and monks of more modern times "went out to observe the stars" to make a guess at the time of night. the most prominent type after the shadow devices was the "water clock" or "clepsydra," but many other methods were used, such as candles, oil lamps and in comparatively late times, the sand glass. the fundamental principle of all water clocks is the escape of water from a vessel through a small hole. it is evident that such a vessel would empty itself each time it is filled in very nearly the same time. the reverse of this has been used as shown in fig. , which represents the "time-boy" of india. he sits in front of a large vessel of water and floats a bronze cup having a small hole in its bottom in this large vessel, and the leakage gradually lowers this cup till it sinks, after which he fishes it up and strikes one or more blows on it as a gong. this he continues and a rude division of time is obtained,--while he keeps awake! [illustration: fig. --"time-boy" of india] [illustration: fig. --"hon-woo-et-low" or "copper jars dropping water"--canton, china] the most interesting of all water clocks is undoubtedly the "copper jars dropping water," in canton, china, where i saw it in . referring to the simple line sketch, which i make from memory, fig. , and reading four chinese characters downwards the translation is "canton city." to the left and still downwards,--"hon-woo-et-low," which is,--"copper jars dropping water." educated chinamen inform me that it is over , years old and had a weather vane. as they speak of it as "the clock of the street arch" this would look quite probable; since the little open building, or tower in which it stands is higher than surrounding buildings. it is, therefore, reasonably safe to state that the chinese had a _weather and time station_ over , years before our era. it consists of four copper jars partially built in masonry forming a stair-like structure. commencing at the top jar each one drops into the next downward till the water reaches the solid bottom jar. in this lowest one a float, "the bamboo stick," is placed and indicates the height of the water and thus in a rude way gives the time. it is said to be set morning and evening by dipping the water from jar to jar , so it runs hours of our time. what are the uses of jars and , since the water simply enters them and drips out again? no information could be obtained, but i venture an explanation and hope the reader can do better, as we are all of a family and there is no jealousy. when the top jar is filled for a -hour run it would drip out too fast during the first six hours and too slow during the second six hours, on account of the varying "head" of water. now, the spigot of jar could be set so that it would gain water during the first six hours, and lose during the second six hours and thus equalize a little by splitting the error of jar in two parts. similarly, these two errors of jar could be again split by jar making four small variations in lowest jar, instead of one large error in the flow of jar . this could be extended to a greater number of jars, another jar making eight smaller errors, etc., etc. but i am inclined to credit our ancient chinese inventor with the sound reasoning that a human attendant, being very fallible and limited in his capacity, would have all he could properly do to adjust four jars, and that his record would average better than it would with a greater number. remember, this man lived thousands of years before the modern mathematician who constructed a bell-shaped vessel with a small hole in the bottom, and proportioned the varying diameter in such a manner that in emptying itself the surface of the water sank equal distances in equal times. the sand glass, fig. , poetically called the "hour glass," belongs to the water-clock class and the sand flows from one bulb into the other, but it gives no subdivisions of its period, so if you are using one running an hour it does not give you the half hour. the sand glass is still in use by chairmen, and when the oldest inhabitant gets on his feet, i always advise setting a -minute glass "on him." [illustration: fig. --modern sand glass or "hour glass"] [illustration: fig. --"tower of the winds"--athens, greece] in the "tower of the winds" at athens, greece (fig. ), we have a later "weather bureau" station. it is attributed to the astronomer andronicos, and was built about b. c. it is octagonal in plan and although ft. in diameter and ft. high, it looks like a sentry box when seen from one of the hills of athens. it had a bronze weather vane and in later times sundials on its eight sides, but all these are gone and the tower itself is only a dilapidated ruin. in making the drawing for this cut, from a photograph of the tower, i have sharpened the weathered and chipped corners of the stones so as to give a view nearly like the structure as originally built; but nothing is added. under the eaves it has eight allegorical sculptures, representing wind and weather. artists state that these sculptures are inferior as compared with grecian art of an older period. but the most interesting part is inside, and here we find curious passages cut in solid stone, and sockets which look as if they had contained metal bearings for moving machinery. circumstantial evidence is strong that it contained a complicated water clock which could have been kept running with tolerable accuracy by setting it daily to the dials on the outside. probably during a few days of cloudy weather the clock would "get off quite a little," but business was not pressing in those days. besides, the timekeeper would swear by his little water wheel, anyway, and feel safe, as there was no higher authority wearing an american watch. some very interesting engravings of japanese clocks and a general explanation of them, as well as a presentation of the japanese mental attitude towards "hours" and their strange method of numbering them may be expected in the next chapter. chapter ii japanese clocks chinese and japanese divisions of the day. -- hours of varying length. -- setting clocks to length of daylight. -- curved line dials. -- numbering hours backwards and strange reasons for same. -- daily names for sixty day period. -- japanese clock movements practically dutch. -- japanese astronomical clock. -- decimal numbers very old chinese. -- original vertical dials founded on "bamboo stick" of chinese clepsydra. -- mathematics and superstition. -- mysterious disappearance of hours , , . -- eastern mental attitude towards time. -- japanese methods of striking hours and half hours. the ancient methods of dividing day and night in china and japan become more hazy as we go backwards and the complications grow. the three circles in fig. (chapter i) are all taken from japanese clocks, but the interpretation has been obtained from chinese and japanese scholars. the japanese obtained a great deal from the chinese, in fact nearly everything relating to the ancient methods of time keeping and the compiling of calendars. i have not been able to find any chinese clocks constructed of wheels and pinions, but have a number of japanese. these have a distinct resemblance to the earlier dutch movements, and while made in japan, they are practically dutch, so far as the "works" are concerned, but it is easy to see from the illustrations that they are very japanese in style and ornamentation. the dutch were the leaders in opening japan to the european nations and introduced modern mathematics and clocks from about a. d. the ancient mathematics of japan came largely from china through corea. in fig. are given the japanese figures beside ours, for the reader's use as a key. the complete day in japan was divided into twice six hours; that is, six for daylight and six for night, and the clocks are set, as the days vary in length, so that six o'clock is sunrise and sunset. the hour numerals on fig. are on little plates which are movable, and are shown set for a long day and a short night. [illustration: fig. ] [illustration: fig. fig. . japanese dials set for long and short days] in fig. they are set for short days and long nights. the narrow plates shown in solid black are the half-hour marks. in this type the hand is stationary and always points straight upward. the dial rotates, as per arrow, once in a full day. this style of dial is shown on complete clocks, fig. being a weight clock and fig. a spring clock with chain and fusee. the hours are to and the dials rotate to make them read backwards. the six hours of daylight are , , , , , , and the same for night, so these hours average twice as long as ours. note that nine is mid-day and mid-night, and as these do not change by long and short days they are stationary on the dial, as you can easily see by comparing figs. and , which are the same dial set for different seasons. between these extremes the dial hours are set as often as the owner wishes; so if he happens to correspond with our "time crank" he will set them often and dispute with his neighbors about the time. figure shows a clock with the hour numerals on a vertical series of movable plates and it is set for uniform hours when day and night are equal at the equinox. the ornamental pointer is fastened to the weight through the vertical slit, plainly visible in illustration, and indicates the time as it descends. this clock is wound up at sunset, so the six on the top of the dial is sunset the same as the six on the bottom. figure shows how this type of dial is set for long and short days and explains itself, but will become plainer as we proceed. this dial is virtually a continuation of the old method of marking time by the downward motion of the water in the clepsydras and will be noticed later. [illustration: fig. --japanese striking clock with weight and short pendulum] [illustration: fig. --japanese striking clock with spring, fusee and balance] figure represents a clock which is a work of art and shows great refinement of design in providing for the varying lengths of days. the bar lying across the dial is fastened to the weight through the two slits running the whole length of the dial. on this cross bar is a small pointer, which is movable by the fingers, and may be set to any one of the thirteen vertical lines. the numerous characters on the top space of dial indicate the dates on which the pointer is to be set. this clock is wound up at sunset, and it is easy to see that as the little pointer is set towards the right, the night hours at the top of the dial become shorter and the day hours longer on the lower part. the left edge of the dial gives the hours, reading downwards, and as the pointer touches any one of the curved lines the hour is read at the left-hand end. the curved lines formed of dots are the half-hours. the right-hand edge of the dial has the "twelve horary characters" which will be explained later. for dividing the varying days into six hours' sunshine it would be difficult to think of a more artistic and beautiful invention than this. it is a fine example of great ingenuity and constant trouble to operate a system which is fundamentally wrong according to our method of uniform hours at all seasons. clocks having these curved lines for the varying lengths of days--and we shall find them on circular dials as we go on--must be made for a certain latitude, since the days vary more and more as you go farther from the equator. this will become plain when you are reminded that a japanese clock at the equator would not need any adjustment of hour numerals, because the days and nights are equal there all the year. so after such infinite pains in forming these curved lines the clock is only good in the latitude for which it was made and must not be carried north or south! our clocks are correct from pole to pole, but all clocks must be set to local time if they are carried east or west. as this is a rather fascinating phase of the subject it might be worth pointing out that if you go north till you have the sun up for a month in the middle of summer--and there are people living as far up as that--the japanese system would become absurd and break down; so there is no danger of any of our polar expeditions carrying japanese clocks. [illustration: fig. --japanese clock with vertical dial, weight and balance.] [illustration: fig. --japanese vertical dials] [illustration: fig. --japanese clock with vertical dial having curved lines, weight and balance.] figure shows a very fine clock in which the dial is stationary and the hand moves just as on our dials. this hour hand corresponds to the single hand of the old dutch clocks. when the japanese reached the point of considering the application of minute and second hands to their clocks they found that these refinements would not fit their old method and they were compelled to lay aside their clocks and take ours. on this dial, fig. , nine is noon, as usual, and is on top side of dial. hand points to three quarters past _seven_, that is, a quarter to _six_, near sunset. between the bell and the top of the clock body two horizontal balances, having small weights hung on them, are plainly shown, and the clock has two verge escapements--one connected with each balance, or "foliot." let us suppose a long day coming to a close at sunset, just as the hand indicates. the upper balance, which is the slow one, has been swinging backwards and forwards measuring the long hours of the day. when the clock strikes six, at sunset, the top balance is thrown out of action and the lower one, which is the fast one, is thrown into action and measures the short night hours. at sunrise this is thrown out and the top one in again to measure the next day's long hours. as the days vary in length, the balances, or foliots, can be made to swing faster or slower by moving the weights inwards or outwards a notch or two. the balance with small weights for regulation is the oldest known and was used in connection with the verge escapement, just as in this clock, by the dutch about . all the evidence i can find indicates that the japanese clocks are later than this date. in design, ornamentation and methods for marking varying days, however, the japanese have shown great artistic taste and inventiveness. it is seen that this dial in addition to the usual six hours, twice over, has on the outside circle of dial, the "twelve horary branches" called by the japanese the "twelve honorary branches," thus indicating the whole day of twelve japanese hours, six of them for day and six for night. by this means they avoided repeating the same hours for day and night. when it is pointed out that these "twelve horary branches" are very old chinese, we are not in a position to boast about our twenty-four hour system, because these branches indicate positively whether any given hour is day or night. when we print a time table in the twenty-four hour system so as to get rid of our clumsy a. m. and p. m., we are thousands of years behind the chinese. more than that, for they got the matter right without any such pressure as our close running trains have brought to bear on us. these branches have one syllable names and the "ten celestial stems" have also one syllable names, all as shown on fig. . refer now to fig. where two disks are shown, one having the "twelve horary branches" and the other the "ten celestial stems." these disks are usually put behind the dial so that one "branch" and one "stem" can be seen at the same time through two openings. the clock moves these disks one step each night, so that a new pair shows each day. running in this manner, step by step, you will find that it takes sixty moves, that is sixty days, to bring the same pair around again. each has a single syllable name, as shown on fig. , and we thus get sixty names of two syllables by reading them together to the left. the two openings may be seen in the dials of figs. and . so the japanese know exactly what day it is in a period of sixty which they used in their old calendars. these were used by the chinese over four thousand years ago as the names of a cycle of sixty years, called the "sexagenary." the present chinese year is yu-ki which means the year of the th "sexagenary." that is, × + = , . in fig. , we read tsu-kiah, or the first year. if you will make two disks like fig. and commence with tsu-kiah and move the two together you will come to yu-ki on the th move. but there is another way which you might like better, thus: write the twelve "branches," or syllables, straight downwards, continuously five times; close to the right, write the ten "stems" six times. now you have sixty words of two syllables and the th, counting downwards, will be yu-ki. besides, this method gives you the whole sixty names of the "sexagenary" at one view. always read _left_, that is, pronounce the "stem" syllable first. [illustration: fig. --japanese striking clock with two balances and two escapements; dial stationary, hand moves] calendars constitute a most interesting and bewildering part of time measuring. we feel that we have settled the matter by determining the length of the year to within a second of time, and keeping the dates correctly to the nearest day by a leap year every fourth and every fourth century, established by pope gregory xiii in , and known as the "gregorian calendar." in simple words, our "almanac" is the "gregorian." we are in the habit of saying glibly that any year divisible by four is a leap year, but this is far from correct. any year leaving out the _even hundreds_, which is divisible by four is a leap year. _even hundreds_ are leap when divisible by four. this explains why was a common year, because _ hundreds_ is not divisible by four; will be a leap because _ hundreds_ is divisible by four; therefore , and will be common years and a leap, etc., to which must be made common, to keep things straight, in spite of the fact that it is divisible by four both in its hundreds and thousands. but for practical purposes, during more than two thousand years to come, we may simplify the rule to: _years_ and _even hundreds_ divisible by four are leaps. but great confusion still exists as a result of several countries holding to their own old methods. the present chinese year has days, months and full moons. compared with our it begins on january st and will end on february , . last year the china-japan calendar had months, or moons, but as that is too short they must put in an extra every thirtieth month. we only allow the error to reach one day and correct it with our leap years, but they are not so particular and let the error grow till they require another "moon." the old testament is full of moons, and even with all our "modernity" our "feasts" and holy days are often "variable" on account of being mixed up with moons. in japan the present year is the nd of meiji, that is, the nd of the present emperor's reign. the present is the jewish . these and others of varying lengths overlap our year in different degrees, so that in trade matters great confusion exists. the chinese and japanese publish a trade almanac in parallel columns with ours to avoid this. it is easy to say that we ought to have a uniform calendar all over the world, but the same remark applies just as much to money, weights, measures, and even to language itself. finally, the difficulty consists in the facts that there are not an even number of days in a year--or in a moon--or moons in a year. "these many moons" is a survival in our daily speech of this old method of measuring by moons. just a little hint as to the amount of superstition still connected with "new moon" will be enough to make clear the fact that we are not yet quite so "enlightened" as we say we are. while our calendar, or almanac, may be considered as final, we must remember that custom and religion are so mixed up with the matter in the older countries of the east that they will change very slowly. strictly, our "era" is arbitrary and christian; so we must not expect nations which had some astronomical knowledge and a working calendar, thousands of years before us, to change suddenly to our "upstart" methods. [illustration: fig. --key to " horary branches" and " celestial stems"] [illustration: fig. --" horary branches" and " celestial stems" as used in clocks] [illustration: fig. --dial of japanese astronomical clock] in fig. we have the dial of a very complicated astronomical clock. this old engraved brass dial did not photograph well, so i made a copy by hand to get clean lines. commencing at the centre, there is a small disk, b, numbered from to , giving days of the moon's age. the moon rises at a and sets at aa, later each day, of course. her age is shown by the number she touches on disk b, as this disk advances on the moon one number each day. her phases are shown by the motion of a black disk over her face; so we have here three motions for the moon, so differentiated as to show _phase_, _ascension_ and _age_. still further, as she is represented on the dial when below the horizon, it can be seen when she will rise, and "moonlight" parties may be planned. just outside the moon's course is an annulus having japanese numbers to , indicating months. note the recurring character dividing the months in halves, which means "middle," and is much used. if you will carefully read these numbers you will find a character where _one_ would come; this means "beginning" or "primary" and is often used instead of one. the clock hand is the heavy arrow and sweeps the dial once in a whole day, same direction as our clocks. this circle of the months moves along with the hand, but a little faster, so as to gain one number in a month. as shown on the figure it is about one week into the sixth month. next outward is the broad band having twelve curved lines for the hours ending outwardly in a ring divided into parts, marked off in tens by dots. these curved lines are numbered with the japanese numerals for hours which you must now be able to read easily. these hour lines, and the dotted lines for half hours, are really the same as the similar lines on fig. which you now understand. as the hand sweeps the dial daily it automatically moves outward a little each day, so it shortens the nights and lengthens the days, just as previously explained for fig. . but there is one difference, for you will notice that the last night hour, on which the arrow hand now stands, is longer than the other night hours before it, and that it is divided into _three_ by the dotted lines. the last day hour, on the left of dial, is also long and divided into _three_. that is, while all the dials previously described have equal hours for any given day, or night, this dial has a _last long hour_ in each case, divided into three instead of the usual half-hours. this is a curious and interesting point having its origin long before clocks. in the early days of the clepsydra in china, a certain time was allowed to dip up the water from the lowest jar, each morning and evening about five o'clock of our time, see fig. (chapter ). during this operation the clepsydra was not marking time, and the oriental mind evidently considered it in some sense outside of the regular hours, and like many other things was retained till it appeared absurdly on the earlier clocks. this wonderful feat of putting an interval between two consecutive hours has always been impossible to modern science; yet president roosevelt performed it easily in his "constructive" interregnum! referring to the canton clepsydra, fig. , we find that the float, or "bamboo stick," was divided into parts. at one season parts for the day and parts for the night, gradually being changed to the opposite for short days. the day hours were beaten on a drum and the night hours blown on a trumpet. later the hour numerals were made movable on the "bamboo stick." this is virtually a vertical dial with movable hour plates, so their idea of time measuring at that date, was of something moving up or down. this was put on the first clocks by the japanese; so that the dial of fig. is substantially the float of the chinese clepsydra. further, in this "bamboo stick" of parts, we have our present system of decimal numbers, so we can afford to be a little modest here too. before leaving fig. note the band, or annulus, of stars which moves with the month circle. i cannot make these stars match our twelve signs of the zodiac, but as i have copied them carefully the reader can try and make order out of them. the extreme outer edge of the dial is divided into parts, the tens being emphasized, as in our decimal scales. as we are getting a little tired of these complicated descriptions, let us branch off for a few remarks on some curiosities of eastern time keeping. they evidently think of an hour as a _period of time_ more specifically than we do. when we say " o'clock" we mean a point of time marked by the striking of the clock. we have no names for the hour periods. we must say "from to " or "between and " for an hour period. the "twelfth hour" of the new testament, i understand to mean a whole hour ending at sunset; so we are dealing with an oriental attitude of mind towards time. i think we get that conception nearly correct when we read of the "middle watch" and understand it to mean _during_ the middle third of the night. secondly, why do the japanese use no , , on their dials? these numbers were sacred in the temples and must not be profaned by use on clocks, and they mentally deducted these from the clock hours, but ultimately became accustomed to , , , , , . thirdly, why this reading of the hours backwards? let us suppose a toiler commencing at sunrise, or six. when he toiled one hour he felt that there was one less to come and he called it five. this looks quite logical, for the diminishing numbers indicated to him how much of his day's toil was to come. another explanation which is probably the foundation of "secondly" and "thirdly" above, is the fact that mathematics and superstition were closely allied in the old days of japan. if you take the numbers to , fig. , and multiply them each into the uncanny "yeng number," or nine, you will find that the last digits, reading downwards, give , , , , , . stated in other words: when to are multiplied into "three times three" the last figures are , , , , , , and _ , , , have disappeared_; so the common people were filled with fear and awe. some of the educated, even now, are mystified by the strange results produced by using three and nine as factors, and scientific journals often give space to the matter. we know that these results are produced by the simple fact that nine is one less than the "radix" of our decimal scale of numbers. nine is sometimes called the "indestructible number," since adding the digits of any of its powers gives an even number of nines. but in those days it was a mystery and the common people feared the mathematicians, and i have no doubt the shrewd old fellows took full advantage of their power over the plebeians. in japan, mathematics was not cleared of this rubbish till about a. d. [illustration: fig. --use of "yeng number" and animal names of hours] on the right-hand side of fig. are given the animal names of the hours, so the day and night hours could not be mistaken. in selecting the _rat_ for night and the _horse_ for day they showed good taste. their forenoon was "before horse" and their afternoon "after horse." japanese clocks are remarkable for variety. it looks as if they were always made to order and that the makers, probably urged by their patrons, made extreme efforts to get in wonderful motions and symbols relating to astronomy and astrology. anyone examining about fifty of them would be likely to conclude that it was almost hopeless to understand them all. remember, this is the old japanese method. nearly all the clocks and watches i saw in japan were american. it will now be necessary to close this chapter with a few points on the curious striking of japanese clocks. in those like figs. , , , the bell and hammer can be seen. in the type of fig. , the whole striking mechanism is in the weight. in fact, the striking part of the clock is the weight. on each of the plates, having the hour numerals, fig. , a pin projects inwards and as the weight containing the striking mechanism, descends, a little lever touches these and lets off the striking just when the pointer is on the hour numeral. keeping this in mind, it is easy to see that the clock will strike correctly when the hour is indicated by the pointer, no matter how the hour plates are set for long or short days. similar pins project inwards from movable plates on figs. , , , , so they strike correctly as each hour plate comes to the top just under the point of the fixed hand. in fig. , the striking is let off by a star wheel just as in old dutch clocks. clocks like figs. - do not strike. in all cases the hours are struck backwards, but the half-hours add another strange feature. the _odd_ numbered hours, , , , are followed by one blow at the half hour; and the _even_ hours, , , by two blows, or stated altogether-- _{ } _{ } _{ } _{ } _{ } _{ }. here the large figures are the hours and the small ones the half-hours. only one bell is used, because there being no one and two among the hours, the half-hours cannot be mistaken. this is not all, for you can tell what half hour it is within two hours. for example, suppose you know approximately that it is somewhere between and and you hear the clock strike , then you know it is half past . see the large and small figures above. this is far superior to our method of one at each half-hour. by our method the clock strikes _one_ three times consecutively, between and o'clock and thus mixes up the half hours with one o'clock. some interesting methods of striking will be explained in the third chapter when we deal with modern time keeping. chapter iii modern clocks devick's clock of . -- original "verge" escapement. -- "anchor" and "dead beat" escapements. -- "remontoir" clock. -- the pendulum. -- jeweling pallets. -- antique clock with earliest application of pendulum. -- turkish watches. -- correct designs for public clock faces. -- art work on old watches. -- twenty-four hour watch. -- syrian and hebrew hour numerals. -- correct method of striking hours and quarters. -- design for twenty-four hour dial and hands. -- curious clocks. -- inventions of the old clockmakers. [illustration: public dial by james arthur dial of philadelphia city hall clock fig. ] modern clocks commence with de vick's of which is the first unquestioned clock consisting of toothed wheels and containing the fundamental features of our present clocks. references are often quoted back to about a. d., but the words translated "clocks" were used for bells and dials at that date; so we are forced to consider the de vick clock as the first till more evidence is obtained. it has been pointed out, however, that this clock could hardly have been invented all at once; and therefore it is probable that many inventions leading up to it have been lost to history. the part of a clock which does the ticking is called the "escapement" and the oldest form known is the "verge," fig. , the date of which is unknown, but safely years before de vick. the "foliot" is on the vertical verge, or spindle, which has the pallets a b. as the foliot swings horizontally, from rest to rest, we hear one tick, but it requires two of these single swings, or two ticks, to liberate one tooth of the escape wheel; so there are twice as many ticks in one turn of the escape wheel as it has teeth. we thus see that an escapement is a device in which something moves back and forth and allows the teeth of an "escape wheel" to escape. while this escapement is, in some respects, the simplest one, it has always been difficult to make it plain in a drawing, so i have made an effort to explain it by making the side of the wheel and its pallet b, which is nearest the eye, solid black, and farther side and its pallet a, shaded as in the figure. the wheel moves in the direction of the arrow, and tooth d is very near escaping from pallet b. the tooth c on the farther side of wheel is moving left, so it will fall on pallet a, to be in its turn liberated as the pallets and foliot swing back and forth. it is easy to see that each tooth of the wheel will give a little push to the pallet as it escapes, and thus keep the balance swinging. this escapement is a very poor time-keeper, but it was one of the great inventions and held the field for about years, that is, from the days when it regulated bells up to the "onion" watches of our grandfathers. scattered references in old writings make it reasonably certain that from about , to , bells were struck by machines regulated with this verge escapement, thus showing that the striking part of a clock is older than the clock itself. it seems strange to us to say that many of the earlier clocks were strikers, only, and had no dials or hands, just as if you turned the face of your clock to the wall and depended on the striking for the time. keeping this action of the verge escapement in mind we can easily understand its application, as made by de vick, in fig. , where i have marked the same pallets a b. a tooth is just escaping from pallet b and then one on the other side of the wheel will fall on pallet a. foliot, verge and pallets form one solid piece which is suspended by a cord, so as to enable it to swing with little friction. for the purpose of making the motions very plain i have left out the dial and framework from the drawing. the wheel marked "twelve hours," and the pinion which drives it, are both outside the frame, just under the dial, and are drawn in dash and dot. the axle of this twelve-hour wheel goes through the dial and carries the hand, which marks hours only. the winding pinion and wheel, in dotted lines, are inside the frame. now follow the "great wheel"--"intermediate"--"escape wheel" and the two pinions, all in solid lines, and you have the "train" which is the principal part of all clocks. this clock has an escapement, wheels, pinions, dial, hand, weight, and winding square. we have only added the pendulum, a better escapement, the minute and second hands in over years! the "anchor" escapement, fig. , came about and is attributed to dr. hooke, an englishman. it gets its name from the resemblance of the pallets to the flukes of an anchor. this anchor is connected to the pendulum and as it swings right and left, the teeth of the escape wheel are liberated, one tooth for each two swings from rest to rest, the little push on the pallets a b, as the teeth escape, keeping the pendulum going. it is astonishing how many, even among the educated, think that the pendulum drives the clock! the pendulum must always be driven by some power. [illustration: fig. --verge escapement] [illustration: fig. --de vick's clock of ] [illustration: fig. --anchor escapement] [illustration: fig. --american anchor escapement] this escapement will be found in nearly all the grandfather clocks in connection with a seconds pendulum. it is a good time-keeper, runs well, wears well, stands some rough handling and will keep going even when pretty well covered with dust and cobwebs; so it is used more than all the numerous types ever invented. figure gives the general american form of the "anchor" which is made by bending a strip of steel; but it is not the best form, as the acting surfaces of the pallets are straight. it is, therefore, inferior to fig. where the acting surfaces are curved, since these curves give an easier "recoil." this recoil is the slight motion _backwards_ which the escape wheel makes at each tick. the "dead beat" escapement is shown in fig. , and is used in clocks of a high grade, generally with a seconds pendulum. it has no recoil as you can easily see that the surfaces o o on which the teeth fall, are portions of a circle around the center p. the beveled ends of these pallets are called the impulse surfaces, and a tooth is just giving the little push on the right-hand pallet. it is found in good railroad clocks, watch-makers' regulators and in many astronomical clocks. these terms are merely comparative, a "regulator" being a good clock and an "astronomical," an extra good one. figure gives the movement of a "remontoir" clock in which the dead beat shown is used. the upper one of the three dials indicates seconds, and the lever which crosses its center carries the large wheel on the left. [illustration: fig. --dead beat escapement] [illustration: fig. --remontoir clock by james arthur] [illustration: fig. --remontoir clock movement] this wheel makes the left end of the lever heavier than the right, and in sinking it drives the clock for one minute, but at the sixtieth second it "remounts" by the action of the clock weight; hence the name, "remontoir." note here that the big weight does not directly drive the clock; it only rewinds it every minute. the minutes are shown on the dial to the right and its hand jumps forward one minute at each sixtieth second as the lever remounts; so if you wish to set your watch to this clock the proper way is to set it to the even minute "on the jump." the hour hand is on the dial to the left. by this remounting, or rewinding, the clock receives the same amount of driving force each minute. the complete clock is shown in fig. , the large weight which does the rewinding each minute being plainly visible. the pendulum is compensated with steel and aluminum, so that the rate of the clock may not be influenced by hot and cold weather. was built in and is the only one i can find room for here. it is fully described in "machinery," new york, for nov., . i have built a considerable number, all for experimental purposes, several of them much more complicated than this one, but all differing from clocks for commercial purposes. pallets like o o in fig. are often made of jewels; in one clock i used agates and in another, running thirteen months with one winding, i used pallets jeweled with diamonds. this is done to avoid friction and wear. those interested in the improvement of clocks are constantly striving after light action and small driving weights. conversely, the inferior clock has a heavy weight and ticks loud. the "gravity escapement" and others giving a "free" pendulum action would require too much space here, so we must be satisfied with the few successful ones shown out of hundreds of inventions, dozens of them patented. the pendulum stands at the top as a time measurer and was known to the ancients for measuring short periods of time just as musicians now use the metronome to get regular beats. galileo is credited with noticing its regular beats, but did not apply it to clocks, although his son made a partially successful attempt. the first mathematical investigation of the pendulum was made by huyghens about , and he is generally credited with applying it to clocks, so there is a "huyghens" clock with a pendulum instead of the foliot of de vick's. mathematically, the longer and heavier the pendulum the better is the time-keeping, but nature does not permit us to carry anything to the extreme; so the difficulty of finding a tower high enough and steady enough, the cumbersomeness of weight, the elasticity of the rod, and many other difficulties render very long and heavy pendulums impracticable beyond about ft. which beats once in two seconds. "big ben" of westminster, london, has one of this length weighing lb. and measuring, over all, ft. it runs with an error under one second a week. this is surpassed only by some of the astronomical clocks which run sometimes two months within a second. this wonderful timekeeping is done with seconds pendulums of about in., so the theoretical advantage of long pendulums is lost in the difficulties of constructing them. fractions are left out of these lengths as they would only confuse the explanations. at the naval observatory in washington, d. c., the standard clocks have seconds pendulums, the rods of which are nickel steel, called "invar," which is little influenced by changes of temperature. these clocks are kept in a special basement, so they stand on the solid earth. the clock room is kept at a nearly uniform temperature and each clock is in a glass cylinder exhausted to about half an atmosphere. they are electric remontoirs, so no winding is necessary and they can be kept sealed up tight in their glass cylinders. nor is any adjustment of their pendulums necessary, or setting of the hands, as the correction of their small variations is effected by slight changes in the air pressure within the glass cylinders. when a clock runs fast they let a little air into its cylinder to raise the resistance to the pendulum and slow it down, and the reverse for slow. don't forget that we are now considering variations of less than a second a week. the clock room has double doors, so the outer one can be shut before the inner one is opened, to avoid air currents. visitors are not permitted to see these clocks because the less the doors are opened the better; but the commander will sometimes issue a special permit and detail a responsible assistant to show them, so if you wish to see them you must prove to him that you have a head above your shoulders and are worthy of such a great favor. [illustration: fig. --antique clock, entirely hand-made] [illustration: fig. --antique clock, entirely hand-made] [illustration: fig. --triple-case turkish watches] the best thing the young student could do at this point would be to grasp the remarkable fact that the clock is not an old machine, since it covers only the comparatively short period from to the present day. compared with the period of man's history and inventions it is of yesterday. strictly speaking, as we use the word clock, its age from de vick to the modern astronomical is only about years. if we take the year , we find that it represents the center of modern improvements in clocks, a few years before and after that date includes the pendulum, the anchor and dead beat escapements, the minute and second hands, the circular balance and the hair spring, along with minor improvements. since the end of that period, which we may make , no fundamental invention has been added to clocks and watches. this becomes impressive when we remember that the last years have produced more inventions than all previous known history--but only minor improvements in clocks! the application of electricity for winding, driving, or regulating clocks is not fundamental, for the timekeeping is done by the master clock with its pendulum and wheels, just as by any grandfather's clock years old. this broad survey of time measuring does not permit us to go into minute mechanical details. those wishing to follow up the subject would require a large "horological library"--and dr. eliot's five-foot shelf would be altogether too short to hold the books. a good idea of the old church clocks may be obtained from fig. which is one of my valued antiques. tradition has followed it down as the "english blacksmith's clock." it has the very earliest application of the pendulum. the pendulum, which i have marked by a star to enable the reader to find it, is less than in. long and is hung on the verge, or pallet axle, and beats per minute. this clock may be safely put at years old, and contains nothing invented since that date. wheels are cast brass and all teeth laboriously filed out by hand. pinions are solid with the axles, or "staffs," and also filed out by hand. it is put together, generally by mortise, tenon and cotter, but it has four original screws all made by hand with the file. how did he thread the holes for these screws? probably made a tap by hand as he made the screws. but the most remarkable feature is the fact that no lathe was used in forming any part--all staffs, pinions and pivots being filed by hand. this is simply extraordinary when it is pointed out that a little dead center lathe is the simplest machine in the world, and he could have made one in less than a day and saved himself weeks of hard labor. it is probable that he had great skill in hand work and that learning to use a lathe would have been a great and tedious effort for him. so we have a complete striking clock made by a man so poor that he had only his anvil, hammer and file. the weights are hung on cords as thick as an ordinary lead pencil and pass over pulleys having spikes set around them to prevent the cords from slipping. the weights descend ft. in hours, so they must be pulled up--not wound up--twice a day. the single hour hand is a work of art and is cut through like lace. public clocks may still be seen in europe with only one hand. many have been puzzled by finding that old, rudely made clocks often have fine dials, but this is not remarkable when we state that art and engraving had reached a high level before the days of clocks. it is worthy of note that clocks in the early days were generally built in the form of a church tower with the bell under the dome and figs. , show a good example. it is highly probable that the maker of this clock had access to some old church clock--a wonderful machine in those days--and that he laboriously copied it. it strikes the hours, only, by the old "count wheel" or "locking plate" method. between this and our modern clocks appeared a type showing quarter hours on a small dial under the hour dial. no doubt this was at that time a great advance and looked like cutting time up pretty fine. as the hand on the quarter dial made the circuit in an hour the next step was easy, by simply dividing the circle of quarters into sixty minutes. the old fellows who thought in hours must have given it up at this point, so the seconds and fifths seconds came easily. [illustration: fig. --triple-case turkish watch] [illustration: fig. --double-case watch of repoussé work] the first watches, about , had the foliot and verge escapement, and in some early attempts to govern the foliot a hog's bristle was used as a spring. by putting a ring around the ends of the foliot and adding the hair spring of dr. hooke, about , we have the verge watches of our grandfathers. this balance wheel and hair spring stand today, but the "lever" escapement has taken the place of the verge. it is a modification of the dead beat, fig. , by adding a lever to the anchor, and this lever is acted on by the balance, hence the name "lever watch." all this you can see by opening your watch, so no detailed explanation is necessary. figure shows two triple-cased turkish watches with verge escapements, the one to the left being shown partly opened in fig. . the watch with its inner case, including the glass, is shown to the right. this inner case is complete with two hinges and has a winding hole in the back. the upper case, of "chased" work, goes on next, and then the third, or outer case, covered with tortoise shell fastened with silver rivets, goes on outside the other two. when all three cases are opened and laid on the table, they look like a heap of oyster shells, but they go easily together, forming the grand and dignified watch shown to the left in fig. . oliver cromwell wore an immense triple-case watch of this kind, and the poor plebeians who were permitted to examine such a magnificent instrument were favored! [illustration: fig. --watches showing art work] [illustration: fig. --watch showing dutch art work] [illustration: fig. --antique watch cock] [illustration: fig. --"chinese" watch] our boys' watches costing one dollar keep much better time than this type of watch. comparing the syrian dial, fig. , with that on fig. , it is evident that the strange hour numerals on both are a variation of the same characters. these, so-called, "turkish watches" were made in europe for the eastern trade. first-class samples of this triple-case type are getting scarce, but i have found four, two of them in constantinople. figure shows the double-case style, called "pair cases," the outer case thin silver, the figures and ornaments being hammered and punched up from the inside and called "repoussé." before we leave the old watches, the question of art work deserves notice, for it looks as if ornamentation and time-keeping varied inversely in those days--the more art the worse the watch. i presume, as they could not make a good time-keeper at that date, the watch-maker decided to give the buyer something of great size and style for his money. in fig. four old movements are shown, and there is no doubt about the art, since the work is purely individual and no dies or templates used. in examining a large number of these watches, i have never found the art work on any two of them alike. note the grotesque faces in these, and in fig. which is a fine example of pierced, engraved work. figure is a fine example of pierced work with animals and flowers carved in relief. figure is a "chinese" watch but made in europe for the chinese market. in fig. we have what remains of a quarter repeater with musical attachment. each of the straight gongs, commencing with the longest one, goes a little nearer the center of the large wheel, so a circle of pins is set in the wheel for each gong, or note, and there is plenty of room for several tunes which the wearer can set off at pleasure. figure is a modern watch with hebrew hour numerals. figure is a modern -hour watch used on some railroads and steamship lines. i have a pretty clean-cut recollection of one event in connection with the -hour system, as i left messina between and o'clock on the night of the earthquake! dials and hands constitute an important branch of the subject. the general fault of hands is that they are too much alike; in many instances they are the same, excepting that the minute hand is a little longer than the hour. the dial shown on the left of fig. was designed by me for a public clock and can be read twice as far away as the usual dial. just why we should make the worst dials and hands for public clocks in the united states is more than i can find out, for there is no possible excuse, since the "spade and pointer" hands have been known for generations. figure is offered as a properly designed dial for watches and domestic clocks, having flat-faced gothic figures of moderate height, leaving a clear center in the dial, and the heavy "spade" hour hand reaching only to the inner edges of the figures. for public clocks the arabic numerals are the worst, for at a distance they look like twelve thumb marks on the dial; while the flat-faced roman remain distinct as twelve clear marks. [illustration: fig. --musical watch, repeating hours and quarters] do you know that you do not read a public clock by the figures, but by the position of the hands? this was discovered long ago. lord grimthorp had one with twelve solid marks on the dial and also speaks of one at the athenæum club, both before . the philadelphia city hall clock has dials of this kind as shown on right side of fig. . it has also good hands and can be read at a great distance. very few persons, even in philadelphia, know that it has no hour numerals on its dials. still further, there is no clock in the tower, the great hands being moved every minute by air pressure which is regulated by a master clock set in a clock room down below where the walls are ft. thick. call and see this clock and you will find that the city hall officials sustain the good name of philadelphia for politeness. generally, we give no attention to the hour numerals, even of our watches, as the following proves. when you have taken out your watch and looked at the time, for yourself, and put it back in your pocket, and when a friend asks the time you take it out again to find the time for him! why? because, for yourself, you did not read hours and minutes, but only got a mental impression from the position of the hands; so we only read hours and minutes when we are called on to proclaim the time. [illustration: fig. --syrian dial] we must find a little space for striking clocks. the simplest is one blow at each hour just to draw attention to the clock. striking the hours and also one blow at each half hour as well as the quarter double blow, called "ting tong" quarters, are too well known to need description. the next stage after this is "chiming quarters" with three or more musical gongs, or bells. one of the best strikers i have has three trains, three weights and four bells. it strikes the hour on a large bell and two minutes after the hour it strikes it again, so as to give you another chance to count correctly. at the first quarter it repeats the last hour followed by a musical chord of three bells, which we will call _one triple blow_: at the second quarter the hour again and two triple blows and at the third quarter, the hour again and three triple blows. suppose a sample hour's striking from four o'clock, this is what you hear, and there can be no mistake. "four" and in two minutes "four"--"four and one quarter"--"four and two quarters"--"four and three quarters," and the same for all other hours. this is definite, for the clock proclaims the hour, or the hour and so much past. it can be set silent, but that only stops it from striking automatically, and whether so set or not, it will repeat by pulling a cord. you awake in the night and pull the cord, and then in mellow musical tones, almost as if the clock were speaking, you hear--"four and two quarters." this i consider a perfect striking clock. it is a large movement of fine workmanship and was made in the department of the jura, france. when a clock or watch only repeats, i consider the old "five-minute repeater" the best. i used this method in a clock which, on pulling the cord, strikes the hour on a large bell and if that is all it strikes, then it is less than five minutes past. if more than five minutes past it follows the hour by one blow on a small bell for every five minutes. this gives the time within five minutes. it is fully described and illustrated in "machinery," new york, for march, . just one more. an old dutch clock which i restored strikes the hour on a large bell; at the first quarter it strikes one blow on a small bell; at the half hour it strikes the last hour over again on the small bell; at the third quarter it strikes one blow on the large bell. but this in spite of its great ingenuity, only gives definite information at the hour and half hour. [illustration: fig. --hebrew numerals] [illustration: fig. -- -hour watch] of curious clocks there is no end, so i shall just refer to one invented by william congreve, an englishman, over one hundred years ago, and often coming up since as something new. a plate about in. long and in. wide has a long zigzag groove crosswise. this plate is pivoted at its center so either end can be tipped up a little. a ball smaller than a boy's marble will roll back and forth across this plate till it reaches the lower end, at which point it strikes a click and the mainspring of the clock tips the plate the other way and the ball comes slowly back again till it strikes the disk at the other end of the plate, etc. every time the plate tips, the hands are moved a little just like the remontoir clock already described. clocks of this kind are often used for deceptive purposes and those ignorant of mechanics are deceived into the belief that they see perpetual motion. the extent to which modern machine builders are indebted to the inventions of the ancient clock-maker, i think, has never been appreciated. [illustration: fig. --domestic dial by james arthur] in its earlier stages the clock was almost the only machine containing toothed gearing, and the "clock tooth" is still necessary in our delicate machines. it is entirely different from our standard gear tooth as used in heavy machines. the clock-makers led for a long time in working steel for tools, springs and wearing surfaces. they also made investigations in friction, bearings, oils, etc., etc. any one restoring old clocks for amusement and pleasure will be astonished at the high-class mechanics displayed in them--nearly always by unknown inventors. here is an example: the old clock-maker found that when he wished to drill a hole in a piece of thick wire so as to make a short tube of it, he could only get the hole central and straight by rotating the piece and holding the drill stationary. by this method the drill tends to follow the center line of rotation; and our great guns as well as our small rifles are bored just that way to get bores which will shoot straight. the fourth and last chapter will deal with the astronomical motions on which our time-keeping is founded, our present hour zones of time, and close with suggestions for a universal time system over the whole world. chapter iv astronomical foundation of time astronomical motions on which our time is founded. -- reasons for selecting the sidereal day as a basis for our -hour day. -- year of the seasons shorter than the zodiacal year. -- precession of the equinoxes. -- earth's rotation most uniform motion known to us. -- time stars and transits. -- local time. -- the date line. -- standard time. -- beginning and ending of a day. -- proposed universal time. -- clock dial for universal time and its application to business. -- next great improvement in clocks and watches indicated. -- automatic recording of the earth's rotation. -- year of the seasons as a unit for astronomers. -- general conclusions. the mystery of time encloses all things in its folds, and our grasp of its infinite bearings is measured by our limitations. as there are no isolated facts in the universe, we can never get to the end of our subject; so we know only what we have capacity to absorb. in considering the foundation on which all our time measuring is based, we are led into the fringe of that elysian field of science--astronomy. a science more poetical than poetry--more charming than the optimistic phantasies of youth. that science which leaves our imagination helpless; for its facts are more wonderful than our extremest mental flights. the science of vastness and interminable distances which our puny figures fail to express. "the stars sang together for joy," might almost be placed in the category of facts; while the music of the spheres may now be considered a mathematical reality. our time keeping is inevitably associated with these motions, and we must select one which has periods not too long. that is, no _continuous_ motion could be used, unless it passed some species of milestones which we could observe. consequently, our clocks do not--in the strict sense--measure time; but are adjusted to _divide_ periods which they do not determine. we are constantly correcting their errors and never entirely succeed in getting them to run accurately to _periods of time_ which exist entirely outside of such little things as men and clocks. so a clock is better as it approximates or bears a regular _relation_ to some motion in nature. the sidereal clock of the astronomer _does_ run to a regular motion; but our -hour clocks _do not_, as we shall see later. now consider the year, or the sun's apparent motion in the zodiac, from any given star around to the same one again. this is altogether too long to be divided by clocks, as we cannot make a clock which could be depended on for anywhere near a year. the next shorter period is that of a "moon." this is also a little too long, is not easily observed, and requires all sorts of corrections. observations of the moon at sea are so difficult and subject to error that mariners use them only as a last resort. if a little freedom of language is permissible, i would say that the moon has a bad character all around, largely on account of her long association with superstition, false theology and heathen feasts. she has not purged herself even to this day! the ancients were probably right when they called erratic and ill-balanced persons "luny." now we come to the day and find that it is about the right practical length--but what kind of a day? as there are five kinds we ought to be able to select one good enough. they are:-- st. the solar day, or noon to noon by the sun. nd. an imaginary sun moving uniformly in the ecliptic. rd. a second imaginary sun moving uniformly parallel to the equator at all seasons of the year. th. one absolute rotation of the earth. th. one rotation of the earth measured from the node, or point, of the spring equinox. the difference between st and nd is that part of the sun's error due to the elliptical orbit of the earth. the other part of the sun's error--and the larger--between nd and rd is that due to the obliquity of the ecliptic to the equator. the whole error between st and rd is the "equation of time" as shown for even minutes in the first chapter under the heading, "sun on noon mark ." stated simply, for our present purpose, st is sundial time, and rd our -hour clock time. this nd day is therefore a refinement of the astronomers to separate the two principal causes of the sun's error, and i think we ought to handle it cautiously, or my friend, professor todd, might rap us over the knuckles for being presumptuous. this th day is the sidereal day of the astronomers and is the basis of our time, so it is entitled to a little attention. i shall confine "sidereal day" to this th to avoid confusion with th. if you will extend the plane of the equator into the star sphere, you have the celestial equator. when the center of the sun passes through this plane on his journey north, in the spring, we say, "the sun has crossed the line." this is a distant point in the zodiac which can be determined for any given year by reference to the fixed stars. to avoid technicalities as much as possible we will call it the point of the spring equinox. this is really the point which determines the common year, or year of the seasons. using popular language, the seasons are marked by four points,--spring equinox--longest day--; autumnal equinox--shortest day. this would be very simple if the equinoctial points would stay in the same places in the star sphere; but we find that they creep westward each year to the extent of seconds of arc in the great celestial circle of the zodiac. this is called the precession of the equinoxes. the year is measured from spring equinox to spring equinox again; but each year it comes seconds of arc less than a full revolution of the earth around the sun. therefore _if we measured our year by a full revolution_ we would displace the months with reference to the seasons till the hot weather would come in january and the cold weather in july in about , years; or a complete revolution of the seasons back to where we are, in , years. leaving out fractions to make the illustration plain, we have:-- ( ) degrees of zodiac } --------------------- = , years } seconds of arc } } ( ) day of time } ------------- = , years } - / seconds } all } approximate ( ) year of time } -------------- = , years } - / minutes } } ( ) - / seconds } ------------- = / of a second} days in a year } in ( ) we see that a "precession" of seconds of arc will bring the spring equinox around in , years. in ( ) we see, as seconds of arc represents the distance the earth will rotate in - / seconds, a difference of one day will result in , years. that is since the clock regulated by the stars, or absolute rotations of the earth, would get behind - / seconds per year, it would be behind a day in , years, as compared with a sidereal clock regulated by the spring equinoctial point. in ( ) we see that as seconds of arc is traversed by the earth, in its annual revolution, in - / minutes, a complete circle of the zodiac will be made in , years. in ( ) we see that as the difference between the year of the seasons and the zodiacal year is - / seconds of the earth's rotation, it follows that if this is divided by the number of days in a year we have the amount which a sidereal day is less than th, or an absolute rotation of the earth. that is, any meridian passes the spring equinoctial point / of a second sooner than the time of one absolute rotation. these four equations are all founded on the precession of the equinoxes, and are simply different methods of stating it. absolutely and finally, our time is regulated by the earth's rotation; but strange as it may appear, we do not take one rotation as a unit. as shown above, we take a rotation to a _movable point_ which creeps the / of a second daily. but after all, it is the _uniform_ rotation which governs. this is the one "dependable" motion which has not been found variable, and is the most easily observed. when we remember that the earth is not far from being as heavy as a ball of iron, and that its surface velocity at the equator is about miles per minute, it is easy to form a conception of its uniform motion. against this, however, we may place the friction of the tides, forcing up of mountain ranges, as well as mining and building skyscrapers--all tending to slow it. mathematicians moving in the ethereal regions of astronomy lead us to conclude that it _must_ become gradually slower, and that _it is_ slowing; but the amount may be considered a vanishing quantity even compared with the smallest errors of our finest clocks; so for uncounted generations past--and to come--we may consider the earth's rotation uniform. having now found a uniform motion easily observed and of convenient period, why not adopt it as our time unit? the answer has been partially given above in the fact that we are compelled to use a year, measured from the spring equinoctial point, so as to keep our seasons in order; and therefore as we must have some point where the sidereal clocks and the meantime clocks coincide, we take the same point, and that point is the spring equinox. now we have three days:-- st. a sidereal day / of a second less than one rotation of the earth. nd. one rotation of the earth in hours, minutes and seconds, nearly, of clock time. rd. one mean time clock day of hours, which has been explained previously. now, isn't it remarkable that our -hour day is purely artificial, and that nothing in nature corresponds to it? our real day of hours is a _theoretical_ day. still more remarkable, this theoretical day is the unit by which we express motions in the solar system. a lunar month is days--hours--minutes--and seconds of this theoretical day, and so for planetary motions. and still more remarkable, the earth's rotation which is _itself_ the foundation is expressed in this imaginary time! this looks like involution involved, yet our -hour day is as real as reality; and the man has not yet spoken who can tell whether a mathematical conception, sustained in practical life, is less real than a physical fact. our legal day of practical life is therefore deduced from the day of a fraction _less_ than one earth rotation. in practice, however, the small difference between this and a rotation is often ignored, because as the tenth of a second is about as near as observations can be made it is evident that for single observations / of a second does not count, but for a whole year it does, and amounts to - / seconds. now as to the setting of our clocks. while the time measured by the point of the spring equinox is what we must find it is found by noting the transits of fixed stars, because _the relation_ of star time to equinoctial time is known and tabulated. remember we cannot take a transit of the equinoctial point, because there is nothing to see, and that _nothing_ is moving! but it can be observed yearly and astronomers can tell where it is, at any time of the year, by calculation. the stars which are preferred for observation are called "time stars" and are selected as near the celestial equator as possible. the earth's axis has a little wabbling motion called "nutation" which influences the _apparent_ motion of the stars near the pole; but this motion almost disappears as they come near the equator, because nutation gives the plane of the equator only a little "swashplate" motion. the positions of a number of "time stars" with reference to the equinoctial point, are known, and these are observed and the observations averaged. the distance of any time star from the equinoctial point, _in time_, is called its "right ascension." astronomers claim an accuracy to the twentieth part of a second when such transits are carefully taken, but over a long period, greater exactness is obtained. really, the time at which any given star passes the meridian is taken, _in practical life_, from astronomical tables in the nautical almanacs. those tables are the result of the labors of generations of mathematicians, are constantly subject to correction, and cannot be made simple. remember, the earth's rotation is the only uniform motion, all the others being subject to variations and even compound variations. this very subject is the best example of the broad fact that science is a constant series of approximations; therefore, nothing is exact, and nothing is permanent but change. but you say that mathematics is an exact science. yes, but it is a _logical abstraction_, and is therefore only the universal solvent in physical science. with our imaginary--but real--time unit of hours we are now ready to consider "local time." keeping the above explanation in mind, we may use the usual language and speak of the earth rotating in hours clock time; and since motion is relative, it is permissible to speak of the motion of the sun. in the matter of the sun's apparent motion we are compelled to speak of his "rising," "setting," etc., because language to express the motion in terms of the earth's rotation has not been invented yet. for these reasons we will assume that in fig. the sun is moving as per large arrow and also that the annulus, half black and half white, giving the hours, is fastened to the sun by a rigid bar, as shown, and moves around the earth along with him. in such illustrations the sun must always be made small in proportion, but this rather tends to plainness. for simplicity, we assume that the illustration represents an equinox when the sun is on the celestial equator. imagine your eye in the center of the sun's face at a, and you would be looking on the meridian of greenwich at noon; then in one hour you would be looking on ° west at noon; but this would bring o'clock to greenwich. continue till you look down on new york at noon, then it is o'clock at greenwich (leaving out fractions for simplicity) etc. if you will make a simple drawing like fig. and cut the earth separate, just around the inside of the annulus, and stick a pin at the north pole for a center, you may rotate the earth as per small arrow and get the actual motion, but the result will be just the same as if you went by the big arrow. we thus see that every instant of the hours is represented, at some point, on the earth. that is, the earth has an infinity of local times; so it has every conceivable instant of the hours at some place on the circle. suppose we set up , clocks at uniform distances on the equator, then they would be about miles apart and differ by minutes. now make it , clocks, they would be , feet apart and differ by seconds. with , clocks they would be feet apart and vary by tenths of seconds. it is useless to extend this, since you could always imagine more clocks in the circle; thus establishing the fact that there are an infinity of times at an infinity of places always on the earth. it is necessary to ask a little patience here as i shall use this local time and its failure later in our talk. strictly, local time has never been used, because it has been found impracticable in the affairs of life. this will be plain when we draw attention to the uniform time of london, which is greenwich time; yet the british museum is seconds slow of greenwich, and other places in london even more. this is railroad time for great britain; but it is minutes too fast for the west of england. this led to no end of confusion and clocks were often seen with two minute hands, one to local and the other to railroad time. this mixed up method was followed by "standard time," with which we are all pretty well acquainted. simply, standard time consists in a uniform time for each ° of longitude, but this is theoretical to the extreme, and is not even approached in practice. the first zone commences at greenwich and as that is near the eastern edge of the british islands, their single zone time is fast at nearly all places, especially the west coast of ireland. when we follow these zones over to the united states we find an attempt to make the middle of each zone correct to local time, so at the hour jumping points, we pass from half an hour slow to half an hour fast, or the reverse. we thus see that towns about the middle of these four united states zones have sunrise and sunset and their local day correct, but those at the eastern and western edges average half an hour wrong. as a consequence of this disturbance of the working hours depending on the light of the day, many places keep two sets of clocks and great confusion results. even this is comprehensible; but it is a mere fraction of the trouble and complication, because the hour zones are not separated by meridians in practice, but by zig-zag lines of great irregularity. look at a time map of the united states and you will see the zones divided by lines of the wildest irregularity. now question one of the brightest "scientific chaps" you can find in one of the great railroad offices whose lines touch, or enter, canada and mexico. please do not tell me what he said to you! so great is the confusion that no man understands it all. the amount of wealth destroyed in printing time tables, _and failing to explain them_, is immense. the amount of human life destroyed by premature death, as a result of wear and tear of brain cells is too sad to contemplate. and all by attempting the impossible; for local time, _even if it was reduced to hourly periods_ is not compatible with any continental system of time and matters can only get worse while the attempt continues. for the present, banish this zone system from your mind and let us consider the beginning and ending of a day, using strictly local time. [illustration: fig. --local time--standard time--beginning and ending of the day] a civil, or legal, day ends at the instant of o'clock, midnight, and the next day commences. the time is continuous, the last instant of a day touching the first instant of the next. this is true for all parts of the earth; but something _in addition_ to this happens at a certain meridian called the "date line." refer again to fig. which is drawn with meridians representing hours. as we are taking greenwich for our time, the meridians are numbered from °, on which the observatory of greenwich stands. when you visit greenwich you can have the pleasure of putting your foot on "the first meridian," as it is cut plainly across the pavement. degrees of longitude are numbered east and west, meeting just opposite at °, which is the "date line." our day begins at this line, so far as _dates_ are concerned; but the _local day_ begins everywhere at midnight. let us start to go around the world from the date line, westward. when we arrive at ° we are one quarter around and it takes the sun hours longer to reach us. at ° (greenwich) we are half around and hours ahead of the sun motion. at ° west, three quarters, or hours, and when back to ° we have _added_ to the length of all days of our journey enough to make one day; therefore our date must be one day behind. try this example to change the wording:--let us start from an island b, just west of the date line. these islanders have their -hour days, commencing at midnight, like all other places. as we move westward our day commences later and later than theirs, as shown above. suppose we arrive at the eastern edge of the ° line on saturday at o'clock, but before we cross it we call over to the islanders,--what day is it? we would get answer, "sunday;" because all our days have been longer, totalling one day in the circuit of the globe. so if we step over the line at o clock saturday, presto, it is o'clock sunday. it looks like throwing out hours, but this is not so, since we have lived exactly the same number of hours and seconds as the islanders. in this supposition we have all the _dates_, however, but have jumped half of saturday and half of sunday, which equals one day. in practice this would not have been the method, for if the ship was to call at the island, the captain would have changed date on friday night and thrown saturday out, all in one piece, and would have arrived on their sunday; so his log for that week would have contained only days. it is not necessary to go over the same ground for a circuit of the globe eastward, but if you do so you will find that you _shorten_ your days and on arriving at the date line would have a day too much; so in this case you would _double_ a date and have days in that week. in both cases this is caused by compounding your motion with that of the sun; going with him westward and lengthening your days, or eastward meeting him and shortening them. figure shows greenwich noon, we will say on monday, and at that instant, monday only, exists from to o'clock on the earth; but the next instant, tuesday begins at ° b. in one hour it is noon of monday at ° west, and midnight at ° east; so tuesday is one hour old and there is left hours of monday. monday steadily declines to as tuesday steadily grows to hours; so that, except at the instant of greenwich noon, there are always two days on the world at once. if we said that there are _always_ two days on the world at once, we could not be contradicted; since there is no conceivable time between monday and tuesday; it is an instantaneous change. as we cannot conceive of _no time_, the statement that there is only one day on the earth at greenwich noon is not strictly permissible. since there are always two days on the world at once let us suppose that these two are december st and january st; then we have _two years_ on the world at once for a period of hours. nine years ago we had the th and th centuries on the world at once, etc. as a mental exercise, you may carry this as far as you please. suppose there was an impassable sea wall built on the ° meridian, then there would be two days on the world, just as explained above; but, _practically_, there would be no date line, since in sailing west to this wall we would "lengthen our days," and then shorten them the same amount coming around east to the other side of the wall, but would never jump or double a date. this explanation is founded, as it ought to be, on uniform local time, and is the simplest i can give. the date line is fundamentally simple, but is difficult to explain. when it is complicated by the standard time--or jumping hour system--and also with the fact that some islands count their dates from the wrong side of the line for their longitudes, scientific paradoxes arise, such as having three dates on the world at once, etc.; but as these things are of no more value than wasting time solving chinese puzzles, they are left out. ships change date on the nearest night to the date line; but if they are to call at some island port in the pacific, they may change either sooner or later to correspond with its date. here is a little irish date line wit printed for the first time,--i was telling my bright friend about turning in on saturday night and getting up for breakfast on monday morning. "oh," said he, "i have known gentlemen to do as good as that without leaving new york city!" as what is to follow relates to the growing difficulties of local time and a proposed method of overcoming them, let us recapitulate:-- st. local time has never been kept, and the difficulties of using it have increased as man advanced, reaching a climax of absurdity on the advent of the railroad; so it broke down and became impractical. nd. to make the irregular disorder of local time an orderly confusion, the "standard time"--jumping by hours--has helped a little, but only because we can tell how much it is wrong at any given place. this is its only advantage over the first method, where we had no means of knowing what to expect on entering any new territory. that is, we have improved things by throwing out local time to the extent of an hour. my proposal is to throw local time out _totally_ and establish one, invariable, _universal time_. greenwich time being most in use now, and meridians numbered from it, may be taken in preference to any other. still another reason is that the most important timekeepers in modern life--ship's chronometers--are set to greenwich time. universal time--no local time--only local day and night. our -hour system is all right, so do not disturb it, as it gets rid of a.m. and p.m. and makes the day our unit of time. our railroad time now throws out local time to the extent of one hour; but i propose to throw it out entirely and never change the clock hands from greenwich time. the chronometers do that now, so let us conduct all business to that time. now refer to fig. , in which greenwich is taken as universal time. the annulus, half white and half black, indicates the average day and night, and is a separate ring in the dial which can be set so that "noon" is on the meridian of the place, as shown for four places in the illustration. it is the same dial in all four cases set to local day and night. strictly, the local time conception is dropped and the local day left for regulating working and sleeping time. all business would have the same time. in traveling east we would not have the short hours; or west, the long hours. all clocks and watches would show the same time as ship's chronometers do now. the only change would be the names of the hours for the parts of the local day. this is just the difficulty, for we are so accustomed to _associate_ a certain number, as seven, with the morning and breakfast time. suppose breakfast time in london is o'clock, then according to the local day it would be o'clock breakfast time in new york; but in both cases it would be the same time with reference to the _local daylight_. let it be distinctly understood that our association of _ o'clock_ with _noon_ is not necessary. the japanese called it "horse" and "nine"--the ancient romans, the new testament writers, and the turks called it the "sixth hour"--the astronomers now call it o'clock, and the chinese represent it by several characters; but, in all cases, it is simply the middle of the day at any place. by the proposed universal time, morning, noon, and evening would be--_at any given place_--the same hours. there would be no necessity of establishing legal noon with exactness to the meridian, because that would only regulate labor, meals, etc., and would not touch universal time. this is an important part of the proposal and is worth elaborating a little. sections in manufacturing districts could make their working hours correspond at pleasure and no confusion would result. that is, local working hours to convenience but by the same universal time. note how perfectly this would work in traveling,--you arrive in chicago from the effete east and your watch corresponds all along with the railroad clocks. as you leave the station you glance up at the clock and see that chicago noon is . , so you set the day and night ring of your watch to match the same ring on the clock, but no disturbance of the hands. as you register at the hotel you ask,--dinner? and get answer, . --then breakfast, . . these questions are necessary now, so i do not add complication here. when you arrive in a strange city you must ask about meals, business hours, theater hours, "doors open" hours, etc., etc.; so all this remains the same. let us put the matter forcibly,--while we count days, or _dates_, _something_ must vary with east and west; i propose the fixing of hours for business and sleep to suit each locality, but an invariable time. get rid of the idea that a certain number, as o'clock, represents the age of the day _at all places_. see how this would wipe out the silly proposal to "save daylight" by setting the clock back and forward. suppose workmen commenced at . in new york; for the long summer days make it . , but no change in universal time. as this is the only difference from our present time system, keep the central conception, firmly,--universal time--local day and night. [illustration: fig. --universal time dial set for four places] suppose chicago decided that "early to bed and early to rise" was desirable; then it could establish its legal noon as . , which would be about minutes early for its meridian. you could do business with chicago for a lifetime and not find this out, unless you looked up the meridian of chicago and found that it was . o'clock. none of the railroads or steamship lines of the city would need to know this, except as a matter of scientific curiosity, for the time tables would all be printed in universal time. for hiring labor, receiving and delivering goods, etc., they would only need to know chicago _business hours_. to state the matter in different words,--chicago would only need to decide what portion of the universal hours would suit it best for its day and which for its night, and if it decided, as supposed above, to place its working day forward a little to give some daylight after labor, nothing would be disturbed and only the scientific would ever know. certainly, "save daylight," but do not make a fool of the clock! having shown the great liberty which localities could take without touching the working of the system, the same remarks apply to ultra-scientific localities. a city might establish its noon to the instant; so it is possible--even if a little improbable--that the brilliant and scientific aldermen of new york might appoint a commission with proper campfollowers and instrument bearers to determine the longitude of the city to the nth of a second and tell us where we "are at." the glory of this achievement--and especially its total cost--would be all our own and incorruptible time would be untouched! we thus see that great local freedom and great accuracy are alike possible. with our present system, accuracy in local time is impracticable and has never even been attempted, and is confusion confused since we added the railroad hour jumps. why did we nurse this confusion till it has become almost intolerable? because man has always been a slave to _mental associations, and habits_. primitive man divided the local day into parts and gave them names and this mental attitude sticks to us after it has served its day. the advantages of universal time could hardly be enumerated, yet we can have them all by dropping our childish association of o'clock with breakfast time! another example,--you visit a friend for a few days and on retiring the first night you ask "what is your breakfast hour"--" o'clock." you have to ask this question and recollect the answer. now tell me what difference it would make if the answer had been o'clock? none whatever, unless, perhaps, that is, you do not like thirteen! you ask, how about ships? ships now carry universal time and only change the clock on deck to please the simple minded passengers. how about the date line? no change whatever, so long as we use _dates_ which means numbering local days. it is useless multiplying examples; all difficulties disappear, as if by magic, the moment we can free our minds of local time and the association of the _same hour_ with the _same portion_ of the day at _all places_. the great interest at present manifested in the attempts to reach the north pole calls for some consideration of universal time in the extreme north. commencing at the equator, it is easy to see that the day and night ring, fig. , would represent the days and nights of hours at all seasons. as we go north, however, this ring represents the _average_ day and night. when we reach the polar circle, still going north, the _daily_ rising and setting of the sun gradually ceases till we reach the great one-year day at the pole, consisting of six months darkness and six months light. let us now assume that an astronomical observatory is established here and the great equatorial placed precisely on the pole. at this point, _local time_, _day and night_, and _the date line_, almost cease to have a meaning. for this very reason universal time would be the only practical method; therefore, it _more_ than stands the test of being carried to the extreme. universal time would regulate working and sleeping here the same as at all other places. strictly local time in this observatory would be an absurdity, because in walking around the telescope (pole) you would be in all instants of the hours within five seconds! at the pole the day would commence at the same instant as at some assumed place, and the day and night ring would represent working and sleeping as at that place. suppose this observatory to be in telegraphic communication with new york, then it would be best for the attendants to set their day and night to new york, so as to correspond with its business hours. many curious suppositions might be made about this polar observatory with its "great night" and equally "great day." it is evident that to keep count of itself it would be compelled to note _dates_ and -hour _days_ to keep in touch with us; so it would be forced to adopt the local day of some place like new york. this choice would be free, because a polar observatory would stand on all the meridians of the earth at once. we are now in a position to consider the next possible--and even probable--improvement in our clocks and watches. to minimize the next step it might be well to see what we can do now. clocks are often regulated by electric impulses over wires. electricians inform me that they can do this by wireless; but that owing to the rapid attenuation of the impulses it cannot be done commercially, over great distances. in the history of invention the first step was _to do something_ and then find a way of doing it cheaply enough for general use. so far as i know, the watch in the wearer's pocket has not yet been regulated by wireless; but i am willing to risk the statement that the editor of popular mechanics can name more than one electrician who can do this. a watch to take these impulses might be larger than our present watches, but it would not stay larger and would ultimately become much smaller. you know what has happened since the days of the big "onions" described in the third chapter. fig. ; so get your electric watch and make it smaller at your leisure. we have made many things commercially practicable, which looked more revolutionary than this. now throw out the mainspring, wheels, pinions, etc., of our watches and reduce the machinery part to little more than dial and hands and do the driving by wireless, say, once every minute. i feel certain that i am restraining the scientific imagination in saying that the man lives among us who can do this. i repeat, that we now possess the elementary knowledge--which if collated and applied--would produce such a watch. now i have a big question to ask--the central note of interrogation in this little scientific conversation with you,--does the man live who can make the earth automatically record its rotation? do not be alarmed, for i am prepared to make a guess as to this possibility. a _direct_ mechanical record of the earth's rotation seems hopeless, but let us see what can be done. you are aware that some of the fixed stars have a distinct spectrum. it is not unreasonable to suppose that an instrument could be made to record the passage of such a star over the meridian. ah, but you say, there is no mechanical force in this. do not hurry, for we have long been acquainted with the fact that things which, apparently, have no force can be made to liberate something which manifests mechanical force. we could now start or stop the greatest steam engine by a gleam of sunlight, and some day we might be able to do as much by the lately discovered pressure of light. that is, we can now liberate the greatest forces by the most infinitesimal, by steps; the little force liberating one greater than itself, and that one another still greater. a good example is the stopping of an electric train, from a distance, by wireless. the standard clock in philadelphia, previously referred to, is a delicate instrument and its most delicate part, having the least force, moves a little valve every minute, and by several steps liberates the air pressure, feet higher in the tower, to move the four sets of great hands. i am not traveling beyond the record when i say that the invisible actinic rays could be used to liberate a great force; therefore what is there unreasonable in the supposition that the displacement of the sodium line in the spectrum of a star might be made to record the earth's rotation? so i say to the electrician--the optician--the photographer--the chemist and the mechanic.--get together and produce this watch. permit me, with conventional and intentional modesty, to name the new timepiece _chroncosmic_. for pocket use, it would be _cosmic watch_. in the first chapter i allowed to the year , for the production of this watch, but it is likely we will not need to wait so long. having stated my proposal for universal time as fully as space will permit and given my guess as to the coming cosmic watch, let us in this closing paragraph indulge in a little mental exercise. suppose we copy the old time lecturer on astronomy and "allow our minds to penetrate into space." blessed be his memory, he was a doer of good. how impressive as he repeatedly dropped his wooden pointer, and lo! it always moved straight to the floor; thus triumphantly vindicating universal gravitation!!! we can think of a time system which would discard months, weeks and days. what is the meaning of the financial almanac in which the days are numbered from to or ? simply a step in the right direction, _away from the months and weeks_, so that the distance between any two dates may be seen at a glance. we would really be better without months and weeks. now let us consider the year of the seasons as a unit--long since proposed by the astronomers--and divide it into , chrons. clocks regulated by star transits, as at present, would divide this decimally, the fourth place being near enough to make the new pendulums of convenient length. this would throw out months, weeks and days, local time and the date line. each of these chrons would represent the same time in the year, permanently. for example, . would mark to a _dixmilliemechron_ (a little more than one second) the point reached in the year; while the date does not, as i have shown in the first chapter. but you still object that this is a great number of figures to use in fixing a point in the year. let us see what it takes to fix a point in the year now, _august th, - - p. m., new york standard time_. a pretty long story, but it does not fix the point of the year even then; for it would require the assistance of an astronomer to fix such a point in _any given_ year, say . but . would be eternally right in _absolute time_ of the seasons, and has only one meaning, with no qualifications for any year whatever. i believe the astronomers should use a method something like this. ah, but there is a difficulty in applying this to the affairs of daily life which looks insurmountable. this is caused by the fact that the _day_ and _year_ are incommeasurable. one of them cannot be exactly expressed in terms of the other. they are like the diagonal and side of a square. the day is now the unit and therefore the year has an interminable fraction; conversely, if we make the year the unit, then the day becomes an endless fraction. this brings us face to face with the local day which we ignored in our scientific year unit. we _must_ regulate our labors, in this world, to day and night and, with the year unit, the chrons would bear no fixed relation to day and night, even for two days in succession. so the year unit and absolute time must be left to the astronomers; but the _day unit_ and the uniform world day of _universal time_ as explained in connection with fig. i offer as a practical system. i am satisfied that all attempts to measure the year and the day by the same _time yard stick_ must fail and keep us in our present confusion. therefore separate them once for all time. brought down to its lowest terms my final proposal is:-- st. an equinoctial year unit for the astronomers, divided somewhat as suggested, but no attempt to make the divisions even approximate to days and hours. this would fix all astronomical events, absolutely. a variation in the length of the year would not disturb this system, since the year _itself_ would be the unit. in translating this astronomical, or year unit time, into clock time, no difficulties would be added, as compared with our present translation of sidereal time into clock time. deal with the _year unit_ and _day unit_ separately and convert them mutually when necessary. nd. a universal mean time day of hours, as now kept at greenwich, all human business being regulated by this time. dates and the date line as well as leap years all being retained as at present. rd. weight and spring clocks and watches to be superseded by the cosmic clocks and watches regulated by wireless impulses from central time stations, all impulses giving the same invariable time for all places. th. automatic recording of the earth's rotations to determine this time. to avoid any possibility of misunderstanding, i would advise never counting a unit till it is completed. we do this correctly with our hours, as we understand o'clock to be the same as o'clock. but we do not carry this out logically, for we say . . how can this be so, since there is nothing more than o'clock? it ought to be simply minutes, or hour minutes. how can there be any _hour_ when a new day is only minutes old? this brings up the acrimonious controversy, of some years ago, as to whether there was any "year one." one side insisted that till one year was completed there could only be months and days. the other side argued that the "year one" commenced at and that the month and date showed how much of it had passed. test yourself,--is this the year , of which only months have passed; or is it and months more? regarding the centuries there appears to be no difference of opinion that is completed, and that we are in the th century. but can you tell whether we are years and months into the th century or years and months? it ought to be, logically years _complete_ and months of the next year, which we must not count till it is completed. take a carpenter's rule, we say / in.-- / in.-- / in., but do not count an inch till we complete it. when the ancients are quoted,--"about the middle of the third hour" there is no mistake, because that means - / hours since sunrise. if we said the th year that would be definite too, and mean some distance into that year. popular language states that greenwich is on the "first meridian"; strictly, it is on the zero meridian, or °. these matters are largely academic and i do not look on them as serious subjects of discussion; but they are good thought producers. bidding you good-bye, for the present, it might be permissible to state that this conversational article on time was intended to be readable and somewhat instructive; but especially to indicate the infinity of the subject, that thought and investigation might be encouraged. * * * * * * transcriber's note: original spelling and grammar have mostly been retained. however, on page , "clepsydral" was changed to "clepsydra". figures were moved from within paragraphs to between paragraphs. in addition, some figures were originally out of numerical sequence; they are now in sequence. time and time-tellers. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: frontispiece] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ time and time-tellers. * * * * * by james w. benson. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: sundial] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ london: robert hardwicke, , piccadilly. . john childs and son, printers. index to the illustrations. page frontispiece vignette the pocket ring dial silver pocket dial and compass the clepsydra or water clock the book-shaped watch ancient table watch ancient watch with dial old english round watch old oval watch ancient round ornamental watch old english calendar watch mary queen o' scots watch (death's head) ancient watch case (scriptural design) ditto table watch (ditto) gretton's watch ancient box watch oliver cromwell's watch early ornamental round watch case john milton's watch small early watch ancient watch with pendulum ancient brass watch with lid ignatius huggeford's watch modern watches. horizontal skeleton lever full plate lever three-quarter plate lever the chronograph perpetual calendar, keyless complicated ditto and independent seconds the meridian watch escapements to watches. the verge escapement the horizontal do. the duplex do. the lever do. the chronometer do. balances, etc. compensation balance old balance clock clock spring rack striking work back of french clock carriage clock english ormolu clocks - tell-tale clock clock escapements. crown wheel escapement anchor do. dead beat do. french single-pin escapement three legg'd gravity do. double ditto ditto turret clocks. wells cathedral clock old st dunstan's do. st james's palace do. st paul's cathedral do. royal free hospital do. memorial turret clock dial modern turret clock movement " " hour wheel and snail " " the rack " " the pendulum rod quarter or chime clock gas wheel for illuminated dial nest of bevelled wheels carrying hands hammer and bell benson's great clock. the exterior " " " the movement sun-dial time and time-tellers. time cannot be thoroughly defined, nor even properly comprehended by mankind, for our personal acquaintance with it is so brief that our longest term is compared to a span, and to 'the grass which in the morning is green and groweth up, and in the evening is cut down and withered.' the ordinary thinker can scarcely carry his idea of time beyond that small portion of it which he has known, under the name of life-time. the metaphysician classes time with those other mysteries,--space, matter, motion, force, consciousness, which are the gordian knots of mental science. time is naturally divided into three most unequal parts,--whereof the past includes all that has happened until now from that far-distant period when 'heaven and earth rose out of chaos;' the present is but a moment, expended in a breath, to be again like that breath momentarily renewed; the future is, as the past,--'a wide unbounded prospect,' an 'undiscovered country,' into which prophecy itself penetrates but partially, and even then bears back to us but small information; for its language catches the character of a grander clime, and the denizens of this lower earth are incapable of understanding its gorgeous metaphors; the brightness is as blinding as the darkness. we may attempt to pierce the future by the light which history throws from the past, but history's record is imperfect; her chronicles are of the rudest and most unreliable character; her most valued memorials serve but to make past 'darkness visible,' her most ancient registers reach back but a short distance compared with those testimonies which geologists have discovered, and given us veritable 'sermons in stones' about. the past is, indeed, scarcely less of a mystery than the future; even the present we only know in part, but we do know that the brief term during which man 'flits across the stage' of time ere he goes hence and is no more seen, is of inestimable value. most of us soon make the discovery that the world has much to teach which there is little time to learn and still less time to apply to good purpose. _ars longa, vita brevis est_, is the general expression of human experience. for every man there are duties and labours for which time is all too short; just as he begins to understand and to perform his work wisely and successfully, the 'spirit of the destinies,' as mr carlyle would say, 'calls him away;' but whither he goeth is as great a mystery as whence he cometh. this, however, we do know, no wise man ever disregarded time, inasmuch as of this treasure there is no laying in a fresh store when life's supply has been exhausted; the wasters, the 'killers' of time, like the foolish virgins who neglected their lamps, are met invariably with the 'not so,'--as the door of opportunity is shut in their faces. like the dial with the inscription '_nulla vestigia retrorsum_' each man's steps are taken never to be retraced, the act once done can no more be recalled than the shadow on the dial can go backward. what wonder then that the most thoughtful of men are particularly careful of their time, regulating their use of it with the utmost precision and weighing it out as scrupulously as a miser would his gold? what wonder that they should sigh and grieve over a wasted day, and with bitter self-reproach should say to themselves as titus did, 'perdidi diem,'--i have lost a day? what wonder is it that such should teach themselves to wrestle with time, even as jacob wrestled with the angel, for a blessing; and to regard those reckless ones, in whose butterfly existence are counted only the 'shining hours,'--as the bee might be supposed to regard the idle gnats which frolic in the sunbeams heedless both of to-day and of to-morrow. the poets are our best interpreters of time, and they seem never tired of referring to it and symbolising it by every possible figure, emblem, and trope.[ ] celerity of motion and brevity of duration are discovered to be its chief characteristics. time is therefore depicted as flying,--fast, noiselessly, and uninterruptedly. it is a river, speeding on with imperceptible but resistless pace to the ocean of eternity. it is a stern vigorous old man--time is already old--rushing by us with never-slackening strides, bearing blessings for each and all, but we must be upon the alert to strive with him for his gifts--'to seize time by the forelock'--or he will forget to bestow them. we too often charge upon time the evil which is the result of our own lack of energy, and thus it happens that although in kindly moments our poets seem to delight in exalting and glorifying him for all manner of enjoyments, at others they can find no word too coarse or uncivil to apply to him. 'time,' says shakespeare, 'is a very bankrupt,' adding, 'nay, he's a thief too; have you not heard men say that time comes stealing on by night and day?' +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | footnote: | | | | [ ] poebus apollo in ovid's metamorphoses claims that he is time's | | special exponent:-- | | | | ----'per me, quod eritque, fuitque, | | estque, patet; per me concordant carmina nervis.' | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ time is, in proverbial philosophy, the most churlish and unaccommodating of acquaintances,--'time and tide tarry for no man.' time is always liable to be chided, as we have said, when one feels like hamlet, 'the times are out of joint;' although our next door neighbour may, with as much or more reason, be blessing the self-same hour we are condemning. time is indeed all things to all men, and 'travels divers paces with divers persons.' sweet rosalind described long ago 'who time ambles withal, who time trots withal, and who he stands still withal.' 'i prithee,' asks orlando, 'who doth he trot withal?' and no matter how often we overhear her reply, we shall listen with delight to the quaint language of the pretty rejoinder,--'marry, he trots hard with a young maid between the contract of her marriage and the day it is solemnized; if the interim be but a se'nnight, time's pace is so hard that it seems the length of seven years.' 'and who ambles time withal?' 'with a priest that lacks latin and a rich man that hath not the gout; for the one sleeps easily because he cannot study; and the other lives merrily because he feels no pain; the one lacking the burthen of lean and wasteful learning, the other knowing no burthen of heavy tedious penury. these ambles time withal.' 'who doth he gallop withal?' 'with a thief to the gallows; for though he go as softly as foot can fall, he thinks himself too soon there.' 'who stays time still withal?' 'with lawyers in the vacation; for they sleep between term and term, and then they perceive not how time wags.' if roger bacon's brazen-head could have repeated and continued his oracular utterances at fixed intervals he would have been a very sensational performer over some prominent public time-piece of the present day. if only once in twelve months, say at midnight, when the year ends, he could have pronounced his three important speeches, 'time is;--time was;--time's past!' he might have rivalled some of our best actors or orators in attracting the multitude; unfortunately, however, our mechanical clockwork performers have never risen to the dignity of speech, and the secret of friar bacon's magic died with the inventor of gunpowder,--which last it is a pity, perhaps, did not also slip out of use and memory along with it. 'time is, time was, time's past' seems to comprise a whole world of hopes, fears, and lost opportunities, and sounds like a little condensed history of all that ever has happened or ever can happen. herein we may imagine we can observe the wonder-working qualities of time, solving all mysteries, bringing everything whether of good or evil to fruition, testing friendship and love, solacing troubled and wounded hearts, and healing all manner of griefs; but then we also remark that he is the abaser of the proud as well as the uplifter of the humble. if he builds, he as surely destroys, being, indeed, the great spoiler, _edax rerum_, before whose breath myriads of living things through all generations have faded away, in regular sequence, and towns and cities and the several civilizations of the world have one after another decayed and perished with all their wondrous works, and glories, and aspirations. 'who shall contend with time--unvanquished time, the conqueror of conquerors, and lord of desolation?' time's chronicle is of itself proof of his character, for the very record of his deeds he does not permit to be of long endurance. time was, before the earliest historian began to take note of him, before the 'twilight of fable,' and before the most primitive symbol. time himself were too brief to tell of his various experiences, the full value and purport of which we shall never know, until we have bridged the abyss which separates the present from the future. time and the world, we are told, commenced life simultaneously, and their twin birth was greeted triumphantly 'with the music of the spheres,' the morning stars sang together rejoicingly; and it is also said that their courses shall be simultaneously determined when the edict shall be promulgated that 'time shall be no more.' when will that great event take place? is a question which has occupied the attention of many theologians and others, who temporarily forget that 'of that day and hour knoweth no man.' as of the end so of the beginning of time, there is to us no landmark, though geologists are endeavouring to prove that they have traced some of his earliest footprints in this world of ours. professor tyndall tells us that 'not for six thousand, nor for sixty thousand, nor for six thousand thousand, but for æons, embracing untold millions of years, this earth has been the theatre of life and death. the riddle of the rocks has been read by the geologist and palæontologist, from subcambrian depths to the deposits thickening over the sea-bottoms of to-day. and upon the leaves of that stone book are stamped the characters, plainer and surer than those formed by the ink of history, which carry the mind back into abysses of past time compared with which six thousand years cease to have a visual angle.' although time is so vast in his operations and so truly marvellous in his many features, it has, nevertheless, been found possible to measure his shorter intervals with the greatest accuracy,--even to but a few seconds in a year. it took some centuries to accomplish this feat, but it is now surely and systematically done. the stages of horological science are some of them remote, but they are well worth studying. the earliest divisions of time were doubtless those made by the operations of nature, producing day and night,--the sun and moon were the earliest chronometers, and, marked by them, 'the evening and the morning were the first day.' it is even now by noting the recurrence of certain celestial phenomena that we are enabled to certify to ourselves the accuracy of our time-pieces, but although the motion of the heavenly bodies is the standard of computation for lengthened periods, it is found more convenient to reckon short terms, such as seconds, minutes, and hours, by machinery set in motion by a spring or by weights mathematically adjusted, and this in a word has given birth to the science called horology. we can readily comprehend the division of time into days and nights, for these, as we have said, are the natural divisions. let us trace the origin of more arbitrary periods, such as hours, and weeks, and months, and years. first, then, as to days, let it be remembered that the beginning and ending of an ordinary english day differs in several respects from those of other nations. the jews reckon their day, as do also the greeks and italians, from sunset to sunset; the persians from sunrise to sunrise. the astronomical and nautical day is computed from noon to noon, and is reckoned by hours, not by twice ,--as, for instance, instead of writing half-past four in the morning of, we will say, jan. , the astronomer would write jan. . h. m. our ordinary english day is reckoned from to at midnight, after the fashion set by ptolemy, which has this advantage over the method of reckoning from sunrise or sunset, that the latter periods are continually varying with the seasons of the year. the grouping of seven days into a week is shown in genesis, but the seventh day is there alone specially named. the sabbath is still kept by the jews on the seventh day, but christians keep the first day of the week in honour of christ's resurrection, and call it the lord's day. after the older planetary method, sunday was named in honour of the sun, monday of the moon, tuesday of tuesco, or mars, wednesday of woden or mercury, thursday of thor, friday of friga, venus, saturday of saturn. the month, named after the moon in consequence of a month being nearly equal to the time occupied by the moon in going through all her changes, is again classed under the names lunar or calendar; the lunar month is rather more than - / days, but as the solar month is nearly a day longer it would require more than twelve lunar months to make a year, arbitrary additions have been therefore made to each month, some consisting of , some of days; and months so arranged to form the calendar are called calendar months, twelve of which make a year of about - / days. until the time of julius cæsar the year was reckoned as of days only, a number which after many centuries required the addition of ninety days to rectify, he therefore ordered one of the years to consist of days, and that subsequently every fourth year should contain days. even this very summary imperial method was attended with its drawbacks and difficulties, for the earth's revolution round the sun is made in eleven minutes eleven seconds, less than - / days, which minutes in the course of about years required to be taken into consideration, and in pope gregory xiii. took off ten days by making the th of october the th; but the gregorian time was not introduced into england till when the error amounted to about eleven, so eleven days were subtracted from leaving it only days,--much to the indignation of the illiterate people of that time, who clamoured, assembled in great mobs to testify to their sense of the great injury inflicted upon them, 'give us back our eleven days,'--one of hogarth's prints of the 'election' exhibits a paper containing this very inscription. the fury of the populace at being robbed of its precious time availed not; the day after the nd of september, , was made the th of september, and from that time dated the new style, since which the year has been almost exactly correct. up to the legal year began in england on the th of march, and it was usual up to that day to employ two dates, as - ; but since the change of style the year has commenced with the first of january,--nearly midwinter. as there is one day more than fifty-two weeks in a year every year begins one day later in the week than the preceding year; and after leap-year two days later. the only country in europe which still retains the old style is russia, --the difference between the styles, now twelve days, is usually indicated by o.s. and n.s., or as in one or two of our watch illustrations by 'russian' and 'gregorian.' as regards the smaller divisions of time, it should be noted that the minute and the hour are thus reckoned,--the earth divided into degrees, turning upon its axis once every twenty-four hours, brings fifteen degrees under the sun each hour, and makes those fifteen degrees of longitude equivalent to one hour of time,--fifteen geographical miles being equivalent to one minute of time. the earliest horologe or hour measurer of which history makes mention is that called the _polos_, and the _gnomon_. herodotus (lib. ii.) ascribes their invention to the babylonians, but phavorinus claims it for anaximander, and pliny for anaximenes. the _gnomon_, which was the more simple and probably the more ancient instrument, consisted simply of a staff or pillar fixed perpendicularly in a sunny place, the shadow of which was measured by feet upon the place where it fell,--the flight of time being computed thereby. in later times the word _gnomon_ was the title of the sun-dial, and it is the name still in use for the style or finger which throws the shadow on the dial and thus indicates the hour. the _polos_ or _heliotropion_ was no doubt a superior instrument to the earliest _gnomon_, but, from its being so seldom mentioned, we may suppose it not to have been so generally used. the _polos_ consisted of a basin, in the middle of which the perpendicular staff or finger was erected, and marked by lines the twelve portions of the day. the _dial_ was but another form of _polos_; its name indicates a roman origin,--namely, from _dies_, a day, but there was a greek sun-dial called _sciathericum_, from _skia_, a shadow. the invention is said to have been derived by the jews from the babylonians, to whom, as we have seen, herodotus ascribed it, and there is mention made in the xxxviii. of isaiah of the dial of ahaz,--a king who began to reign b.c. the form of the dial of ahaz has not been ascertained; but there is reason to believe that the ancient jews and the brahmins were acquainted with the uses of the dial and applied it to astronomical purposes. dials were, it is said, not known in rome before b.c., when one was set up by papirius cursor the roman general, near the temple of quirinus. at athens there is an octagonal temple of the winds still standing, which shows on each side the lines of a vertical dial and the centres where the _gnomons_ were placed. at one time the art of dialling was most assiduously studied; its rudiments may be described as follows: the plane of every dial represents the plane of some great circle on the earth, and the _gnomon_ the earth's axis; the vertex of a right _gnomon_, the centre of the earth or visible heavens. the earth itself, compared with its distance from the sun, is considered as a point, and therefore if a small sphere of glass be placed upon any part of the earth's surface so that its axis be parallel to the axis of the earth, and the sphere have such lines upon it, and such plans within it, as above described, it will show the hour of the day as truly as if it were placed at the earth's centre, and the shell of the earth were as transparent as glass. the diversity of the titles of sun-dials arises from the different situation of the planes, and the different figure of the surfaces whereon they are described, whence they are denominated equinoctial, horizontal, vertical, polar, erect, direct, declining, inclining, reclining, cylindrical, &c. +--------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the pocket ring dial.] | +--------------------------------------------------------------+ all the before-mentioned time-measurers were up to a certain period non-portable, and in addition to the drawback of being unserviceable excepting when the weather was clear and the days bright were as useless for private purposes, as they were unadapted for the winter-time or for night. the next step was therefore a portable dial, but this was probably not invented until after a very long interval. the dial of which the above is an illustration, was probably one of the earliest of portable time-keepers, the time being shown by means of a hole through which the light fell on the inside, which had an inner ring adaptable to the day and the month. ring-dials of this description were in common use within the last century in this country, and were manufactured in large numbers at sheffield when watches were too expensive to be generally attainable. some of these ring-dials were of superior construction, and were made by means of more than one ring to serve for different latitudes. as an example of a still greater advance in the manufacture of pocket dials, see the illustration on the next page. the dial consists of a thin silver plate properly divided and marked, and having a compass with glass cover sunk at one end of it. the _gnomon_ or style moves upon a hinge so as to allow of its lying flat upon the dial while in the pocket, and thus rendering the instrument conveniently portable. the _gnomon_ itself is also susceptible of elevation or depression and the beak of the bird carved on a thin slip of silver at its side marks the exact extent of the _gnomon's_ elevation. this dial is indubitably of french manufacture. one would imagine that it was such a dial as this that shakspeare had in his mind's eye when he wrote the well-known passage which he put into the mouth of jaques, wherein that philosophic satirist describes his meeting with a fool in the forest. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: silver pocket dial (in the collection of the honble | | company of clockmakers, london).] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ 'good morrow, fool, quoth i. "no sir," quoth he, "call me not fool till heaven hath sent me fortune; and then he drew _a dial from his poke_, and looking on it with lack-lustre eye, says, very wisely, "it is ten o'clock: thus we may see," quoth he, "how the world wags: 'tis but an hour ago since it was nine, and after one hour more 'twill be eleven. and so from hour to hour we ripe and ripe, and then from hour to hour we rot and rot. and thereby hangs a tale." when i did hear the motley fool thus moral on the time, my lungs began to crow like chanticleer, that fools should be so deep contemplative; and i did laugh, sans intermission, _an hour by his dial_.' what the fool's dial was, has given rise to many conjectures, but there is no better authority perhaps on the subject than mr halliwell, from whose magnificent and elaborate folio we will make the following very interesting extract. 'the term dial appears to have been applied in shakspeare's time to anything for measuring time in which the hours were marked, so that the allusion here may be either to a watch, or to a portable journey ring, or small dial. the expression "it is ten o'clock" is not decisive, as it may be considered to be used merely in the sense of the hour thus named. * * * a watch even is sometimes called a clock, * * * and it seems by no means unlikely that the common ring dial which has been in use for several centuries up to a comparatively recent period, should be the dial referred to in the text.' whatever may have been the shape of the dial which jaques saw drawn from the fool's 'poke,' it is an undoubted fact that portable dials did serve the part of time-keepers, and were in their way valuable as such to those who had learnt how to use them. but the dial would not do the work of the watch in an age when people no longer travel by the waggon-load or with pack-horse, but are whirled fifty or sixty miles in that time and have to reckon their engagements not by the day, but by the minute. the world no longer 'wags' in jog-trot style, but speeds at steam-pressure and sends its messages by lightning-conductor; it consequently values its time more highly and measures it more carefully. the horologe which possibly next succeeded in date the invention of the dial, was the clepsydra or water-clock, the precise antiquity of which is however unknown. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the clepsydra, or water-clock of the greeks.] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ the clepsydra is so named because the water escapes from it as it were by stealth, but in a regulated flow so as to permit of the lapse of time being computed thereby, even as by sand running through sand-glasses. the clepsydra appears to have been at first used to limit the time during which persons were allowed to speak in the athenian courts of justice; 'the first water,' says Æschines, 'being given to the accuser, the second to the accused, and the third to the judges,'--a special officer being appointed in the courts for the purpose of watching the clepsydra and stopping it when any documents were read whereby the speaker was interrupted. the time, and consequently the water allowed, depended upon the importance of the case. this custom, says phavorinus, was to prevent babbling, that such as spake should be brief in their speeches. ctesibius of alexandria, who lived about , invented a much improved water-clock, mentioned by vitruvius and athenæus. another kind of clepsydra consisted of a vessel of water having a hole in it through which the fluid gradually escaped; a miniature boat floated upon the water and descended as the water decreased, whilst an oar placed in the boat indicated the hour by pointing to certain line-marks on the side of the vessel. the hole through which the water dropped was made, we are told, through a pearl, because it was supposed that the action of the water upon the pearl would not, as upon other substances, enlarge the aperture, nor would the pearl, it was imagined, be choked by the adhesion of any other material. the chief fault of the clepsydra as a chronometer arose from the inequality of the flow of water, it being found to escape more rapidly when the vessel was full than when it was becoming empty, and also more speedily in hot weather than in cold. the egyptians are however said to have measured by this machine the course of the sun; by it tycho-brahe computed the motion of the stars; and by it dudley made his maritime observations. plato furnished the original idea of the hydraulic organ by inventing a clepsydra, or water-clock, which played upon flutes the hours of the night when darkness precluded their being shown by the index. clepsydræ are still used in india. the sand-glass, as we have said, is an instrument of the same character as the clepsydra,--the one measuring time by the fall of water and the other by the running of sand. sand-glasses are known to have been used b.c. the best hour-glasses, it is said, were those in which powdered egg-shells well dried in the oven were used instead of sand, such powder being less affected by changes in the atmosphere than sand would be. sand-glasses are now seldom used except on board ship, and by domestics to compute the time for the boiling of eggs. king alfred's invention for measuring time by the burning of candles, which were marked by circular lines to show the progress of the hours, was another effort of rude skill, which however could have been but partially successful even in the opinion of its inventor, for the accuracy of candle-horologes is interfered with by many different influences, prominent among which must of course have been the varying qualities of the materials used in their manufacture, and the more or less care with which they were guarded from the wind, so as to prevent their guttering. we now come to consider the date of the next grand step in the progress of horology,--namely, that of the invention of the _clock_. the name itself may be derived either from the french, _la cloche_, a bell, or from the german, _die gloke_, or _die kloke_. there is no doubt that the word _cloche_ was meant to distinguish the instrument which marked the hours by sounding a bell, from the _montre_ or watch, which (derived from the latin _monstro_, to show) merely shows the time by its hands. in ancient books the word _cloche_ simply stands for a bell,--the monks being accustomed to ring a bell at certain periods marked for them by their sun-dials or hour-glasses, and 'what's o'clock?' in old writers is often merely equivalent to the inquiry, 'what hour was last struck by bell?' the word horologe or hour-measurer of course equally applied to the sun-dial, the clepsydra, and the clock, and this convertibility of terms makes it all the more difficult to trace the point at which the newer invention began. beckmann, in an ingenious analysis of various statements as to the first inventors of clocks made to go by weights and wheels, ascribes the invention to the eleventh century, but he does not attempt to name the first clockmaker. his authority for the date is the life of william abbot of hirshan, wherein there is mention made of a machine used by the monks for measuring time, which cannot in beckmann's opinion have been a clepsydra. beckmann does not believe that clocks were of european origin, but that they were derived from the saracens. he founds his opinion upon a horologe described by trithenius which was presented by the sultan of egypt in , to the emperor frederic ii. of germany. 'in the same year,' says he, 'the saladin of egypt sent by his ambassadors, as a gift to frederic ii., a valuable machine of wonderful construction, worth more than ducats. for it appeared to resemble internally a celestial globe in which figures of the sun, moon, and other planets, formed with the greatest skill, moved, being impelled by weights and wheels, so that performing their course in certain and fixed intervals, they pointed out the hour, night and day, with infallible certainty; also the twelve signs of the zodiac with appropriate characters, moved with the firmament, contained within themselves the course of the planet.' to whom the high honour belongs of inventing the clock is, to use a not unknown phrase, 'lost in the mists of antiquity.' all the ancients who were reported as skilful in mechanics seem to have obtained a modicum of credit as clock-inventors. archimedes and posidonius before, the christian era, boëthius in the th century, pacificus about the middle of the th, gerbert at the end of the th, wallingford near the beginning of the th, and dondi at the end of the th, have each in their turn been asserted to be the inventors of the clock. the sphere of archimedes, made b.c., as mentioned by claudian, was evidently an instrument with a maintaining power but without a regulator, and therefore would not measure time in any other manner than as a planetarium, turned by a handle, measures, or rather exhibits, the respective velocities of the heavenly bodies; and the same may be said of the sphere of posidonius, as mentioned by cicero ('de naturâ deorum'). the clock of boëthius was a clepsydra, as was also that of pacificus, according to some, for bailly in his history of modern astronomy asserts that pacificus was the inventor of a clock going by means of a weight and a balance, and if so the invention must be ascribed to pacificus; but bailly gives no authority for his assertion. gerbert's horologe is said to have been merely a sun-dial, and wallingford's horologe, called the albion, must have as much resembled a planetarium as a clock, for the motions of all the heavenly bodies appear to have been conducted by the maintaining power, whatever that was, without controlling mechanism. this instrument, made in , is also described as having shown the ebb and flow of the sea, the hours, and the minutes. there are, however, still earlier data as to clocks in england than this of wallingford's, for we find that in a stone clock-tower was erected opposite westminster hall with a clock which cost marks, the proceeds of a fine imposed upon ralph de hengham, chief justice of the queen's bench. the tower mentioned was still standing in , and in it was a clock which struck the great bell known as tom of westminster so as to be heard by the people in all the law courts. in queen elizabeth's time the clock was changed for a dial upon the clock tower, which, however, bore upon its face the same virgilian motto, 'discite justitiam moniti,'--referring to the fine inflicted upon the chief justice for making an alteration in a record by which a poor dependent was made to pay _s._ _d._ instead of _s_. _d_. a dial with this motto was still to be seen in palace yard, westminster, within the last dozen years, but was removed with the houses which were then demolished to make way for the gilded palings which have since been erected between palace yard and bridge street, westminster. in a clock was placed in canterbury cathedral, which, according to a statement in a cottonian ms., cost £ , a large sum at that time. dante, who died in , aged , makes the earliest mention of an _orologio_ which struck the hour: 'indi come orologio che _ne chiami_ nel hora che la sposa, d'idio surge amattinar lo sposo, perche l'ami.' _il paradiso._--c.x. in james dondi constructed at padua, by the command of hubert, prince of carrara, a clock similar to wallingford's, and thus obtained for himself the title of _horologius_; which, it is said, is still borne by his descendants in florence. in henry de wyck, a german, made a clock for charles v. of france, which was erected in the tower of his palace. this clock was regulated by a balance, the teeth of the crown-wheel acted upon two small levers called pallets which projected from, and formed part of, an upright spindle or staff, on which was fixed the balance, and the clock was regulated by shifting the weights placed at each end of the balance. in edward granted protection against 'injuriam, molestiam, violentiam, damnum, aut gravamen' to three dutch horologers, john and william uneman and john lietuyt, who had been invited to this country from delft. chaucer, who died in , speaks of a cock crowing with such regularity as to rival a clock: 'full sikerer (surer) was his crowing in his loge as is a clok, or any abbey orloge.' whether the abbey horologe referred to was really a clock in our sense of the term, or merely the bell rung by the monks at a certain hour indicated by the clepsydra, is matter of conjecture, but the probability is, that clockmaking had advanced sufficiently about this time to have given rise to chaucer's simile. froissart speaks of a famous clock which struck the hours, and was remarkable for its mechanism, and which was removed in by philip the hardy, duke of burgundy, from courtrai to his capital at dijon. after this date frequent mention is made of clocks in various histories, some of which instruments remain even to the present day. dr heylin thus describes a famous clock and dial in the cathedral of lunden in denmark. 'in the dial are to be seen distinctly the year, month, week, day, and every hour of the day throughout the year, with the feasts, both those which are movable and fixed, together with the motions of the sun and moon, and their passage through each degree of the zodiac. then for the clock, it is so framed by artificial engines that whensoever it is to strike, two horsemen encounter one another, giving as many blows apiece as the bell sounds hours, and on the opening of a door there appeareth a theatre, the virgin mary on a throne with christ in her arms, and the three kings or magi (with their several trains) marching in order, doing humble reverence, and presenting severally their gifts,--two trumpeters sounding all the while, to adorn the pomp of the procession.' the clock at hampton court is one of the most ancient in england, but all that remains of the original structure is the dial and work connected with it, facing the east, in the second court of the old part of the building erected by wolsey. of the ancient body or works there is no record, and its maker is unknown, but it bears the initials n.o. and the date . there is a celebrated antique clock at strasburg which is described as striking the quarter-hours by four figures, symbols of the ages of man;--the first being struck by a child with an apple, the second by a youth with an arrow, the third by a man with a staff, and the fourth by an old man with a crutch, then came death, who struck the hour, and thus reminded the observer that his last hour would eventually arrive. from the evidence adduced respecting the origin and inventors of the clock it is not unreasonable to conclude with ferdinand berthoud (a frenchman who wrote much and was a great authority upon the subject) that such a clock as that which was constructed by henry de wyck for charles the wise of france, was not the invention of one man, but was the result of a series of inventions made at different times by various persons, each of which is worthy to be considered a separate invention. it was the simple employment of the natural force of gravity as to the fall of bodies in free space, that paved the way to the extreme accuracy and constancy of rate which belong to the clocks of modern times, and the conclusion to which mons. berthoud arrived respecting the progression of the essential improvements is thus stated:-- . toothed wheel-work was known in ancient times, and particularly to archimedes, whose instrument was provided with a maintaining power, but had no regulator or controlling mechanism. . the weight applied as a maintainer at first had a fly, most probably similar to that of a kitchen-jack. . the ratchet-wheel and click for winding up the weight, without detaching the teeth of the great wheel. . the regulation of the fly depending upon the state of the air, it was abandoned, and a balance substituted. . an escapement next became indispensable, as constituting with the balance a more regular check than a fly upon the tendency which a falling weight has to accelerate its velocity. . the application of a dial-plate and hand to indicate the hours was a consequence of the regularity introduced into the going part. . the striking portion, to proclaim at a distance, without the aid of a watcher, the hour that was indicated: and this was followed by the alarum. . the reduction and accommodation of all this bulky machinery to a portable and compact size, as in watches. such a succession of ingenious contrivances, introduced by different men to improve upon the first rude instrument, is perfectly analogous to the successive improvements which have been made in the modern clock, since that of henry de wyck's was constructed. large iron wheels, continually exposed to the oxidizing influence of the air, in which unequal and ill-shapen teeth were cut with the inaccuracy of a manual operation, were by no means calculated to transmit the maintaining power with perfect regularity to the balance, supposing it to have been a good regulator; but when it is further remembered that the alternate direct pushes of the escape-wheel against the pallets must have produced jerks, and destroyed, or greatly disturbed, the regularity of this most essential part of the mechanism, great accuracy was not to be expected; even minutes were deemed too small portions of time to be shown by such a machine. the clock was set daily by some person specially appointed to the office, and even then was not to be depended upon, for forty minutes' variation in twenty-four hours was not thought to be an ill performance. the most ancient clocks had no pendulum such as we now see, but had instead a balance vibrating on the top of the clock, as seen in illustration, p. , which is an example of ancient clockwork. upon the invention of springs, in lieu of weights, as the maintaining or motive power in clocks, which was made towards the close of the fifteenth century, it became obvious that time-pieces might be rendered portable, and that the new motive power, a coiled spring, could act independently of position. this discovery was of great importance, and yet to whom we are indebted for it is unknown; the value of the invention became still more apparent when the fusee, or mechanism for equalizing the variable power of a coiled spring, was applied. berthoud says, 'it was soon perceived that the action of the spring being much greater at the height of its tension than at the end, great variations in the watch resulted therefrom. this was remedied by a mechanism called _stack-freed_, that is, a kind of curve, by means of which the great spring of the barrel acted on a straight spring, which opposed itself to its action, and when this spring was nearly down, acted more feebly.' the word _stack-freed_ was stated to be german, and therefore gave rise to a supposition that the invention was of german origin, but the word is not to be found in a german dictionary, and, if ever german, it was probably strictly technical, and soon became obsolete. berthoud has given a drawing and description of a portable clock, probably by jourdain, without a fusee, and some of the modern continental watch-makers have, perhaps, derived their idea from it of making a watch keep time without a fusee. up to the close of the th century the motive power in clocks was always obtained by means of weights; the invention of the coiled spring rendered them portable. whatever be the date or origin of the watch or portable clock, certain it is that there was mention made of such an instrument as far back as , by gaspar visconti, an italian poet, who in a sonnet describes 'certain small and portable clocks made with a little ingenuity, and which are continually going, showing the hours, many courses of the planets, the festivals, and striking when the time requires it.' the sonnet is, as it were, composed by a person in love, who compares himself to one of these clocks. one of the earliest places of watch manufacture was nuremberg, and foremost among its horologers was peter hele, who was thus described by doppelmayer in his 'history of the mathematicians and artists of nuremberg.' 'peter hele, a clockmaker, was everywhere esteemed a great artist on account of the pocket-clocks, which, soon after the year , he first made in nuremberg, with small wheels of steel. the invention, which with great justice may be ascribed to him, being something new, was praised by almost every one, even by the mathematicians of the time, with great admiration. he died . on this subject johannes cocclæus, in his commentary on the cosmographia of pomponius mela, published in nuremberg in , makes the following announcement:--"inveniuntur in dies subtiliora, etenim petrus hele, juvenis adhuc admodum, opera fecit, quæ doctissimi admirantur mathematici, nam ex ferro parva fabricat horologia, plurimis digesta rotulis, quæ, quocunque vertuntur, absque ullo pondere, et monstrant et pulsant xl. horas. etiamsi in sinu, marsupiove contineantur."' this quotation from cocclæus may be thus translated:--ingenious things are just now being invented, for peter hele, as yet but a young man, hath made works which even the most learned mathematicians admire, for he fabricates small horologes of iron fitted with many wheels, which, whithersoever they are turned, and without any weight, both show and strike forty hours,--whether they be carried in the bosom or the pocket. doppelmayer in continuation says: 'this, already so written by cocclæus in , shows in the clearest way, that pocket-clocks were made at nuremberg many years ago, and he has fairly attributed the invention of them to this artist, since it was the most deserving of admiration, and the newest of his time, and which will be considered as a nuremberg invention; whence also clocks of this kind were for a long time called nuremberg living eggs, because they at first used to make them in the form of small eggs, which name is to be found in the german translation in chapter of a strange book which f. rabelais has left behind him. hence it is evident how erroneous it is to ascribe, as many do, the invention of small striking-clocks, as of these pocket-clocks, to isaac habrecht, a well-known mathematician who lived about the beginning of the last century, and dwelt at strasburg, whereas our peter hele had made them in nuremberg years before.' the art of watch-making soon extended itself over europe, for we find that in france, in , francis i. enacted a statute in favour of the corporation of master clockmakers at paris, to the effect that no one should be permitted to make horologes unless he should have been previously admitted into that society. of the most antique watches there are some very interesting collections at the south kensington museum and other places,--originally brought together by private persons whose antiquarian knowledge has lit up the subject with wonderful interest. it would be impossible to furnish in a volume such as this, a regular series of such productions, showing the development of artistic skill in the embellishment and design of watches; we leave that duty to some future writer who shall prepare an _edition de luxe_, and show therein, in splendid colour-printing, all the beauties of enamelling on the precious metals, all the elegance, as well as perhaps the oddity, of design, which are to be observed in these highly-interesting works of art. we will, for the nonce, be content with interspersing our pages with a few examples, not perhaps of the highest quality in point of design, but yet worthy of notice, either as showing variety of form or as being made valuable by historical associations. one of the earliest specimens of very small watches which are now extant is the one given on the next page. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient watch, in form of a book.] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ this little time-piece dates from the period when blacksmiths were watch-makers, or at all events when watch-makers were blacksmiths. the works are all of iron; the case was made, probably, before glass was used for such instruments, and it is not unlikely that this watch is of as old a shape as even the nuremberg eggs. a more ornamental time-piece, of perhaps a somewhat later date, is the curious little instrument which is portrayed in our next illustration; the works of which are also of iron. it possesses the advantage of serving either as a clock or a watch, or as both, being of a portable size, and yet when set on a stand would serve as a pretty ornament to a drawing-room table. the bell at the top is so arranged that when the hand touches a trigger the hour is struck upon it, but the bell itself may be detached without any interference with the movement by which the time is kept. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient table watch, with bell for striking (temp | | _circa_ ).] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ a clock was purchased by queen victoria at strawberry hill sale and is now at windsor, which was a present from henry viii. to anne boleyn, and since from lady elizabeth germains to horace walpole. it is described by walpole as a clock of silver gilt, richly chased, engraved and ornamented with fleurs-de-lys, little heads, &c. on the top sits a lion holding the arms of england, which are also on the sides. on the weights are the initial letters of henry and anne within true lover's knots, at the top 'dieu et mon droit,' at the bottom 'the most happy.' the emperor charles v. (henry's contemporary) was so much pleased with observing the movements of time-pieces, that it is related of him, that he frequently sat after his dinner with a number of them upon the table before him, and that even after his retirement to the monastery of st just he still continued his interest in them. he endeavoured to adjust their movements and keep them in order, but, upon finding it impossible to make any two watches agree with each other in keeping time, he was induced to reflect how much more absurd it must be for a man to attempt to regulate the more varied and hidden emotions of nations in consonance with those in his own breast. ancient watches used to strike the time, and we read of charles v. and louis xi. that, watches having been stolen from them in certain crowds, the thief was detected by their striking the hour. in moestlin had a clock so constructed as to make just beats in an hour, of which were counted during the sun's passage over a meridian, and thus determined its diameter. the alarum or alarm is one of the earliest additions to the mechanism of the clock, and is still used in dutch clocks. this contrivance took its origin from the circumstance of prayers being read at stated periods in monasteries by night as well as by day, such an invention being of course of much service in arousing the priest to perform his duties. in the company of clockmakers was incorporated in england by charles i., who granted them a charter prohibiting the importation of clocks, watches, and alarms. so that at this period englishmen were sufficiently skilled in the production of horological instruments to consider their importation in the light of an intrusion. the company consisted of a master, three wardens, and ten or more assistants who had power to make by-laws for the government of all persons using the trade in or within ten miles of london. they were authorized to enter, with a constable or other officer, any ships, vessels, warehouses, shops, or other places, _where they shall suspect bad and deceitful works to be made or kept_, and if such were found they seized them in the king's name, and having proved their unworthiness, the objectionable works were broken up and destroyed. there are many instances mentioned of such 'searches' upon the books of the company, and although the practice has long become obsolete, for in these times of free trade no such restrictions would be tolerated, yet it would perhaps be found that some testing by a modern 'searcher' or tester would be of some protection to the public now-a-days, when thousands of watches are sold which, like peter pindar's razors, are intended rather for the market than for use. the following are illustrations of some time-keepers of the end of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth century. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient watch with dial, .] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ this is a very curious but not uncommon combination of the watch with the dial,--the latter being marked inside the watch-case and having a gnomon moving on a hinge so as to allow of its lying flat and being enclosed within the case when not in use. our next illustration is of one of the earliest examples of a round watch made in england, the date being . it contains not only a dial showing the hour, but a sort of general calendar in miniature. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: english round watch, .] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ of much about the same date is the following example in silver and brass. it is of the same style of time-keeper, and shows how our forefathers liked to know not only the time of day but the period of the month; and how they watched the moon's changes, and in a word made an almanac of their watches. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: oval watch, .] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ it was not an unusual thing for religious persons who used rosaries at their devotions, to add to their beads a miniature skull, with a view it may be to remind themselves of the frailty of life by way of stimulus to the preparation for the future state. when watches were invented the memento mori death's head was made into a watch-case, as in the illustration on page . +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient ornamental watch.] | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ the lauder family, of grange and fountain hall, possess the _memento mori_ watch there engraved, they having inherited it from their ancestors, the setoun family. it was given by queen mary to mary setoun, of the house of wintoun, one of the four marys, maids of honour to the scottish queen. this very curious relic must have been intended to be placed on a _prie-dieu_, or small altar, in a private oratory; for it is too heavy to have been carried in any way attached to the person. the watch is of the form of a skull: on the forehead is the figure of death, standing between a palace and a cottage; around is this legend from horace: '_pallida mors æquo pulsat pede pauperum tabernas regumque turres_.' on the hind part of the skull is a figure of time, with another legend from horace: '_tempus edax rerum tuque invidiosa vetustas_.' the upper part of the skull bears representations of adam and eve in the garden of eden, and of the crucifixion, each with latin legends; and between these scenes is open-work, to let out the sound when the watch strikes the hours upon a small silver bell, which fills the hollow of the skull, and receives the works within it when the watch is shut. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: old english calendar watch.] | | | |[illustration: 'memento mori' watch belonging to mary queen of scots.]| +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ nor about this time was the opportunity omitted of inculcating by means of pictorial watch illustrations, that scriptural knowledge which was in the less educated times not so much taught by books as by pictures. the watch case given on the following page is of about . it is obviously of english workmanship, and is a fair specimen of the period,--it may be, indeed, that, looking at it, one may well doubt whether art has much advanced in watch-ornamentation during the last years or so. we give our next illustration as another example of an ancient table watch. this watch has a revolving dial at the top, by means of which and the fixed point or hand the time is indicated (page ). +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: watch-case (_circa_ ).] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ such was the state of clockwork when galileo, the great astronomer, then a medical student at pisa, happened to discover, while gazing up at the roof of the cathedral when he should, perhaps, have been devotionally occupied, that the lamps suspended therefrom by chains of equal lengths, swung, and made their vibrations in long or short arcs, in almost the same space of time,--a fact, the truth of which he ascertained by the beats of his pulse. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: table-watch, _circa_ .] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ this isochronal property, as it was called, was described in a treatise which he published at paris in , entitled 'l'usage du cadron ou de l'horloge physique universelle.' the first application which galileo made of his discovery was the professional one of testing the rate and variations of the pulse, and it is even denied that he did more than suggest its applicability to clockwork. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient silver dial and gold-cased watch. one hand.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the honours of the invention of the pendulum-clock have been contested by vincentio galilei, son of the great astronomer, who is said to have made a pendulum-clock at venice in , and christian huygens, a noted dutch mathematician, who (in his excellent treatise, 'de horologio oscillatorio,' which was the foundation of most of the subsequent improvements in horometrical machines) clearly shows that he had constructed a pendulum-clock previous to . his reputation will be somewhat obscured, however, if we yield to the claims of an englishman named richard harris, an ordinary workman, who, it is said, invented the pendulum-clock which was fixed in the turret of st paul's, covent garden, in , and which is generally believed to have been the first pendulum-clock in europe. the pendulum when first applied to clocks was suspended by a silken cord, and the arc described by the bob or weight at its end was a segment of a circle, but it being found that this was in opposition to scientific knowledge, and that the curve described by it should properly be part of a cycloid or oval; huygens tried to remedy the error by causing the silk cord in its motion to side or strike against a curved piece of brass, but he thereby caused a greater error than he corrected. dr hooke afterwards suspended the pendulum by a thin flexible piece of steel, the bending of which, as the pendulum swings from side to side, produces the required cycloidal motion. in dr hooke invented the anchor escapement which is still in use together with the flexible spring to the pendulum above described. before, however, we proceed further with our historical summary of the progress of watch and clock making, it may be well to introduce here two illustrations of the watches worn by two of the most eminent englishmen of about this period. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient box watch.] | | | | [illustration: the watch of oliver cromwell.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the following watch was made about by jonn midwall in fleet street, who was warden of the clockmakers' co. in , and died about . it is one of the early examples of a fob-watch. the case is of plain silver, fitted with glass over the face, and the chain of the same metal. the family crest of cromwell was a demi-lion holding a ring in its paw, but the protector substituted for the ring the handle of a tilting spear, as engraved on the chain; the cromwell arms on the reverse, and the initials o.c., certify to its genuineness. the arms as engraved and the crest are identical with those on the banner used at the protector's funeral. the silver seals which were at one time attached to this chain are now absent, but they were a few years back in the possession of some descendants of the cromwellian family, who allowed sir charles fellows to take impressions of them. the watch, as it is here engraved, remained for upwards of a century in holland, was there purchased by an english nobleman who presented it to his godson, and by him given to sir c. fellows, who believed that it was probably worn by cromwell from until his death in . in shape it reminds one of the nuremberg egg watch. the following is an excellent example of an early watch-case of the round shape still in use. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: early ornamental round watch-case.] | | | | [illustration: john milton's watch, made by william bunting, london, | | .] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the history of this watch is somewhat singular. from inscriptions which appear upon it, it seems to have been made by william bunting, (whose name is entered upon the books of the clockmakers' co. as elected to their court in , he being then resident in pope's head alley, cornhill,) in , and presented to john milton in the same year, which was the date of the poet's leaving christ's college, cambridge, and taking up his residence with his father in horton, buckinghamshire, he being then about years of age. from that time down to the early part of the present century we have no record of the watch or its possessors, but that in it was bequeathed by the last surviving member of an old family in baltimore in the united states, who had treasured it for some generations, to some old ladies residing near london, the bequest including also a number of coins of the reigns of charles the st and nd, some medals of fairfax and others, as well as a few rings, but nothing of a later date. the chest which contained all these relics safely arrived in london, and not long after was, with its contents, offered for sale to an eminent chronometer-maker. the coins and medals being in an excellent state of preservation were soon disposed of at high prices, but the watch being only silver gilt, and steel-faced, was considered to be of little value, and a few shillings only were allowed as a fair price for it. it was put into a drawer in its discoloured state and there remained until , when for the first time the inscription on the face of it was discovered upon its being accidentally cleaned up, and it was then presented to sir charles fellows, well known for his connoisseurship in such matters, and as a collector of ancient time-pieces. the maker's name upon the inside of this watch is thus given: 'gulielmus bunting, london, .' sir charles fellows died in and bequeathed this one watch only to the nation; but his relict, lady fellows, who died in , left the whole of the celebrated collection of ancient watches which her husband had brought together, to the british museum. in tompion, under hooke's direction, made a watch with a spiral balance for charles ii. up to this period watches had but one hand and only pointed the hours, but the spiral pendulum spring having been applied to the balance, it regulated the oscillations with some nicety, and the minute wheel and hand were soon after added. a watch was found upon guido fawkes when he was arrested for the gunpowder plot, which had been purchased by percy and himself the day before 'to try conclusions' for the long and short burning of the touchwood with which he had prepared to set fire to the train of powder. the following is one of the earliest examples we have met with of an +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: early watch, with double case.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ it is apparently of french make, date of , and is a remarkably neat and small specimen of the watches of that time. the annexed illustration is a curious example of a watch of the date of , to which a pendulum was added in , and which is still capable of keeping time. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient watch with pendulum.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ our next illustration is another specimen of antique design and ornamentation. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ancient brass watch-case with lid protecting dial.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ in barlow, a london clockmaker, invented some mechanism whereby a person at night might ascertain, in the dark, the hour last struck, by pulling a certain part of it, and this contrivance gave the name of _repeater_ to all time-pieces in which it was used. for this invention barlow tried to obtain a patent, but he was opposed by daniel quare and the clockmakers' company, who said that quare was the original inventor. the question was tried by james ii., and the decision given in favour of quare. the following memorandum was entered upon the books of the company with reference thereto. ' , sep. .--be it remembered that in pursuance of the order of the court of the th day of february, - , and according to the order of the court of the th march, - , the patent endeavoured to be obtained by one mr edward barlow, a priest, and to be granted to him by the king's majesty for his sole making and managing of all pulling repeating pocket-clocks and watches, he pretending to be the true and first inventor of that art and invention, was by diligence and endeavour of the master, wardens, and assistants of this company, with great charge and expense, which was borne by and out of the stock of the company, very successfully prevented, and upon the nd march, - , ordered by the king in council not to be granted.' in tompion invented the cylinder escapement with horizontal wheel, but this was not brought into general use until some time after, when it was much modified. it was, however, a very valuable invention, and exercised considerable influence upon the shape of subsequent watches, inasmuch as it dispensed with the vertical crown wheel, and permitted them to be made more flat and therefore more conveniently portable. we now come to the time when the use of jewels was first invented and applied; and as these, by being so hard and uninfluenced by friction as to allow the pivots to play without wearing away,--as metal would do by constant action,--afterwards gained for the english peculiar fame as manufacturers of watches, we shall be excused for enlarging upon this point. about the year nicolas facio, a native of geneva, having invented the use of jewels in watches, and failed in his attempt to persuade the parisian watch-makers into the adoption of his notions, came to london. in may, , he and two other watch-makers, peter debaufree and jacob debaufree, obtained a patent for his invention to extend over fourteen years. in december, , he petitioned, as we shall presently see, to be granted a more extended term, and then the clockmakers' company opposed the application upon the ground of the invention not being a novel one, and in proof of their statement produced the watch, of which we give an illustration, as made by ignatius huggeford, a member of their own company, some time before the application of the pendulum-spring. as this watch had a large amethyst mounted upon the cock or pivot of the balance-wheel, the committee of the house of commons were induced to decide against facio's petition and to throw out his bill. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: ignatius huggeford's original jewelled watch.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ this watch has since then obtained an extensive historical reputation, and it is preserved in the archives of the clockmakers' company as one of their most valuable treasures, for it is the earliest known english jewelled watch, and is the identical instrument produced before the house of commons committee, as evidence to upset, and which did upset, poor facio's claim for an extension of patent. alas, for ancient reputations, it has been but recently discovered that huggeford's watch was but a fraud, and that the jewel on the cock which deceived the parliamentary committee into supposing that ignatius huggeford, an englishman, had applied jewels to watches long before facio had been heard of, _has nothing to do with the working_ of the watch. the jewel has been merely stuck on, just in the place where a jewel should be; but as it is only fixed to the surface of the brass and no pivot plays in the jewel, it may be averred that the amethyst has no more to do with the movement of the watch than the silver ornaments on the watch-case. it is clear by the words in facio's petition that his application of jewelling to watches was not merely done with the idea of ornamenting them,--in that there would have been no novelty,--and it seems probable that the amethyst would have been placed upon the face of the watch if the object of inserting it anywhere had simply been ornamentation; to speak plainly, none other than a fraudulent purpose could be served by its being placed where it is. it is, we fear, not impossible that the jewel was placed there at the insistence of some of the members of the clockmakers' company, who, being perhaps jealous of the foreign invention, and fearful of its effects upon their own private trade, were still unable to prevent the grant of a patent, in may, , for fourteen years to the inventor. but by december of that year, when application was made for the extension of the patent, they had had time to consider affairs and to prepare their opposition. we may believe this watch to have been ignatius huggeford's, and to have been all that it was sworn to be by the members of that company, but, when we remark that neither is any mention whatever made by them, nor, as far as it appears, any question asked of them before the parliamentary committee as to the jewel being upon the cock during the whole of the time of its being in their possession, we cannot but arrive at the conclusion that the jewel was placed upon huggeford's old watch--the date of which could be shown--at the order of some of the members of the clockmakers' company with the purpose of defeating the patent, and that the committee of the house of commons were not as careful as they ought to have been in inspecting the jewel, for if they had, they must have seen the want of connexion between the amethyst and the pivot, which, it was pretended, was working in it. the probability is that at this time our english watch-makers scarcely knew how to apply a jewel, or otherwise they would have inserted the pivot in a proper manner. the story is anyhow a very extraordinary one, for, supposing the clockmakers' company to be innocent of conspiracy on the subject, it must have been a miraculously curious whim which possessed old huggeford to insert a jewel as an ornament in a place where it would not be seen, and still more wonderful that it should, sham as it was, be placed exactly where it should suit the purpose of after-litigation. of course there can be no imputation arising out of this incident to affect the members of the clockmakers' company of the present time, for they are no more answerable for what was done above a century and a half ago than the parliament of to-day is to be blamed for allowing the execution of charles i., or for enacting the laws which led to the loss of our american colonies. after the invention of jewels for watches came a still more important discovery. since , when gemma frisius first proposed to ascertain the relative longitude of any place or ship at sea, by means of an horological machine for indicating the time of the first meridian, the subject had excited the attention of most of our philosophers, but unavailingly, as there was then no chronometrical instrument, upon which reliance might safely be placed. huygens, in , had contrived a time-piece actuated by a spring and regulated by a pendulum, but the pendulum was affected by the tossing of the ship, and by a change of temperature, as well as being subject, as was afterwards discovered, to a variation in weight depending on the parallel of latitude. the academy of sciences at paris proposed, in , a reward for the best paper in reply to the question:--'what is the most perfect method of preserving on the sea the equable motion of a pendulum?' the reward was given to a dutchman named massy, but his plan was not carried out. an english watch-maker named henry sully happened to be about this time in paris directing a large manufactory of chronometers, and he presented the french academy with a marine time-keeper of superior construction to the time-pieces of that period, and accompanied his gift by a memoir describing it. whilst still engaged in the study of his art, sully, who was a clever man, unfortunately died, and the opportunity of advance seemed to have passed away. about this time graham invented the mercurial compensation pendulum, which consisted of a glass or iron jar filled with quicksilver and fixed to the end of the pendulum rod, which, when heat lengthened the rod, expanded simultaneously the quicksilver, and made the centre of oscillation to continue at the same distance from the point of suspension. he afterwards conceived a notion, which john harrison subsequently worked out, of making a compensation pendulum (or a pendulum that should in itself contain the power of equalizing its own action, whatever the change of temperature), forming it of various metals. in harrison invented what is called the gridiron pendulum, composed of nine rods, five of steel and four of brass, which are so arranged that those which expand most are counteracted upon by those of less expansion. these two compensation pendulums, the gridiron and mercurial, are still in use, and with slight improvements are found to keep to time very accurately. the period had now arrived for the making of marine time-keepers sufficiently accurate for nautical use, and styled chronometers because they are most accurate time-measurers. their value to navigators, and the immense impetus which would by such instruments be given to the science of navigation, had long been foreseen, but there were many great difficulties in the way of obtaining a perfect chronometer. the sailor, before the invention of this instrument, could ascertain the latitude of his ship at sea, by observation of the fixed stars. supposing these stars to have first appeared to him in the zenith, and at his next observation to be one, two, or three degrees south of the zenith, he would know that he had sailed just so many degrees north of the place in which he first observed them. it was not, however, so easy for him to compute longitudes, because the diurnal revolution of the earth causes each meridian to pass successively under the same stars. it was necessary to have an accurate time-keeper, and to set it carefully to the solar time of some port in the kingdom, whose longitude was well known. the time-piece might then be carried out in a vessel sailing abroad, and the computations made by means of it would prove most wonderfully exact and important. by simply observing the moment at which the sun reached his meridian, when of course it would be o'clock at noon, solar time, and then noting the difference between the solar time thus ascertained and the time of the chronometer, the mariner would be able by calculating degrees to one hour of time, or geographical miles to one minute, to make out his longitude. for example, if the time-piece had been set to time at the meridian of greenwich observatory, and if it be one o'clock by the time-piece when it is mid-day, or meridian by the sun, then the place in which the longitude is taken must be in long. degrees east of the meridian of greenwich, and if it be eleven o'clock by the chronometer when the sun attains his meridian, then the place must be in long. degrees west of the meridian of greenwich. it is not indispensably necessary, that every chronometer used for maritime purposes should keep time exactly with that of the greenwich observatory, or of any other instrument of known excellence, provided always that its _rate_ as seamen call it, or the daily loss or gain of the chronometer, is well ascertained, and so may be computed in the calculations to be made. the indispensable requisite of a chronometer, however, is that the daily loss or gain shall not vary materially from itself at different periods, or under the changes of temperature of different climates, and these qualities being found in an instrument of any shape or make, constitute a marine chronometer. it will be generally obvious of what immense and universal importance it was for men who 'go down to the sea in ships and do their business on the great waters' to be provided with a chronometer, and so be enabled to calculate with a great degree of nicety,--almost as a traveller by land learns his distances by milestones and finger-posts,--the precise position on the wide ocean of the vessel they are engaged in navigating. so impressed was the british parliament with the value of such an invention, that as early as , in the reign of queen anne, a reward of £ , was offered, for any method for determining the longitude within the accuracy of one degree; of £ , within the limit of geographical miles; and of £ , within the limit of geographical miles, or half a degree, provided such method should extend miles from the coast. in john harrison invented the first chronometer, for which, after having added many improvements, he received the gold medal of the royal society in . he still continued to persevere in improvements in his instrument, and at last applied to be allowed to test its powers in such a voyage as might permit of proof of its value. after some time his application was granted, and his son, william harrison, embarked at portsmouth, nov. , , for jamaica. after eighteen days sailing the vessel was computed to be ° ´ west of portsmouth, when the distance calculated by the watch was ° ´. when the vessel arrived at madeira, on the th of december, it was found that the reckoning was corrected by the time of the piece, about a degree and a half. from madeira to jamaica the reckoning was amended °; and at the several islands where the ship touched the known longitudes agreed very closely with those indicated by the chronometer. upon having returned again to england after a very stormy voyage, the instrument underwent examination, and its entire error amounted to ^m. ^s. . harrison, on this report being made, obtained from parliament a reward of £ . a second experiment was afterwards made in , in march of which year harrison left portsmouth with his instrument on board the tartar for barbadoes. he had previously conveyed to the lords of the admiralty his statement of the rates at which his chronometer went, and the extent to which it was affected by change of temperature. on may th the vessel arrived at barbadoes, and it was found that the amount of the daily deviations from mean time was only ^s. in excess. he returned to england after an entire voyage of days, and found that, allowing the gain of one second per day as stated by him in his sealed 'rate,' the whole gain was only ^s. harrison then was examined by a committee appointed for the purpose, and, having explained satisfactorily to them the principles of his instrument, he received another £ . a trial was then made by another person with a chronometer made upon harrison's plan, and this experiment also terminating favourably, the remaining parliamentary reward was paid over to harrison, amounting in all to £ , , a sum which was still further increased by gratuities from the board of longitude and the east india company. harrison's improvements in time-measuring were of considerable importance, as any one may readily conceive, but he was sufficiently candid to acknowledge that the balance, balance-spring, and compensation curb, as then used, were not simultaneously affected by changes of temperature, that small pieces were more readily affected than large ones, and pieces in motion sooner than pieces at rest, whence he concluded that if the provision for heat and cold could properly be arranged in the balance itself, as in his gridiron pendulum-clocks, the time might be better kept. harrison's suggestion of a compensation balance in lieu of a compensating curb, incited peter le roy, a native of france, to the consideration of the question, and ultimately to the invention of a balance acted upon by mercury and alcohol. the compensation was effected by the balance itself, which, carrying the two thermometers, adjusted the mercury nearer or farther from the centre of the balance, according to the state of the atmosphere. about this period there was considerable emulation exhibited, both here and on the continent, upon the subject of time-measuring. sully had aided largely in the advancement of the art of watch-making in london and paris. berthoud, julien, and pierre le roy made many ingenious propositions, and amongst others the invention of the detached escapement is attributed to the last-named. in england we find the names of arnold, earnshaw, and mudge associated about this date with the greatest improvements in chronometry, and as being those to whom prizes were at different times awarded by the board of longitude. in fact, few great inventions have since been made in the art, and our present high position as chronometer-makers is mainly due to the skill, energy, and perseverance then exhibited. it would be superfluous to give any detailed description of the many valuable advantages derived from the science of horology, to which indeed all arts, sciences, trades, and callings are considerably indebted, and will probably be still more so in proportion to the increase of the use of steam-power and electricity. as by means of these recently-discovered powers mankind are enabled to compress into a day what would previously have required weeks and even months to accomplish, so must they regard with higher esteem, as these improvements are extended, the science by means of which they may divide and subdivide the precious minutes which are sufficient to perform so much. it will be worth while by way of illustration to point to the assistance given by horology to astronomical and nautical science. it is by means of carefully-made and exact chronometers that we calculate the distance and relations of the various heavenly bodies to ourselves and to one another. having ascertained, by comparison, the rapidity of light and sound, and that the former travels at the rate of , miles per second, we discover that the light of the sun requires eight minutes to reach the earth, and thus compute the sun's actual distance from us. so also observing the number of seconds which elapse between the flash of lightning and the roll of thunder, or between the flash and report of a cannon, and remembering that in mild weather sound travels at the rate of feet, and in frosty weather feet in a second, we shall be able, on making allowances for the state of the atmosphere, to arrive at a tolerably correct conclusion as to distances. it is by means of a chronometer, though it be but a sand-glass, that the sailor uses his log-line at sea and finds the rate of his vessel's speed. his lead, enclosed in the log, or wood, is attached to the log-line, which has certain lengths called knots marked upon it for nautical miles, and according to the knots paid out in the half-minute of the sand-glass, so is the ship's rate of sailing, _i. e._, if ten knots are passed in half a minute the vessel's speed is at the rate of ten miles an hour. it would be both impossible and unnecessary to describe the various experiments in which it is of great consequence to measure time into minute proportions,--the number of these increases with advancing science; it will suffice if we have made the subject sufficiently interesting to the general reader to induce him to inquire further into the details. it is only by such investigations that he will be enabled to give anything like a proper answer to the question 'what is time?' modern watches: their varieties and modes of manufacture. 'he that would wear a watch two things must do,-- pocket his watch and watch his pocket too.'--_old maxim._ the first possession of a watch by young persons of either sex is perhaps one of the most vividly retained of all their early memories. the sense of responsibility, of importance, which such a wonderful little piece of mechanism gives to them, the alacrity with which they thenceforth note the flight of time and compare the working of all other time-pieces, is remarkable. one of the first things usually done by the juvenile with his or her watch is, curiously enough, to challenge thereby the performance of the old-established time-pieces in the house,--even the infallible old hall clock, a very nestor among clocks, does not escape scrutiny. woe be to his ancient reputation if, when 'weighed by the new balances'--compensation or otherwise,--he be 'found wanting.' the yet unfledged urchin will, upon the evidence of his own newly-acquired chronometer, unhesitatingly expose and denounce the slightest delinquency of the antique time-piece, and pride and plume himself accordingly. at this time of day, when watches of a sound and durable kind may be had for a comparatively small sum, and when education commences so early, it may be supposed that youths attain earlier to years of discretion, and so rise to the dignity of watch-wearers sooner than their predecessors did. anyhow, the value of time can scarcely be inculcated at too juvenile an age, nor can it be brought home to the mind of the pupil without providing him with the means of studying the operations of his own personal time-keeper. from the hour when such a gift comes into his possession until the latest day of his life a watch remains his indispensable mentor, and, literally, his bosom-friend. there are few, perhaps none, who can look upon the face of an old watch, their day and night companion for many years, without associating it with the bygone times when it reckoned off for them their moments of pain or anxiety, their joys and sorrows. there is perhaps scarcely any memento of a friend or relative so suggestive as that semi-living object which has been his constant friend for so long, the chief valuable of all his 'portable property.' our old english popular rhymes and songs have frequently been pointed with witticisms directed at the care with which watches have been guarded, or the dexterity with which they have been filched away. who can overlook the evergreen old dramatic joke, of which the point consisted in connecting the time-teller with the name of the ancient street-guardian; _e.g._:-- 'i knocked him down, then snatched it from his fob. "watch, watch!" cried he, when i had done the job; "my watch is gone!" said he: said i, "just so, stop where you are, watches were made to go."' +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the horizontal watch.] | | | | [illustration: the skeleton lever watch.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ who can forget dickens's description of the watch of the wonderful captain cuttle, which, if you set so far forward at night and so far backward in the morning, was asserted to be 'a watch that would do anybody credit;' or again, how can we omit mention of that earlier dickensian figure, mentioned by sam weller, wearing his enormous watch with so much happy fearlessness, his seals dangling from his fob, the continual temptation and despair of eager pick-pockets, whose ineffectual efforts to abstract the watch from such a tightly-protuberant stomach, were the never ceasing delight of its jolly proprietor? who shall narrate the characteristics of the various fashions in watches, and the trinkets that were worn along with them, the manners of the fine gentlemen who carried two at a time soon after swords were exchanged for walking-canes, and when pantaloons anticipated the easier but less graceful trowsers? snuff-boxes, bag-wigs, pig-tails, high cravats, shoe-buckles, have all gone more or less out of fashion, but the watch is a perennial, which may indeed change its outer-casing and its decorations, like man himself, but knows no period of absolute disuse since first it started into being. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the full plate patent english lever.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: three-quarter plate english lever.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ from the time when the first nuremberg egg-watch was produced, there has always been noticeable an endeavour to make pocket time-pieces more and more small and portable so far as they could be made so consistently with their durability. sometimes the love of very minute workmanship has been carried to an extreme, but toy-watches of eccentric shapes and patterns are but the few exceptions to the general rule, which has settled that usefulness and convenience are best provided for within certain moderate sizes, and that of all shapes the round and flat are the most easily carried. the great object of the watch-maker's ambition is to produce a time-keeper minutely accurate, and yet not so delicately constructed that it cannot withstand the rough usage to which even moderately careful wearers subject it. it has been estimated that the manufacture of and trade in watches annually in england, france, switzerland, and america, amount to over £ , , per ann.; and that in switzerland alone there are , persons, one-third of whom are women, engaged in the manufacture. it is probable that even the immense number of new watches thus annually produced barely exceeds the growing requirements of the people, who, as they increase in intelligence and receive higher wages, soon learn the advantage of personally possessing a pocket time-keeper, and make it accordingly their first ambition to purchase one. the watch clubs which are formed in the various towns and rural districts throughout the kingdom enable this desire to be gratified at but small pecuniary inconvenience, inasmuch as payment is thus made in small instalments at fixed intervals, and the watch is bought with sums which might have been spent thoughtlessly and to no permanent benefit. this first lesson in thrift having been well learnt, and the result being so palpably beneficial to those who exercise it, has often laid the basis of a regular habit of economy. the motive power in the watch is derived, not as in the clock from weights, but from a spiral spring called the mainspring, set in a drum or barrel, and any inequality in the pressure of the spring is fatal to regular time-keeping. a highly tempered and finished spring is a primary requisite in watch-making; in order to provide for the uniform transmission of motive power from the barrel throughout the train to the escapement, the fusee and chain are used, the fusee being a hollow-sided cone, and the chain round it. when the spring is wound up its force is of course greatest, for the chain is then acting on the smallest end of the fusee. the proportions of the barrel to the centre wheel, and the size of the teeth in that wheel, have all to be carefully planned, and adjusted to one another, and these all again to the moving of the hands upon the dial. the escapement is one of the most important parts of the mechanism of a watch. it may be one of either of the following. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: verge escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the _verge_ escapement, as applied to watches, will be seen annexed, a, part of the balance; _b_, the verge body; c, c, the pallets; d, the escape-wheel; e, escape-wheel pinion. the verge or arbor b of the balance has two pallets, c, c, which stand out at right angles, so as to be acted on alternately by the sloping teeth in the opposite sides of the crown or escapement-wheel, c. the _horizontal_ escapement, on the following page, so called because of the escape-wheel acting horizontally to the axis of the balance. this invention was perfected by graham, after the death of the inventor, his master and friend, thomas tompion. _a_, the escape-wheel, having pins or stems rising from it, on the tops of which are teeth of a wedgelike form, of such a length as to permit little freedom within and without the cylinder _b_, which is firmly fixed to the balance _c_. although _b_ is one piece, the two edges of the hollow part serve as distinct pallets, inasmuch as they receive alternately, during each vibration of the balance, an impulse from the curved outer edge of each tooth in succession; and as the wedge-shaped tooth passes from the pallet, the coming tooth falls on to the circular part of the cylinder, and there remains until the return of the balance, when that tooth which had previously rested on the circular portion of the cylinder, comes upon the edge or pallet, gives impulsion to the balance _c_, and falls upon the concave portion of the cylinder, and there remains until the balance again returns, when another impulse takes place, and so on in succession. watches having the cylinder escapement were not known in france till the year , when julien le roy obtained one of them from graham. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: horizontal escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: duplex escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the _duplex_ escapement is of a very peculiar construction, and nearly approaches the chronometer; it is probable that it was originally invented by dr hooke, although, as we now have it, it came from the hands of tyrer. it is seen in our illustration. a, the escape-wheel; b, the escape-wheel teeth; c, the balance; d, the pallet of impulse; e, the ruby roller; f, a notch in ditto: , , , cogs or upright teeth on the rim of the escape-wheel. the balance is supposed to be turning downwards towards the right, the tooth of the escape-wheel just resting against the ruby roller. when this (which is called the return) vibration is complete, the balance, by the strength of the hair spring, is carried in the opposite direction, and as the notch f passes the tooth of the escape-wheel, this latter is enabled to pass the roller, and the upright tooth or cog falls upon the pallet d, and thus gives impulse to the balance. the next straight tooth of the escape-wheel is now resting against the roller _e_, and the same operation again takes place. this escapement is much superior to the horizontal, and is almost independent of oil. it can carry a balance of much greater weight, and when well made performs admirably. duplex watches, however, should never be selected by persons who are accustomed to ride on horseback, as these instruments are liable to be affected by any sudden motion. even the stepping quickly from a vehicle may stop them, and yet the escapement be as perfect as possible. they are only adapted for persons of very quiet habits. thomas mudge, in the year , introduced an admirable invention, which, after many alterations and improvements, is now universally known as the '_patent detached lever_' escapement, represented by--_a a_ the escapement-wheel, _b b_ the ruby pallets, _c_ the lever, _d_ the balance. on the axis of the balance _d_, towards the lever _c_, is a small disc of steel, into which is inserted a small pin made of ruby. this pin fits with great nicety into a notch or opening in the end of the lever _c_, upon which are firmly fixed the two pallets _b b_, into which are secured rubies very finely polished. the balance in its vibration on either side, carrying with it the steel disc and ruby pin, causes that pin to enter the notch in the lever and carry the lever with it, and at the same time, to draw the pallet from the tooth of the escapement-wheel _a_. power being exerted upon this wheel by the mainspring, the wheel tooth gets disengaged from the locking-face of the pallet, forces itself down the slopes of the pallet, and thus gives impulse to the balance. at each vibration the same unlocking takes place, but as soon as the wheel tooth falls from the slope, the opposite pallet is prepared to receive the advancing tooth of the escapement-wheel, and so on in succession beat after beat takes place. so excellent was this escapement considered a few years back, that chronometers were made upon the principle, and placed in the royal observatory for public trial. but since then many improvements have been made in it, so that makers are now enabled to produce a pocket watch, with the short angle lever escapement, which marks time at a steady rate of within four or five seconds weekly,--a rate which approaches so near to the time-keeping of a pocket chronometer, that unless the minutest exactness for some specific purpose is required, the last-named watch is all that can be wished for. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: lever escapement.] | | | | [illustration: chronometer escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ about the year was invented the escapement which is now denominated the detached or _chronometer escapement_ (see opposite page), the principles of which are the nearest approach to perfection, the impulse to the balance being given at the centre of vibration. a is the escape-wheel, b the escape-wheel teeth, c the roller let on the verge, or axis of the balance. this roller is a circle of polished steel, with a notch cut out of it, into one side of which, d, a flat polished piece of ruby is inserted for the acting part. below this steel roller, carried on the same verge, is a smaller roller of steel (e), denominated the discharging pallet, having a sapphire fixed on its outer edge. f is a slender spring, which is screwed at i to the stouter one, having its fixture at the stud l, and polished away very thin at k, in order that it may bend readily, so as to cause very little resistance to the balance while forcing it on one side. g is a projecting piece, carrying an upright pin made of ruby, against which the wheel tooth b rests; at b is a small screw against which the spring l k g strikes, and thus prevents it from springing too far back. the action of these parts is as follows:--when at rest the circular edge of c is just clear of the two teeth of the wheel b, which cannot be set in motion while e and g remain quiescent; g rests against the screw at b, and the tooth resting against the locking pallet g, the escapement-wheel cannot turn. to set the chronometer going it is necessary to give it a rotary motion, which sets the balance in action. this causes the lower piece on the verge (called the lifting piece or discharging pallet) to strike against the end of the spring f, which, from its over-lapping the curved end of the prolonged spring k g, pushes it back, and thus releases the pin or locking stone g from before the tooth of the wheel: that is, it unlocks the escapement-wheel, which is immediately set in motion by the force of the mainspring. the same vibration given to balance and verge brings the ruby pallet d round before the tooth b, which strikes against it and carries it round. the recoil of the spring f has now brought the locking pallet g to catch the tooth b, the escapement-wheel is thus again stopped. but the stroke of the tooth upon the face of the ruby pallet d has driven the balance on in its vibration till it is counteracted by the tension of the balance spring, which brings it back again; in this return vibration the lifting pallet e, by its curved back, pushes the slender spring f before it, and passes it without affecting k, g, which is stiff enough to remain unmoved by f, even when this strikes and rests against it in recoiling. the wheel, therefore, continues locked on the upright pallet g, and the vibration proceeds uncontrolled till the great pallet is again brought round, and the balance spring again checks the vibration, the above process being repeated. in this escapement, consequently, part of one vibration in one direction, and the whole of that in the other, is performed without the balance being in any way under the influence of the motive power; while the parts are so contrived that the impulse given by the tooth of the escape-wheel, affects in a very slight degree the natural motion of the balance. it can be easily understood that the lifting pallet e can pass the spring f in one direction without moving k and g, while in the other it carries e and g with it. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: compensation balance.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ several appliances have been from time to time introduced to correct the error in time-keeping caused by variations in the temperature, but none have come into such general use as that known by the term '_compensation balance_,' invented by thomas earnshaw, of london, and for which he received a government reward. this balance, when properly adjusted, causes the watch to keep the same time whether the temperature be deg. or deg.; while without it a watch will show a considerable difference in time, on being merely transferred from the pocket to the dressing-table, where, probably, the temperature would not be so high. our woodcut represents a balance of this kind; the divided rim a a, is composed of steel and brass run together by fusion, the more expansible metal, brass, being placed outwards, the result of which is as follows:--heat elongates the pendulum spring, and thereby causes a slower vibration of the balance. the same amount of heat will also expand the metals composing the balance; but as the inner rim of steel does not expand so freely as the outer one of brass, the conflicting action of the two tends to draw the free end of the circular rim inwards towards its centre, and thus decreases in all but one direction the diameter of the balance. this decrease tends to _quicken_ its vibration, and thus counteracts the effect of the elongation of the pendulum spring. in cold temperatures the pendulum spring is contracted, making the vibrations quicker, but the contraction of the brass rim draws the free end outwards, thus increasing its diameter, retarding its vibrations, and counteracting the effect of the contraction of the pendulum spring. many contrivances have been introduced to test the equality of compensation balances, but the majority have been abandoned from the circumstance that the heat was not equally distributed to the watches under trial. in pursuance of this object, an oven was invented, heated by hot water, which answers the desired end. it is an apparatus made of copper, two feet high, thirteen inches broad, and eight inches deep. from the top to the bottom, at the distance of fifteen inches, it is divided into two compartments. all around the upper one (except the front, which has a glass door through which the chronometers and watches are seen without opening it) is one inch of water. it has a chamber thirteen inches high, eleven inches broad, and seven inches deep for the reception of chronometers and watches. the water is introduced at the top in the same manner as a solar lamp is supplied with oil. the bottom compartment contains a jet of gas, which can at pleasure be regulated so as to keep the watch at any required temperature. the heat radiated from the inner surface of the chronometer chamber is thus equally distributed among the instruments under trial. a thermometer placed within the upper chamber indicates the temperature, and by this simple apparatus a watch can be regulated with the greatest nicety to suit the particular climate into which it may be taken. the dial and hands should be sufficiently in contrast one to the other to show the time at a glance. dials are sometimes made of gold or silver, but these are not so distinctly seen as white enamelled dials, with black figures or numerals, and dark blue steel hands; the enamelled faces, although, perhaps, more brittle than gold or silver dials, are therefore in greatest request. up to a comparatively recent date the seconds' hand was placed upon the level face of the watch, but sunk seconds are now everywhere in use, even in the cheaper sorts of watches. the chief objection taken to the sunk seconds is that it disfigures the dial by breaking the uniformity of the numeral letters, the vi being of course obliterated to make room for it, but this obliteration seems of smaller consequence than the confusion which may arise from the use of longer seconds' hands and their being at any time mistaken for that of the hour or minute. the jewelling of a watch is an important part of its manufacture, inasmuch as it is by means of jewels that durability is chiefly secured. watch pivots would rapidly wear out the metal in those parts in which there is continual friction, and jewelling has therefore become general. the watch-maker uses for his best watches a peculiarly hard kind of ruby, which has been known to withstand the wear and tear of the best part of a century without showing symptoms of yielding, whereas inferior jewels are perhaps scarcely so hard as the best tempered metal. the frame, usually of brass gilt, sustains both ends of each axis, and is now principally designed to fit a full-plate movement or a three-quarter-plate movement. the former is undoubtedly the more simple construction, but with considerable disadvantage in taking to pieces the watch and putting it together again when repairs are needed. the examination of the escapement in a full-plate watch, and the cleaning, or altering, or oiling which may be needed, cannot be done without taking the whole movement to pieces. the three-quarter-plate movement is not only preferable on account of its superiority in respect to solidity, and the economy of labour in its manufacture, but from its being flatter than the full-plate watch, and allowing of repairs being more easily made. the watch-case, which used to be of various materials, such as tortoiseshell, pinchbeck, or one of the precious metals, is now almost universally of gold or silver. silver cases are invariably of the standard required by the law and stamped accordingly; gold cases vary in fineness,--some being made and stamped of carat gold, but the best for wear, and as such preferred by the best makers, are of carats, and are stamped as such with the hall mark, usually in three or four places,--on the bow, the pendant, and the inside of the case. much depends upon the care with which this part of a watch is finished, for an ill-fitting case admits dust which renders frequent cleaning necessary, and prevents accurate time-keeping. after the casemaker has constructed the case it has to pass through several hands before it is completed,--for instance, it is one man's work to fit the works to the case by making the joint at the o'clock and the bolt at o'clock, and to supply the wheels to propel the hands; it is another's to perform the part of engine turner, and to mark the case with those curiously intricate lines whose wonderful precision cannot be secured by mere hand-work, but by a combination of mechanical and human labour; another's to finish the joints, or, as the uninitiate would perhaps call them, the hinges; and last of all the fitter of the case with springs, and polisher to give the necessary finish. in the same way has each part of the mechanism of the interior passed through a series of workmen's hands. nearly every wheel and pinion has been separately made by men whose entire time is given to the perfecting of their several branches of labour, the subdivisions of which and their ramifications would need many lengthy chapters of description, to do them justice. the escapement is of itself a distinct department requiring a number of co-operating hands, from those which first shape the metal to the balance-maker working in brass, steel, or gold, and the final adjustment of the escapement-maker. the chain, the spring, the jewelling, the brass-work, the engraving, the gilding, have each their separate history, some of them being brought from one district and some from another, to be put together in the watch manufactory, which is finally to produce them unitedly as an entire watch. division of labour provides a larger amount of skilled work, and a more satisfactory result, than any other method. the workman whose entire life is spent in making the head of a pin or in fixing it on, will do his work better than the man, however clever he may be, who should attempt to make the whole pin; and not only is the work thus better done, but it is done by combination much more expeditiously and cheaply. all that the watch-manufacturer can do by way of choosing his materials is, however, of course, but antecedent to his own work of actual construction, of finishing, examining, and regulating. he is to the watch what the architect is to a house; the latter is none the less the rearer of the structure because he did not himself make the bricks, or saw the timber, or mix the mortar. each subordinate brings certain materials to the hand of the constructor, and he combines them, and gives them their places, he turns them into shape and produces them as a perfect whole. so the watch-manufacturer, instead of going himself back through the various stages of work which in nuremberg-egg time had, perhaps, all to be done by one pair of hands, chooses, adapts, combines the labours of hundreds of busy collaborateurs, all of whom have made portions and pieces,--he alone makes the watch. complicated watches are so called because besides the ordinary watch movement they possess other mechanism more or less complicated, by means of which they can indicate special portions of time,--as for instance the _chronograph_, which marks on its dial the fifth of a second; the _quarter_, and _half-quarter_, and _minute repeaters_, which furnish the time in the dark to within a minute, and are invaluable to invalids and blind persons; the _clock-watch_, which strikes the hours even in the pocket; the _clock-watch repeater_, which strikes and repeats; the _independent split centre seconds, and fifth seconds watch_, which shows (by comparing the one with the other) the lapse of time to the fifth of a second; the _perpetual calendar watch_, which shows the day of the week and of the month, the name of the month, the phases of the moon, &c.; the _perpetual calendar repeating watch_, which in addition to the calendar shows by a repeater the hour, quarter, and minute; and the _meridian watch_, which shows the time of day in any given number of places in any part of the world. a few words descriptive of the peculiarities of each of the above complicated watches will be necessary here, and observing the sequence as above, the following brief particulars will perhaps be sufficient for ordinary reference, or for being kept in memory. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: complicated watches.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the chronograph is undoubtedly the most perfect instrument yet invented for marking the exact time occupied by certain rapid movements or events or performances,--and is therefore well adapted for astronomical and medical observations, for timing machinery, for indicating the speed of a race, and of similar quick events even to the tenth of a second. it consists of an ordinary quick train lever movement on a scale sufficiently large to carry the hands for an -inch dial. the peculiar feature of the chronograph is its second hand, which is double, consisting of two distinct hands,--the one lying over the other. the lower of the two is furnished at the tip with a small reservoir having an extremely small orifice below; over this orifice the point of the upper hand is bent so as to fall exactly upon the puncture, and to convey through it, as with a pen, the ink held in the reservoir. the mode of operating with the chronograph at a race has been thus described. 'the chronograph is held firmly in the left hand of the operator, who watches the starters, but need not trouble himself to keep at the same time an eye upon the dial. at the moment of the start he presses the finger or thumb of his right hand gently upon the button of the pendant, and instantly a black dot is deposited on the dial, and--the operator being ready to touch the button at the precise moment of the finish, and thus to complete what we may call the chronogram of the event--the exact length of the race is registered, even to a decimal fraction of a second, and an indisputable record written by the instrument itself in black and white. the chronograph, it should be mentioned is, apart from its chronographic mechanism, an excellent time-keeper, and may be worn as an ordinary watch, being the same size as a gentleman's lever watch. repeating watches are now made so as to require no key. they are constructed with a lever or chronometer escapement, and are known according to their method of repeating,--the ordinary _repeater_ strikes the hours and quarters,--the _half-quarter repeater_ strikes the hours, quarters, and half-quarters,--the _minute repeater_ strikes hours, quarters, and minutes. the first tells the time in the dark or to the blind person to within a quarter of an hour, the second tells it within seven minutes and a half, the third tells it to the minute. the clock watch and clock repeating watch are also made so as to need no key. they strike the hours and quarters while being worn in the pocket, and have not only the two trains of wheels for going and striking as in a clock, but a third train provided for repeating purposes. both mainsprings are wound up by the same winder by a forward and backward action of the pendant. they are constructed with either lever, duplex, or chronometer escapements, and some are provided with compensation balances adjusted to act equally at extremes of temperature. the independent centre seconds watch is peculiarly adapted for the use of the medical profession. by means of its two trains it carries, besides the ordinary hands denoting hours, minutes, and seconds, a long seconds hand which can be stopped without stopping the watch. it is made with a stem winder, and therefore requires no key. the split centre seconds is not quite so complicated as the last named. it has two centre second hands revolving round the dial, the one directly over the other, as also, in another part of the dial, a small hand revolving five times in a second. upon pressing a stop-piece one of the long second hands is stopped, and another pressure will stop the other--the space between the two hands will then indicate precisely the time occupied by the event which it is desired to measure. another push to the stop-piece will make both hands again fly together, and enable the operator it may be to make a new experiment or observation. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the perpetual calendar keyless watch.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the perpetual calendar keyless watch, shows on its dial the year, the month of the year, the day of the month, the day of the week, the phases of the moon, as well as hours, minutes, and seconds. it requires no setting, as the old-fashioned calendar watch did at certain intervals, but, by a very ingenious contrivance, the changes from month to month, as for example from february th to the st of march, or from th or st of other months to the st of the next, are all performed by the watch, which also of itself marks the extra day for leap year. when to all the above are added, as is sometimes done, the minute repeating work to repeat the hours, quarters, and minutes, it may be said that the power of complication can no farther go within the limits of the small box which is called a watch case,--for these watches are provided with either lever, duplex, or chronometer escapements as may be preferred, and with compensation balances adjusted to serve in extremes of temperature. but in the examples set forth in the following illustrations, it will be seen that superadded to all the foregoing are a thermometer, and an index showing the calendar by the old and new style, as indicated by the words gregorian and russian,--the former referring to pope gregory who decreed the alteration to the new style, and the latter to the fact that the russians still reckon by the old style. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: perpetual calendar.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the complicated perpetual calendar and independent seconds keyless watch, is another example of this kind of mechanism, which, without being re-set from time to time for leap year and other changes, keeps a perpetual register of seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, and years, shows old and new styles, the phases of the moon, and variations of heat and cold. it has also two separate trains of wheels and two mainsprings, both of which are wound up by the button at the pendant. it will be seen that the dial has two hour circles with hour and minute hands showing separate time. below the centre is the sunk seconds dial with two seconds hands, the one over the other, and each working independently, so that the one may be stopped by a push at the button of the pendant and yet the other go on, to be in its turn stopped, so that the operator may use it as a stopwatch. underneath the hour hands of each circle is the hand showing the month and the day of the week. the two centre hands, with the letters g and r, are pointing to the days of the month, and showing the gregorian and russian day. in the small square space just below the centre is the year, and below this and lying over the second hands is another hand pointing to the degrees of temperature to which the watch is exposed; near the top of the dial is a small plate showing the phases of the moon,--the position indicated in this illustration is that of full moon. the meridian watch shows the time of day in any number of places in any part of the world. it is set to greenwich time, and marks the difference between this and the time of all the great metropolitan cities in both hemispheres,--as st petersburg, constantinople, new york. the name chronometer,--derived from the +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the meridian watch.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ greek, and meaning a time-measurer,--is chiefly applied to marine time-pieces and to watches which have been carefully made with chronometer or detached escapements and compensating balances serving to equalize the effects of heat and cold. marine chronometers are the chief instruments for discovering the longitude at sea, and are therefore subjected to special tests at greenwich observatory and elsewhere before being sent on board ship. they have dials of three or four inches in diameter, hour, minute, and second hands, besides a hand to indicate the day upon which the instrument was last wound up,--and they are made to go from two to eight days. being well mounted on gimbals inside of an air and water-tight brass case they do not toss about with the motion of the ship but always preserve their equilibrium. for extra protection they are generally kept enclosed in a mahogany case. chronometers have for their motive power, like watches and spring-clocks, a mainspring acting on the fusee by the chain,--as the chain winds upon the fusee the force of the spring is so equalized that it is exactly the same whatever the position of the chain. when marine chronometers are sent to the greenwich observatory they are subjected, under the directions of the astronomer royal, to extreme degrees of heat and cold, and up to the year prizes were awarded to those makers whose instruments best stood these tests; but such prizes are no longer given. it has even been found that chronometers which are most capable of withstanding extremes of temperature are not the most perfect in medium climates, and this discovery brought about new endeavours and a new suggestion known as the auxiliary or secondary compensation. marine time-pieces for ships and yachts. these instruments possess the character rather of clocks than of chronometers, inasmuch as they are designed to hang against a bulk-head, and they would not appear unsuitable to house purposes. they are portable and useful clocks, and having a lever escapement with compensated balance, the motion of the vessel does not affect them. some yacht time-pieces are constructed so as to chime the quarters or tunes, and to strike the ships' bells as well as the hours. they are also sometimes placed in very handsome cases of bronze or ormolu, decorated with special designs to illustrate the name of the ship or yacht to which they belong. their movements are not as accurately adjusted as those of marine chronometers, but they, nevertheless, are made to keep time excellently. keyless watches. the keyless mechanism to a watch is one of the great modern improvements in watch work; it does away with the old-fashioned key, with which so many persons have ruined their watches, the watch is wound by turning a knurled knob, placed on the handle or bow (see illustrations, pp. - ) instead of by the ordinary means: the hands are set in the same way, with the addition of pressing a small projection on the side of the case. the advantages of these improvements are obvious; the case, which never need be opened in winding, is made air tight and dust tight, thus preserving much longer the fluidity of the oil, and greatly prolonging the intervals between the necessary cleaning of the watch. besides which, the keyless mechanism being attached to the watch, the key can never be lost or mislaid, or worn out. _strict attention to the following simple directions is necessary for the proper management of a watch._ st.--wind your watch as nearly as possible at the same time every day--the morning is the best. care should be taken to avoid sudden jerks. nd.--be careful that your key is in good condition, free from dust and cracks. it should not be kept in the waistcoat pocket, or in any place where it is liable to rust or get filled with dust. rd.--keep the watch while being _wound_ steadily in the hand, so as to avoid all circular motion. th.--the watch, when hung up, must have support, and be perfectly at rest; or, when laid horizontally, let it be placed on a soft substance for more general support, otherwise the action of the balance will generate a pendulous motion of the watch, and cause much variation in time. th.--the hands of a duplex or chronometer watch should never be set backwards; in other watches this is a matter of no consequence, but to avoid accidents it is much better to set them always forward. th.--should the watch vary by heat or cold, as when worn or not worn in the pocket, the hands may be set to time, but the regulator should not be altered; but when it is found necessary to alter the regulator, it should be done gently, and very little at a time. th.--_the glass should never be opened in watches that are set and regulated at the back._ th.--keep your watch-pocket free from dust or nap, which generally accumulates in the pocket when much used. th.--be cautious to whom you give your watch for repair; the best watches being frequently irretrievably damaged by inexperienced workmen. never allow your watch to go longer than two years without being cleaned. house clocks. between the small wooden dutch clock of the value of but a few shillings, and the carefully-made regulator clock which costs ten times as many pounds, there is necessarily a wide difference; but both may be considered as within the general designation, 'house clocks.' the former sometimes go for many years with a fair amount of regularity, and are found to be useful to the humblest classes, whose hours for early morning labour are frequently regulated thereby. the latter are made with such accuracy as to correct the time of other clocks, such as turret and church clocks, which are more exposed to the influence of the weather, and are necessarily made upon a coarser scale. in large mansions there is no handsomer or more necessary appointment for the hall or vestibule than a fine eight-day clock, 'to welcome the coming, speed the parting guest,' and to give the time of day to the entire household. it would be worth while, did our purpose admit of it, to write a chapter on the longevity of clocks, by way of showing the comparative cheapness of the solid, well-built piece of mechanism whose every item has been carefully put together of the very best and most durable materials by the most skilled horologers. for generation after generation such a sound, well-made time-piece shall keep accurate time, and put to shame by both its performance and the insignificant expense of keeping it in order, the instruments of, it may be, more showy appearance, but less careful construction. such a clock descends from father to son until its own age is scarcely to be remembered, and is regarded as one of the family heir-looms,--nay, as more,--almost, we would say, as a friend familiar with all the scenes and experiences which have made up family history. it was of such a clock that longfellow wrote-- 'by day its voice is low and light, but in the silent dead of night, distinct as a passing footstep's fall, it echoes along the vacant hall, along the ceiling, along the floor, and seems to say, at each chamber-door, for ever--never, never, for ever.' it was such an one that dickens apostrophized in that wonderfully-genial style which won for him so much love and fame:--'my old cheerful, companionable clock. how can i ever convey to others an idea of the comfort and consolation that this old clock has been for years to me!... what other thing that has not life could cheer me as it does! what other thing that has not life (i will not say how few things that have) has proved the same patient, true, untiring friend! how often have i sat in the long winter evenings feeling society in its cricket voice! how often in the summer twilight, when my thoughts have wandered back to a melancholy past, have its regular whisperings recalled them to the calm and peaceful present! how often, in the dead tranquillity of night, has its bell broken the oppressive silence, and seemed to give me assurance that the old clock was still on guard at my chamber-door!' the hall clock is often a plain, simple, undecorated instrument, where all others are perhaps somewhat ornamented. bracket clocks for the staircase or landings, mantelpiece clocks for the drawing and dining rooms, for the study, the boudoir, and the best bed rooms, have each their separate shape and character specially designed, and are to be found in simple black-stained wood or real ebony, in marble of different colours, in bronze, in buhl, and in ormolu, with or without enamel ornaments, and with or without miniature figures at base, sides, and top. until lately most of our ornamental mantelpiece clocks were imported from the continent, although french workmanship is generally inferior to our own, but preference was shown by the public to the former on account of the greater attention given by the french to external decorations and variety of pattern. i am endeavouring to provide that for the future this branch of clockmaking shall not be abandoned entirely to our continental neighbours, whose exports of this kind to our country yearly are very considerable. henceforth by means of new designs specially made for me and by me, and of a sufficiently skilled staff of artistic workmen, selected for the purpose of working under my superintendence, on my own premises, i shall be able to compete on equal, nay, as to mechanism, on superior, terms with the best specimens of decorated clocks from foreign _atéliers_. there is no reason why the admitted superiority of english mechanism should not be coupled with the best designs for decorated clock-cases; there is every reason why handsome clocks should be made which will keep time well, and add not only by their beauty but their usefulness to the enjoyment of domestic life. if the proverb, 'handsome is that handsome does,' applies to clocks, english workmanship should soon obtain pre-eminence, for it is well known that the principle upon which french clocks are generally made renders them less durable time-pieces. the most ancient clocks differed in many respects from those now in use. clocks of the earlier period had, as we have said, instead of the pendulum now in use, a _balance_, vibrating on the top of the clock, as the regulating medium. the escapement was of the verge construction, a sketch of which will be seen below, which represents a clock of a most ancient character. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: old balance-clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ without entering into any very minute detail of the manner in which motion in a clock is successively communicated from one toothed wheel (g or r) or pinion (_e_ or _g_) to another, which, indeed, would only tend to perplex the mind of the general reader, it will be sufficient to state the following. s is a square piece of steel fixed to and forming part of the pinion p. in winding the clock the key is placed upon this square, and being turned round continuously in one direction, the pinion p turns with it. this communicates its motion to the wheel r, which is fixed to the cylinder b, and which in its revolution coils or winds up the cord to which is attached the weight a. while this takes place the wheel g is held in check by another wheel, called the 'ratchet,' and a click (neither of which is seen in the sketch), but when the operation of the winding is completed, and the weight a begins to descend, the cylinder b, together with the wheel g, turn on their common pivots v, v, and the motion is thus communicated from wheel to pinion until it reaches the escapement-wheel i. the teeth of this wheel, in its revolution, act alternately on the pallets _i_, _h_, which project from and form part of the spindle or verge k, m, and thus produce a vibratory or backward and forward motion of the balance l, l. were it not for this detention, the duration of which is much increased by the swing of the balance, the weight a would descend with gradually accelerated speed, till, in a few moments, the cord would be entirely unwound from the cylinder, and the clock be at rest. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: clock spring.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the spring clock as ordinarily made is thus constructed. the frame consists of two oblong plates of brass pinned together by short pillars, and pierced with holes, in which run the arbors of the various wheels. next, the mainspring, the moving or motive power of the clock, which is a riband of steel, highly tempered, and enclosed in a cylinder or barrel. in the middle of this barrel is the spring or barrel arbor, to which the spring is hooked at one end, the other end being fixed to the circumference of the barrel. outside the frame or plate, and at the end of the arbor, is the ratchet, a wheel with saw-like teeth. this is acted upon by a click, which, falling into the ratchet teeth, prevents the recoil of the mainspring, so that the spring has no means of uncoiling itself, except by the moving of the train of wheels. this click is screwed to the outside of the oblong plate. the power of the mainspring is transmitted to the train of wheels by means of a chain or gut, one end of which is fastened to the outer edge of the barrel, and the other end to the fusee, which is of conical shape, securely fastened to the arbor or axis of the main wheel; on this same arbor is the square, on which the key is put for winding. when this square is turned in winding, the fusee draws the chain or gut from off the outer edge of the barrel, and coils up the spring within it. the spring when fully wound, and consequently at its greatest power, acts by means of the chain or gut on the small end of the fusee, which in turning drives the train of wheels. as the spring becomes gradually uncoiled, and the power exerted less, the leverage is increased in the same proportion by the increased width of the fusee on which it acts. to prevent the straining of the spring, a little contrivance called the stop-work is introduced. it consists of a piece of steel somewhat in the shape of a bayonet, which is so fixed and contrived that the last turn of the gut or chain on the fusee forces the stop into contact with a projection on the end of the fusee, which abutting against it, forms the check felt when the clock is wound up. on the same arbor with the fusee is fixed the main wheel, which with the before-described contrivance of click and ratchet, permits the turning of the fusee or winding-up of the clock, while it itself remains stationary. this wheel acts in the centre pinion (a pinion is a little wheel playing in the teeth of a larger wheel, and has six, eight, ten, or twelve teeth, or, as they are called, leaves), which is fixed to the centre arbor, and carries the minute hand. this pinion is so constructed in relation to the other parts of the clock as to make one revolution in an hour; the centre wheel being firmly riveted on the pinion, it must also revolve once an hour. the centre wheel acts into another pinion, which is called the third wheel pinion, upon the arbor or axle of which is securely fixed the third wheel, which again acts in the escape-pinion carrying the escapement-wheel. on the top of the back plate is firmly screwed the back cock, or the support of the pendulum, which is suspended from it by a flexible spring, as before described. this pendulum receives impulsion from the wheel-work by means of the crutch, a small part attached to the arbor of the pallets, and which projects downwards about three inches, parallel with the pendulum rod. to the lower part of the crutch is screwed or riveted at a right angle a piece of steel, in such a direction as to penetrate the pendulum rod, which has a slot or hole cut to receive it; impulsion is thus given to the pendulum. between the frame and dial-plate is the motion work, consisting of three wheels; the first, called the minute wheel, is attached to the arbor of the centre wheel, which, it will be recollected, makes one revolution an hour, and acts in a wheel of the same size, whose axle carries a pinion serving to drive the hour wheel. this hour wheel is supported by a bridge screwed over the minute wheel. the dial is pinned on to the front plate; the hour hand is fixed on a socket communicating with the hour wheel, and the minute hand on the arbor of the centre wheel. when a clock is intended to strike, a separate train of wheels has to be introduced into it,--one train of wheels serving to keep the time, and another train for the striking part. it may be as well to add that a greater amount of labour is required to make the striking than the going part of a clock. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: rack striking work.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ there are only two kinds of striking parts now in use, and these are characterized by the terms 'rack' striking work, and 'count-wheel,' or 'locking-plate,' striking work. the rack striking work (see next page) is the best and safest ever introduced, because with it the clock may be made to strike any number of times within the hour. a, the minute wheel revolving in the direction of the arrow, and driving the wheel b, which is of the same size, and has the same number of teeth. c, a pin fixed in the wheel b, and acting on the lever d, which has its centre of motion in the point e. l, the click, the lower point of which acts in the teeth k of the rack m. s, the rack-spring, which acts upon the lower end of the rack, or, as it is called, the rack-tail, and brings it in contact with the snail p. q and r are the jumper and its spring, by which the snail p, fastened to the star-wheel o, is kept in its place. y, the centre of motion of the rack, on which it acts freely. in the wheel a is fixed a pin u, which, as the wheel a rotates, gradually forces before it a tooth of the star-wheel o, which carries with it the snail p, until at last the second step of the snail is opposite the rack-tail. while this is going on, the wheel b, driven by the wheel a, is advancing in the opposite direction, and, by means of the pin c, is pushing before it the end of the lever d. it is obvious that the other end, f, of the lever will be gradually raised, and this will lift the lower point of the click l out of the teeth of the rack. the latter being now free will yield to the action of the spring s, which will force its lower end into contact with the second step of the snail, and throw back the head of the rack to a corresponding extent. by this action the striking train of wheels is released, and the two wheels, g and i, seen in the upper part of our cut, begin to rotate, but are stopped by h, a pin that is caught by a stud which projects from the end f of the lever. as the wheel b advances, the pin c gradually frees itself from the long arm of the lever d, which drops by its own weight into its original position, and frees the wheels g and i, which immediately commence once more to rotate. at the centre of the wheel i is fixed the gathering pallet, that, as it revolves with the wheel, gathers up one by one the teeth of the rack, which is prevented from falling back by the lower end of the click l, and thus gradually draws it forward until the last tooth is reached, when the end of the gathering pallet abuts on the end of the rack head, and the train of wheels is once more at rest. it is obvious that for every tooth of the rack which is gathered up, there is one revolution of the wheel i, and this communicates with the tail of the hammer, causing at each revolution a blow on the bell. there is, as will be at once seen, an important connection between the various parts. when the second step of the snail is presented to the rack-tail, the head of the rack is thrown back a distance corresponding to the width of two of its teeth. this requires two revolutions of the gathering pallet to return it to its place; and these two revolutions of the pallet and the wheel which carries it govern the two blows on the bell which signify the hour. at three o'clock the third step of the snail will be presented to the hammer-tail, and so on. on the next page is an illustration of the back part of a french clock, as seen upon opening the door of the case. at the right hand side will be observed the count-wheel a, fitting tightly upon a prolonged square arbor of the second wheel in the train, and having twelve openings of unequal length around its outer edge, , , &c. just above the wheel towards the right will also be seen the 'dog,' or 'detent,' f, which falls into these notches, and is a part of the locking similar to that which is represented at the stud and the pin h. so soon as the stud is lifted the pin becomes disengaged, the wheel-work revolves, and the count-wheel being firmly fixed to the prolonged arbor of one of those wheels, advances with it in the direction indicated by the arrow, the detent resting upon the plain part of the locking-wheel. when the required number of hours have struck, the notch approaches the detent, the gravity of which allows it to fall therein. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: back of french clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ in connection with this detent is also another projecting piece, which is carried inside the frame, and when it falls presents a broad surface to a pin fixed in the rim of one of the wheels. thus the motion of the wheel-work is stayed until this piece is again lifted by the going parts from the pin, and held in that position by the outer rim of the locking-wheel a, until again the next notch is presented to the detent. when it falls, the stud is carried with it, against which the pin becomes engaged. the number of strokes depends on the distance which the count-wheel has to revolve before being stopped by the detent f. the chief objection to the locking-plate being used for striking, arises from the fact that, if ever the clock is allowed to run down, or if the clock gets otherwise stopped, it strikes wrong afterwards, until it has been properly re-set to the hour. clocks are made of all manner of shapes, patterns, and sizes, for all manner of places, positions, and persons. bracket clocks, which are intended to occupy but a small space, say on a staircase, or lobby, or landing, are sometimes made with extreme finish, care, and elegance, sometimes are simply plain and devoid of embellishment. they are constructed with or without striking work. chime clocks are a great addition to the attractions of a house. they are usually made to go eight or fifteen days; to strike the hours and quarters on four or eight bells or gongs. musical clocks are constructed so as to play several tunes at certain intervals with the greatest finish and perfection. the mechanism for time-keeping being easily disconnected from the musical mechanism, the latter may be stopped without any interference with the clock as a time-keeper. carriage clocks are made so as to be unaffected by the motion of the vehicle. they are usually of a small and squarish shape, enclosed in leather, so as to protect the case from scratches; but they vary in size,--measuring usually from four to seven inches high by two-and-a-half to four inches in breadth and the same in depth. some are made without striking movement, some to strike hours, half-hours, and quarters, some with repeating work, and some with an alarm added to them. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: carriage clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ library and dining-room clocks are frequently seen decorated with highly elegant ornaments, in bronze, marble, ormolu, and with miniature figures, as well as objects of still life, but these clocks are usually not so conspicuously ornamental as those which are designed for the drawing-room. skeleton clocks are so named from their movements being all bare and uncovered. when watches were comparative novelties it was not at all an uncommon desire on the part of their possessors to watch the operations of a mechanism which was regarded as wonderfully resembling life itself. watch cases were consequently made of crystal, and were found strong and serviceable. in skeleton clocks the escapement is sometimes made a peculiarly interesting feature to the non-professional eye delighting in noting the amazing accuracy with which each piece of the mechanism works and combines to produce the result required. regulator clocks are, as we have said, the most perfect time-pieces which can be manufactured. tell-tale clocks are of great service in securing the attention and watchfulness of persons left in care of premises or property. they are made with a number of pins projecting round the edge of the dial, and coming into contact once every quarter of an hour with a pin fixed at the top part of the dial, over the part which in an ordinary clock is occupied by xii. the dial revolves completely once every twelve hours, and presents one of the projecting pins to the index every quarter of an hour; the watchman should then be ready at hand to pull a cord, by means of which the projecting pin is pushed in; otherwise the dial shows the exact time of his absence and neglect of duty. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: english ormolu clocks.] | | | | [illustration: english ormolu clock, &c.] | | | | [illustration: english ormolu clock, &c.] | | | | [illustration: tell-tale clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ electrical clocks have been several times planned and made by different ingenious inventors, and obtained considerable notice, but they have not been hitherto as successful as was expected. electricity has been applied to the direct movement of the pendulum itself, and subsequently to the raising a small weight to act upon the pendulum in the style of a gravity escapement. in perhaps the latest of these instruments, called a magnetic clock, an electromagnet was used to relieve the pendulum from the influence of the spring by which impulsion had been given, and to make the return or reflex vibration. electric clocks are now seldom made; electric dials without any clock-movement in connection with them are made to show the standard time by means of a galvanic current sent from the greenwich observatory clock at intervals of a minute or half-minute it may be,--even as electric timeballs show to distant towns and out-ports, by means of such a current, the exact greenwich time once a day. the electro-chronograph is a new and useful invention for timing with great precision the quickest of events. it is applied to a central seconds clock with a dial three feet in circumference showing the hours, minutes, seconds and fifths of seconds. this clock erected in a prominent position, say on a raceground, and worked by electricity, enables the starter of a race to set the works in motion; by means of a tape held up at the winning post and connected with the batteries, the winner upon breasting the tape stops the hand of the clock. * * * * * the following simple directions will be found of great use in the management of a clock:-- when the clock is unpacked it should be carefully handled with a silk handkerchief or piece of tissue paper, to prevent the moisture of the hands soiling the case. unscrew the bell and take it off, then put on the pendulum by passing it through the fork, and hang it upon the two small brass pins, _with the hook from you_. screw on the bell with the convex part outwards, taking care that it does not touch the pendulum. the stand or bracket should be both steady and level before the clock is placed upon it; for, unless the clock is quite in proper beat--that is, unless the beats or ticks occur at equal intervals, it cannot go regularly. in order to set the clock to the hour of the day, the minute-hand should be turned on carefully forward with the finger and thumb, the setter pausing as he reaches the xii. and the vi., to allow the clock to strike each hour and half-hour. if the striking should at any time be wrong, and it should strike the hour at the half-hour, or the half-hour at the hour, the error can be rectified by moving the minute-hand on to minutes before the hour, or half-hour, and then back until it strikes. or, if it should strike a wrong hour--_e.g._, supposing the clock should strike , and the hour-hand point at , then the hour-hand may be moved back to , and the clock afterwards set to the hour of the day in the usual manner. if, at any future time, the clock should require regulating, the small steel square above the xii. is the regulator, and turning it a _little_ to the right (half-turn of key) will make the clock go faster, and to the left, slower. this should be repeated until the desired effect is obtained. the bell-stud, or arm to which the bell is screwed, is purposely made of soft metal, so that it can be bent up or down so as to obtain a heavy or light blow of the hammer as may be desired. both squares in the dial should be wound once a week. turret clocks. a church tower without a clock and bells seems an unfurnished edifice, which must be fitted and filled before it can serve the purpose for which it was built;--like a form without life, a body without a soul. a good church clock is useful to everybody; it is the friendly monitor alike of rich and poor,--the regulator of every private time-piece,--the standard of time for a whole parish or township. by it the artisan or mechanic trudges off to his daily labour; by it the tradesman opens and closes his shop; by it the schoolboy is admonished as 'with shining morning face he creeps like snail unwillingly to school;' by it the law itself regulates its penalties,--(enacting, as it does, house-breaking between nine at night and six in the morning to be the heavier crime of burglary;)--by it, in a word, are all the multifarious transactions of everyday life more or less regulated and measured, and when the church clock stops, it produces a social discomfort and anarchy throughout a whole neighbourhood, to an extent scarcely credible. a good public clock is a benefit to all,--a faulty one is a general nuisance and a continual source of irritation. a public clock is in its way as necessary as the public highway, the public market, the public law itself. it is the product and the symbol of advanced civilization, the one everwakeful watchman and trusty friend of all, by whose chimes the sleepless merchant has often planned his ventures or sighed o'er apprehended losses and dangers; the student busied with researches has consumed the midnight oil; the sick have counted their hours of pain, longing in the night for the dawn, in the daytime for the night. on the other hand, when one like mr justice shallow is reminded of the mad days of his london youth, he very aptly associates them with the bacchanalian memories which falstaff appeals to,--'we have heard the chimes at midnight.' to have lived 'where bells have knoll'd to church' was according to shakspeare to have been blessed by humanizing influences comparable with those produced by having-- 'sat at good men's feasts, and wiped our eyes of drops that sacred pity has engendered.' cowper can find no better words to describe the utter desolation of the island where the shipwrecked selkirk bemoaned his absolute solitude 'out of humanity's reach,' than by putting into his mouth the language-- 'but the sound of a church-going bell these valleys and rocks never heard, never sigh'd at the sound of a knell, nor smiled when a sabbath appear'd.' in our everyday experience we can each testify to the truthfulness of the poet who points to the close association which exists in most minds between the church clock and the varying times and seasons, with their different joys and sorrows, and we can most of us say, with southey,-- 'i love the bell that calls the poor to pray, chiming from village church its cheerful sound, when the sun smiles on labour's holy-day and all the rustic train are gather'd round, each deftly dizen'd in his sunday's best, and pleased to hail the day of piety and rest. and when, dim shadowing o'er the face of day, the mantling mists of eventide rise slow, as through the forest gloom i wend my way, the minster curfew's sullen voice i know, and pause, and love its solemn toll to hear, as made by distance soft it dies upon the ear.' it is but a short step from the sentimental consideration of such reminiscences to the practical inquiry how is the public time kept, and yet it is one which probably is seldom taken with a view to more or less thorough investigation. without traversing the distance which divides us from that antique time when archimedes measured the shadows of the pyramids by his walking-stick, or when the 'dial of ahaz' was constructed as one of the first of historical time-measurers, we can discover the principles upon which an instrument such as a thoroughly serviceable public clock of the present time, with all the newest improvements both in time-keeping and in wearing qualities, should be produced. it is of some consequence, in the first place, to know that the introduction of steam-machinery has added to the accuracy of clockwork and at the same time considerably diminished its cost; fifty or sixty years ago there would have been charged as much as £ for a turret clock inferior to that which may now be procured for £ ; and the result is to be seen in the largely increased numbers of public time-pieces. it is obvious, however, that there is none the less need of care in the choice of a clockmaker, for upon his skill and trustworthiness will depend whether the money be well spent or not, and whether the instrument furnished by him prove to be valuable and serviceable. it is not a purchase wherein the buyer can usually of himself judge of the merits of his bargain, he must rely upon the reputation established by previous works of the same kind. if the clockmaker be not merely a clock-seller (as is too often the case, for turret clockmakers are but few), he will be able to point to similar instruments made and set up by himself in different towns and cities, in proof of his ability, but there will still be a necessity for explaining to the purchaser the chief points upon which the accuracy of such a time-keeper must depend. in the first place, it is necessary to say that turret clocks are not merely house clocks upon an enlarged scale, differing from the latter merely in size and weight, but that the extra strength of the machinery requires greater weight of materials 'in a ratio as much higher as the cube is higher than the square of any of its dimensions,' and that increased weight means increase of friction. besides this point which is peculiarly the province of the turret clockmaker, there are important questions to be considered by architects and their employers as to the proper method of constructing a turret clock chamber, so as to prevent too much atmospheric variation,--heat and cold, wind and damp, being each likely in some degree, as the seasons change, to affect the public time-keeper,--as witness the clock of st paul's cathedral, popularly believed to be an exemplary piece of mechanism, and yet often forced by the wind to vary its time so as to damage its own reputation among those who narrowly watch its behaviour under what may be called trying circumstances. it is not wise to build a tower without careful consideration for the tenant which is to occupy it, or having regard merely to architectural notions of external proportion, for usually it happens that when clock and bells occur as an afterthought, there is often some difficulty and extra expense in planning the room for them. plenty of length and breadth to allow of the proper fall of the clock-weights and the swing of the pendulum save much in the cost of fixing, and are necessary to secure good time-keeping with the least trouble, for it is obvious that where numerous bevelled wheels with rod-work are employed for the purpose of moving the hands over the dial, if the probabilities of unvarying accuracy are not lessened, the cost must be much increased. works which have to be placed at some distance from the dials must be more powerful than if they could be put in their proper place, and a little forethought in the architect will save much money both in the original price of the machinery of a clock and in its subsequent repair. then again, there is always the question for and against the illumination of dials to be considered, and of course with this is unavoidably mixed up not only the arrangements as regards space for the proper working of the time-keeping, striking, and lighting machinery, but the vexed question of ventilation above referred to,--some horologers asserting that chambers as nearly air tight as may be should be devised, and others that there ought to be a draught through the clock-room. there are in fact so many opinions more or less excellent, according to the circumstances of each case, that there is no laying down any arbitrary and unvarying rule, much must be left to the discretion of the turret clock manufacturer,--upon whom as has been already stated it is necessary also to rely for the essentials of a good clock, viz., the soundness of the materials, the quality of the workmanship, and the scientific accuracy with which the instrument has been planned and put together. now before considering the present advanced state of the art of turret clockmaking and the various improvements which have to be carefully studied and applied by the makers who would bear the highest reputations as manufacturers, it will be necessary to bear in mind what has been said of the step-by-step progress in horological science of which we have already endeavoured to give the chief particulars. from a.d., the date of the oldest historical clock--that mentioned as having been set up near westminster hall by means of funds derived from a fine levied by the lord chief justice of the period--till now when big ben reigns in its stead, is a long interval, with many wonderful incidents, and some great historical names. henry de wyck's paris invention, galileo's discovery of the pendulum, huygens's practical application of that discovery, dr hooke's 'anchor' escapement, and graham's dead-beat escapement, harrison's 'gridiron' pendulum, and the latest applications of electricity and eccentricity, have each and all their peculiar attraction for horological students, but we need not recur to these branches of this highly interesting subject elsewhere treated of. we will proceed to mention a few memoranda about several old public clocks whose ingenious mechanism gained for them a well-deserved fame,--not, perhaps, so much for accuracy in time-keeping as for the grotesque devices with which old clockmakers amused their contemporaries? to them time, as such, was perhaps of not so much consequence as it is to us in these days of telegraph and steam communication. we moderns seem to think it a task sufficiently difficult to set up a sound public time-piece without connecting therewith the wonder-working machinery of a wax-work exhibition. the clock at wells cathedral, made originally a.d. , by a monk named peter lightfoot, is one of the best known of its class still in some sort of working order. the dial of this horologe is divided into hours; it shows the motion of the sun and moon, and bears upon its summit eight armed knights on horseback, tilting with lance in rest at one another, by a double rotatory motion. this clock was removed from glastonbury to wells after the dissolution of the glastonbury monastery. in the works were so worn away that they were replaced by a new train, the curious old dial and equestrian knights being still retained. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: wells cathedral clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ st dunstan's clock [see p. ]. this clock, when old st dunstan's church in fleet street was pulled down, was sold by public auction, and bought by the late marquis of hertford, for whom decimus burton the architect erected st dunstan's villa in the regent's park. in the grounds of that villa this old clock with its automaton giants striking the hours and quarters was put up, and it is there still, to be seen in full working order, performing the same duties as of yore in fleet street. st james's palace clock [see p. ] is one of the most ancient public time-pieces now in use, but is intended soon to be removed it is said to south kensington museum. it has a locking-plate with ting-tang quarter, the quarter hammers being raised from the pin wheel while the striking hammer is lifted from the pins in the main wheel. it has a crown-wheel escapement with teeth on its edge, and the pallets working upright instead of over the top like a verge escapement. the hands are connected by the bevel wheels below the clock. the whole of the going train with the intermediate and bevel wheels are attached to the one bar so that the whole of the works have to be removed if one piece requires alteration or renewal. the pendulum rod is of iron. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: st dunstan's clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ st paul's cathedral clock [see p. ] is one of the best examples of old-fashioned clocks in london; it occupies the clock-room in the south-western tower. it may be described as a ting-tang quarter on the rack principle, having hammers raised from pins in the main wheel as in st james's palace clock. the train is run in a bar, so that to get away one piece the rest must be disturbed. the escapement is a recoil, beating two seconds with a wood rod pendulum. the length of the minute hand is eight feet, and its weight lb; the length of the hour hand is five feet five inches, and its weight lb. the diameter of the bell, made from old 'great tom of westminster,' is about feet, its weight , lb; the hammer weighs lb, and the clapper lb. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: st james's palace clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the old clock at the royal free hospital, gray's inn lane, is a fair specimen of the work of years ago. it has a recoil escapement, most of the wheels are of wrought-iron, cut by hand, as is also the pinion. the pendulum rod is of iron with leaden bob. the wheels. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: st paul's cathedral clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ and now, in order to form a judgment of what is necessary to be done to make a really sound and valuable turret clock of the present day, let me describe the materials of which it should be formed. one of the most important parts of a clock is the wheel-work. iron wheels are of course very much cheaper than those which are made of gun metal or hard brass, but iron wheels, however well they may sometimes wear, are more liable to oxidize and to decay, and although it is certain that a large number of clocks are constructed with iron wheels by london houses of some reputation, a few years are generally sufficient to prove such time-pieces to be very faulty, and to necessitate the substitution of wheels of the superior metal. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: old clock at the royal free hospital.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the best clocks are usually made with wheels of the best gun metal. the teeth are cut by steam power, with an improved cutting engine; and at the same moment that the teeth are cut, they are finished by the engine without the aid of the file, sand-paper, or other polishing materials, so that the most minute difference cannot possibly occur, their accuracy being secured even to the thousandth part of an inch. in the old times this work was done by a man turning a fly-wheel, but that method necessarily occasioned an unevenness of cut which had afterwards to be removed by filing and hand polishing. wheels thus made could not of course have that precision of movement which is essential in a public clock, and which can only be obtained by a perfect mechanical fit of the teeth of the wheels, such true mechanical fitting being only secured by truly accurate cutting machines. hand cutting varies with each artisan, and therefore cannot be equally trustworthy. in cheap clocks, constructed to suit public companies who give their contract to the lowest tender, iron is frequently used instead of steel, both in the pinions and arbors, and cast-iron takes the place of gun metal or hard brass in the wheels and bosses,--the result usually being that the public clock gets into disrepute through its requiring to be repaired so frequently, and more money is expended upon such repairs than would have sufficed for the purchase of a thoroughly perfect time-keeper. it is urged by the advocates of iron wheels that a clock can be manufactured at a considerably less cost by their employment, but in estimating expense there seems to have been overlooked the important question, as to what will be the probable durability of the machine. i should be sorry to condemn wholesale all clocks, the main wheels of which are made of iron, but very certain it is that a large proportion of clocks constructed of this material and by london houses of great reputation (despite of their possessing an escapement invented by amateurs who consider themselves the depositories of all horological knowledge), have been found most faulty time-keepers, and after a few years have become entirely worn out and useless. it is argued (and rightly so) by the advocates of iron wheels that case-hardened pinions should not be used, in consequence of their wearing with great unevenness, but such persons should be reminded that this objection is much greater in the instance of cast-iron wheels. a case came under my notice some time since of a clock made by a london house, with iron wheels, which after comparatively little time became entirely worn out and had to be removed, a result not at all surprising to those who are aware of the porous nature of iron. the teeth of wheels have to be made with the greatest skill and care in order that the entire mechanism shall work without friction, and shall not only temporarily keep time with regularity, but shall last for many years without renewal. teeth should fit into one another without a squeezing pressure (which is equivalent to friction), but with exact uniformity of contact, the action being almost entirely between the teeth separating from each other and not between those which are approaching, i.e. in technical language, the action should be after the line of centres of the wheels and not before it. church clocks were accustomed formerly to be made to go for thirty-four hours, and to be wound up every day; by the frequency of which winding the clock could be made to keep time with great accuracy, for regulating could be attended to as frequently, and no great variation could well occur in twenty-four hours. but the regulating, as a matter of course, requires a regulator, or standard, of time, which is not always to be found in country places, nor even is the man in charge of clock-winding always in possession of a watch sufficiently accurate to convey the time from the regulator if there were one to the church clock. of late, church clocks are made to go eight days, and so the labour of frequent winding has been saved, while at the same time by extra care in the manufacture and fixing of a clock, there need be no necessity for frequently regulating it. pendulums. whether the credit of practically applying the mathematical theory and properties of the pendulum was or was not due to huygens the dutchman, we have seen that harris, a london clockmaker, put up the first pendulum clock in st paul's church, covent garden, in . the great advance upon this discovery was that the pendulum bob must move not in a circle but a cycloid; and that back and front should be alike both in weight and shape to secure regular vibration. cylindrical bobs are now in general use for large clocks. the old iron rod pendulums were soon discovered to be affected considerably by variations of heat and cold,--the difference between winter and summer being ascertained to amount to the loss of a minute a week. harrison's gridiron pendulum was one of the chief endeavours to prevent such variation, followed after a long interval by other ingenious inventions, which gained temporary approval and gradually fell into disuse. room should be provided by the architect of every clock-tower in the chamber below that containing the movement, to allow of the swing of a -foot pendulum. fall of the weights. we have seen that the position in which a clock is placed in regard to the dial or dials whose hands it is to drive is a matter requiring some attention. properly the floor of the clock-chamber should be so planned that the clock might stand immediately behind, and level with the dials; for there is extra expense and inconvenience connected with any more distant situation of the works,--the fall of the weights being sometimes difficult in such case to be provided for. the weights should hang, wherever it is possible so to arrange, immediately from the barrel to which they are affixed, without the intervention of pulleys of any kind, and much expense may be saved by providing for the descent of the weights to a considerable depth below the clock-chamber. as an instance however of the extent to which such difficulties can be overcome, i may mention that the hands of my great clock at the international exhibition were situated nearly feet from the clockworks, while the weights were carried by iron wire ropes over pulleys below the floor to a distance of feet from the movement, then over another pulley fixed at a height of feet from the ground. the escapement is perhaps the most important part of a clock. crown-wheel escapement. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ this is the earliest known escapement, and is to be found, as we have said, in henry de wyck's clock, all the difference between his escapement and the above being that one of the weights in de wyck's balance is now set in a vertical instead of a horizontal plane. the bent end or fork seen in the illustration connects the pendulum with that arm technically called the crutch. the anchor escapement. after the crown-wheel escapement, the anchor escapement, invented by dr hooke or one of his contemporaries, came into general use, and remains so still; but it is not generally applied to those clocks which are required to go with the nicest accuracy. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: anchor escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ in the next illustration the tooth is seen escaping from the left pallet at the moment of the right pallet's infringing upon the opposite tooth, the pendulum is therefore to be seen still rising a little to the left, and will thus cause the wheel to recoil a little; upon its return the pallet and pendulum are again urged to the right, and so the impulse is continued which is necessary to maintain the motion. the dead-beat escapement. invented by graham is the one in most general use for the best clocks made by london makers of the highest repute. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: dead-beat escapement] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ french single-pin escapement. this is a simple and ingenious escapement (see next page), which after being used for some time in both france and england went out of use, when, but recently, it was re-invented by a london watch-maker. the teeth are pins of steel set in the face of the wheel, and the upper half of each cylinder cut off as well as a small portion of the under or acting side. this escapement has one great advantage--that if a pin becomes worn or injured it is easily replaced, whereas in a wheel, if one tooth is damaged the wheel itself is worthless. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: french single-pin escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ three-legg'd gravity escapement. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: another.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the above illustration represents a regulator escapement as it would appear in a front view; the pallets are lifted by the three central pins. the locking teeth vary in size from one to nearly two inches. the horizontal pieces projecting from the top of the pallets form the adjustment for the arc of the pendulum. the great advantages possessed by this escapement over all other gravity escapements, &c., are as follows:-- . it requires no oil. . the angle of the detent planes reduces the friction to almost nil. . as the impulse and the unlocking are in one direction, the escapement is unlocked without recoil of impulse arms. . no impending force to the pendulum from inertia of impulse arms. . the hold in the stops can be increased or diminished to any practical extent by reason of the inverted impulse arms. . less affected by any disturbing forces of the train in proportion to the pressure on the stops. . will bear more weight and give more power to the train without increasing the arc of oscillation. . no possibility of tripping under any increase of motive power. . the minimum arc of vibration to unlock is -tenths of a degree. other escapements of similar construction require from ° to °. . take less weight for the motive power in proportion to the difference of pressure and draught on the lockings. . unlocks by gravitation instead of by the pendulum and at the time of impulse. . requires no fly nor remontoir, and thus reduces the weight of the motive power by one half. . the impulse giving motion to the pendulum increases as the force of gravity on the pendulum decreases. a great advantage over those escapements in which the unlocking is done by the pendulum when its momentum is nearly expended and at the extremity of its arc of vibration. . the angle of the detent planes can be set so as not only to offer no resistance to the unlocking, but to give an actual impulse in the same manner as the impulse pallets of a dead escapement. this completely frees the impulse which gives motion to the pendulum from any retarding influence of the train. . the arc of vibration is more equal in this than in any other gravity escapement. . it is not so liable to stop in consequence of a diminution of arc from the variation of motive force in train. . it will answer for regulators as well as for turret clocks, its arc of vibration being from ° to °. double three-legg'd escapement. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: double three-legg'd gravity escapement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ this escapement is chiefly designed for turret clocks with heavy dial-work requiring much power on the scape-wheel. the peculiarity consists of two locking wheels with one set of lifting pins between them. the wheels are set so that the pallets may lie between, and the pallets fall with the pendulum clear of all other contact. the pallet d for instance has its stop in front for the wheel a b c to act upon, and the e stop is acted upon only by _a b c_, the e and a being on different planes. in this escapement, by making the teeth longer and the pallets shorter, the resistance of the pendulum is much reduced, and the stride of the pallets being wider, the actual weight required of them is considerably lessened,--a point of some importance. the remontoire. is an invention which, being derived from the french, still bears its french title, and consists of either a train remontoire, or a gravity or remontoire escapement, in which latter the impulse is not given to the pendulum directly by the clock-train or weight, but by some small weight lifted up or a small spring bent up by the clock-train at every beat of the pendulum, so as to secure a uniform and constant impulse, the remontoire weights being lifted either faster or slower according to need. the train remontoire differs from the escapement but slightly, the chief difference being that the small weight or spring which gives the impulse to the pendulum is not wound up at every beat, but at some larger interval, seldom more than half a minute. its effect is to counteract the various errors to which large clocks driving heavy hands are always liable, and to diminish the friction which arises from the use of heavy weights--these being in very large clocks almost incredibly heavy; for instance, the weights used by me for my clock in the great international exhibition of amounted to more than two tons. whatever the cause of inequality of movement in the clock, whether it be dust or dirt, or insufficient oil, or whether it be wind delaying or expediting the progress of the hands on the dial, the remontoire regulates and counteracts. the dials. the utility of a public clock is considerably enhanced by its being provided with a dial marking the time in the simplest and most unmistakeable lines, so that it may readily be ascertained at any reasonable distance from the clock-tower what is the hour either by day or night. in order that this important requisite may be attained, it is of course necessary that the dial shall be so constructed as to be visible both by night and day, and so arises the necessity for providing illuminating power either from within or from without. now the simplest method, and perhaps also in the end the least objectionable, is that followed at the horse guards, where the dial forms part of the tower itself, and is lighted not from within, but from without. the advantage of this arrangement is, that the architect can make the dial harmonize with the character of the building, that the illuminating power is kept apart from the clock, and if the centre of the dial be slightly sunk the hands may be brought quite close to the face, so as to prevent any seeming error in time, as is sometimes caused by the convexity of a copper dial. the figures too, having been once carefully divided and cut into the stone, are renewed, so to speak, by merely being painted over. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: memorial turret clock dial.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ dials may be made of any material, wood, stone, slate, iron, brass, copper, and coloured or semi-opaque glass. copper dials possess many advantages, and these have been of late years preferred, except where more ornamental dials are required, in which case slate and skeleton frames are used with good effect. the large dial of my great clock which was placed over the principal entrance of the international exhibition building in the cromwell road was of slate, elaborately enamelled with white and gold on a blue ground. another kind of dial having a good effect is that erected by myself some time since for sir moses montefiore, at the synagogue, ramsgate, consisting of a skeleton or framework of iron fitted with minton or encaustic tiles. a dial such as this can thus be made with comparatively little expense during the erection of the tower, and the architect can then, as i have said, design it so as to be in keeping with the edifice; the minton tiles have also the advantage of being almost indestructible, and of being made of any pattern or colour. the chief points to remember are that the dials should be slightly sunk in the centre so as to allow the hour hand to traverse in the sinking point close to the disc and the figures, and especially that the dial should be made large enough to distinctly show the hour. properly the dial should never be less in diameter than one-tenth of the number of feet which it is distant from the ground, and in all cases where it is possible i should recommend it to be much larger than this. the dials of st paul's and westminster are larger than they would be under the above rule, and they are certainly not too large. as to the colour of the dials, figures, and hands, there is not much choice; dark ground and gilt figures, or white ground with black figures, or a skeleton frame with gilt figures are the chief in use. in the white semi-transparent dials with opaque figures used for illuminated clocks, the time, which is seen with sufficient distinctness by night when the light is behind the figures, is not as clearly indicated by day. to remedy this defect an invention has been applied by which the dial when illuminated at night throws out a beautiful transparent light admirably marking the position of the figures and hands, which being black or dark blue, or even strongly gilt, can also be distinctly seen by day, even as clearly as the long-approved copper dials painted black with gilt figures. the hands should be most carefully made, and like the figures should be painted of a colour which shall most powerfully contrast with that of the dial. the hands are almost invariably made of copper strengthened by diaphragms, and poised from the inside. in some old-fashioned clocks in which the hands have been poised from the outside the effect has been produced of a third hand, and numerous mistakes caused thereby. as to the shape of the hands, there is but one simple rule, namely, that the less of ornamentation in them the better. the minute hand should be perfectly plain, with a tapering but not too fine point, extending to the top of the figures; the hour hand should be of equal breadth and plainness, but its point should be more marked by perhaps an arrowhead or heart-shaped tip only reaching to the bottom of the figures. with large hands counterpoises are found necessary, and these should be placed inside the dial if possible, for they are when outside sometimes mistaken for the point of the hour hand. if a counterpoise must be placed outside, it is better to arrange that it shall be as little as possible, and that the inside counterpoise make up the difference, giving to the latter perhaps two thirds, and one third to the former,--but in any case care has to be taken to prevent the counterpoise appearing like a hand. the frame. the old-fashioned clock-frame, known in the trade as the 'bedstead,' is now generally superseded by the horizontal frame originally introduced by the french, which possesses the special advantage of not only being durable and strong, but that it allows of any part of the clock which may have been injured, or may require cleaning, being easily taken out and replaced without interfering with other portions of the mechanism,--any wheel can be separately handled and removed. in the old upright frame which is even now still in use by some of the more ancient firms of clockmakers, if any part of the clock be injured the entire machine must be taken to pieces. the fixing of a turret clock requires much careful forethought and experienced labour; because whatever oversight has been made by the architect in planning the clock-room must be made good by the clockmaker who has to fix up a public time-piece. in the first place the latter will take care that the supports of the clock shall be sufficiently strong and free from vibration, and that the movement shall be bolted securely to the iron girders, or strong oak beams provided for the purpose; he will remember that when it is intended that the clock shall strike the hours and quarters, that the bell or bells should be hung as high in the tower as possible, so that when the stroke of the hammer is given by a perfect fall of the weights, the louvres of the tower should be so arranged as to bring out the full sound of the bell, as in the case of the bell at st paul's cathedral, which, though only weighing tons cwts., is frequently heard on clear nights as far as windsor. he will in a word require to be acquainted with all the points of importance attached to his rather intricate duty, or he may by failure render nugatory the best workmanship that could be bestowed in clockmaking. the wiser arrangement as to clock-fixing is to intrust the duty to the clockmaker, and he will then necessarily bear the sole responsibility of any mistake. the winding and keeping in order is, as we have said, a less laborious task as respects modern clocks than those which were made fifty years ago, inasmuch as, although it is the duty of a clock-winder to watch daily the action of the time-piece under his charge, he need not perform his winding duties oftener than once a week. he must be on the alert to observe any effect produced by the action of the wind or the fall of snow upon the hands of the clock, which under certain conditions is not uncommon; he must note by some good regulator any tendency to variation in the church clock, and he must also observe the equation of time, which is the difference between true and mean solar time for each day, and which is not quite the same for every year, because it moves on about a quarter of a day in each year until leap year comes and puts it back again. the equation may be reckoned by an equation table, or by the time mentioned in the almanacs as 'clock before' or 'clock after sun.' it is obviously a very important requisite for good time-keeping that good horological instruments shall be intrusted to skilful and careful hands. in many instances it has happened that escapements made upon the truest scientific principles, and set going in thorough working order, have been so injured by the mechanical genius of the village (some blundering sexton, or some jack-of-all-trades, whose education in mechanism must be exercised at the parish expense), that the new clock with all its merits has been seriously damaged. in such a case the clockmaker had better be at once consulted. a modern turret clock described. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: a modern turret clock.] | | | | [illustration: hour-wheel and snail.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the turret clock which the highest skill and the best experience of the value of the latest improvements can produce, may be thus described:-- the bed or frame is of cast-iron. the barrel on which the cords are wound possesses a metal cap in front, and a ratchet or toothed wheel at the back end; between this cap and ratchet is a metal drum or tube adapted to the width of the frame. passing through the drum is an axle or barrel-arbor, on the back end of which the main or barrel-wheel is fitted so as to allow the line which carries the weight to be wound upon the barrel without moving the wheel, which latter is kept in place by means of a cap or key pinned tight on the arbor. upon the barrel wheels are fitted clicks and springs, the former falling into the toothed wheel or ratchet, and the latter keeping the clicks in place while the clock is being wound up, for as the weights are wound up the clicks prevent the barrel running back. at each end of the barrel arbor is a pivot in brass bearings fitted in plumber block, and bolted on the bed or frame with bolts and washers. beyond the pivot on the front of the arbor is a square to receive the winder. the uprights or small frames for carrying the going-train contain the following; first, there is an arbor across the frame at the back of which is a pinion working in the teeth of the barrel-wheel; at the other end of the arbor is the centre-wheel with teeth cut in it, and above this wheel is another pinion running into it with a wheel at the other end, termed the third wheel and pinion. the escape-pinion runs into the third wheel; on this arbor is fitted the escape-wheel, which has very fine teeth cut in it. above the escape-wheel is an arbor termed the verge arbor, to which are fitted the pallet arms. the pallet bits or pads working in the escape-wheel teeth are of hardened steel polished. at the back end of the verge arbor is fitted the crutch which connects the escapement and the pendulum rod. the escapement is that called the dead-beat or lever escapement, found to be the best for time-keeping, and least likely to get out of order. upon the set-hand arbor, used for setting the hands on the dial to time, are two springs or keys to keep in place a wheel fitted loosely on the arbor, and working in the teeth of the centre-wheel. the hands are set by means of the set key which fits on the end of the arbor in front. at the back end of the same arbor is a joint by means of which an iron rod connects the clock to the dial, and works the outside hands. the whole of the arbors are turned with suitable pivots into brass bearings screwed into the uprights, and all bolted to the bed or frame by stout bolts and washers. on the front upright is fitted an index or set-dial by which to set the outside hands, and two wheels and pinions, termed the motion or dial-work, fitted on sockets and working on iron studs which are screwed into the upright. upon the largest wheel, known as the hour-wheel, is fixed a snail having twelve steps in it for regulating the strokes to be given at the different hours. the striking-train consists of a barrel similar to the going-train, only that it has a camm or toothed-wheel fitted on the back of the barrel-wheel for the purpose of raising the hammer which strikes the bell, a lever being used called the hammer-tail. this barrel is fitted into bearings in plummer-block, and bolted on frame. the train of wheels and pinions fitted in arbors, and working in brass bearings, consists of,--the pallet pinion fitted tight in the pallet arbor and working in the teeth of the barrel-wheel; at the front end of this arbor is a pallet of steel working in the teeth of the rack (see next illustration), and gathering it up as the blows of the hammer striking the hours are given on the barrel. above the pallet arbor is a pinion running into the teeth of the pallet wheel and termed the fly-pinion, as it is used for regulating the blows or strokes. fans are attached to the fly-pinion to assist in regulating the striking,--the intervals between the strokes being thus made longer or shorter as desired. fitted to the fly-frame is a ratchet with two clicks and springs, these being used to prevent the train being stopped too suddenly, and the damage likely to arise therefrom. at the right-hand side of the clock frame is an arbor to carry the work for the maintaining power, by means of which work the clock is kept going even while it is being wound up, and injury to the escapement is at the same time prevented. but for this maintaining power during the winding-up, whilst the pendulum is vibrating to and fro, the pallets are liable to catch the teeth of the wheel, and these are so fine as to be readily injured. as properly fixed the clock cannot be wound up unless this maintaining power is put in action by means of a lever passing in front of the barrel-square, so that the winder cannot be put on the square until the lever is raised and puts this power in action. the repeating work for the striking-train is fitted on brass sockets working on wrought-iron studs screwed into the front upright, and consists of the rack-hook, warning, locking, and lifting pieces. the rack is a portion of a circle with a number of half-circular teeth cut on its edge; at the end of the rack is the rack-arm fitted with a spring having a nib or pin in it, which nib or pin falls upon the steps of the before-mentioned hour-snail, and thus the different strokes are given at the hours; as the nib falls nearer the centre the rack drops a greater number of teeth. the rack-hook is placed above the rack to catch the rack as it is gathered up by the gathering pallets, and when the proper number of strokes has been given this hook falls into a deep tooth, and then, by means of a locking-piece attached to it, causes the train to be locked with the stop-piece on the fly-pinion arbor, this latter piece forming part of both the locking and warning work. the lifting-piece lifts the rack-hook out of the deep tooth in the rack and locking, by means of a snail or eccentric fitted on the set-hand arbor. on this lifting-piece is also a piece for the warning, fitted on a small stud. the pendulum rod has a brass top, and some adjusting work with a steel suspension spring set in brass, by means of which the clock can be put in beat with great exactness, there being no necessity with this adjustment to bend the crutch as heretofore, for the crutch on the verge arbor has a pin screwed into it which communicates the escapement to the adjusting work or pendulum, and keeps it in motion. at the bottom of the pendulum rod is an iron screw and nut by means of which the pendulum bob is raised or lowered, and the clock made to go faster or slower. the motion or dial work for driving the hands are outside at the back of the dials, and consist of two wheels and pinions working in one another, the larger of the two being fitted to a socket and tube. at the other end of this tube is another socket for the hour hand to be fixed to; and through this tube passes another iron rod, at one end of which rod is fitted one of the pinions and the minute hand, the other wheel and pinion being fitted on a socket worked upon a stud in a cock bolted on a bar called the dial bar. if the clock has to drive more than one pair of dial hands, wheels called bevelled or angle wheels are used, which may be cut to suit any angle, so it will not matter how far off the dials may be fitted, or how many they may be, so long as the proper expansion and universal joints are fitted to them. the hammer-work consists of an iron frame with an arbor pivoted into brass bearings, and upon this arbor is fitted a lever, one end of the lever holding the hammer-head, and the other end raising the hammer. the lifting of the hammer is done by means of a wire from the hammer-tail previously mentioned. there is also a steel spring attached to the lever to prevent the hammer chattering on the bell. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: the rack.] | | | | [illustration: pendulum rod.] | | | | [illustration: quarter or chime clock.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ quarter or chime clocks differ from the above only in having another barrel and train of wheels to provide the extra power for such striking and chiming. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: gas wheel for illuminated dials.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ in instances where it is requisite that the clock face should be visible at a great distance, it is necessary that the dial should be made of semi-transparent glass and be illuminated by gas, which is usually turned as low as possible by day and turned on at night by means of the -hour wheel, as shown in the annexed illustration, the time for the turning on being regulated by the man in charge of the clock, who takes out or screws in the pins placed in the rim for that purpose. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: nest of bevelled wheels for four dials.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ these wheels should be rather large, inasmuch as they have to carry the hands moving upon the face of the dial. the size of these wheels varies of course with the size of the clock, but they are seldom less than five inches and are generally from seven to nine inches wide. hammer and bell. the next engraving exhibits the relative positions of hammer and bell in a turret clock,--the hammer being fixed at right angles to the swing of the bell, so that the blow of the hammer should not drive the bell out of reach of its next blow, and this position least interfering with the ringing of the bell, when the bell is required to be rung. the hammer spring, as shown, is sometimes so adjusted as to allow of the hammer being brought nearer or further from the bell. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: hammer and bell.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the great clocks of the international exhibition of . benson's great clock. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: benson's great clock.--the exterior.] | | | | [illustration: benson's great clock.--the movement.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ the movement of this clock, next to that at westminster, is the largest in the world, and, in point of quality of material and finish of workmanship, it is unequalled by any. the three main wheels are each two feet in diameter, and cast in the solid, of the very finest gun-metal, the teeth being afterwards cut by an engine made expressly for that purpose. the frame is of the best wrought-iron planed to a smooth surface, and by means of a contrivance, known to engineers as plumber blocks, any part of the mechanism may be removed without disturbing the remainder. the pendulum, which is self-compensating, is over feet long, and vibrates or beats once in two seconds. the quarter chimes, which are struck on four bells, are a modification of those of s. mary, cambridge. the great weights necessary to drive so large a clock, and which by the friction they would cause might prejudicially influence its performance, are in this case not allowed to act directly upon the pendulum, but are made to wind up a small auxiliary weight once every half-minute, and this weight imparts an exactly uniform impulse to the pendulum at each vibration. this arrangement, which is called the _remontoir_, is supplemented in this clock by a double lever escapement of a novel kind, in connection with that known as graham's dead beat. a calendar and wind-dial are useful additions to some edifices. the calendar indicates on special circles of a large dial--by means of three separate hands--the month of the year, the day of the month, and the day of the week. the peculiarity of this invention is that it needs no correction for the long and short months, nor even for the month of february, with its occasional days; as by means of a wheel cut for the successive months in a period of four years, and which takes that time for a single revolution, the calendar is rendered a perpetual one. the mechanism which directs the pointers to the days of the week and of the month is discharged, by the clock, each night at o'clock, when the levers shift the hands to their proper places on their several dials. on the first of the month all three hands on the dial are moved at the same instant. the wind-dial is lettered with the four cardinal points of the compass and the intermediates. the hand which points on the dial is connected by rods and bevelled wheels with a vane at the top of the house, placed feet above the roof in order to be affected, not by wind eddies, but by the true current of air. the connecting rods boxed in the wall are broken at every eight feet with universal joints, and hardened steel is used for all pivots and sockets. the dials are generally made of semi-transparent ground glass and are lit by gas after dark. in a set of clock calendars which i some time since provided for his grace the duke of portland, the clock showed the time on four illuminated dials five feet nine inches in diameter, chiming quarters, hours, &c. (the well-known cambridge chimes) on bells of cwt., repeating the hour after the st, nd, and rd quarters. the two sides of an adjoining tower show a calendar similar to the one above mentioned, with the addition of an extra circle on the dial to mark the age of the moon and the equation of time, so that each dial has four circles, besides the circle of the moon, shifted simultaneously at o'clock every night. sun-dials (see illustration on following page) are chiefly used now to mark the solar meridian or noon. those which indicate other hours have a gnomon with its edge parallel to the earth's axis and inclined to the horizon at the angle corresponding to the latitude of the place in which the dial is fixed. carillon chimes. +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ | [illustration: sun-dial.] | +----------------------------------------------------------------------+ these beautiful examples of _al fresco_ music, which have been hitherto chiefly identified with belgium, are now being produced in england with perhaps even more pleasing and satisfactory musical effect. carillons attached to church or turret clocks are being set up in various churches and mansions in different parts of the kingdom, and it is not improbable that the taste for such chimes may grow with the opportunity for hearing them. as in musical clocks, the works for time-keeping and those for chiming are entirely distinct, with the exception of the means by which the clock at certain fixed intervals lets off the chiming machinery after the striking is done. chimes were much more popular years ago than they have been until lately. the old-fashioned machinery used to be rude enough, consisting chiefly of a large wooden barrel, stuck, like that of a musical box, with pins. these pins pulled the hammers that struck upon the bells, and the time was regulated by a rope coiled round one end of the barrel driving two or three wheels connected with a fly-wheel. more recent inventions have improved upon these conditions. the barrel is sometimes of cast-iron instead of wood, with steel or brass pins fixed in it to lift the hammers, and a very heavy weight is necessary to give the motive power. instead of the ordinary method of raising the hammers and letting them fall by means of the pins on a chime barrel, the hammers are immediately after use returned to their places in striking position ready to be liberated by the pins on the chime barrel, and upon being so liberated are prepared to strike again. the tunes to be played upon these bells will of course be such as are adapted to the particular number of bells in each case, and the cost of the entire chimes depends upon the number and sizes of the bells so used,--varying with the circumstances,--the size and capacity of the tower, and the difficulties to be overcome in providing accommodation for the necessary bells, weights, chime barrel, &c. in each instance, as with turret clocks, the cost of the whole works depends to a great extent upon the cost of fixing the machinery. the tones of the bells have to be carefully provided for, as also the best position in which they can be heard at a distance. with fourteen bells of different sizes almost any tune can be played. one was erected recently upon the new principle, of which the cost was something under £ , including bells weighing from five to seven cwt. each, clock, architect's charges, gas-fitting, and £ for timber-trussing, floors, &c. the carillon machine is let off by the clock and plays seven times on the ringing peal of bells, but is adapted to play twenty-eight tunes on fifteen bells. it is wound up every morning and plays eight times in twenty-four hours, _i_. _e_. once every three hours, giving the tune on each occasion three times, and occupying about four minutes in doing so. at the expiration of the hours the tune changes involuntarily, and of course with seven tunes there is one for each day in the week. the carillon machinery is connected with the clock and set in motion thereby, by a lever which at three hours' intervals dislodges a pin and allows the weights, cwt. each, to act upon the machinery, the speed being easily regulated, as in clockwork, by revolving vanes. the barrels are five feet long, by one foot in diameter, and are studded with brass pins like that of a musical box. when the bells are required to be rung, a bar is turned down on the keys which prevents the motion of the machinery for any length of time that the ringing is to be continued. notwithstanding that the twenty-six hammers weigh from cwt. to lbs each, it is possible that the tunes could be played by means of an ivory keyboard, as in a church organ, and with almost as much ease and facility. persons requiring to know the cost of a church or turret clock should furnish the clockmaker with the following data:-- -------------------------------------------------------------- how many dials? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ their diameter? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ their elevation, or distance | from the ground? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ if to be illuminated? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ of what material is | dial to be? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ can the movement be | placed on a level with the | centre of dial, if not, how | far above or below it? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ is the clock to strike? | if so, on what size or | weight bell? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ if to strike half-hours | or quarters, or how many | bells, and their sizes and | weights? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ what number of feet | can be obtained for descent | of weights? | -------------------------------+------------------------------ what length of pendulum | will the building | admit of, and is a compensating| pendulum required? | -------------------------------------------------------------- a few dates and details for almanac readers. the following data may be found useful in studying an almanac. the columns for sunrise and sunset are nearly the same year after year for any given place; for by the alteration of styles and the day allowed at leap year the civil and astronomical year are almost exactly the same; but the difference in latitude of different places makes a london almanac useless for sunrise and sunset, say at edinburgh. the sun rises at each place to a greater height in june than in december, but he is always at a less height in edinburgh than in london both in winter and summer, edinburgh being farther than london from the equator, where the sun is more immediately overhead. the rising and setting of the moon vary greatly day by day. the moon is constantly moving eastward, and she is not moving in the same path with the sun; the latitude and longitude of the observer's position, the place of the moon in her orbit, the rapidity of her motion, and other particulars, are to be taken into account in computing her rising and setting. the golden number is a term arising from the discovery that the sun performs his annual course times to the moon's . the golden number is the number which any given year holds in the lunar cycle. after the lapse of years the new moons occur on the same days of the same months as before. this discovery being esteemed by the romans to be highly important, they set up the rule for ascertaining the number of the year in the lunar cycle in a tablet with letters of gold, hence the term golden number. to find the year of the lunar cycle add one to the present year, then divide by and the remainder will show the year of the cycle. the epact is the number of days which must be added to a lunar year to complete a solar year. twelve lunar months being nearly days less than the solar year, the new moons in one year falling days earlier than in the year preceding it, it becomes necessary on the fourth year, when the difference would amount to days, to take off days as an intercalary month, during which the moon has made a revolution, and the three remaining would be the epact or 'addition,' which thus continues to vary until the years have expired, and the new moons recur as before. the solar cycle is complete in years, after which the days of the month return to the same days of the week as before. the dominical or sunday letter, as one of the first seven letters of the alphabet, used to denote the days of the week, one of which must of course fall on the sunday throughout the year. owing to leap year their order every fourth year is disturbed, so that the solar cycle must pass round before the letters can fall to the same days of the week. the number of direction. the council of nice having decided, a.d. , that easter day is always the first sunday after the full moon which happens upon or next after the st of march, it follows that easter day cannot take place earlier than the nd of march, or later than the th of april. the number of direction is that day of the , on which easter sunday falls. roman indiction was a period of fifteen years, appointed by the emperor constantine, a.d. , for the payment of certain taxes. it was observed by the greek and roman churches. the julian period consists of years, produced by the multiplication into each other of the solar and lunar cycles and the roman indiction, × × = . this period is reckoned from before the creation of the world, when the three cycles are supposed to have commenced together; the lapse of the entire period will be a.d. . equation of time is the difference between the time as indicated by a sun-dial, and that by a good clock. it is necessary because the sun, the chief agent in measuring time, does not upon all days of the year appear to move equally fast, inasmuch as an hour by a sun-dial, correctly indicating the sun's motion, is sometimes longer, sometimes shorter, than an hour by the clock, the hours of which are supposed to be perfectly equal, although the sun's are not. the equation of time shows how many minutes are to be added to, or subtracted from, sun-dial time in order to show clock time. the same table of equation will serve all over the world. [see following pages for equation table.] true or solar time is that marked by the sun, and it is taken at the moment when he has attained his greatest height above the horizon,--such a moment being of course dependent upon the latitude of the place of observation. the solar time by which our nautical standard is fixed, is that of the meridian of greenwich. sidereal time is that measured by the fixed stars, which are at such an immense distance from the earth that the diurnal motion of the earth brings these stars to the meridian at sufficiently regular intervals. it is necessary, however, to remember when making observations for sidereal time that these must be made from fixed or twinkling stars, not from planets. of the various eras from which time has been dated, the following are the chief:-- a.m. _anno mundi._ the year of the world, dating from the creation, according to jewish calendar the deluge, era of, variously reckoned to b.c. the first olympiad b.c. a.u.c. or _anno urbis conditæ_, the year of the building of rome b.c. the hegira, or flight of mahomet from mecca to medina a.d. the birth of christ in the year of the world the jewish year commenced sept. , a.d. table colunm headings a. m.fa. s. b. m.fa. s. c. m.sl. s. d. m.fa. s. e. m. sl. s. f. m. sl. s. +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | a table of the equation of time, | | for regulating clocks and watches for . | +-----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------+----------+ | day | january |february | march | april | may | june | +-----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------+----------+ | | a | b | c | d | e | f | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | fa. | | | | | | sl. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | | | | | | | - - - | | - - - | | - - - | +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+------------+--+ table colunm headings a. m.fa. s. b. m.fa. s. c. m.sl. s. d. m.sl. s. e. m.sl. s. f. m.sl. s. +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ | equation of time, --_continued_. | +-----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------+----------+ | day | july | august |september |october |november |december | +-----+-----------+---------+----------+---------+---------+----------+ | | a | b | c | d. | e | f | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | fa. | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - - - | | - - - | | +-----+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+-----------+---+ |_note_.--fa. means clock to be fast, _that is_, your clock, to be | |right, must be so much faster than the sun-dial--sl. that your clock | |must be so much slower than the sun-dial. _to set a clock or watch on| |any day by means of this table_:--take out the number of minutes and | |seconds which stand against that day, and make your clock or watch so| |much faster or slower (according as the table is marked _fa._ or | |_sl._) than the time on a good sun-dial. thus, on january st, the | |clock must be set m. s. _faster_ or _before_ the dial; on the st | |of october, it must be set m. s. _slower_. correct the watch when| |the dial marks just an hour, as , , , , , , or o'clock. | |noon is _not_ best, nor near sunrise or sunset. | +---------------------------------------------------------------------+ john childs and son, printers. * * * * * transcriber's notes: obvious punctuation and spelling errors repaired. italic text is denoted by _underscore_. the carat character (^) indicates that the following letter is superscripted (example: ^s). inconsistent hyphenation has been repaired. the cover for the ebook version of this book was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain. in ambiguous cases, the text has been left as it appears in the original book. corrections: line : "instance" replaced with "insistence". line : "inputation" replaced with "imputation". line : "abanboned" replaced with "abandoned". line : "shakspere" replaced with "shakspeare". [transcriber's note: italic text is represented by _underscores_. small capitals in the original have been converted to all capitals. footnotes have been moved to the end of the text.] a treatise on hat-making and felting, including a full exposition of the singular properties of fur, wool, and hair. by john thomson, a practical hatter. philadelphia: henry carey baird, industrial publisher, walnut street. london: e. & f. n. spon, charing cross. . entered according to act of congress, in the year , by henry carey baird, in the clerk's office of the district court of the united states in and for the eastern district of pennsylvania. philadelphia: collins, printer, jayne street. contents. descriptions of furs, wools, hairs, &c. the fulling mill history of hats and hatting the fashions preparation of materials stiffening and water-proofing materials the blowing machine the manufacture of hats shaving stiffening process ruffing or napping blocking dyeing pumicing or pouncing finishing silk hatting forming machines shoes and gaiters of felt printer's sheets cloth hats conclusion treatise on hat-making and felting. it is conceded as an axiom, that theory and practice, in the pursuit of any object, are in their natures essentially different and distinct. but at the same time they long for a mutual understanding each to confirm the assertions of the other, the consummation of all practical results being the mutual embrace and perfect reconciliation of these two attributes. the writer of these pages, being a practical hatter, desires to describe intelligibly his calling, dispensing with all technical terms, at the same time conscious of being liable to receive an unfair criticism from his brother tradesmen, although perfectly innocent on their part, resulting from the prejudices engendered by the many would-be secrets that pertain to the different work-shops, together with their various modes and methods of working, all of which most generally are but trifles merely to gain a name. the practice of a trade without a knowledge of the why and the wherefore of certain usages is a sad defect in any workman, but more especially in certain trades: hatting being one of those which depends upon _second_ causes for its proficiency, we venture here an explanation with perfect confidence, hoping that the fraternity of hatters will be indulgent, and that they may profit by an experience of many years in the trade, and that for one error or omission in the writing of these sheets they will find compensation in the new ideas that will spring from their perusal, which may be an incentive to further improvements in the business resulting beneficially to all. theory without practice, or practice without theory, is like groping in the dark, and perfection in no trade can be attained till every effect can be traced to its cause, and _vice versa_. it is much to be regretted that practical operative workmen are so diffident in writing and publishing their experience in their several trades and occupations, quietly permitting theorists ignorant of the business to glean as best they can from other parties the most intricate and complicated particulars of a trade, and hence the attempt to illustrate the most useful branches of an art often results in crude and even erroneous descriptions of things of the greatest moment, and the dissemination as correct, of that which is altogether at variance with the truth. in confirmation of the above, we may instance the manufacture of hats as described in a work of much merit, and which is accounted as worthy of all confidence, wherein the error above spoken of is but too plainly visible. thus, in the supplement to the third edition of that most respectable work the edinburgh "encyclopedia britannica," in the article hat, an apology is made for the original treatise upon that subject, it being acknowledged as both defective and erroneous from the imperfect source of the information. such a confession, and from such a source, sufficiently exonerates any one from egotism in an attempt to write a more perfect and correct description, coupling theory with practice; relieving the felting process from its misty obscurity by a faithful expose of the whole system: well knowing that an increase of business, like free trade, will be the result of a right understanding of a formerly supposed mystery, viz., the true cause of felting. felt and felted articles being already in use, in many trades in addition to that of hat-making, necessitates a general and indeed a very full and lucid description of the materials of which they are made. descriptions of furs, wools, hair, &c. fur, properly speaking, signifies the skins of various species of animals, dressed in alum or some other preparation with the hair on, and made into articles of wearing apparel; but the term fur also signifies the stuff that is cut from the skin, for the use of the hatter, and in this sense alone it will be employed in the following pages. hair, wool, fur, and animal down are simply slender filaments or thread-like fibres issuing out of the pores of the skins of animals, and all partaking of the same general nature, such as great ductility, flexibility, elasticity, and tenacity, differing entirely from the vegetable wools and downs, such as cotton, &c., which contain neither of these four great characteristics to any valuable or appreciable extent. to characterize in a familiar way these several grades of material, it may be said that fur is distinguished from wool by its greater fineness and softness, and hair from wool by its straightness and stiffness. the nature of all these bearing some relation to each other, it will be necessary in this treatise to use the word hair occasionally to designate one and all of them, that word being most convenient, and tending to avoid confusion. simple as the idea may be, and though trifling in appearance, yet the study of a single hair is particularly interesting, both to the naturalist and the man of business, as will be seen when we mention a few of its many peculiarities; hoping it will prove a source of enjoyment to the one and a profit to the other. hair, wool, fur, &c., form quite an extraneous appendage to the skin, or body producing them, not at all directly dependent on the life of the animal for their own existence, for they have been known to live and grow for some time after the death of the animal itself. we also know that they live, grow, and die, showing all the signs of youth, maturity, and old age. hair possesses no sensation at any period of its existence; of itself it has no feeling of touch, nor has it the power of voluntary action. the growth of hair is peculiar as it projects and grows in length from the root, and not by the top as with vegetable productions, the lower portion lengthens out, and the top is merely projected forward; and when once cut, it never again resumes its tapering point. hair or fur of whatever quality, consists of a single slender filament, without a branch or knot of any kind, and that filament is a tube, which is filled with a fat oil, the color of the hair being derived from this oil. by the chemical analysis of hair it is found to consist of nine different substances: st, gelatine or animal matter, which constitutes its greater part; d, a white concrete oil in small quantity; d, another oil of a grayish-green color more abundant, these oils comprising about one-fourth of the entire weight; th, a few particles of oxide of manganese; th, iron, the state of which in the hair is unknown; th, phosphate of lime; th, carbonate of lime in very small quantity; th, silex in greater abundance; th, and lastly, a considerable amount of sulphur--such is the constitution of all furs, wools, hair, &c., most of which may be dissolved in pure water heated to a temperature above ° of fahrenheit, by which it is partially decomposed. hair is likewise soluble in alkalies, with which it forms soap. chlorine gas immediately decomposes it, producing a viscid mass. it is worthy of particular remark, that of all animal products, hair is the one least liable to spontaneous change, evidence of which may be found in the fact that the peruvian, mexican, and brazilian mummy hair is still perfect, and is supposed to be from to years old, and stands the hygrometric test with equal firmness. from this we should suppose the body or substance of hair and wool to be exceedingly hard and solid, which is really the case, as no pressure has yet been applied sufficiently powerful to entirely deprive wool of the water with which it has been washed--the interstices between the fibres of the assemblage never having been closed by the power applied, as the water therein collected may still be drained off when the pressure is removed. although hair is of a tubular construction, yet all varieties are not of a completely cylindrical form; a curl is the result of all flat-sided or oval hairs, the exceeding oval being the unfailing characteristic of the negro race. a cross section of a hair, if circular, denotes the long, soft, and lank fibre of a cold northern animal; but if the cross section shows an extreme flat-sided hair, that hair will be crisp and frizzled, and of a tropical extraction. quite a gradual change in the form of the fibre of hair is observed in all animals as we ascend from the equator to the highest latitudes, other things being equal. it has long been a desideratum how to discriminate between the various qualities of hatters' _fine_ furs, and no really reliable test has yet been obtained, superior to the judgment of the human eye, the fineness of fibre for the hatter being of most essential importance, particularly that allotted for the flowing nap upon the outside of the hat. although the thickness of the fibre of the finer furs has never been properly gauged, it will be a source of some satisfaction to know that the diameter of the human hair varies from the th to the th part of an inch, while the fibre of the coarsest wool is about the th and the finest about the th part of an inch. hair may be bleached on the grass like linen, after previous washing and steeping in a bleaching liquid, after which it may be dyed of any color. it is very doubtful whether the growth of hair can by any artificial means be expedited, or the hair itself increased in length, in quality, or in density. a fine field of enterprise would be opened for the fortunate inventor who could increase the produce of the finer and more expensive furs. in contradistinction to this, however, it may be stated that the inhabitants of some countries, the malays, for instance, purposely destroy their hair by using quick-lime. we come next to describe minutely another peculiarity appertaining to hair, upon which all felting or shrinking of a fabric depends; that grand secret that has been a mystery in all ages, until within a few years, or at best was only surmised. upon this property alone depends the whole art of hatting and of felt making, whether in sheets or otherwise, as well as the fulling of cloth and the shrinking of flannels, and all articles the material of which is made of wool, hair, or fur. as many branches of business depend for their success upon the _non-shrinking_ quality of their goods, a study of the felting principle becomes quite appropriate and interesting to those manufacturers, whilst perusing that of the opposite. pulled wools, rather than cut or shorn wools, must always have the preference with the one class of manufacturers; at the same time, the other class must adhere tenaciously to those which have been cut, the roots of the hair causing all the difference, for that remarkable quality, the felting principle, is upon all the same whether pulled or cut. a few familiar facts dependent upon this inherent felting quality of hair will aid the illustration. when a hair is held by the top, it can be severed with a razor much more readily than if held by the root. again, a hair held by the root, and drawn through between the finger and thumb, feels quite smooth, but when held by the top, a rough and tremulous motion is perceived. again, place a hair of three or four inches in length by the middle, between the finger and thumb, and twirl it a few times, when the hair will be found to proceed towards one end, as the twirling and rubbing are continued, and invariably advancing root end foremost, whichever way the hair is placed between the fingers. if two hairs are used in this example, lay the root of the one to the top of the other, their respective motions will be doubly discernible. the cause of all these singularities of the hair it is now designed to explain, which shall be done as explicitly and concisely as possible, with a few proofs of its astonishing power in a collective capacity. the above-mentioned phenomena are the result of that same long-hidden property, and which is nothing more than a certain clothing or covering, entirely surrounding the stem of every hair, in the form of very minute scales, so very minute, indeed, that it requires the aid of a very powerful microscope to enable the beholder to discern them, and even then but faintly. these scales, which cover thickly every filament of animal hair, wool, fur, &c., are thin pointed lamina, quite similar to the scales on a fish, and overlapping each other as do the shingles or slates upon a house. this state of the hair being understood, the _modus operandi_ of the above examples may be thus explained: when the hair was held by the point, it was easily cut by the edge of the razor entering under the scales; but when held by the root, the instrument slipped smoothly over them; and the hair that was drawn through the fingers, when held by the point, felt rough and tremulous, from the jagged points of the scales, but smooth when drawn in their own direction. the twirling of the hairs between the finger and thumb, resulting in their travelling motion, was on account of the points of the scales catching on the fingers, in the act of rubbing, similar to the heads of wheat or barley at harvest time which school-boys put into the sleeves of their coats, and which are sure to come out at some other extremity to that at which they were put in, caused by the working of the boy's arm upon the jaggy beard or awn of the barley head. the task of counting the number of these lamina that clothe the body of these hairs, must have been both tedious and difficult, from their very minuteness and profusion. on a single filament of merino wool, as many as barbed scales, like teeth, projecting from the centre stem, have been counted in the space of one inch. on saxony wool there were , while other wools were as low as , and none were found to have so few as to the inch. no vegetable wools whatever, such as cotton, &c., have any such appendage upon their fibres, and, consequently, cotton or cotton goods never shrink in the act of washing, as woollen goods do. cotton, therefore, never can become a suitable material for felting purposes, every fibre being smooth from end to end in either direction, and in contradistinction to fur, which, though equally smooth as the cotton in one way, rebels triumphantly when irritated in the contrary direction, as already described. mechanically speaking, cotton is smooth, solid, and triangular, whilst wool is rough, tubular, and cylindrical. the grand cause of that mysterious and curious operation called felting, fulling, shrinking, thickening, and solidifying of a fabric, whether of original loose wool, fur, or other stuff, or of that spun into yarn and woven into cloth, is the presence of these scales. till lately, the best operative hatter and the investigating philosopher were equally at a loss to explain upon what principle such effects were produced. take, for instance, a handful of wet fur or wool, which is merely an assemblage of hairs; squeeze and press it, work it a little in the hand, and then observe the effect; for immediately upon pressing it a certain locomotion is thereby conferred upon every fibre of that assemblage, which is increased by every turn of position that is given to the body of wool. the rolling and pressing change the position of each fibre. a friction is produced upon every member composing the mass; a footing as it were is obtained from the scales of each, and the fur or wool being all bent or curled, a progressive motion goes on, interlacing each other in their travels, resulting in a compact, dense body, which may well challenge the goddesses of both patience and perseverance to undo. every hair has been travelling in its own individual direction, boring, warping, grasping, holding, and twisting amongst its fellows like a collection of live worms. the power of combination, like the fable of the bundle of sticks, is strikingly illustrated in the case of the hair, which when viewed singly seems so very insignificant, but collectively, and when pressed by the hand of oppression, hardship, and ill treatment, they combine and become strong and defiant, clasping each other in their embrace, tenaciously clinging to each other the more they are tortured, as if they were living rational beings, conscious of their innocence, and free from guilt. stockings, for instance, that are knit with soft-spun wool, for the use of whale fishermen in northern latitudes, are large enough, when first formed, to hold the whole man, but are felted down to the required size in the fulling mill, where they are battered, tossed about, and tortured to that degree that is required by their tormentors. the writer has seen a millful of these stockings whose sides were felted so firmly together, from a neglect of the workmen to turn them inside out, in due time, during the felting operation, that a knife was required to open them, and which actually failed in several instances, so firmly had their two sides grown together; common tearing having no effect whatever, each and every single hair had embraced its neighbors, and their mutual action defied all attempts to open these stockings.[a] there are instances of ruminating animals having died from the effect of balls of hair having formed within their stomachs, hair by hair having accumulated while licking themselves with their tongues. these balls are all found to be as perfectly felted as the natural bend of the several hairs composing them would allow, the felting having been accomplished by the motions of the intestines of the animals. the disgorged balls from the stomachs of nocturnal fowls are all of the same nature. as has been said, felt may be made of any kind of animal fur, wool, or hair, provided it be bent, crimped, or curled, for if straight as a bristle it would work out of the mass as readily as into it, and lose itself in the operator's hands. all materials intended for felting must be cut from the pelt or skin, and not pulled, for the obvious reason that a pulled hair invariably brings with it its root, in the form of a button or bulb, which would greatly impede its progressive motion in the act of working, as each and every hair under the operation of felting bores into and amongst the other filaments of the fur composing the mass, root end foremost, a sharp point therefore is obtained by cutting. this rule is universally and invariably adopted by all hat furriers. wool of any great length of staple, after being carded, is pressed, and either clipped, cut, or chopped into shorter lengths, which facilitates the felting operation, and improves the solidity of the felt that is produced.[b] the various materials most used in hat-making are the furs of the beaver, the otter, the rabbit, the hare, a species of the muskrat, a species of the monkey, a species of the seal, and a few others, together with saxony and spanish wools and the hair of camels and goats. numerous as are these various names, most of the animals produce five or six different qualities of stuff, from particular parts of the same skin, varying greatly in price or value. the finest furs all come from those animals that inhabit the coldest climates, and the season of the year in which any of them are killed greatly influences the quality of the fur; a summer skin of some of these animals being comparatively valueless, however excellent it might be in the winter season. and what is particularly worthy of the hatter's attention is, that fur that has been kept one or two years, after being cut from the skin, produces a better working, and a more solid article of felt, than fur from a newly-killed animal. the lamina of such fur seem to rise and erect themselves upon the stem of the hair by being kept, which may account for its better felting quality. this would appear to be confirmed by the well-known fact that the lb. bags in which old fur stuffs have been kept are generally burst open. one or two properties peculiar to furs and wools may still be mentioned, as, for instance, all felting, by whatever means accomplished, necessitates either a damp or wet process with the aid of heat, and the facility of thickening or solidifying is accelerated by the application of soap to the material under the operation. or the water may be acidulated for the same purpose with a little sulphuric acid, as either of these acts as a penetrating solvent upon the natural oil of the animal which still remains between the stem and lamina or scales of the hair, thus baring the barbed points of the crusty scales, the better to catch and hold their grip upon each other. oil or grease, on the contrary, when applied directly upon wool, covers up these lamina or scales, thereby destroying their felting power, as is well known to all wool spinners, however little they may understand the real cause of its being so, further than the fact of giving to it a smooth gliding effect, so necessary for the object of their business. it may be amusing, whether true or not, to know that the rude turcomans are said to dwell, even to this day, in tents covered with felt, which they make by treading with their feet the raw material of which it is made, whilst it lies upon the ground, thus favoring the supposition that felting was invented prior to weaving. however, so far as we can learn, a real systematic method of felting is comparatively of a late date, and until within a few years felt has been chiefly employed for hats and hats alone. this is, however, now but a branch of the felt manufacture, for plaids, coats, vests, pants, leggings, shoes, gaiters, slippers, mittens, and caps, the covering of steam cylinders and boilers, carpets, polishing cushions for jewellers and marble cutters, covering for the roofs of houses which is afterwards waterproofed, as also linings of water-tight compartments in ships and ship sheathing, and the covering for the blocks of calico and other printing, &c. &c., are now made of this material. as the nature of hair and the principle upon which its felting property depends become better known, the manufacture of felt will be stimulated and increased, and applied to many purposes other than those above enumerated, and not imagined at the present time. the high price of the finer furs, resulting from the indiscriminate destruction of the animals which produce them, forms the only apology for the introduction of an inferior material into the body of the manufactured article. cotton, which is of quite a limber nature, is too pliable, as indeed are all vegetable products when mixed with fur. they lie dead within the body of the mass, and if the labor be continued beyond a certain time, the active principle of the fur will be seen to have clung to itself, leaving the cotton quite exposed on the outside. even under the most perfect manipulation, a mixture of cotton, from its want of elasticity, will give a product which is to a corresponding degree deteriorated. there was a time when beaver skins were bought from the natives, by the hudson bay company, at the regular price of skins for a gun, for a pistol, for a shirt or one pair of stockings, for a comb, or twelve needles, &c. &c., less than the hundredth part of their real value, and all the other fur-bearing skins belonging to that country were rated by that of the beaver. "the scientific american" of new york for dec. says that, not much more than half a century ago, not a pound of fine wool was raised in the united states, in great britain, or in any other country except spain. in the latter country the flocks were owned exclusively by the nobility, or by the crown. in , a small flock was sent to the elector of saxony, as a present from the king of spain, whence came the entire product of saxony wool now of such immense value. in , during the second invasion of spain by the french, some of the valuable crown flocks were sold to raise money. the american consul at lisbon, mr. jarvis, purchased fourteen hundred head, and sent them to this country. a portion of the pure unmixed merino blood of these flocks is to be found in vermont at this time. such was the origin of the immense flocks of fine woolled sheep in the united states. the same authority further adds that the simplest and most easy method of judging of the quality of wools, is, to take a lock from a sheep's back and place it upon an inch rule; if you can count from to of the spirals or folds in the space of an inch, it equals in quality the finest saxony wool grown. of course as the number of spirals to the inch diminishes, the quality of the wool becomes relatively inferior. cotswold wool, and some other inferior wools, do not measure more than nine spirals to the inch. the fulling mill. having alluded to the fulling mill as a felting machine, it is only necessary to remark here, that it is a rude looking but effective method of condensing a _previously formed article_. it consists of a trough six or eight feet long, and two feet wide, varying in size according to the kind of goods to be operated on. the bottom is of a semi-circular form, having a radius of five or six feet, with sides rising three or four feet high, a strong solid heading, but no end piece. there is a heavy wooden battering-ram suspended from above, at a height answering to the curve of the trough; its immense head has a flat face fitting the trough in which it is made to play freely, similar to the pendulum of a clock. the goods are tumbled promiscuously into this trough in front of the ram, with warm water, fuller's earth, and soap, in sufficient quantity to saturate and wash the material, a small stream of water from a boiler being admitted for that purpose. the power of a water-wheel or steam engine draws back the ram out of its perpendicular, to its allotted distance, whence it falls by its own gravity, with a momentum that sweeps the goods before it with a fearful crash, upon the solid heading of the trough. on the withdrawal of this enormous hammer for a second onset, the goods roll over, resuming their quiescent state, but differently disposed, which is no sooner done than back comes the ram, repeating its dashing blows upon its unoffending and unresisting victims in the trough, washing, scouring, and buffeting them about, till they become not only clean, but completely felted. all of our broadcloths have been subjected to its action, in the process of which the hairs of the weft and those of the warp have become mutually entangled, and each with one another, as with hatting in the regular hand process of loose wool or fur felting. indeed, every hair composing the whole piece of cloth has its individual and independent progressive motions, combining the threads of both warp and weft together to such an extent that these cloths never unravel, and no hemming of a garment is required in the making of our clothes. twelve hours in the mill will reduce a piece of cloth two-fifths of its breadth and one-third of its length. the progressive travelling motion of the hair resulting in the entanglement of the fibres and consequent felting and shrinking of the cloth, is further exemplified in the comfortable soft half-dress caps of the british soldiers, and in the bonnets and caps of the scottish peasantry generally, which have all been first knitted very large with soft spun yarn, and afterwards felted down to the required size in the fulling mill. during the fulling of any and all kinds of goods, they must be frequently taken out of the trough, to be stretched, turned, the folds straightened, and generally inspected. history of hats and hatting. the word hat is of saxon derivation, being the name of a well-known piece of dress worn upon the head by both sexes, but principally by the men, as a covering from the hot sun of summer, the cold of winter, a defence from the blows of battle, or for fashion. being the most conspicuous article of dress, and surmounting all the rest, it has often been ornamented with showy plumes, and jewels, and with bands of gold, silver, &c. it is generally distinguished from a cap by its having a brim, which a cap has not, although there are exceptions even to this rule of distinction, for there are hats that have no brims, and there are also caps that are provided with a margin. those hats that are made of fur or wool have all been felted, and felt strictly speaking is a fabric manufactured by matting the fibres together, without the preliminary operation of either spinning or of weaving. we find but little of hat-making recorded in history, and anything relating to hats is extremely meagre, although their partial use may be traced back to the time of ancient greece amongst the dorian tribes, probably as early as the age of homer, when they were worn, although only by the better class of citizens when on a distant journey. the same custom prevailed among the athenians, as is evident from some of the equestrian figures in the elgin marbles. the romans used a bonnet or cap at their sacrifices and festivals, but on a journey the hat with a brim was adopted. in the middle ages the bonnet or cap with a front was in use among the laity, while the ecclesiastics wore hoods, or cowls. pope innocent, in the thirteenth century, allowed the cardinals the use of scarlet hats, and about the year , the use of hats by persons on a journey appears to have been introduced into france, and soon after became common in that country, whence probably it spread to the other european states. when charles vii. of france made his triumphant entry into rouen in , he wore a felted hat. hatters of the present day most generously ascribe the honor of the invention of felting, and of its prospective introduction to that of hat-making, to the old renowned monk st. clement, who when marching at the head of his pilgrim army obtained some sheep's wool to put between the soles of his feet and the sandals that he wore, which of course became matted into a solid piece. the old gentleman, philosophizing upon this circumstance, promulgated the idea of its future usefulness, and thus it is said arose the systematic art of felting and of hat-making. however all this may be, still the invention of felted fabrics for the use of man may have been, as some assert, very ancient and of quite uncertain origin. the simplicity of its make, as compared with that of woven cloth, shows all speculative assertions to be rather uncertain. however obscure the origin may be, we learn that the first authentic accounts of hatters appeared in the middle ages, in nuremburg in , in france in , in bavaria in , and in london in . the hatting trade of the united states of america is noticed first in the representations made by the london board of trade to the house of commons in the year , in which they refer to the complaints of the london hatters, regarding the extent to which their particular manufacture was being carried at that time in new york and in the new england states. the fashions. a look at the fashions and mode of dressing in ancient times causes amusement. so capricious is the fancy of man that nothing is immutable, all is change, and hats have been of all conceivable shapes and colors, and dressed with the most fanciful decorations, plumes, jewels, silk-loops, rosettes, badges, gold and silver bands and loops, &c. &c. the crowns and brims having been in all possible styles from the earliest period. it would appear that nothing is left for the present and all coming time, but the revival of what has already been, even to the fantastical peaked crown that rose half a yard above the wearer's head. in the fifteenth century, hats in great britain were called vanities, and were all imported, costing twenty, thirty, and forty english shillings apiece, which were large sums of money at that early period. the most extreme broad brims were worn about the year , shortly after which the three-cornered cocked hat came in, and about this time feathers ceased to be worn, the lingering remains being left for the badge of servitude to the gentleman's attendant. metal bands and loops were only regarded as proper for naval and military men of honor. it is a singular historical fact that the elegant soft hat of the spaniard has remained the same from the earliest period to the present day, while among all other civilized nations a transformation in the style of that article has taken place. comfort in the wear seems to have given place at all times to fancy and the demands of fashion. queen elizabeth's patent grant to the hatters of london is still recognized in england, and the d of november is the hatters' annual festival, that being st. clement's day, the patron of the trade. preparation of materials. previous to cutting the fur from the various skins, they must be moistened, straightened, and cleaned; the projecting long coarse hairs that are interspersed throughout the fur, removed either by pulling, clipping, or shearing; those of the rabbit, &c. being pulled, while those of the hare, &c. are clipped. to pull these superfluous hairs by the hand, the person sits with the skin laid over the knee, strapped down to the foot, and with a dull-edged knife in hand, the thumb being covered with a soft shield, the obnoxious guests are dextrously uprooted. if done by machinery, they are pulled out by being nipped between two revolving slender rollers. the skin is drawn over a sharp-edged board, which causes these hairs to project, and the rollers placed in the proper position and distance, frees the fur of its deteriorating associates with great facility, without disturbing the fur. furs intended for body-making undergo a process called carroting or secretage, which is an artificial method of increasing the felting quality of the fur, enabling the hatter to work at a kettle with clean pure water, dispensing with all acids and the like, and using boilers other than those of lead. it is only of late years that carroting has been invented. it is a chemical operation or method of twisting or bending the natural straight-haired furs, and possesses also the property of raising or lifting the points of the scales which clothe the fibres of the fur, thereby facilitating the operation of felting; while the fur in its original straight state could be used with satisfaction only as an outside flowing nap upon the hat. the method pursued to accomplish this result is, to dissolve parts of quicksilver in parts of common aqua-fortis, and dilute the solution with one half or two-thirds of its bulk of water according to the strength of the acid. the skin having been laid upon a table with the hair uppermost, a stout brush, slightly moistened with the mercurial solution, is passed over the smooth surface of the hairs with strong pressure. this application must be repeated several times in succession, till every part of the fur is equally touched, and till about two-thirds of the length of the hairs are moistened, or a little more should they be rigid. in order to aid this impregnation, the skins are laid together in pairs with the hairy sides in contact, and put in this state into the stove-room, and exposed to a heat in proportion to the weakness of the mercurial solution. the drying should be rapidly effected, as otherwise the concentration of the nitrate of mercury will not produce its effect in causing the retraction and curling of the hairs. no other acid or metallic solution but the above has been found to answer the desired purpose of the hat-maker, although sulphuric acid without the quicksilver has a limited effect when the skins are treated as those above described. for other purposes, such as that of the upholsterer, hair is curled by first boiling and then baking it in an oven; or it may be spun into ropes and baked, after which it is teased asunder. preparatory to cutting the fur from the pelt, the skins are dampened and flattened; they are thus made smooth and ready for the operation, which is performed by hand, with knives about two inches long by four wide, having a short upright handle. the skins are held upon a cutting-board, and the pelt kept moistened with water; a sheet of tin is laid upon the skin, pressed down by the left hand, whilst the knife in the right hand, being guided by the edge of the tin, is run rapidly forward and backward across the skin, gradually sliding the tin toward the tail; by this means the fur is gathered up, and kept in one fleece. the pelts are appropriated to the manufacture of gilder's cement, or will make excellent glue. machines in the form of revolving shears, similar to those used for dressing cloth, are employed for such skins as are uneven in the pelt, and which cut the pelt from the fur in slender shreds, being quite the reverse of the hand method, which cuts the fur from the pelt. stiffening and water-proofing materials. there is reason to suppose that when hats were first invented and long subsequently, the quantity of stuff or material weighed out for a single hat was of itself considered sufficient to stand unharmed the drenchings which it was likely to encounter. however, such a hat in the warm season being unpleasant, a lighter body was proposed, to contain some stiffening substance as a substitute, and the attempt proved quite successful. a search was instituted for something suitable for the purpose that would harden the hat sufficiently, without increasing the weight, but rather diminish it. in those times chemistry was comparatively unknown, and glue being at hand, our predecessors in the hatting trade commenced the stiffening of their hats with that material, which long continued the only article likely to succeed. latterly, however, glue has become quite obsolete, having been entirely superseded by the various gums and resins, which, when properly prepared, enable the manufacturer to put into the market a much superior hat, and one more pleasant to wear, weighing oz. which in former times would have weighed full half a pound. the solubility of glue in water was its defect, and the ultimate cause of its rejection. our spirited predecessors in the business, by a knowledge superior to that of their predecessors, coupled with a devoted spirit and unfailing resolution, after many vexatious trials but little known to our modern workers, succeeded in rendering a hat not only stout, light, and water-proof, but cheaper and more beautiful to look at, ventilated, and altogether pleasanter to wear. upon a retrospective view, and considering the total of these improvements, we may well excuse the many secrets and partialities existing in the trade, for before any new admixture of stiffening materials or method of applying them, whether before or after dyeing, &c., could be properly proved, many dozens of hats were under way. it required a length of time to enable a proper judgment of the experiment to be pronounced; thus, if unsuccessful, involving the character of the manufacturer as a tradesman, and his pecuniary affairs at the same time. the result, however, was at last satisfactory, and now there are several methods of stiffening with a water-proof stiff, which possesses all the requisite qualifications. there is no department in the hatting trade of more importance than that of stiffening, as the kind, quality, and quantity of the stiff must be regulated according to the country in which the hats are to be worn. england, for instance, where there is so much moisture in the atmosphere, requires a much harder stiff than we do in america. american manufacturers finding that shellac possesses every requisite for both stiffening and water-proofing, now for their best hats use that gum only dissolved in alcohol. lbs. orange shellac being dissolved with gallons alcohol in a close vessel, _cold_, attending carefully to stir it up repeatedly to keep it from lumping and sticking to the bottom. the vessel commonly is used in the form of a barrel or some sort of churn. when fully melted the stiff is ready for use by being thinned down to the desired consistency with additional alcohol and put into the hat with a stiff brush. a cheaper, called alkali-stiff, and much used for inferior hats, is-- lbs. shellac, dissolved with oz. of sal soda in galls. water in a tin vessel. the vessel with the water is set into another containing boiling water, and heated; the soda is introduced gradually, and is soon dissolved, and the lac is then put in and stirred occasionally for about an hour, by which time the lac will be dissolved. the whole is then left for an hour or two, when it may be taken out and set to cool. it is better if allowed to remain a few days after having been made. when used, it is reduced to the required strength with more water, a hydrometer being employed as a test. the bodies are simply immersed in the liquor, and passed between a pair of rollers one by one, thereby sweeping off the superfluous compound, but leaving them completely saturated. the hats with this stiffening must be immediately and rapidly dried in the stove. this stiff is rendered the more popular by adding oz. of common salt to the mixture before using it, as the salt neutralizes the soda, and the hats may be blocked immediately after being stiffened, thereby saving time and dispensing with the use of the stove. the two following receipts are given as good and reliable english methods of stiffening hats:-- lbs. of orange shellac. lbs. of gum sandarac. ozs. gum mastic. / lb. of amber resin. pint of solution of copal. gallon of alcohol or of wood naphtha. the lac, sandarac, mastic, and resin are dissolved in the spirit, and the solution of copal is added last. this is called spirit proof, and like our own is put into the body with a stiff brush, and, being fully saturated, is set to dry. a cheaper stiffening, also like our own called alkali or water stiffening, is-- lbs. of common black shellac. lb. amber rosin. ozs. gum _thus_. ozs. gum mastic. ozs. borax. / pint solution of copal. the borax is first dissolved in gallon of warm water. this alkaline liquor is now put into a copper pan heated by steam, or it may be set into another vessel containing boiling water, and the shellac, _thus_, and mastic added. this is allowed to boil for some time, more warm water being added occasionally, until it is of a proper consistence, which is known by a little practice. when the whole of the gums seem dissolved, half a pint of wood naphtha must be introduced, and also the solution of copal, the liquor should be passed through a fine sieve, when it will be perfectly clear and ready for use. this stiffening is used hot with the following preparations. the hat bodies, before they are stiffened, should be steeped in a weak solution of soda, to destroy any acid that may have been left in them. if sulphuric acid has been used in the making of the bodies, after they have been steeped in the alkaline solution they must be perfectly dried in the stove before the stiffening is applied. when stiffened and stoved, they should be steeped all night in water to which a small quantity of sulphuric acid has been added. this sets the stiffening in the hat body and finishes the process. if the proof is required cheaper, more shellac and rosin may be introduced. the blowing machine. in the manufacture of the finest kinds of fur hats, namely, those with a flowing nap, the stuffs of which they are made must be thoroughly refined. the clipping and pulling operations, to which the skins were subjected previous to cutting off the fur, never free the fur entirely of the coarse hairs that are intermixed with the finer; and to separate the coarse from the fine, the fur, as it came off the skin, is placed under the action of the blowing machine, which consists of a long, close, narrow, wooden box, divided into a number of apartments, the divisions between each of them having an open space at the top or bottom, so that a blast of wind can be propelled through the whole length of the trunk. the fur is put into one of these receptacles at one end, where it is teased and tossed by revolving brushes set in the bottoms of several of them, and a revolving fan is placed at the head. the whole being set in motion by some first power, the blast of wind from the fan seizes the loose thrown up fur that is tossed by the revolving breakers and brushes, and the stream of flying fur is transmitted from division to division, along the whole length of the wooden box. in this operation, the fur is graded as it is blown along and deposited gradually in the respective places, lodging in the most regular order, from the one end of the wooden trunk to the other, the dust and dirt falling down below, the heavier portion of fur not being blown to the same distance as that of the finer, which reaches the farther end, where the finest of all is received entirely refined of its impurities. but the cutting and blowing of fur are both independent and distinct branches of business, although relatively connected with that of hatting, and the various grades of fur are bought by the hatters from the professional hat furriers or their agents. the manufacture of hats. before commencing a detail of the processes of the trade, it will be necessary to bear in mind that hatting is universally divided into two great divisions, viz., the making, and the finishing departments, each of which as a matter of course has its subdivisions. with the exception of encyclopædias which give detached and very abridged descriptions of felt making and of hatting generally, there has been no specific account published in either pamphlet or book-form, so far as the writer is aware, of the manner in which felt hats are made, or of the principle of felting by which they are produced. this is considered by the writer a sufficient inducement to illustrate to the best of his ability a principle entirely belonging to natural history, viz., the natural scaly clothing that is upon all hair, and hitherto but little known, and upon which several important branches of business depend. indeed, it seems almost absurd to think that a hair, puny as it is in itself, bears upon its sides a something of such importance, so very minute as to require the utmost attention with the aid of the best microscopes to be seen at all, and yet upon that something is based the art of felting and of course of hat-making, besides several branches of other trades, some of which have already been mentioned. hat-making was long considered a business to which machinery never could be applied, but the inventions of man have at last dispelled this illusion, and machinery is now employed in several of the most important departments of the trade. the reason why this idea obtained such general credence was, first, on account of the close attention requisite, while the hat is under the operation of sizing. second, the known impossibility of napping or ruffing a hat by any means with machinery, also, the acknowledged failures of several attempts to substitute carding for that of bowing, and various futile attempts with the irons in the finishing department. the innovations of machinery, however, have now obtained a sure footing in all large factories, and some of them will come under observation in their proper places. in the mean time we shall confine our observations to the old system, which still prevails in most small factories and all small towns. our honest forefathers, the manufacturers in former times, would insist upon making hats to wear not for a season, as with us, but for many years, being afraid of damaging the trade to do otherwise, but now a hat for city wear, of scarcely three ounces weight, and lasting two or it may be three months, is quite a common thing. the usual quantity of stuff given out for a regular felt hat, modified of course to a very great extent by the market, we shall suppose to be three ounces of fur. it may or may not be a mixture of different kinds and qualities of stuff previously prepared by carroting, and may or may not be refined by the winnowing machine, which separates the different qualities of fur. these three ounces, however, are sometimes increased by unprincipled men to four and a quarter or four and a half ounces, by the addition of other and cheaper ingredients, which are all laid upon a platform of boards about five feet square, called a hurdle, over which a large bow of about six feet long strung with cat-gut, fig. , is suspended. this bow is held by the left hand of the hatter, and with the right he holds a small piece of wood with a head or knot upon it, fig. , with which he tugs the string of the bow and makes it vibrate upon the stuff, and into it, with great dexterity and with the nicest judgment. this operation has always been considered a beautiful sight to a stranger, as the performer goes on plucking the string, and the string playing upon the top of the fur, which lies upon the left hand side of the platform. the fur touched by the string is made to fly from one side of the boards to the other with the greatest regularity. so nicely is this bowing performed, the stuff flying from the bow-string hair by hair, and flake by flake, that a hat in this loose state may measure several inches in thickness. [illustration: fig. . hat bow.] [illustration: fig. . bow-pin.] in this operation, the different materials are tossed about to-and-fro repeatedly, and mixed with a much greater regularity and change of position of the various filaments than if drawn by carding machinery. one half of the intended hat, called a bat, is bowed at a time, and both in nearly a triangular shape, which being gathered up, and pressed with a flat square piece of wicker-work, fig. , and afterwards with a smooth skin or cloth, is pressed and gently rubbed with the hands backward and forward so as to create a friction on the surface fibres, thereby interlacing the outside filaments, by which means the simply safe-lifting of these two half-solidified portions of the future hat is secured. the one-half being laid upon the other, with a triangular piece of paper or cloth between, they are joined together by overlapping two of the three sides, thereby giving to the intended hat the form and figure of a hollow cone or great bag, but so tender that none but an experienced hatter could handle it. [illustration: fig. . hat basket.] this operation of bowing is the same, with but little variation, whether it be for coarse or fine hats. if wholly of wool, they are now swaddled carefully in an outer cloth, and sprinkled with water, and laid upon a warm plate of metal which sends the steam up through the hat which is to be pressed, and slightly rubbed, sprinkled again, and turned over. continuing the pressing and rubbing, and by repeating these operations for some time, the motions are transmitted to all the inclosed fibres of wool with an irritating feeling, as it were, exciting their propensity for travelling, till the outer hairs, in their motions, warp themselves with each other and the surface appears skin-like and becomes smooth. during these actions, the hat inside of the cloth must be several times changed in position and kept in proper form, when its swaddling envelope and the paper within which kept the inside open and free may be removed. these operations concluded, the tender hat must now be subjected to a much more laborious operation, where, properly speaking, the grand practical art of felting takes place, where thousands of thousands of filaments are all in active though slow motion, all travelling on their own individual course, independent of, and at the same time dependent upon, each other for their mutual support, being carefully guided collectively, by the hatter's good judgment. this stage of the operation is a wet one requiring an open boiler surrounded by planks, which slope towards the centre, called a battery, fig. , suitable for six or eight men to work at. each man is provided with a rolling-pin, cloths, brushes, &c. the soft and tender hat is laid upon one of these planks or benches, wrapped in a damp cloth, and carefully wetted, squeezed, folded, rolled and unrolled, keeping it constantly moistened by dipping it in the hot water of the boiler, folding and unfolding with every variety of crossings, rolling it as a scroll, pressing, shaking, dipping and rolling it again and again, the hatter all the while bending over his work in front of the almost boiling caldron, and surrounded by steam. he labors hard, ever changing the position of the hat under his hands, so as to make it an evenly felted and perfect piece of work, which these oft-repeated motions ultimately accomplish. [illustration: fig. . battery for sizing hats.] this is the grand felting operation; the cause of which was so long considered a mystery, and now ascertained to result from the peculiar natural construction of the animal fibre, as already explained. in this planking or sizing of the hat, sometimes with half a dozen under hands at the same time, the enveloping cloth is soon thrown aside as the hat grows in solidity. the hands of the hatter are defended from the scalding water by thick leather shields upon the palms, and as the hat approaches its proper size, it is scalded and belabored with determined importunity, coiled, rolled, pressed, and pinned, backward and forward till the size of the hat is reduced to nearly half of its original dimensions, and the tension of the several fibres becomes so great that the hat will felt no farther. at this stage it is impossible for it to be torn asunder, and is still in its original form of a hollow cone. such is the making department of the trade, the felting process, where a firm piece of cloth (for such is the body of a hat) is manufactured from loose wool or fur, independent of either spinning or weaving. we have now explained the making of the bare body, as it is called, of a plain hat, in as concise a manner as the subject will permit. there are yet a variety of qualities and kinds of hats requiring a variation more or less in the manipulation of the article, so as to suit a fanciful and fastidious people. for instance, the quantity and quality of fur, or an entire change of materials, produce quite a different appearance both in the look, the wear, and the price of the hat, while the form of the cone must be changed to admit of a high or low crown, or of a broad or narrow brim, &c. &c. all felt hats, of whatever texture, nature, or name, must have undergone the above described operations, and many have to go back a second time to the plank kettle, and there undergo an additional teasing and ducking in the scalding water. for instance, all those destined to receive a coat of fur upon the outside finer than that of which the body is made, and constituting the flowing nap of the hat, which is merely a kind of veneering or outside plating, which will shortly be described. a very good hat is made having a flowing nap that is raised directly from the body itself. thus when the body of such a hat as has been described is about half wrought up at the kettle, it undergoes in another department the operation of shaving, by which means the projecting coarse hairs are all cut off, after which, on being returned to the kettle, the hatter, with his stiff brush, card, and comb, raises a nap upon the half solidified body, which is constantly improved as he continues to manipulate with the brush. the hat is, at the same time, reduced in its dimensions by the operation of felting until at the conclusion when it appears of the desired size, fully felted, and adorned on the outside with its rough and flowing nap, which otherwise would have been smooth and cloth-like. this is called the brush hat. shaving. in the process of fur felting there is a constant tendency for the strong straight hairs of the body to work to the outside, so that whether the hat is designed to receive a bare finish afterwards, or to get a plated cover of beaver for a nap, those bodies must all undergo the operation of shaving. a workman sits in another apartment with one of them, when dry, spread over his knee, and with a long bladed sharp knife in hand, sweeps rapidly over the surface, cutting off and depriving it of those deteriorating superfluous intruders, after which the hats are forwarded to the stiffening department. stiffening process. the bodies of the hats now made, dried and shaved, and the spirit water-proofing already prepared, being thinned, or reduced to the proper consistence, the hat is laid upon a flat sloping board, and the stiffening is put into it with a stout brush, and soaked to that degree of saturation known only by experience, the brims receiving a double portion for extra stoutness, and are then set aside to dry. the alkali or inferior kind of stiffening, when used, is likewise diluted, and applied by immersing the body fully into the prepared ingredients already described, and either wrung out with the hands, or passed a couple of times between a pair of rollers set at a proper width, which determines the quantity of proofing absorbed by the hat. it should be observed, regarding this stiffening of hats, that it is simply a varnishing of the several fibres of the fur of which the hat is made, each hair individually has got a coat of water-proofing varnish, for when dry it will be found that the interstices between each and every fibre are quite open and free, and therefore susceptible of ventilation; thus differing entirely from what would have been the case had it been stiffened with any kind of paste. ruffing or napping. very little of this is done at present in the united states. after the bare body of the hat is stiffened, if a flowing nap of beaver, otter, neutra, or other fine fur is desired, finer than that of which the body is made, half an ounce more or less of the superior uncarroted stuff is weighed out, sufficient to cover the whole outside surface of the hat. the hatter lays this precious morsel with perhaps one-eighth ounce of cotton on the hurdle, under the bow, as he did with the stuff for the body, and with a similar but lighter instrument, these two stuffs are completely mixed and spread upon the boards, as evenly as his experienced hands can do it; the cotton being used merely to enable him to handle the fur, which otherwise would be so thinly spread, and so attenuated of itself, as to endanger the simple act of lifting it. this mixture of fur and cotton is next spread upon the wet bare body of the hat as it lies upon the plank at the kettle, a little water is sprinkled over it and beat down with a brush. the hat with this surface covering is wrapped very carefully in a piece of cloth or coarse hair-cloth, and operated on very lightly, and nearly in the same manner as when felting the body. the object to be attained is to get the fibres of the fine fur to penetrate the body, and take root as it were therein--great care and watchfulness being demanded of the workman at every motion of his hands, in this manner of working. the points of the fibres of the beaver fur penetrate the body of the hat, and having once got a footing, it constantly advances, as the active careful rolling, folding and unfolding, shaking and tossing go on, until the fur has separated itself from the cotton; by its boring, having obtained a firm lodgment in the solid felt of the hat body root end foremost. the cotton with which it was mixed is left behind loose and useless, for want of the little rough scaly property that the other possessed. an inexperienced workman in thus ruffing a hat is liable to continue his work too long, until the beaver napping has burrowed quite through to the inside of the hat, where it is lost.[c] in the various operations of the hatter with hot water, whether in body-making, napping, or dyeing, &c., the water should not be allowed to boil, for independent of the damage to some kinds of stiffening, as hair contains a large portion of gelatine in its substance (to which alone it owes its suppleness and toughness), this gelatine will be separated from the hair. this is particularly the case with napped hats, for when thus treated the fibre becomes much more brittle than before, and the nap soon breaks off round the square. fur hats having a flowing nap are sometimes clipped very short with revolving shears similar to those used in dressing cloth, and which is done previous to blocking or dyeing. [illustration: fig. . hat block.] blocking. previous to dyeing, all hats must be blocked, using such blocks as approach the intended shape of the hat, and as soon as possible after the making department is concluded. it is a laborious operation, though simple, as the nature of felt allows it to be stretched to a great extent in any direction when it is wet and hot. in the act of blocking, the conical form of the hat is lost for the first time. the hat is now immersed in the _boiling water_ of the kettle, and while wet and hot the tip is stretched wide, and the whole thing simply drawn down over the block, a tight cord is run down to where the band is to be and the brim flattened out. dyeing. the next operation is that of dyeing or coloring, and if convenient, and the hats fine, each hat should be upon its respective block when in the color kettle, great care being observed to keep the square from abrasion, as the least rub may deprive a napped hat of its fur at that exposed and important part. most generally, however, the hats are colored without a block, the blocking being performed as soon after the dyeing and washing as possible in _boiling_ water. the ordinary ingredients for black are, for dozen, lbs. of logwood, _chipped_, or its value in extract. lbs. of green sulphate of iron or copperas. - / lbs. of french verdigris. the kettle should never boil nor exceed degrees, and during the operation the hats must be repeatedly taken out and exposed to the action of the oxygen of the air, so as to strike a deeper color, and during the necessary exposure to these airings, the time is improved by having two suits of hats going on at the same time. from six to twelve hours are required to complete the operation. the shorter the time the hats are in the dye, compatible with the deepness of the color, the better will be the goods, as boiling extracts the gelatine of the hair and makes the nap brittle, which is seen by comparing dyed articles with those that are of a native color. pumicing or pouncing. pouncing is a term for rubbing down the outside of a hat with a piece of pumice stone, sand paper, or emery paper, whereby the hat is made entirely bare, smooth, and fine, resembling a piece of very fine cloth. these are generally called cassimere hats. this operation is usually performed after dyeing, and previous to finishing. some makers, however, prefer to singe the hats instead of pouncing, but such hats never feel so fine as the others, as the singeing of any hair invariably produces a hard crisp burnt knob upon the end. finishing.[d] when a hat arrives at that state of forwardness ready for finishing, it is a very unsightly object to any person but a hatter. most of its processes have been wet ones, but now it is to assume a genteel and prepossessing appearance, under the artistic appliances of brushes, cloths, hot irons, and labored exercise. if a plain soft hat, it is pulled over such a block as is required, a cord is run round the hat to keep it tight upon the block; the tip and brim are then flattened with the hot iron, wet sponge, brushes, and hair-cloth cushion or velure, several wettings being necessary in finishing. [illustration: fig. . hat iron.] the brim is next cut to the required width, and the cord run down to the depth of the block. the side-crown is now to be finished, along with the tip and upper and under sides of the brim, the hatter exercising his best judgment. the block is then withdrawn, the brim curled and set, and the finished hat sent off to the trimmer to get lined and bound; it is then tipped off and packed for market. the finishing of this kind of hat is a simple operation when compared to that of a napped hat; requiring only the assuming of the proper shape and form, the solidifying of the body, and giving it such a lustre and finish as the quality of the material will allow. the stiff cassimere hat being less flexible, is subjected to hot steam preparatory to blocking, whereby it is made soft and pliable. when in this state it is drawn down over the block, and the block withdrawn, to insert a prepared disk of pasteboard into the crown for strength, after which it is finished much in the same way as that already described, but with the difference, that a cloth must always intervene between the hot iron and the hat when finishing. the finishing of a napped hat, whether it be brush or beaver, is a very different process from that for either of those just described, requiring the nicest attention and patient perseverance by the best workmen. the hats are given out by the half dozen, which are sorted for the different sizes and steamed one by one; the hot steam softens the stiffening, and when pliable, the hat is drawn down over the respective finishing blocks, the nap of each hat straightened with a wet brush, and a half finish given to it with the water, brush, and bare hot iron. the block is then withdrawn and the hat given to be shaved with a razor. this seems a singular operation; but a few passes with that instrument over the hat effectually cut off all those projecting coarse hairs that have eluded all previous attempts at removal, and without in the smallest degree endangering the finer fur of the nap. the hat is now returned to the finisher to complete the process. these coarse hairs, when left in the hat depreciating very materially its value, were formerly plucked out by hand with a pair of pickers, hair by hair, often to the injury of the hat. the advantage of the razor will be obvious to all. a pasteboard disk, well spread with dissolved shellac, is now inserted into the tip, and the block reset. the workman with his hot iron, wet and dry brushes, &c., lays down the nap in its proper direction, and the hat by continuous labor becomes solidified and more elastic, the tip is rendered stout by the adhesion of the prepared inside disk; and by the repeated wettings, and careful ironings and brushings, all the ripply appearance of the fur is destroyed, and the whole surface becomes smooth and shining. the crown being finished is then papered up, and the same operations that were bestowed upon the crown are now to be repeated on the brim, both on the upper and under side, which having been accomplished, a gauge is applied and the brim cut to the required width ready for the trimming. there is a beautiful invention for preserving the form of all hats having flat or soft supple brims by means of a flattened wire, upon which two small twists are made, and when joined as a hoop, the proper concave is produced. this hoop is attached to the outer edge of the brim, and covered with the binding, and thus the unsightly slouch that often deformed, particularly the soft brimmed hat, is permanently prevented, and the graceful curve completely secured. silk hatting. the art of silk hatting is comparatively of modern invention, consisting simply of a cover of silk plush over a body of some other material. as much sleight of hand is required in this department, it naturally follows that a good workman is a valuable and appreciated artisan. the bodies used for this kind of hat have been so various, that a full, or even succinct, description of them would be quite superfluous. wool and fur bodies, straw and leghorn, cork, whalebone and muslin, &c., even stretchers similar to umbrellas without a body at all have been adopted, and all of them have had their day. at present, however, the trade seems to have settled down to the two kinds--fur and muslin. the fur body of a silk hat, called a shell previous to coming into the hands of the silk finisher, is made much in the same manner as that of a plain soft hat, by felting and sizing it down to the proper dimensions in the plank kettle. it is quite light and thin, and when blocked or otherwise, and dried, is then ready for _stiffening_ by the finisher. the different substances for this purpose, and the various methods of doing it, have been as numerous as the varieties of bodies that have been adopted. the whole of them, however, now have been abandoned for shellac. the most simple and the best stiffening for any hat is shellac dissolved in alcohol, and thinned down to a proper consistence. a cheaper, however, and at the same time good stiffening, is the ammonia stiff already described. either of these is applied in a like manner and with the like operations. the soft body or shell, as it is often called, is immersed in the liquid in a basin, then wrung out and pulled upon a block, the brim being flattened, a brush is dipped into another vessel containing a thicker lac, and applied to the square and brim for extra strength; after this the block is withdrawn, and the body set to dry. these felted bodies or shells, as they are called, when dry are steamed generally over the hatter's hot iron, and pulled when warm and soft over the finishing block. a cord is then run tight round the shell, and the block withdrawn; the prepared pasteboard tip is inserted into the crown, and the block reset; after which the body receives a regular hot ironing all over. in this operation the inserted tip adheres to the felt, and the whole body assumes the exact counterpart of the block, both crown and brim. the rough hairs are now to be removed by sand or emery paper and the block withdrawn. the body next receives a coat of the best size, and when dry two coats of seed-lac, or copal varnish which finishes the making of this kind of body. those bodies that are made of muslin, when first invented, were called gossamer, from their extreme lightness, and though they have increased in weight, they still retain the name of gossamer hats. in preparing for the body, a few yards of muslin are extended upon a frame, and saturated with liquefied shellac, or water stiff, which when dry is cut bias into strips for sides, tips, and brims. one side of these side and tip pieces of muslin is overlaid with the silk intended for the inside lining of the hat, and pressed to adhesion; or this may be done while in the web before being cut into strips. the block being set upon the bottom-board, one of these extra prepared sides is wound tight round the side-crown of it, and the two ends stuck together by overlapping. a piece of the prepared tips is next laid on, and made to adhere to the side-crown. the brim consists of three thicknesses of stout muslin of a circular form, each with a hole in the centre, all of which are slipped over the crown down to their place of destination with a quarter of an inch of the edge rising up on the side. a second side-crown and another tip are now applied, covering the others, and the whole of these cemented together with the hot iron, the shellac with which they were stiffened acting as a cement. after receiving a coat of size and one of varnish, this body will be ready, like the other fur body, for the finisher. in preparing these bodies, cover the block with a soft shell. before commencing the finishing, however, we will describe the sewing of the silk plush cover, which is quite a nice and particular piece of work. the strip of plush for the side-crown is cut from the web bias and of a width the depth of the intended hat; the tip piece which is to mate this side-crown is of course circular, and a quarter of an inch larger all round than the tip of the hat. these two pieces are to be sewed together by hand face to face, the edges being folded back, and the plush put well through to the proper side with the needle as the sewers proceed, so that the seam when the hat is finished may not appear bare for want of plush. in finishing, whether the hat body be of fur or gossamer, the first thing is the putting on of the under brim, which we shall suppose to be plush, satin, or merino. a strip is cut from the web or piece at about an angle of forty-five degrees, and having the length reduced to suit the size of the hat; the two ends are then sewed together, and having been laid on the hat, one of the edges is made fast to the edge of the brim with the iron, all round, and smoothly laid down, the bias allowing this to be done by stretching. it is next to be steamed with a damp cloth under the hot iron and the inner edge stuck inside of the hat with the nose of the iron. the upper brim is next in order. a strip of silk plush the requisite width is run on, slightly, in much the same manner as with the under brim, but dispensing with both the cloth-steaming and often with the sewing. the one end of this upper brim being cut with the scissors and the other with the knife, a good invisible seam may be made. the brims being now on, the tip of the hat is wetted inside, and the block put in. the silk plush cover, having been previously spread with gum tragacanth, about where the side seam is likely to be, and now dry, is carefully drawn over the crown and fitted to the hat; the two ends of the cover being folded back and marked for the seam. the cover is then removed, the plush brushed back at the folding, and the cloth cut for the seam with a pair of sharp scissors; the top of the seam is cleaned or dressed off and the cover replaced on the hat body. the tip and side crown are now to be stuck with the hot iron to the body with particular care, so as to make a good joining at the seam, and not to draw through the varnish. the making of a good seam is the test of a good workman. the dressing and polishing of the hat now commence; and while it remains upon the block, this is done by means of brushes, wettings, ironings, &c., once, twice, or three times in succession, after which it is fixed on the veluring machine where it is revolved rapidly, for the purpose of freeing the nap of all impurities by means of the hair-cloth velures that are applied. the hat is next taken back to the bench, where it receives its final dry-ironing, veluring, &c., and the crown is papered up. the brim is yet to be finished, which is done by hand, with the brushes, sponge, iron, &c., and made to shine like the crown; after this it is given to the trimmer to be trimmed and bound, when it comes back to be curled and properly shaped in the brim, suiting the taste of the wearer. the workman who gives the hat its final touches makes use of a number of tools, which, though of seemingly trifling appearance, are nevertheless necessary for his department, which requires a refined taste. forming machines. such is hat-making, but we cannot conclude without remarking that there have been many patents granted in this and other countries for improvements in hatting, that we cannot notice. nevertheless there are two, of decided merit, claiming attention, as having entirely revolutionized one-half of the making department, and which may be modified and extended to answer many purposes, in addition to that of hat-making. [illustration: fig. . forming machine for fur hat bodies.] the first and most ingenious is called the pneumatic process of forming the bodies, hence in all large cities the bowing operation is not employed. it is as follows: a cone of sheet copper punched full of small holes, and set upright, revolves slowly upon its axis; beneath this or attached to it an exhausting fan is placed, causing by its rotation a current of air to draw through the holes from the outside. a trunk or box with an opening facing against this revolving cone, discharges the fur which is fed into it at the other end by a feeding apron, in quantity just sufficient for one hat-body. it is drawn into this trunk between two rollers that are covered with leather or felt, and immediately seized by a cylinder revolving about four hundred times in a minute, furnished with a number of stiff brushes. this generates a current of air which scatters the fur and blows it out of the mouth of the trunk, where floating in the air it is speedily drawn upon the perforated cone, and evenly spread over the top and sides of the same, in quantity enough for one hat-body in so many revolutions. the discharging trunk is so adjusted that any desired quantity of fur can be deposited on any particular portion of the cone. when the cone has got the fur for one hat-body, the workman wraps over it a wet cloth and slips a metallic cover over the whole, which he removes into a tank of hot water. a new cone is immediately set in its place to receive another coating of fur. the hot water into which it has been dipped tends to make the mat more tenacious, which is next slipped off the cone, taken to a table, gently worked by hand-rolling in a piece of blanket, squeezed and pressed, and folded into a convenient shape and sent to the regular hatter to be felted at the ordinary plank kettle. the cost of hat-bodies is reduced, it is computed, by this process as five or six to one of the old bowing system, and the rapidity of production is as thirty to one. [illustration: fig. . forming machine for wool hat bodies.] it will not have escaped observation that this ingenious piece of machinery is applicable only for fur, the filaments of which are short and less inclined to tangle than those of wool, but another and no less useful piece of mechanism has been invented for forming the bodies of wool hats, and like the other has entirely superseded the use of the bow in all large factories where wool hats are made. it consists of a modified common carding machine, the sliver from which is conducted to a set of double conical blocks that are placed base to base, and which slowly revolve upon their axes in front of the carding machine, and the sliver is received and wound upon these combined blocks to the required thickness, sufficient for one hat, both blocks being covered at the same time. this machine which carries the blocks has a horizontal vibratory motion, or swaying backwards and forwards, that enables the sliver to be wound in a systematic manner on the cones, with a varied thickness of material for brims and crowns, and causing also the fibres of the wool to lie in a diagonal position, as layer upon layer covers the blocks. the bodies of the two hats, each of a conical figure, are thus made over the surface of a double cone which are separated by cutting them along their middle or base line, and slipping them off at the end. they are now ready to be wetted, shrunk, and felted in the usual manner by the regular hatter. shoes and gaiters of felt. we will here describe the making of felted gaiters and shoes, which is similar to the art of hatting. there may be other and better methods, as the expansive stretching nature of felt may admit of other modes. the wearer of these gaiters may walk upon the slippery pavement with comfort and full confidence, and if furnished with a leather or rubber under-sole, they are a neat, easy, comfortable cover for the feet. a given quantity of wool calculated for one pair of shoes is weighed out, which is divided into four equal portions, two of them for each shoe. one at a time is laid upon the hurdle, and with the proper bow it is bowed as if for a hat, and disposed of in exactly an equilateral triangle, which being gathered together with the basket, is pressed, and temporarily solidified, laid aside, and the other portion treated in the same manner. a piece of coarse brown paper is now folded into a triangular shape, a little smaller than the bats just bowed; all the three edges are to be folded together with the paper inclosed. the use of the inclosed paper is to prevent the inner surfaces from felting together, and to keep the inside open. the intended shoe is next lapped in a sheet of cloth, and hardened at the hot basin (the basin is a disk of solid iron with a fire beneath). water sprinkled on the sheet when turned upon the basin, sends steam all through the mass, and when rubbed slightly by hand, friction is communicated to the surface fibres, which in a short time become smooth, when the position of the triangular wool should be changed and the rubbing continued. a few crossings and rubbings give it a consistence sufficient for handling at the plank kettle, where we shall suppose both shoes to have arrived. the felting operation at the kettle is performed in quite the same manner as that of a hat, by pressing, rolling, folding, and unfolding, &c., with its dippings into the hot water, until the material has assumed a hardness and solidity quite astonishing to the casual observer. this operation finished, the shoe still in the triangular shape, one corner is now to be cut off to make an opening, and the confined paper taken out, which is quite a soggy spongy lump of pulp. the mate to this shoe having been advanced to the same forwardness, they are to be pulled upon their respective lasts and dried, and perhaps dyed, after which they are pounced, and finally trimmed. printers' sheets. the making of _sheet_ felt for calico and other printers is a business that fell into the hands of the hatters at the introduction of the water-proofing of hats, as previous to that time the thick stout old hats of former times were quite sufficiently thick for the fittings of their blocks, so that when no more of them could be gotten, recourse was had to the new article, although it should be at a slight sacrifice. felt is employed in this business because of the facility with which it lifts and carries from the color sieve, the colors that are to be applied to the cloth. wood and copper blocks or rollers require two different thicknesses of felt, and though various qualities are made, a solid body and clear smooth surface and edge when cut and pounced by the block-cutter, are absolutely necessary, as otherwise, a ragged edge to the printed figures on the cloth will be the result. the following makes a very good article:-- ozs. best backs of coney wool, and ozs. of saxony lamb's wool. the coney is first well broken over with a light bow, upon the hurdle, and then by means of the heavier wool bow, the well-carded saxony is intimately mixed with it. this thoroughly accomplished, the whole is to be divided into two portions; the one a little heavier than the other, which is laid upon the hurdle, and with the same wool bow, strung with stouter cat-gut, the hatter disposes of the mixture in a perfectly even flat form, of an oblong square, which when gathered by the hatter's basket, measures inches wide by feet long. a cloth is then spread over it, and the whole turned upside down; the sides and ends of the cloth are lapped over, so that this bat as it is called is completely enveloped. a stiff skin is now thrown over it, and pressed and rubbed for some time in an even manner, to reduce its thickness. the skin having been removed, the sheet with its bat is rolled and pressed still more, then laid aside while the other half undergoes exactly the same operation, but is made three inches shorter in length. these two sheets, which are destined to form but one, are connected thus. the shorter is first folded over upon itself, and the two ends joined by overlapping with a proper inlayer of paper; then the larger bat is laid upon this one, and the whole turned upside down, so that the joinings of the two bats will be upon opposite sides of the sheet of felt. after these joinings are carefully made, the would-be sheet appears exactly like a lady's muff, and is again to be enveloped in the cloth, for the hardening process, at the hot basin, where it receives a partial steaming, rubbing, re-folding, &c., till finally it is carried to the plank kettle, where the severest labor must be applied; the object being to condense the materials of which it is made to the utmost degree of tension. it is then cut open, dried, and receives an application of a weak solution of size; when again dry it is well pounced with pumice stone, and the edges cut straight, which finishes a first class printers' sheet of felt, the size being or - / inches long by inches wide. sheets for _copper_ blocks or rollers require a thickness of a quarter of an inch, and those for _wood_ three-sixteenths of an inch. some prefer a sheet altogether of saxony _wool_. cloth hats. after the introduction of gutta-percha into the arts, and the manufacture of it into thin sheeting, a new kind of hat was introduced, made of gutta-percha cloth, and from the variety of shades, &c. seemed for some time to supersede the soft low-crowned felt article. but the cupidity of some of the manufacturers destroyed the business almost entirely when in its infancy, some say purposely, by making them so very inferior and at the same time so perfect a counterfeit, that the really good and perfectly made hat became universally distrusted, and hence the result. we shall refrain from all notice of the methods employed tending to this deterioration of the new article, and merely describe the making of the honest, sound, and valid hat, the revival or resuscitation of which is well worthy of consideration. a dry, thin, and soft fur or wool body is to be drawn upon the proper block, generally or inches deep with either a square or round crown, and the brim spread out upon the bench or bottom board. a circular piece of gutta-percha gum the size of the intended brim, having its centre cut out, is to be slipped over the crown down on to the felt brim; a similar piece of good cloth is likewise slipped over in the same manner to cover the gum, and now the extreme outer edges of the felt and cloth are to be carefully cemented together by means of the gum, by passing round a hot iron. the usual stirrup or bridle is then thrown over the hat, girding the inner edge of the cloth to the block, and stuck with the heel of the iron. this partially stuck brim is finally overlaid with a wet loose brim-cloth and properly ironed, the heat of the steam from the damp cloth softens the gutta-percha gum and effects the adhesion of the cloth to the fur body. about half an inch of cloth will project up on the side crown, which is also made to adhere to the felt body by the heated iron. the block is now to be withdrawn, and the hat turned inside out, which reverses this would-be upper brim to the under side. the hat is next to be re-blocked, a repetition of the gum and cloth is to be applied to this side of the brim exactly as with the other, and then succeeds the covering of the crown, which is to be wholly laid over first with the gutta-percha and then with the previously prepared cloth cover as a crown piece, these being held tight by means of the blocking-cord. the whole crown, both tip and sides, is to be cemented and finished, never omitting the wet finishing-cloth between the hat and the hot iron, and the hat is now complete and ready for lining and trimming. the above makes a good soft pliable cloth hat. but if a stiffer and firmer hat is wanted of the same material, the felt body is to be put through the process of the alkaline bath, similar to that of fur hats, and when dry, proceeded with as above. another method of making these cloth hats is to dispense with the fur body entirely, the block being covered with two thicknesses of cloth and having a ply of gutta-percha gum between, which are cemented together by steaming and pressing, using at all times a wet cloth under the hot iron. the brim is separate and distinct from the crown when made, and consists of a piece of thick wool padding, which is to be covered on both sides with the proper cloth, cemented together with the gum, first one side and then the other, after which the crown and brim are sewed together. in all these cases, the gutta-percha gum acts not only as a cement but also a water-proofing to the hat. conclusion. in this treatise upon the history of hats and hat-making, of furs, wools, &c., and the manufacture of felt, we are well aware of the impossibility of illustrating in full the hatting trade of america, as this country stands alone as compared with others, on account of the mixed population that is here collected. as we have representatives in this, as in every other line of business, from every civilized nation upon earth, with all their various methods of working in their own accustomed ways, the prejudices naturally engendered and entertained through habit being hard to combat, so that the judges of this work may be numerous and various, and no doubt profusely severe in some of their criticisms. but there is going on a rapid amalgamation of all that is best in the trade of hatting, resulting from the continued flow of immigration, and heightened greatly by the wanderings of hatters generally, from shop to shop, and from town to town, that must ultimately bring together in this our beloved land, a perfection in the trade that cannot be attained by any other nation. footnotes. [a] the most familiar instance of mutual association and combination, resulting in real utility, though not so striking on account of our familiarity with it, is the broadcloth of which our clothes are made, which when cut by the tailor will never unravel. this result is wholly the effect of its felting in the fulling mill during the operation of scouring and washing, every fibre of the wool of which the cloth is made, having clung to its immediate neighbors, both warp and weft, and with the spirit of true friendship they still remain in each other's embrace, and the cloth is transformed from a loose to a solid fabric. another instance of the power of combination is the mysterious gordian knot that we read of in history, which promised the empire of the world to him who could unloose it, and which alexander the great is reported to have cut with his sword, because he failed in the attempt. if not a fabulous story, that compound knot the illustrious gordius is supposed to have cunningly felted previous to hanging it up in the temple. [b] the reason why wool and woollen goods felt and solidify more readily than any straight fibred furs, is owing to the natural curl or frizzle possessed by wool, each and every bend of every individual filament assuming an inclination for travel independent of each other and of the general inclination of the perfect fibre. [c] hatters' kettles for fur hatting are made of copper, as they take less firing than those that are made of lead. but lead must be the metal if sulphuric acid, no matter in how small quantity, is used in the water. it is generally resorted to by the men in sizing wool hats, as it facilitates the felting operation. this acid (vitriol), having no affinity for lead, does not affect the kettle, while it would soon eat the one of copper through. care, however, must be taken that no stone be let fall into the water of the lead kettle, for a hole will soon result from such an accident. [d] as every hat must be finished upon a block of some particular form, upon which the hat assumes the exact counterpart, it becomes necessary with those having broad tops, that the block be in five separate pieces, so as to get them out or into the hat, the centre piece acting as a wedge to the whole. index. acid aids fulling, alkali stiff, analysis of hair, ancient hats, basket, hat, battery for sizing, bleaching of hair, block for hats, blocking, blowing machine, body making, bowing, bow-pin, broadcloth, properties of, cardinal's hats, carroting, cassimere hats, chemical analysis of hair, cloth hats, coloring, conclusion, construction of hair, cotton, why it does not felt, description of furs, wools, hair, &c., dressing, dyeing, dyes, elizabeth, queen, patent, familiar proofs of felting, fashions, felting, familiar proofs of, inventor of, when invented, felt made by turcomans, uses of, festival of hatters, fine wool, introduction into the united states, finishing, first account of hatters, flowing nap, forming, machines, - fulling, acid aids, mill, oil prevents, process of, soap aids, fur, kinds of, qualities of, furs, description of, how prepared, inferior articles employed with, low prices of in early times, gaiters of felt, glue, pelts used for, goods, shrinking of, gordian knot, gossamer hats, grease prevents fulling, hair balls in the stomach, bleaching of, chemical analysis of, construction of, description of, how it grows, peculiar properties of, why it felts, hairs, number of, hat basket, block, bow, iron, hats, ancient, cardinal's, cassimere, cloth, history of, manufacture of, scarlet, spanish, hatters' festival, first account of, kettles, hatting, history of, in the united states, silk, history of hats and hatting, how hair felts, hair grows, to judge of the quality of wool, inferior articles employed with furs, introductory remarks, introduction of fine wool into the united states, invention of felting, inventor of felting, kettles, kinds of fur, manufacture of hats, materials, preparation of, for hats, nap, flowing, napping, number of hairs, oil prevents fulling, patent, queen elizabeth's, peculiar properties of hair, pelts used for glue, &c., planking, pneumatic process, polishing, pouncing, preparation of materials, prices of furs in early times, printers' sheets, process of fulling, properties of broadcloth, pulling, pumicing, qualities of fur, quality of wool, how judged, quantity of stuff for a hat, queen elizabeth's patent, receipts for stiffs, ruffing, scarlet hats, secretage, shaving, shellac-stiff, shoes of felt, shrinking of goods, silk hatting, sizing, soap aids fulling, spanish hats, stiffening, process, stiffs, , , stockings, wool, stomach, hair balls in, stuff, quantity of for a hat, turcomans, felt made by, united states, hatting in, uses of felt, water-proofing materials, when felting was invented, when fine wool was introduced into the united states, why cotton does not felt, hair felts, wire hoop for brims, wool, fine, introduction into the united states, wool, how to judge of the quality, wools, description of, wool stockings, * * * * * transcriber's notes. seven occurrences of "etc." have been changed to "&c." on pages (twice), , (three times), and . page , "printer's" changed to "printers'" (printers' sheets) page , changed "puffing" to "ruffing" (ruffing or napping) page , added "of" (dissemination as correct, of that which) page , "then" changed to "than" (more readily than) page , added "of" (counting the number of these) page , "broad-cloth" changed to "broadcloth" (the broadcloth of which) page , "britian" changed to "britain" (great britain, or) page , "too" changed to "two" (nipped between two revolving) page , "rolls" changed to "rollers" (and the rollers placed) page , "waterproof" changed to "water-proof" (light, and water-proof) page , "waterproofing" changed to "water-proofing" (and water-proofing) page , "overlaping" changed to "overlapping" (together by overlapping) page , "shorly" changed to "shortly" (will shortly be described) page , "clothlike" changed to "cloth-like" (smooth and cloth-like) page , "waterproofing" changed to "water-proofing" (of water-proofing) page , "singing" changed to "singeing" (as the singeing of) page , "ves el" changed to "vessel" (another vessel containing) page , "waterproofing" changed to "water-proofing" (water-proofing of) "seven one-thousandths, three one-thousandths, one one-thousandth--one record after another was passed. at last a wire was drawn that measured one four-thousandth of an inch in diameter--twelve times finer than the hair on your head. the spider, so long counted a master workman, had been outdone." ------------------------------------------------------------------------ [illustration: john a. roebling founder of john a. roebling's sons company] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ outspinning the spider the story of wire and wire rope by john kimberly mumford published by robert l. stillson co. new york ------------------------------------------------------------------------ copyright, , by robert l. stillson company new york ------------------------------------------------------------------------ outspinning the spider chapter i wire and modern life it is the wire age. modern life, in all its intricate bearings, runs on wire. wire everywhere; in the heavens above, the earth beneath and the waters under the earth. in all the legerdemain of science, which has put nature in bondage, wire is the indispensable agent. a curious, slow, finical little trade at which the smiths of forgotten races toiled and pottered and ruined their eyesight for unnumbered thousands of years has become, within less than a century, under the spur of modern need and modern driving power, the pack-bearer of the world and the mainspring of every activity from the cradle to the grave. wire still makes toys and gewgaws as it always did, but it is no longer the plaything of vanity alone. cancel wire and wire rope and their concomitant, "flat wire," from the inventory of human assets tomorrow, and the world would stop stock-still. [sidenote: "wire and the commuter"] this is not hyperbole. picture yourself starting for business in the morning if there were no wire and see what the verdict would be by quitting time. considering the vital part that wire plays in the growing and transportation of food for man and beast, it is likely you would go breakfastless after sleeping on a bed without springs or the luxury of a woven wire mattress. but that would be only the beginning of sorrow. the trolley would stand dead. perhaps you are a commuter and journey to town by steam road. the ferry would hug its slip, and where is the railroader who in these days of congestion and short headway would dare to send a train out without the protection of the little lengths of bonding wire between the rails, that articulate the block signal system? you could telephone the office? how and over what unless wire were used? wireless? without the coils and armatures that keep the instruments going or the aerials that seize the word wave in its flight, there would be no wireless. [illustration: without wire--no wireless] suppose you managed to get there. without wire rope no insurance company would let an elevator get higher than the second story, and you couldn't signal the elevator anyway, for the annunciator operates only by an ingenious system of wires, and the control is even more complex. you can climb the stairs, but the door key is flat wire and the shank on which the knob turns is square wire and half the lock is wire. more trouble. the buttons on your suit are flat wire; so are your garters. as for the stenographer, if she got there at all--for she is as completely wired as a telegraph system, from her hat to her shoes--the index files and office books and letter hooks and much of the other equipment of the office would fall to pieces without wire, and the machine which is her pride and the symbol of her dominion is about all wire of one kind or another, except the frame. distinctly, it would not be your busy day. you might spend it looking out of the window at the ships going down the river, but unhappily, the majestic liner is compact of wire, from her glistening trucks to the deepest shadows of the engine room; or airplanes soaring and swaying above the teeming town and far-stretched waterways. but an airplane lives by wire. it could neither fly nor steer nor even hold together if its frame were not strung with wire and its wings and ailerons and fuselage bound and braced and its machinery vitalized by divers forms of wire and wire strand and woven wire cord. far over the town and across the jerseys you would see columns of smoke rising from busy factories--save that the mines of coal and the wells of oil are both dependent for every atom of their product on wire rope, and the lumber and metals which are the bases of industrial manufacture are in the same boat. and as for electric light--you might linger till dark but turning the switch wouldn't help, for the big subterranean cables and the multitude of littler wires that make a pathway for the current, even the dynamos with their masses of wire, they were all dead long ago. gas? made of coal and oil. there would be nothing left to do but to grope hungry through dark streets and, if you could find a wireless bridge, go back to lonelyhurst, where you would learn that without wire there is no domestic joy in this earthly tabernacle, for from cellar to roof, from the bale and rim of the coal-scuttle and the binding of the broom, from the cooking pots, the dishpan and all other culinary utensils to the baby's toys and mother's corset and hairpins and needles and safety pins and pins, it is all wire one way or another. the family would never know what time you got home, for the watches and clocks are largely wire; and there would be no possible relief in going to the club, for nobody would have a car that would run--or a cork-screw, even in the dark. [sidenote: wire holds the world together] it is wire that has brought the world together and holds it together, and when the wire mills stop, as even they would have to do if there were no wire, modern civilization might as well be dead, and it would be. even war would peter out. populations might perish from hunger and probably would, but they'd have to stop killing each other except by primitive methods, for without wire, which controls the movement of ships and airplanes and submarines, and permits by telegraph and telephone the manoeuvering of prodigious armies and binds the shining bodies of great guns and makes most of the instruments of precision for aiming them, war would no longer offer much chance for machine-made glory. as a guarantee of perpetual and worldwide peace no league of nations could begin to compare with the elimination of wire from the world's catalogue of weapons. wire is an influential member of that family of material giants which have come into greatness within a relatively short time but which none the less weigh heavily in the destinies of mankind. it is old, too, but until a new demon of material ambition began to stir in crowding populations it had little purpose except to adorn the raiment of the great or add richness to ancient arts. people whose vision of man's past is bounded by the encyclopedia have been told times enough that aaron's robe had gold wire threads in it, that there was wire in the pyramids, that nineveh was beating out wire eight hundred years before the tragedy of calvary, and that metal heads with hair of wire were found in the ruins of herculaneum and are now again entombed in the showcases of the portici museum. [sidenote: the age-long use of wire] in a world chasing the present and future dollar ethnology moves slowly; the encyclopedias have not yet told that pre-inca peru, hiding in its tombs the secrets of a vanished civilization, has now given up garments gleaming with woven metal, which show their makers to have been past masters ages ago in the wire-beater's art, and to have spun the wire on woolen filaments in the self same way of lamination in which paris does it for the uniforms of haughty major generals today. and yet, down to the century when the popes were ruling from avignon, when rienzi was raising hob in the streets of rome and titles of nobility were being won on the bloody fields of crécy and poictiers and bannockburn, none of the many metal workers, through all the ages and in all the lands, ever had a notion he could draw metal through a die to make a wire. they hammered and hammered through the ages and sliced the filaments off as a cobbler cuts leather shoestrings--or used to. and then it was a german that did it, for the ancient records of nuremberg and augsberg tell of a "wire drawer" and later on one rudolf had a wire mill at nuremberg. the chances are that rudolf was a capitalist and that the inventor sold him the invention for a pot of beer, and grumbled for the rest of his medieval days after the manner of his kind. six centuries have gone since then, and in a world of wire it is safe to say, on the strength of some inquiry, that ninety per cent of the people whose lives and well being hang on wire from one year's end to another have no more knowledge of how drawn wire is made than the egyptian who hammered out his quota in the days of old rameses. [sidenote: the beginning of the wire age] england and france, quick to see what the process meant, even to the slow commerce of those times, fussed away for another three hundred years, trying to perfect methods of wire drawing to the point of independence in the trade, but it was a stern chase. "iron wire," for all utility wire in the beginning was drawn from swedish iron, was beginning to take up a share of the white man's burden. gold and silver and platinum and bronze were still favored in ornamental use, but for practical purposes iron refused to be displaced. great britain essayed in the making of wire from steel for musical purposes, but to broadwood was still sticking to german iron and even in was still buying wire from pohlman in nuremberg. so bavaria, where first the idea of drawing metal had been hatched, was still leading the world in its craft. little by little, for the tide of industrial activity had barely begun to rise, new uses were found for wire. in one field after another it supplanted vegetable fibre where strength and durability were essential. as the world began to feel the nineteenth century surge of mechanical impulse, as life developed new facets and new needs, science sought new means of meeting them, and in the quest itself grew. producing methods advanced with the new demands of invention. always the wire makers spun their filaments a little finer. men were weighing zephyrs and measuring the infinitesimal, and needed tools of increasing delicacy. wire was the answer. [illustration: dredging] electricity, so long hidden from understanding, was led captive by a wire, not by a chain--and with its development wire has found a new and increasingly important role. the ductility of metals was at last being tested to the full. seven one-thousandths, three one-thousandths, one one-thousandth--one record after another was passed. at last, by way of curiosity, a wire was drawn that measured one four-thousandth of an inch in diameter--twelve times finer than the hair on your head. the spider, so long counted a master workman, had been undone. the wire age was arriving--big wires to carry the world's heavy loads; fine wire to solve its molecular problems. the day of the hammer was done. chapter ii the pioneer since columbus the centuries have been gathering speed. at first it came slowly, for the need was not yet. today a thought is born and tomorrow it is a giant, parting seas and moving mountains. the waste of yesterday is turned into the raw material of new manufacture, with its million wheels moving faster and faster. but back of it all, inevitably and eternally, is a busy human brain and unsatisfied energy. wire rope had lingered, waiting for civilization's loads to grow. the artisans of old had woven cut wires together to make the trinkets of their time, little dreaming of the might that lay hidden in the fibres of the iron, and their world went on hoisting stone for its pyramids by prodigious multiplication of garlic-fed man-power. it seems strange to the high-speed mind of today that five hundred years could have passed, after the drawing of wire was invented, before necessity put it into the mind of a wire-drawer that with wire, as with other things, strength lay in union. and yet the human race had been making rope since the morning stars sang together. in , when france was picking herself up from the dirt and disorder of another revolution and the german princes were strangling in the universities the growing call for "liberty and union," young men of brains and ambition began to leave the german states for america, where there was free air and elbow room. [sidenote: john a. roebling comes to america] in a company of such, john a. roebling journeyed from muhlhausen in saxony, and took up a tract of land in western pennsylvania. he carried a degree of civil engineer from the royal university in berlin; but there were "back-to-the-landers" even in those days, and he set about farming in the thrifty german way, founding for nucleus a little town which at first was named germania, but afterward came to be called saxonburg. fate seems to have ordained that roebling's engineering skill should not remain fettered to a pennsylvania plow handle. the system of canals and portages which afterward evolved and merged and built itself into the pennsylvania railroad was digging its ditches and dams and building haulways through the obstinate distances of that hard-ribbed state, past the hopeful hamlet of saxonburg and fatefully under the eyes of the young german engineer. the result was never in doubt. he abandoned the plow to his compatriots and plunged into the problems of construction, where he belonged. [sidenote: hauling canal boats up the portage railway] the skeptic who scoffs at fatalism will find it difficult to explain why the particular engineering work that was brought to roebling's door should involve the weary hauling of the pennsylvania canal's boats up the portage railway, which bertrand, one of napoleon's generals, had built to overcome the pennsylvania ridges; or why, just as the bulk and clumsiness and inefficiency of the huge hemp cables were eating into his active mind, a casual paper from germany should convey the fact that some fellow in freiburg in saxony--where wire drawing had birth--had made a strong rope by twisting wires together. what man had done man could do. if there was a place to test the efficacy of wire rope with its increased strength and diminishing size, it was the portage railway. so the saxonburg wheatfield was turned into a ropewalk. ceres made way for vulcan. the neighbors, as soon as material could be shipped in from the falls of the beaver river, where wire drawing was done, found themselves under young roebling's direction twisting wires, with rude appliances for torsion, into a fabric which had never been made or seen or probably heard of in america before, but which was destined, in a comparatively short time, to change the face of industry. [sidenote: wire rope proves its pulling power] it is easy to imagine the caustic comments of the pennsylvania countryside, and the forebodings with which the pioneer installed his cables on what was then a conspicuous engineering labor. but it worked. engineering audacity, plus scientific skill and native faculty for doing things, solved the problem of the portage, but it did far more than that. the fame of it was soon broadcast and the orders for wire rope came flooding from all that fast opening country. roebling had found his job. destiny had him by the collar and he bade farming good-bye. [illustration: hoisting a battleship tower with wire rope] it was in that the first roebling rope was finished. eight years later, the year when the revolution burst forth in the teutonic empires, he moved his plant and its business to trenton, and began forthwith to build the foremost wire rope factory in the world. nothing can be more amusing or reveal more clearly what brains and energy have been able to accomplish in the arena of american opportunity than to contrast the picture of the first roebling factory in trenton, which suggests the rudest of farmsteads, with the sky-piercing chimneys and the mile or more of many-windowed brick buildings in and around the jersey capital today, where the roebling work is done. the three big factory groups which have grown from the shabby little buildings of are the fruit of intelligence and ceaseless endeavor, but they are reared primarily on a basis of manufacturing honor, and ruled by the general thesis that forever and ever quality comes before price. this means keeping faith with the structural iron worker, swinging pigmy-small five hundred feet above the din of the city streets; with the sailor, the miner, the rigger; with the hurrying multitude that packs the elevators in tall buildings, and with the aviator, to whom a breaking wire may spell death. that is the reason the roebling company has outgrown the limits of trenton in the last decade and a half and with its overflow founded a city of its own; that is the reason why roebling has almost got into the thesaurus as a synonym for wire in every civilized language under the sun. it is wire, from the huge three-inch cable that pulls the loads of mountain haulways or moves the thousand cars of a city transit system, down to the gossamer that jingles the bell in the telephone or the infinitesimal hair that in the eyepiece of a telescope helps the astronomer to mark the movement of a distant world. there is hardly a thing in the nature of wire, round, flat or irregular, that the roeblings do not manufacture or have not at some time manufactured, whether for the world's standard uses or the numberless special purposes hidden in inventive minds. [sidenote: a twelve million pound development from a fifty pound beginning] "i've come to see," said an old man at the roebling offices one day, "if you'd go to the trouble on a very small order to find out just what composition i need in a wire for a patent i've got." and they did. it took the chemists and the experts some time to work out the problem of resistances, and the old man ordered fifty pounds. the next year he ordered a hundred more. there was no profit in it, but they made it and looked pleasant. they were specialists in wire and they were simply keeping faith with their job. the following year the visitor called again. "i don't want any more of that wire," he grinned, "i've sold my patent to so-and-so," naming one of the biggest manufacturing concerns in the world, "but i want to see some royalties and i made it a condition of the sale that they order this wire from you on the formula that i got." in a recent months period roeblings fabricated more than , , pounds of that wire. * * * * * if it's wire, the roeblings make it. all that was in the mind of the man who seventy years ago was twisting the first rope in saxonburg. he was more than an engineer; he was a sane and far-seeing mind in business. as soon as possible after establishing the factory in trenton he added a mill for the manufacture of his own wire. it gave him a product that he knew from the pig iron up, and it saved a profit, besides extending to a marked degree the scope of the business. he knew, when he put the cable on the portage haulway in , that the mission of wire, in the world that was then making, would be boundless, and from the very start he was the explorer in new fields for wire, a builder, a seeker for problems that wire might solve, archapostle of the power of wire, in one form or another, to do the heaviest labor of mankind. wire rope, spreading its field of utility ever wider and wider, carried with ease and safety loads that had broken the back of hemp; it took the place of solid steel in numerous phases of construction, and when its adaptability was proven new tasks were devised for it. wire rope was the forerunner of "safety first." it cancelled large burdens of expense; it set a new record in facility of construction. [sidenote: america's first wire cableway] persistently militant, from the day of his first achievement, in the promotion of wire rope, john a. roebling was the first engineer to introduce into america the novelty of a wire cableway, which with an ingenious carriage he employed to transport across a river the materials he needed in the construction of a bridge. this method of haulage, over streams and gorges, down from high mountains to cars or boats in the valley below, up from the deep-sunken beds of rich placers--everywhere and in all sorts of places where nature seemed to have set up impassable defense against those who would take away her treasures--came forthwith into widespread use, and is among the handy tools of engineers throughout the world today. the roebling company established these cableways in many countries. it had in operation around the globe no less than twenty different types, including log rigs and gravity planes for mountain railways, and the demand for wire rope was increased thereby a thousand fold before the new century had come in. [sidenote: roebling turns his attention to bridges] the age of wire was marching rapidly, but john a. roebling had set a distant mark. in the mountains of peru, india and other lands for ages the natives have made use of bridges made of vines, to cross appalling chasms. as time went on and arts progressed the principle was applied through the agency of hemp ropes and chains, and men of small imagination thought that in these the limit had been attained. but roebling's faith was as the faith of the moslem in the prophet. he believed that in wire the solution of all the pesky problems of bridge-building had been found. in a small way the thing was obvious, but his ambition never stopped there. he believed, and had believed ever since he made the first rope, that a major bridge made up of wires of scrupulously high quality, constructed with rigorous regard for scientific tenets, would carry with ease and indefinitely any reasonable traffic that might be imposed on it. famous engineers said he was a visionary and a hobbyist; still with force and tenacity he urged his contention until at last the engineering world was compelled to give heed to him. in the face of such opposition, and in view of the centuries that had dragged by before wires were twisted into rope, it is remarkable that so soon after his initial experiment he should have worked out in practical entirety the plan of bridge construction which came to its climax in the spanning of the east river. between , when he made his first rope, and , he had not only perfected his theory of wire bridges but in spite of furious opposition had built one as an aqueduct for the old pennsylvania canal, the basins of which were at pittsburg. this was followed by four more suspension aqueducts for the delaware and hudson canal co. having espoused a theory he let no grass grow under his feet. he cast about vigorously for bridges to build. he found an opening in cincinnati. [sidenote: the ohio river bridge at cincinnati] river traffic along the ohio, in the forties, was still a big factor in business but was contesting tooth and nail the advance of the railways, and fought bitterly against the right of the invaders to build bridges over the waterways. the steamboat men said bridge piers would be a peril to navigation, but the cities of cincinnati and covington, facing each other across the river, cried for the bridge. the rivermen were on top in when roebling came along, fresh from the building of the wire bridge in pennsylvania and with his head full of wire bridges, and offered to throw a wire span across the ohio with a length of feet and a floor height above the water of feet. [illustration: logging--handling big fellows with wire rope] for just ten years the steamboat faction staved it off. it was not begun till , just after the niagara bridge was opened. the panic of and then the civil war kept the project at a standstill until . on easter day in the bridge was opened. colonel washington a. roebling, son of the pioneer, was the first to cross on its cable. in the meantime john a. roebling had completed not alone the niagara bridge, but the alleghany bridge over the alleghany river at pittsburg. the last named differed from the niagara, ohio and later east river bridges in that it had several piers in the streamway, after the manner of the old type structures, but in principle it conformed to the plan which had been in his mind from the beginning. his son, washington, was his only assistant. [sidenote: bridging niagara gorge] in all the world, perhaps, no place could have been found where the building of a simon pure "suspension bridge" would have been a more spectacular accomplishment than over niagara gorge, with the falls thundering a little way upstream, and the waters lashing and fuming underneath; no place where its slender beauty could have had such stern and impressive background. the idea of carrying railroad trains over that turmoil of waters on a web apparently so frail, evoked a storm of protest from well-nigh all the foremost engineers of the time. but roebling was a practical man as well as a stubborn one. after all, he was dealing with rock and wire and he knew what they would do. he built the bridge, the first of its kind to carry railroad traffic. all the world of that day knew, but most of it now has forgotten, how he flew a kite across the gorge to get his first wire over, and from that built up his cables. on march , , the first train passed over it. with one remodeling it continued to carry increasingly heavy loads until nearly half a century later it was replaced by a larger structure, better calculated to bear the burden of modern equipment. [sidenote: the "suspension bridge" proves itself] "suspension bridge" not alone proved itself in point of service, but it demonstrated the soundness of mr. roebling's claims for the wire structure. the ohio structure, which followed, outdid suspension bridges in length of span; in economy of material, in simplicity and charm of outline it clearly foreshadowed the still greater work, the designing of which was to be the crowning accomplishment of his life. he was working with a practiced hand now. the doubts, if he ever had any, were behind him. behind him, also, was a producing plant tuned to turn out at speed the materials he needed, with certainty of their quality. he had proved that the making of big bridges with wire was feasible, and that it was simple, as most great things are after they have been done. there were only three basic parts to a suspension bridge after all--towers, cables and anchorage. suspending the roadway, which to the average man seems the vital part of the creation, is, from the engineering standpoint, only an accessory work. john a. roebling had concentrated his life's effort, not on mere methods of commercial production, but rather on the proving of his contentions. he needed the right kind of wire rope to prove them, so like a wise man he made it himself. * * * * * he came to the summit of his achievement with the acceptance of his plans for the building of the brooklyn bridge, and then, his faith vindicated, his theory, which he had fought so hard to sustain, endorsed by boards of noted engineers and acclaimed by the public, starting out on the realization of his long dream--the building of the eighth wonder of the world, a comparatively slight accident, the bungled docking of a ferryboat, which crushed his foot and brought on tetanus, put out the steady candle of his life. it was the very whimsy of fate. his work was done. he had created, out of imagination and energy, the finished designs for a wonder fabric, ready for the labor of an intenser age. he did not live to see the spider structures hung like wisps of gossamer above the restless waterways of new york, but his name is woven into the very steel of them. chapter iii the brooklyn bridge early in the fifties, when the niagara accomplishment was more or less the talk of two continents and communication under seas by cable had helped to emphasize the possibilities of wire, john a. roebling, protagonist of the wire bridge idea, advanced a proposal to connect new york and long island by a suspension bridge and release the people of brooklyn from a segregation which they had made a somewhat futile pretense of enjoying. habit dies hard. the crust of custom becomes strangely indurated with long exposure, and brooklyn residents had fought the east river in profitable, if archaic, ferryboats too long to be lured lightly into any liaison with iconoclastic manhattan by way of a wire bridge. roebling waited another decade, but he hustled while he waited. the brooklynites continued to make their uncertain ways across the river in times of storm and tide and ice as the lord gave them strength, and the sacred ferryboats still paid dividends. the vicious winter of - , coldest, bitterest, longest the cities have ever known, wrung forth at last a cry for relief. they could wrap themselves up against the weather, but no weight of woolens could turn the shafts of ridicule. it was grand ammunition for the advocates of the bridge, when people traveling by train from albany actually reached new york sooner than did the man who did business in new york, and left his domicilium in brooklyn at the same hour. and besides, the roebling cap had another feather in it now, in the completion of the ohio bridge. he was building wire bridges everywhere, and it began to look as though there was some body of truth in the western contention that new york was the most provincial city in america, for all its self-approval. at one of the many hearings that were held on the bridge question a famous engineer who favored the wire type was asked what reason he had for believing it would do the work. "i believe it," he replied, "because roebling says so." [sidenote: the initial charter granted] the demand for the bridge rose to a clamor. in the month of may, , the initial charter was granted, and mr. roebling was appointed engineer. three months afterward he submitted his report and estimates, which were examined and approved by a commission of engineers from the united states war department. then he set about preparation for the task. [sidenote: the death of john a. roebling] it was while fixing the location for the brooklyn tower that he met with the accident that caused his death. but his work had been well done, and his son and associate, col. washington a. roebling, took up without delay the execution of the plan he had helped to create. if the older roebling encountered obstacles in bringing his great idea to the point of acceptance, the pathway of his successor, called without warning to take over responsibility for the greatest engineering labor of the age, was not strewn with roses. [sidenote: the work of construction begins] [illustration: wire rope in the quarry] it was in the summer of that john a. roebling died. the second day of january, , saw the actual work of construction begun, when laborers started to clear away to prepare for the foundations of the brooklyn tower. from that day forward, through a baker's dozen of years, there was no rest, though there was plenty of interruption. until the job was ended washington a. roebling simply lived the brooklyn bridge. it was a colossal job, punctuated with changes and problems and complications, but it went forward. the landmarks of a bygone age, old houses of historic memory on the water fronts of both cities, vanished silently and where they had been, by and by there grew piles of masonry to form the approaches. from the huge caissons over against either shore rose the towers, tall and grim, which were to carry the cables. in due time they stood complete, with their broad bases welded to the rock by an ingenious bond of stone and concrete in the river's bed, and their crests nearly three hundred feet above the top of the tide. a hundred and nineteen feet--and three inches, to be precise--above the water opened the two tall arches in each tower, stretching upward one hundred and seventeen feet in air. it was through these the bridge proper was to pass, with its gangways for horse and foot and railway traffic. [sidenote: could those slender towers carry the great load?] the hurrying people of new york and brooklyn watched the thing grow and wondered fearfully whether the slender towers would stand the strain. in harper's magazine for may, , now itself yellowed by age, is an exhaustive article concerning the brooklyn bridge, in which one is told at length and with an engineer's exactness, the steps by which the achievement was brought, after thirteen laborious years, to proud completion. even to the curious layman the details are no longer of insistent interest. one thing is emphasized, however, which well as we know it now can never cease to hold the mind in a certain wonder--that all the weight and solidity and massiveness are in the towers, the foundations and the long expanses of stone work, which stretching inland nearly a thousand feet, serve to guard and strengthen the anchorage for the cables which are the working force. the rest is wire, for the most part; wire, slender by contrast and against the background of the sky, but endowed with great strength by care and skill in fabrication. john a. roebling and his son had staked their name and their future on the strength and quality of roebling wire. in that long ago story of the brooklyn bridge, there is written the lesson that clear thinking and courage and perseverance can accomplish the seemingly impossible. what traveler over those high-hung roadways ever stops to ask himself how those great round cables, stretched in long, inverted arches above the surge of the river traffic, were ever put in place? they are today simply a part of the stage setting of a busy life, like the river itself. [sidenote: how the great cables were made] each of these cables consists of nineteen strands of about two hundred and seventy-eight no. b. w. g. wires each, and each wire is continuous in its strand, like the yarns in a skein, traveling eternally to brooklyn and back, up over the top of one tower, down in a long curve above the tideway, up to the other tower and down again, to be gripped and carried by links, like a chain, down to the everlasting clutch of the rock and concrete-bound anchorage. each skein is a million feet long--nearly two hundred miles--and still men talk of "oriental patience." there is no twist in these ponderous cables, as there is in a wire rope. every reach of wire lies flat and separate, and when all were in place they were laboriously bound together, first the strands, then when all the strands were up, the whole fabric, into cylindrical form. there are other strange things about these cables; one is that they make practically no strain on the towers save to sustain their weight. another is that the long storm cables that radiate downward from the top of the towers to the bridge floor, for a space of four hundred feet inside and outside each tower, are themselves calculated to sustain, if need be, the imposed weight for that distance. so that the margin of safety in this seeming web-like structure is far in excess of what timid imaginations have pictured. that was a cardinal feature in all john a. roebling's plans. he left a safety margin many times greater than the load. it has been an open secret for years that the brooklyn bridge has been unwisely taxed, but he knew it would be. [sidenote: stringing the cables across the east river] before the cables were in place, new york and brooklyn stared up at the river-wide space between the bare towers and wondered by what wizardry a bridge could ever be swung across it. the beginning was simple--as simple and prosaic in a way as the hitching of a horse--in principle. it began with wire rope. a scow with a coil of three-quarter inch rope was moored alongside the brooklyn tower, and the end of the coil was hoisted up the face of the masonwork, passed down on the land side and then carried back. [illustration: helping to relieve the freight car shortage by quick loading] next, suspending the river traffic for the necessary time, the scow was towed across the river, paying out as she went, and the rope carried over the new york tower, then wound on a huge drum till it hung high above the river and clear of the tallest topgallant. a second rope was run in the same manner and the two were joined around huge driving wheels or pulleys at each end. an endless belt or "traveler," revolving by steam power, now stretched from city to city, and on a day in august, that lives yet in the memory of every man who was there, e. f. farrington, the master mechanic of the project, who was a veteran of niagara and the ohio bridge, set out to show the workmen, who on this slender aerial were to begin the long labor of hanging the cable, that it was easy if you only thought so. in a "bosun's chair" he shot out from the top of the brooklyn tower, down the long sag in the traveler and up to the new york side, while a million people craned their necks from the streets and docks and housetops and boats along the river, and swallowed hard at their hearts. the bands played, the cannon tore the air, the multitudes yelled themselves hoarse, the steam whistles of the harbor shrieked to the sky the tidings that, though nobody then understood it, "greater new york" was on the way. * * * * * this was six years and a half from the time when washington a. roebling had begun the work of construction. seven other years followed, years full of troubled effort, of planning and replanning and replanning, of battling with the twin devils of contraction and expansion. the tensions all had to be secured in absolutely uniform weather. a determination made when the sun was shining on one part of the bridge and not on another might have thrown the whole calculation awry. sun and wind played pranks with the work in the summer and in the winter snow and ice coated the wires and running gear so that work was often impossible. deflection varied a third of an inch for every degree of temperature. "in short," says the writer of that time, "the ponderous thing, while neither small nor agile, has a trick in common with the minute and lively insect which when you put your finger on him isn't there." [sidenote: the fabric grows toward completion] but in due time the great cables were in place, and bound. then the suspender bands were set, from which suspender cables hung to hold the frame of the roadway. and so the fabric grew toward completion, hung practically in two sections, which all the world nowadays doesn't know, with an expansion joint connecting them in the middle to absorb the expansion and contraction of the metal. even the rails at this section are split in half lengthwise, to permit them to slide back and forth with the changes in temperature. there were accidents and drawbacks and political complications, as there are always bound to be in public works; there were believer and unbeliever, booster and knocker, as now, but the work went on to its completion and in the day of realization came. wire was king. doubters and malcontents murmured for a time, but little by little subsided. the opening of the bridge was one of those memorable days of which new york has had so many in her brief history, a day when president and governor and many lesser dignitaries, who have now passed from the stage, strutted their little hour to hail the passing of a milestone, and there were "fireworks in the evening." [sidenote: the beginning of a new era] a new era had now definitely begun. there was a recognized agent in the world strong enough, with engineering guidance, to shoulder its most staggering burdens, and the name of roebling began to weave itself in letters of wire through the whole web of modern industry. thirty-seven years have come and gone since the brooklyn bridge was finished and thrown open to the swarming people. even when they saw they wouldn't believe it; many of them mounted to its span with their hearts in their mouths. there had been a world of carping and prophecy of disaster. a public that clutched at novelty as an addict does for stimulant could not assimilate the idea that there could be safety in wire where such enormous weight was laid upon it. its frailty of appearance fooled them. for years after the bridge had taken up its load and was carrying without protest or misbehavior the traffic of two cities, there came periodical alarms regarding the discovery of strange faults in construction, or disintegration of the wires caused by vibration. it was the one dependable theme for the alarmist and sensational writer. but the proof was in the using. the slender span has stood the test of time and tide and wind and wear, and stood them all so well that it has fixed for a century at least the type of the super-bridge. [sidenote: two more bridges to brooklyn] wire bridges have become a familiar thing in the lives of cities. two more have come to give the crowding population of new york freeway over the east river, as the city's life has spread northward. for the williamsburg the roebling firm furnished the wire and installed the cables. in the manhattan bridge it had no part save the making of the wire, not a trivial task, since in the cables alone there are , , pounds. these bridges are bigger than the brooklyn bridge with which the troublesome river was first overcome, but it will be many a day before the glamour that surrounded the earlier creation will have worn away, or people the world over cease to speak of it with wonder and a certain measure of awe. anybody, perhaps, can build a wire bridge now; perhaps, too, somebody some day can build one with more of simple grace and slender beauty, but it is certain nobody ever has. chapter iv where wire is made to measure the growth of wire, with its many forms and composites, during the last forty years would be to trace in detail not alone the progress of science, invention and mechanical industry, but the myriad conceits that have come ostensibly to facilitate the process of living. in the search for new comforts, for means of avoiding physical exertion, the world has been littered with novelties, and most of them depend on wire. personal life as well as commerce and industry is interlaced with wire. with the opening of new countries, the increase of populations, the flocking of outland people to the cities and the consequent lack of farm labor, ingenuity has been more heavily taxed to find the quick and easy way of doing the world's work and keeping food in its mouths. wire, so adaptable to the heaviest as well as the lightest tasks, has labored from year to year under an increasing demand. it is not surprising therefore that a company which in such an impressive way had fixed itself in recognition as the first exponent of wire's usefulness should have grown in this period from modest commercial stature to a high place in its field and to the enjoyment of large production. [sidenote: the growth of the roebling business] when the sons of john a. roebling took up control of the business he had established, about one hundred men were employed and the product of their industry approximated $ , annually. just before the beginning of the war more than eight thousand employees were engaged in the manufacture of roebling products and the value of the output ran far into the millions. the factory which was so meagre and so humble in has spread its buildings not only over the surrounding acres, but across what were then neighboring farm lands until, constrained not alone by the pyramiding demand for its products but by the soaring values of the city that had grown up around it, and of which it had been in some measure the creator, it went pioneering again, sixteen years ago, down the delaware, and established a new nucleus, which will suffice for a long period to come. with the erection of the cables for the williamsburg bridge, the roebling firm withdrew from the competitive field of engineering contracts and concentrated all its energies in the perfection of its product--wire. in view of the more distinctly industrial character of the roebling enterprise under the later dispensation, it is of interest that the varied activities of john a. roebling, as a scientist, a master of materials and a peculiarly astute mind in affairs, have been carried on severally among his sons and grandsons. colonel washington a. roebling, the president of the company, who executed the plans for the brooklyn bridge, is an engineer of well-known ability. his intimate contact with all the affairs of the company during such a long period of development, his kindly and generous support to constructive achievements, has been a source of pride and invaluable assistance to the younger generation of the roebling fraternity. his two brothers, charles and ferdinand, now dead, were both intensely active during their lives. charles g. roebling's talents as a builder of plants and machinery and an unusual gift of turning out a product of the highest excellence, were, in a large measure, the cornerstone for the tremendous success of the roebling company. it was during the period of his direction that the manufacturing capacity grew so rapidly. the simultaneous expansion of the commercial field was the life work of the other brother, ferdinand w. roebling, who carried the roebling products to all corners of the globe. a clear and far vision, an uncanny ability to go straight to the point and a keen knowledge of human nature, were a few of the strong traits of his mentality. under his control of financial and ethical matters the john a. roebling's sons company established a worldwide and enviable reputation for stability and fair dealing. ferdinand, although an indulgent father, brought up his two sons, karl and ferdinand, jr., in the old-fashioned way. they were taught from early boyhood that theirs would be no bed of roses, that manhood was an estate where responsibility must be accepted and assumed, and with this teaching ringing in their ears the mantle of the presidency of the company fell upon karl g. roebling, and the secretaryship and treasurership upon the shoulders of ferdinand w. roebling, jr. [illustration: towing with wire rope hawser] both sons upon leaving college were given a rigid training in all branches of the business and early in their careers exhibited the executive ability and keen business foresight which their father had in so large a measure developed. karl's talents lay principally in the gift he had of drawing from his associates their whole-hearted fidelity and devotion to the cause of the roebling prestige. his death at the early age of forty-eight was a shock to the industry, and a great personal loss to those associated with him in the conduct of the business. while all of the roeblings have possessed, in a great degree, the qualities of leadership, yet they have always recognized the necessity of surrounding themselves with a strong organization capable of carrying on this great industry after they had ceased their earthly activities. it was particularly under the regime of karl roebling that the strong foundation was laid for the present powerful organization--each department highly specialized and in charge of experienced well-trained heads, ably aided by a corps of competent assistants, all functioning smoothly like a well-balanced machine. karl left this as his heritage to the business. he never did things by halves. his working day was long and intense, but to one so constituted it could not be otherwise. during the world war and its aftermath the added responsibilities he so cheerfully assumed, contributed largely toward bringing to an end a life full of early accomplishments. ferdinand w. roebling, jr., the remaining son, now vice-president and treasurer, is an able engineer. his early training with the company was entirely in the manufacturing and engineering side of the business. in more recent years, however, he has devoted his attention to its financial affairs. his close contact with his father and brother, his thorough knowledge of the company's policies, have well fitted him to sustain the roebling name and all it represents in the business world. [sidenote: the trenton plant] the main or first plant of the company centers around the site of the original buildings. its structures, yards and tracks cover more than thirty-five acres of ground about a mile from the center of the city. the delaware and raritan canal and the trenton division of the pennsylvania railroad pass along its western boundary and directly before the door of the offices. the office building was erected in by john a. roebling as a residence and later, as manufacture crowded in around, it was given over to business uses. the spur tracks of the pennsylvania traverse the company enclosure. nearest to the office building are some of the structures that mr. roebling built in the first periods of business expansion, among them the old rope shop, where by methods of his own devising he strove to meet the growing demands for rope. some of the machinery he built is still in service in production of standard lines, showing how swiftly and how far, from crude beginnings, his active mind advanced along the road to better production, and how efficient management can prolong the life of a mechanism that is honestly built in the beginning. [sidenote: the buckthorn and kinkora plants] the second or buckthorn plant lies half a mile farther to the south, also facing the railroad and the canal. the third, which was christened kinkora, after a neighboring village on the railroad, but is now roebling, with a station of its own, is ten miles farther down the delaware. all told, there are probably a hundred buildings in the three plants, many of them of immense size and manufacturing capacity. from the wide diversity of its products, the men in the roebling establishment have come to refer to it as a department store. the problem therefore of distributing its operations and keeping track of its large volume of moving stock and its equipment is a substantial one. while in some lines there is activity partitioned among all three plants, in the main the various divisions of labor are well concentrated. for the most part the upper works, though a considerable quantity of wire is made there, is devoted to what is termed "finished product." in the same manner the buckthorn plant, while turning out some rope in small sizes, specializes in all forms of insulation and the manufacture of lead-cased cables. [sidenote: the kinkora plant at roebling] the kinkora or roebling establishment, carrying the production of the subsidiary new jersey wire cloth company, making wire netting, window screens and other forms of wire cloth, is given over most largely to the making of steel wire and the fundamental work of wire and steel production. with the company's large acreage at this location, its townsite and the facility of river transportation as well as rail, with unlimited water, of which this plant uses more than is pumped by the city of trenton itself, the situation offers large opportunity for expansion and profitable centralization of operation. at the present time, while shipments of wire are made direct from roebling to manufacturers who use it in production of their own commodities, by far the greater part of the output goes to the other plants to be finished into rope and specialties. [illustration: making a crossing by cableway] inside the tall palings that enclose the great mill buildings at roebling, there is an open space, broad and long as a drill ground, threaded by spur tracks and heaped endlessly with stacks of pig iron and steel-making materials. it seems as though some giant had dumped there the salvage of a hundred battlefields. it lies there sadly rusting under the weather, waiting the moment when the mills shall stretch forth hands and hurry it in, rush it like a neophyte through the fierce initiation of heat and chemistry, and having changed the very fibre of it by strange processes, send it singing forth, shining in great coils, twisted into cords and cables small and great, bare or insulated, bronzed or coppered, galvanized or enameled, huge and bulky or spun to hair-like tenuousness, to do its work in a busy world. [sidenote: making wire steel] of course, the making of steel is no new story, but this is wire steel--the high carbon, the tough, the sinewy, the resilient, that must carry in itself as it moves along through these interminable buildings the analytically measured proportions of this or that, which fit it to bear up the traffic of a giant bridge or convey a whisper of telephonic sound or register split seconds in an elgin timepiece. it is "pig," and ore and "scrap," but just what kind and just how much of "scrap" and ore and "pig," these are subtle questions. it costs a lot of time and money sometimes to answer them. when the thirty-five hundred and odd degrees of heat in the long rows of open hearth furnaces have brought this stubborn mixture to bubbling and seething like a busy kettle of soup--a workman adding a little manganese or other ingredient to the broth now and then, grimy men with long handled steel dippers take out a few thimblefuls from time to time and hurry the sample away to the chemist, who, like a chef, tests the quality and prescribes the seasoning. by and by it is run off, from an opening in the bottom of the furnace into a huge caldron they call a "ladle." a fifty-ton crane conveys it down the long, shadowy building, to halt above a group of tall moulds. a wizard up in the gloom under the roof moves it from mould to mould, a few inches at a time, while the liquid steel is drawn from the bottom into one after another. the moulds are left to cool. [sidenote: blooms] its history is now begun. it is an ingot--many ingots--and when removed from the mould is loaded on steel cars and borne away on its journey. when in due course the ingot comes to the "blooming mill" it is fourteen inches thick each way and five feet long. heated again, it is marched up on a steel rollway, also controlled by a "man higher up," and into the hungry jaws of a machine that, after a series of swallowings, disgorges it at last, shrunken in sheer humility to a diameter of four inches and with a very long face--some forty-eight feet to be exact. and no wonder. in the process it has been kneaded into a dozen different phases of flatness and squareness, and put in a way to profit by the everlasting squeezing and stretching it is to undergo. now it is a bloom. [sidenote: billets] again it is passed on, and from some subterranean blackness you see it rushed out and up to a sort of guillotine that first cuts off the flawy ends, where the impurities accumulated in its ingot state, and sends them to the "scrap" heap, then lops the bloom as a man saws firewood, but a great deal faster, into billets varying from one to four hundred pounds in weight. they are "billets" now, and at last are counted the raw material of wire, even after such an inferno of cooking. a steel loader gathers them up, carries them away in bunches and, by a trick of wire pulling, deposits them on other cars in rows as regular as the pickets on an old fashioned fence. [sidenote: through the rolling mill] along with the copper billets they are stacked in thousands and thousands of tons in the stockyard outside the doors of the rolling mill, each in its group according to physical and chemical character, waiting the next purgatory of change. one pile is marked for one mission, one for another, ranging through all the uses wire can be put to. these piles are forever vanishing, forever being replaced, as the wide world calls for wire. they disappear into the darkness of the mill and they are never billets again. marshaled on cars and jammed by hydraulic force into big reheating furnaces like a brobdignagian bakery, fired with fuel gas, they come out glowing again and start on the next stage of reduction. the passage through the rolling mill is a short life and a merry one. if they were kneaded in the blooming mill it was a mild experience. here they are mauled and manhandled and masticated by swift, continuous and looping mills that are born with a huge appetite for the largest billets, and make rods of great length. down they go, under the gripping of relentless fingers that squeeze them first square, then oval, then square again, and pass them on, always smaller, toward the journey's end. sometimes it's half an inch, sometimes more, according to the needs of trade. [sidenote: the mile a minute journey into wire] wire goes the whole distance, whisking along through the murky, half dark mill, up and down at a mile a minute, like flaming serpents flirting fiery tails, as the men, armed with tongs, seize and whip them from one pair of rolls to another. in they go, around the grooved repeater and out again to be grabbed with a motion swift as the dash of a pickerel, and thrust once more into the next set of rolls. always the lightning speed and always the long tail, red hot and smaller than before, and longer, playing "snap the whip" down the steel grooves to the bottom of the "pit," then straight away up the incline, a flash of fire in the darkness, and on from roll to roll. the men who handle these rods hold their ticklish posts only twenty or thirty minutes at a time. a straight eight hour day, if a man came through it alive, would send him to an asylum with a conviction that he was great grandson to medusa. at the finishing pass where the man stands, a stream of four rods is going by him continually at lightning speed, about a mile a minute; hundreds of tons in twenty-four hours looping the loops through the rolls and finishing in red coils of quarter inch, lying innocent and rosy and round on the metal floor. to the novice they look like wire; to the _cognoscenti_ they are only rods, and in order to be wire some day are hustled off to the cleaning house and in bunches plunged into a bath of acid. this takes off the scale the rolling left on them. but acid in wire steel is like heresy in the church. it has to be purged away. this is done by immersion and then by a coating of lime to neutralize by chemical action whatever taint may remain. the steel is then baked from twenty-four to forty-eight hours to remove the hydrogen. wire making has just begun. from this time on it is a wonder-work to the novice, a mechanical sleight of hand performance by which hundreds of shadowy men and other hundreds of whirling wheels spin the rod down ever smaller and smaller till what was once a stodgy four foot billet is perhaps a thousandth of an inch thick, fifteen odd thousand miles long, weighs less than a quarter of an ounce to the mile, and has to be looked for with your best reading glasses. it is just three times as fine as the hair on your head. [sidenote: the work of the wire doctors] never think that the tall chimney of a manufacturing plant tells the story of all that goes on in its shadow. it isn't all coarse work. if you could see the things that are done to a block of steel, and the brains that are mixed with it, in the roebling plant, before it comes out and goes on its way, they would make you take off your hat to a piece of wire for the rest of your natural life. but it isn't all, what happens to the outside. there are wire doctors who follow the changing symptoms of the metal through its many processes, with diagnostic eye as keen as any medico's for traces of typhoid or mumps. through all the process there are reheatings and coolings, at carefully specified temperatures, to give temper and then to take it away, to keep the ductility without sacrificing endurance. it is one business where you simply have to eat the cake and keep it, too. there is wet drawn wire and dry drawn wire, and chemical reasons for drawing wire wet, and divers ways of drying wet wire to attain certain conditions; there is lubrication by means of dry materials as well as oil, and soap suds, funny things that also act on the material itself in mysterious ways. but this is no text book. [illustration: tramway running on wire rope cable dumping coal at mine] no thinkable effort is omitted that will help to make the wire material perfect in quality and service condition, but the proof of the pudding in the making of wire is in the olsen machines--miraculous things that will smash a big wire rope or snap a hair of wire and register to a decimal the breaking strength of each. there are tests for tensile strength, for torsion to show how many twists a piece of wire will stand, and for bending. there are microscopic tests for molecular condition and men who will almost tell you from a microscopic section the maximum service of which the rope made from a given wire is capable. any bundle of wire that doesn't pass the test for the job on hand is discarded and used for something else, and a record of it all is kept with scrupulous care. any foot of wire that passes through the shipping room on the way to market has a clean bill of health, ample for the use to which it is destined, and the amount of material that is scrapped for faults, where work is on stringent specifications, would be sudden death to a business that hadn't a wide range of uses for product of whatever quality. fortunately for the users of high-grade wire the market for the lower grades is always hungry and crying for more. [sidenote: the wonder of ductility] there are complexities without end in the making and finishing of wire, but the real wonder of it lies after all in the initial principle which the german inventor in bavaria gave to the world six hundred years ago--the simple but even now almost incredible fact that a rod of cold steel of the hardest quality--plow steel is the convincing name for it--can be seized by its sharpened end with a clamp they call a dog and drawn through a smaller hole, in a still harder piece of steel, three or four feet until it can be fastened to a drum, and then be wound off in miles almost without interruption. it is a wonder that grows as you watch it and yet it seems so simple. to see that steel, of tremendous strength and hardness, drawn through a tiny hole as if it were molasses candy--and yet it may have a tensile strength of two or three hundred thousand pounds to the square inch. there is nothing spectacular about the wire mill where this is done. on long benches the die-holding appliances are set up and the dies set into them. the wire--or at first the rod--is run from a portable bobbin they call a swift, that stands on the floor, and the wire, after it has been given the hole, passes to a bobbin they call a block. then it is taken on to a still smaller die and the same process repeated, with occasional reheatings, until it has the diameter of a thread. [sidenote: cutting the dies] but by and by the time comes when the wire is so fine it cuts the steel of the die and loses its rotundity. then a harder material is needed and the wire drawer goes the whole figure and uses a diamond. cutting the steel dies is a cunning craft enough, but the expert, who, with a hair-like drill and a dab of diamond dust can penetrate a diamond with an opening that will be regular and measure to a thousandth of an inch, is a man who would think it no trick at all to pass a well fed camel through the needle's eye. * * * * * it would take a larger book than this to tell all the things that are done in the making of wire for various uses. in the main, the entire volume produced either goes to market as wire of one sort and another, to be applied to its various objects or for sale, or else it is twisted into rope, of which the roebling company manufactures four hundred kinds, sizes and many qualities. the common fence wires are not among the roebling specialties, but wire nettings are manufactured from a soft variety of basic steel which lends itself to the weaving process with almost the ease of animal and vegetable fibres. [sidenote: the endless manufactures from "flat wire"] the "flat wire," which has now attained immense volume of production, is, for the most part, rolled down from the round, in many qualities, and shipped as material to the makers of many things. there are wide, thin, beautiful ribbons which find their way to the shoestring factories and are cut and clinched to the laces as tips. the list of novelties and parts that are made from various forms and widths of flat wire is as long as the list of smiths in a new york directory. in the novelty shop, which does a million things, wires are cut and mechanically bent in hundreds of thousands of shapes, for clothes hangers, pail ear staples, daubers for bottles, meat skewers, hog rings, thread guards for textile machinery, basket fasteners, shackles for car seals, saddlery parts, welsbach mantles, clips and links for bedsprings, wiring for toys of all descriptions--and so on and on and on. and all this novelty business is a side line, like the square and triangular wires that are used by oil well drillers to keep the sand from getting into the oil. the special shapes of high quality wire that are made to order, to provide hard-wearing parts for typewriters and many other machines, are almost without number. [sidenote: salvaging "mill ends"] with the increasing cost of labor and materials effort has been made to salvage and make use of "mill ends" of wire, running sometimes to large quantity, which formerly were accounted waste. these are now passed through a straightening machine, which lays them out in uniform bundles of some ten feet in length, which again may be cut to shorter lengths for special purposes. in the buildings where this is done, at the upper plant, are piles of neat bundles of all shapes and sizes and grades, which once went to the scrap for reworking but now are utilized without additional cost. [sidenote: copper wire and copper rope] copper wire is manufactured by the roebling mills in very large quantities and in many sizes and forms, principally for electrical use and for service where water corrosion shortens the life of steel. the little bond wires that link the rails of railways to perfect the carriage of current in the block signal system are mostly steel, but copper is used at stations and on sidings where the leakage from standing cars is apt to contain acids. copper wire of all sizes down to the very fine is spooled and sold for use in arts and manufactures. for marine uses a deal of copper rope is made, and copper strand is twisted for lightning rods, the fixtures and supports of which, in turn, are manufactured from round and flat steel wire. the piles of this equipment, waiting shipment in the roebling storerooms, give proof that the satire of the cartoonist and the mockery of the funny writer cannot destroy an ancient faith. the telephone and telegraph companies use uncountable miles of copper wire in line service and other miles in fine sizes for instrument coils and divers other functions. electricity as an agent would be a halting cripple without wire. the dynamo would have little more utility than a washtub. armatures, frames for which are formed from flat steel wire, are wound in the roebling plant in impressive number. one of the largest fields for copper is trolley wires, which are of great size and of many eccentric shapes. this is merely a glimpse at the utilities that go to make up the field for roebling wire. it is doubtful if today the company owns a complete list of the wire it has made for special and even eccentric purposes, or knows within many thousands the things that are manufactured from its wire product after it leaves the shipping room. [sidenote: coating and finishing] use determines much in the finishing of wire, and of wire rope as well, as not alone concerning the chemistry of the inside, but the covering of the outside. material that is made for service out of doors, under water or under ground, to ensure long life needs an exposed surface more resistant to moisture than the naked steel. copper is proof, but the pure wire is expensive for most uses and where severe strains are incurred it lacks in strength. modern science has been too busy to recover the art of hardening copper which the ancient egyptians lost. zinc, in its best application, makes steel wire weatherproof for many years and the apparently simple process of galvanizing, the fixing of a coating of zinc on the steel has multiplied many fold the utility of steel wire in places where it could ill be spared. but there is galvanizing and "galvanizing." the first is worth the money it costs. there are other coated wires, too. the aeroplane strands and cords are tinned. there is a bronze enamel, and a copper coating which looks as if it were applied for protection but is really the incidental result of a dip in sulphate of copper, for other purposes in the course of fabrication. the coating of wires is chiefly done in the wire works of the kinkora mills, though a galvanizing house is maintained also at the upper works. for wire that is to be made into galvanized ropes and cords, the galvanic treatment is given before it goes to be made up. [sidenote: journeying through the roebling plants] for exercise, a journey through any one of the roebling plants, and especially the great upper works, is as good as thirty-six holes of golf. it is upstairs and downstairs, over an interminable number of thousands of square feet, through the mazes of a picture that is always changing its detail and its rate of speed, but which is all centered on one idea, to keep the stream of wire and wire rope, of all sizes, kinds and colors, moving toward the shipping room. it all seems so easy in its progress, so free from friction or any trace of confusion, that the layman does not stop to consider how many problems have bobbed up along the way of production, even of the most modest wires and rope. wire is a trade involving intimate knowledge of many lines of business and manufacture, since the character of wire required differs in nearly all. [illustration: hoisting fully completed locomotive with wire rope sling] to the novice, wire is wire. here he learns that what is wire for one thing is valueless for another and wire that looks to the unpracticed eye as if it were ready for market always has to undergo a few more processes before it is up to demands. wherever, however far, you travel in this succession of high-roofed, airy buildings, you come always upon some new regiment of machines, some new container of chemical or metal, with a long line of reels unwinding wire to undergo some additional treatment. and always moving among the buildings are cars, big and little, packing wire or material from one place to another, to feed the wheels and furnaces. the tonnage from plant to plant and from house to house in the roebling works would make a first-class annual business for many a modest railroad, even if it carried nothing else. [sidenote: insulation] but when wire is finished it isn't always finished. since electricity spread itself over the earth in a million services, insulation in various forms has come to be almost as important as the wire itself. insulation in its more advanced forms is a complex affair, gauged to accord with specific conditions and multiplying processes to secure the maximum of protection, both from electric current to life and property and from dampness and abrasion to the wire itself. in the making of wire screens the wire men have taken a leaf from the cloth-mill book, but in weaving a casing of cotton or other fibre around the wire for insulation the process is strongly reminiscent of some of the new england textile mills. long rows of machines, black and silent and swift, reaching upward toward the ceiling, revolving rapidly on an upright shaft; long arms trailing downward, with wheels and bobbins like fingers plying dizzily but swiftly in and out around the wire which unwinds from its spool and keeps forever climbing. it is all like a maypole, and the bobbins go in and out like children carrying each its ribbon. as the wire climbs, the whirling fingers braid around it a coating, tight fitting and impervious. sometimes, where double insulation is required, there are two sets of arms, one above the other, the upper one putting on a second covering outside the first, of cotton of one color or another, or hemp or whatever else the experimentalists have found best for the purpose. you wonder how the bellcord in the railroad train can ever stand the pulling and jerking and wear and tear it gets. it is simple. it is just a perfectly made and highly tinned wire rope, with a double coat of braided cotton over it. the jacket may wear off in time, but the roebling rope inside will never fail in a lifetime to get the message to the engineer. when these snug coverings are finished the wire for certain uses is taken to another part of the works where it is unwound once more to pass through a bath of asphalt compound. after this process, which leaves a dull, dirty-looking surface, the spools of treated wire are put aside for drying, and then a final surfacing applied. the next journey is to the packing room. [sidenote: telephone cables] insulation is a wide range business. it cases wire in asbestos to prevent fire from stopping its work; but perhaps the highest phase is reached in the great cables of copper wires used in telephone service. for these the individual wires are covered with paper of various colors, which serves not only for protection but enables men at the opposite ends of a long cable to pick out unerringly the wires with which connection is to be made. colors are few but possible combinations are many. the machining of this is more than ever like the maypole, with pink and blue and yellow strips of paper flashing in the shadows. when the wires, paper covered, are brought together in the cable, sometimes three or four hundred of them altogether, the whole goes through the taping machines, which apply one or two suits of what may be called "underwear," for after it has been covered with two or three different materials there remains a suit of lead to be fitted, and this is a big work done deftly. who has not seen men in the streets dragging huge pipes of lead through the open manholes from big wooden spools? these are the cables you talk over. they have been papered and clothed--and tarred and feathered, maybe--and then encased in lead by a process that is so easy as to be laughable, and yet as ingenious as any one thing the wire miller does. unrolling slowly from its spool, the heavy cable moves up to a machine built strong and four-legged from the floor. in the mid height of this, a few feet above the floor, is a square chamber containing molten lead. the cable passes in at the rear and upward. it requires some credulity to believe that it is the movement of the molten lead that carries the cable along, but in any case when it emerges from the "box," through an aperture that trims the soft metal down to uniformity, it has a solid lead covering as even as lead pipe, and at the point of egress cold water playing from just above cools it. then it passes on through a long tank of water for final hardening and is wound slowly, clean and shining, on the great spools that are to carry it to market. many astonishing things are done in wire works, but done so swiftly, and smoothly and in such volume that they look easy. the man in the street, hurrying about his own business, never even takes time to wonder to himself how they are accomplished. chapter v wire rope--the giant "pig" and "ore" and melting materials, with a condiment of carbon, are the body and bones of steel wire. their virtues, combined and intensified by tireless processes, and tested unsparingly at every stage, are united in wire rope; and wire rope, when all is said and done, is the mighty backbone of the wire industry. wire rope to the multitude is simply wire rope. but one rope is no more like another than jones is like brown or smith like robinson. wire rope is a combination of twisted wires, just as men are bipeds. that is where the similarity ends. in outward appearance as well as inward character, habit, tendencies and behavior in emergencies, wire ropes differ as widely as do people, and each has a meaning of its own. each also is the fruit of long study and repeated test of the work it is to do not alone on machines and in the laboratory, but under actual conditions of operation. the wire rope engineer will tell you every rope has temperament. he spends his life knowing other people's business--rope business--and working out their rope problems. the answers to these problems are the four hundred different sizes and kinds of rope that the roebling company manufactures on its regular schedules. the rest are specials. go where you will in the world nowadays, you will find wire rope doing the work. [sidenote: wire rope problems and the engineering department] with the completion of the williamsburg bridge, the roebling company withdrew from competitive fields of contract engineering, but it maintains a large engineering department and is ceaselessly busy with construction and installation problems from all over the world. in its files there is exhaustive record of every contract of magnitude, for construction, haulage, mine work, ship work--for any sort of work where rope is used and where the problems are difficult. roebling engineers are always on the go, studying conditions where rope is to be used, to prescribe the fabric that will meet the need. [illustration: the aeroplane--a wire rope creation] there is, to begin with, a questionnaire of ninety-three questions, to be filled out by the master mechanic or engineer on any special work for which rope is to be recommended and manufactured. when these are answered the engineer is ready to begin work, which starts with the selection of materials and does not end till the man who is to use it has had specific instruction as to its peculiarities and care and protection. for this service the roebling company maintains a large corps of specialized engineers busily engaged solving the problems of wire rope usage, and making suggestions to effect economies in wire rope operation. in fact, it doesn't end there. it is a saying in the roebling establishment that a rope is never sold until it's worn out. [sidenote: the "lay" of the rope] the cut ends of a diversified lot of wire ropes resemble, more than anything else, the eccentric forms of snow flakes, in their regularity and the grouping of their parts around a center. but there is nothing haphazard about the formations. even the core is figured in the number of days it will add to the rope's life under varying conditions. the wide difference in ropes consists not only in the materials employed, which have much to do with their resistance to divers strains and the manner of their use, but in skillful selection of sizes in the wire and arrangement in the strands of which they are composed; again in the distribution in the strands, the twists of the strands themselves and the "lay" or manner in which these are twisted to make the rope. it is all the result of careful calculation. [sidenote: the core] a paramount factor too is the core, in securing the maximum of wear. its mission, in most ropes, is not to add strength, but pliability, and to serve as a cushion to absorb the impact which the strands make under the tension of service. the fibre cores, for this reason, are usually treated with some lubricant. in the majority of ropes hemp is used for a core but in those intended for stationary service the core may be of steel. this will add from seven to ten per cent to strength and very largely to rigidity. when we speak of wire rope most of us have a mental picture of a round fabric, but there are flat ropes as well, for use in mines or quarries where the haul is from great depths and twisting is to be avoided. these are made in all widths and thicknesses, and are constructed by placing several strands together, side by side, and sewing them together with soft iron wire. but it is the round rope that supplies the great demand. [sidenote: the strand] in considering rope, one may start with the strand. strands, as may be seen from the pictures of transverse sections of ropes, vary infinitely in character, but always with a purpose. they are made up in ordinary practice, of four, seven, twelve, nineteen or thirty-seven wires, according to the work the rope is meant to do. in the rope mills you come upon long, low "stranding machines," reaching down a long room and carrying in horizontal arrangement, wide apart but in circular formation, the wires that are to form the strand. at a point carefully determined with reference to the strain on each wire, in order to preserve uniformity, all these wires come together and pass through one opening in a twisting machine which whirls them into a unit. the finished strand is wound on bobbins. the direction of the twist, whether to right or left, is of moment in determining the character of the finished product. [sidenote: "standard" or general purpose rope] "standard rope," so called, the general purpose rope, is composed of six wire strands and a hemp core, all being practically of the same size; but to secure particular results the number of strands may be four, five, eight, twelve or whatever may be desired. already it will be apparent that there is wide latitude in rope making for the exercise of skill and the utilization of experimental record. this freedom in selection and adjustment extends through almost every process. for example, in the twists: when wires in the strands and strands in the rope are twisted in the same direction, which ordinarily they are not, the rope has what is known as a "lang lay," after a rope man who devised the system. the twist, whether in strand or rope, has distinct effect in service. it may be long or short. if it is long the rope will be stronger and more rigid, if short, it will gain in flexibility. when it comes to the short twist rope, one sees the particular value of the twisting tests which were applied and recorded away back in the wire stage. [sidenote: testing the rope] it is singular, but it is true, that the aggregate strength of all the wires that go to make up a rope cannot be retained in the rope, at least in the laboratory on the testing machines. when the rope is tested for breaking strength it is found that no sample will show more than ninety per cent of the total, and the average is about eighty-two. part of this failure is due to the angle of wires in the strand, with a resultant stress on wires in excess of applied load; therefore, the greater the number of wires in the rope, the lower the efficiency. the other reason is that the contiguous strands in the rope nick each other under high tension, and so are weakened. this, however, may not be important in ordinary working loads under service conditions. these casual truths show with what multiplicity of tendencies the rope maker has to deal in devising a product to give service and safety in the often ticklish jobs it has to do, with great weights in hand, and human lives at stake. [illustration: the steam shovel shovels by means of a wire rope] from molecular condition, as revealed by the microscope, down to the last petty detail in the plan of construction, there is never an end to the problems, and gravity has to be figured into the lifetime of a rope as surely as the elusive trace of sulphuric and muriatic acid producing hydrogen occlusion. wire rope is a business of exactitude and eternal vigilance. you have to deal with breaking strengths of from , to , pounds to the square inch of transverse section, but the wire that will lift weights at the rate of more than a hundred tons has entirely different characteristics than the lower strength material. and the why of that must be traced back to the treatment of the steel when it was passing through the wire stage. rope makers dealt with molecules once and thought they were taking pains. they found they had to go back to atoms to handle their problems. today the secret seems to lurk in the electron. [sidenote: fitting the rope to its work] of the tricks in making ropes, there is no end. they are fitted for their work like a soldier or a gymnast, and built for it. a tiller rope must be flexible to the last degree, but it must be strong enough so it will stand up under the swift tensions of a storm or in the lightning manoeuvers of a race. therefore, like a few ropes built for other purposes, the composite parts are not mere strands of wire, but little ropes in themselves, complete in all parts. and again, while ropes exposed to weather and stationary, like ships' standing riggings, are galvanized, those that are subjected to constant bending are not. for every variation, there's a reason. to the average man or woman, the elevators in tall buildings suggest danger. the rope engineer counts them highly safe because each elevator is equipped with a multiplicity of ropes and safety devices. what taxes his conscience and spurs him to the last possible effort, is the rope that goes to the "deep shaft" service, where the lives of men going up and down in five thousand feet or more of subterranean darkness, hang on the accuracy of his calculation. only now, the roebling engineers will tell you, is wire rope being perfected. much of it is in what seem to be small details of construction, which nevertheless go down into the basic principles that make for efficiency. rope making has been treated as an exact science, because it dealt with materials that were more or less standardized. they are learning now that rope has a large unknown quantity that defies formula past a certain point. for the lack of a better term, they call it "personality." the labor of today, and many years to come, is to identify these intangible factors and bring them where they can be computed to the end of securing greater endurance and safety. in the roebling shops there are men working who got their jobs almost by heredity. their fathers and grandfathers worked for john a. roebling. "you ask them," said the chief engineer, "why they do a thing a certain way. they tell you simply that 'that's the way to do it.'" in the old days john a. roebling figured out the way, and gave it to his workmen in the shape of orders--today somewhat different methods are utilized. to the cumulative experience of over eighty years of wire-rope making, the roeblings have always availed themselves of the latest engineering skill. with up-to-date research, chemical and metallurgical laboratories, every progress in the art has been incorporated in their product. [sidenote: following the rope and its uses] the roebling people say that wire rope is their "baby." they give it the utmost of skill and care and caution in the making, and then to see that these are not wasted, they follow it into the field, where it is to serve, with personal attention to its installation and with the most detailed instruction for its protection and use, figuring out with nicety the speeds to be maintained, the size of the sheaves or drums around which it should travel to minimize the strain, prescribing its lubrication, providing printed warnings against all forms of misuse or neglect, with pictures to show the reason why, and other instructions and pictures to aid in detection of the first signs of trouble or exhaustion, and the reasons therefor. study of the roebling method, from the ore yard to the field of operation, makes clear the reason why roebling rope, from the very beginning of the manufacture, has been accounted standard for quality. a roebling catalogue is never complete. it cannot list and illustrate, without competing in size with the unabridged, more than a small part of the uses for which rope--and much of it special rope--is made, or the infinite number of attachments and accessories provided for installation and use on the job. [sidenote: wire rope and its work] there is the transmission of power by means of a round, endless rope, running at high velocity over a series of sheaves or pulleys, carrying power to a distance of three miles; there is underground haulage, for which five distinct types of rope are used, enabling the engineer to make light of grades, even with staggering loads; logging, in which, in the primeval forests of the northwest, the horse or ox is a pigmy, and where the giant trunks, seven, eight or nine feet in diameter, are whisked up at the sides of mountains, hoisted into the air and deposited on cars, to be run down to the rivers on steep inclines, again operated by rope of great size and strength. there is quarrying, where rope is used in quantity for guying, and for hoisting the blocks of stone out of their beds, and then on aerial cable ways, to carry them on high over long distances to be loaded; there are the oil fields, in which just now, in the mad search for petroleum to supply the world's shortage, interminable miles of wire rope are being used, some of it an inch thick or over, to carry the drills, or for casing and sand lines. there is shipping--the battleship and the merchantman and the liner; the yacht, the riverman and the tug--all strung with wire rope from stem to stern, and some of them from truck to keel as well--not to mention mooring lines which have their own plan and formula; there is towing, to which wire rope brought new possibilities and freedom from old troubles and old perils--witness the towing of the dry dock "dewey" from chesapeake bay to the philippines, thirteen thousand miles, on a pair of foot roebling hawsers, which stuck to their jobs without interruption, through all sorts of weather, and lugged their burden into the harbor of olongapo without a sign of weakness or exhaustion; there is dredging, for which wire rope has largely supplanted the old and cumbrous chain which was never any stronger than its weakest link. there is hardly an important harbor in the world today where these stout ropes are not busy clearing pathway and anchorage for marine commerce. [sidenote: more uses of wire rope] the list does not end. there are incline railways, in the mountains of east and west alike, as well as in foreign countries, which have made mountain climbing a primitive form of sport, and enabled one-legged men with perfect ease to get the view from towering peaks which otherwise would have been accessible only to the hardy mountain climber; there are cable railways with which engineers have been able to run cars out on an aerial roadbed of wire, over impassable gorges and morasses, to make fills for railway or other construction; cableways, the forms and uses of which, in transferring materials, are without number; tramways and traction systems, which have now, save in particular instances, given way to trolley, and the copper wire for this, again, comes in large and continuous tonnage from the roebling mills; there is the perfect litter of hoisting slings, all over creation, for wherever men are doing work or business of any kind, there is a load to lift, and the wire rope, with its special appliances for quick hitch and release, is fast relegating the old time chain to the category of antiquities. in the first of elevator ropes was made. today millions are in use. * * * * * it is a long story, and one variety of rope is never just like another, save for the general purpose product before referred to, which figures in the schedules as "standard." but in the making of all the many hundred kinds, the process, to outward appearance, is the same, and impressive in the simplicity to which it has been reduced. from the tiny specimen, made for some finical scientific experiment, to the three-inch monster that contains single wires nearly a quarter of an inch in diameter, and drags half a million pounds of ore, with the aid of powerful machinery, at the spanish american iron company's mines in cuba, the general principle of manufacture and the mechanism used in the making are all alike. [sidenote: rope-making machines] in the several rope mills of the roebling works are a large number of machines, some of which, built by john a. roebling in the early days of his rope making, are still turning out rope, and good rope. his first product was made by hand in the old "rope walk" way. today the ground where he did it is covered with buildings full of speeding machinery that has little rest--devices that stand in long rows, eating up the strand that unwinds from the whirling bobbins to feed it, and turning off steadily the completed rope, which passes to spools, large or small, in proportion to its weight and size. simply described, the rope machine pictures itself as a hollow column cylinder, strongly framed and braced steel from the base of which arms extend, like the lower branches of a spruce tree. at the ends of these the bobbins are rigged, carrying the strands which are to be twisted into rope. these are led from the bobbins in toward the center, and pass into the column, which carries also the core and which in its turning twists the strands together. the complete rope passes out over a pulley on to the spools. machines for the smaller sizes of rope are strung out in a long file. the larger ones require elbow room; each of those for the making of the largest rope has a room to itself and is installed on a foundation of steel and concrete. [illustration: hoisting a huge naval gun with wire rope sling] when the mechanism is at work it suggests somehow the solar rotations. the bobbins have a triple motion. on the ends of the arms to which they are attached they travel around the column, at a rate of speed which of course is determined by the "lay" required, but they are unwinding as the strand pays out and also turn completely end for end, at predetermined intervals. in the more modern machines there are two sets of arms or "branches" above the first, for the purpose of carrying a greater number of strands. in this type the arms carrying the bobbins are somewhat shorter, allowing for a great rate of speed. there is something mysterious in the sight of these flying reels of steel, or copper maybe, for many ropes of substantial size are made of copper for marine use, whizzing round and round like indefatigable moths around a big steel candle, or a dervish round his own spinal column on a spot of ground the size of a dinner plate, and the rope, hard, shining, round, packed around its core of hemp or steel, noiselessly gathering all this strength and energy into itself for use in the days of need. when you see it on the spool at the side, shining with its coating of lubricant, ready for work and able to do it, it is a little hard to associate so respectable and dignified a fabric with the rusty heap of iron that lay in the kinkora yard. [sidenote: special construction] there are records in the roebling offices that tell interesting tales of special constructions, and pictures of enormous spools of rope, thousands of feet, in big diameters, running from spool to spool and since one spool is an ample carload, from one flat car to another, when loaded for shipment. such were the huge street railway cables, made for australia, for kansas city, for chicago and new york. there is an amusing story of the new york street railway engineer who insisted that the cable be made in one section, , feet in length, but who changed his mind about the beauty of it when he got the goods and saw the elephantine spools of packed metal caving in the manholes in the city streets on their way to the point of installation. a gigantic rope machine was built in the roebling plant to twist this mammoth. the cars that carry these heavy cables were made specially for the purpose. an ordinary car would crumble under the load, but the machine and the cars are still in use, and busy. when cables for street railways were discarded in favor of trolley, wire rope men thought the day of doom had come, but the field for wire rope for other uses has widened so fast and so far, in a rapidly widening world, that the cable orders, big as they were, have never been missed. it furnishes a significant index of the growth in all industrial activity, for there is no new phase of development or manufacture or work of any kind in which wire rope, or wire in some form or other, does not play an indispensable part. [sidenote: power in the roebling plants] in the three roebling plants there are four electric power stations, aggregating over , horse-power, and more than boilers with , horse-power. the coal consumption on the three plants is approximately tons a day, and the fuel oil consumption about , , gallons per year. in the kinkora plant at roebling there are thirteen miles of standard gauge railroad track. chapter vi working for uncle sam of the load that war laid on productive industry, it is beyond question that wire, the country over, carried its share. in the retrospect, every man and every organization tries consciously or unconsciously to figure out what part individual effort contributed to the big result. fortunately, perhaps, the question of relative accomplishment and of everybody's share in the outcome is one of the things that can never be settled, but in the picture war has left on the memory of those who lived it, wire and wire rope can never be very far away. as wire pervades every industry of peace and every department of living, so in the headlong rush of war, whether by land or sea or in the air, it was the handy and dependable agent that made a thousand other things possible. wire did its work not only up in the smoke and the agony of the western front, not only where the fleets battled against the lurking death, but along every line of plain toil by which the unhalting supply of materials, both for battle and sustenance, was kept flowing to the point of need. when the big order for multiplication of output came, wire rope manufacturers were not told to make one thing and a lot of it, as so many industries were. the demands of war, on the contrary, added diversity to what was already one of the most diversified of products. everything was special. every day's new load was a brand new problem in manufacture and in construction as well--something that had not been produced before, or at very best a new adaptation which required special manufacture and new organization; this in a skilled industry, at a time when skilled labor of any kind was scarce. [sidenote: a story that will never be told] the story of this period will never be told in its entirety. the army cannot tell it, nor the navy. they never knew it. all they did was to call for the stuff and get it. the wire makers will never tell it because they are too busy supplying the demands of peace--the rebuilding of a wrecked world and the development of a new one. already the picture, big and thrilling as it was, is growing dim, its detail disappearing in the hurry of industrial production, the solving of new problems, the supplying of demand. they look back over the old requisitions and specifications of the feverish days of and and are surprised to see that dust has gathered on them already; they count the figures of overwhelming volume which are their "war history" and wonder how in the world they ever did it. [sidenote: the double burden upon wire's back] what doubled the burden on wire's back was that every existing industry for which it had been making rope was "essential." the wire men looked around to find what they could cut out. there was nothing. to maintain the supply of oil, of coal, of ores, of food, to keep all kinds of transportation in full swing, to see that elevators kept running so that activity should not cease--these and a thousand other things were all essential to unity of effort and increase of production. altogether the saving was trivial. they all had to be supplied, most of them double, and the allies had been piling in orders. on top of this burly task came our own government's great and variegated and undeniable demands for war supplies. in the carrying of such a load the wire industry was hampered by the fewness of its plants and their distribution over the states, some of them far from points of ocean shipment. it was plain when america entered the war that only the most thorough co-ordination and centralized control of operation could make success possible; only the most economical arrangement of forces and distribution of materials. the iron and steel institute, at the request of the government, formed a committee to manage the production and distribution of wire rope, and from the fifteenth of may, , this committee had on its shoulders the making of wire necessary to keep the country's work going at full speed and to supply the needs for war, of whose extent or character nobody had any clear idea. karl g. roebling, of john a. roebling's sons co., was made chairman of the committee. [sidenote: the war--one long committee meeting] throughout the war, the roebling offices in trenton were headquarters for the entire business of wire rope supply. it was one long committee meeting, with production going on at utmost intensity all the time. here came all the orders for wire rope from the several government departments and the bureaus in those departments, each with its long array of specifications, all requiring shipment to divers points. much of the work required also a great labor of cutting and attaching, and fittings by the hundreds of thousands, and all, without an exception that stands out in anybody's memory, wanted in the minimum of time. it is the proud record of that committee that when the fighting ended in november of every order had been filled and delivery made on time. industry has no story of accomplishment to tell that can be more creditable than this. the roebling plants, near to the seaboard and equipped for specialization, were devoted almost wholly to the manufacture of war stuff, domestic industrial orders being transferred to inland factories. [sidenote: the record of production for war purposes] the record of production, for war purposes alone, shows that the roebling company manufactured a very large percentage of the whole, which ran to unconscionable millions of feet. during the war the productive capacity of the plant was increased as much as seventy-five per cent, and the list of the employed at times ran close to ten thousand men. the numerical increase in men did not equal the growth in output. here as well as in almost every line of industry the war furnished a revelation of the capacity of men for work. new lines of production, requiring skill, developed in common laborers, the only kind that at times could be obtained, a facility in production that before the pressure of war came to discover it would have been thought impossible. in looking back over the war work it is plain that the service rendered by the company in manufacturing material for the allies, prior to america's entrance into hostilities, was of large value in familiarizing it with forms of production afterward required for our own army and navy. another thing which aided in meeting a vast demand was the unremitting attention which the company had given to the perfection of aircraft material, from the first successful flight of the wright brothers at kitty hawk in . at that time study and experiment had been started in the roebling factories looking to the production of aircraft wire and strand and cord for all the different parts involved, which should combine the utmost strength with the minimum of weight, with special reference to the stresses peculiar to aviation work. when the hour of need came, roebling aircraft products had reached a stage of perfection which saved a world of hurried experimentation and development. it was a demonstration in preparedness, although up to the work had been done solely to keep industrial pace with a new and important development of mechanical science. [sidenote: the government establishments that called for wire and rope] it is a fairly long list of government establishments that is shown on the roebling records as calling for war supply of wire rope. it includes, in the navy department, the bureau of steam engineering, bureau of construction and repair, bureau of ordnance, the bureau of yards and docks and the naval aircraft factory. in the war department were the following: office of the chief of ordnance, depot quartermaster, chief signal officer, chief of engineers, the army transport service, the quartermaster general's office, the signal corps, the aircraft production bureau, united states engineer's office, general engineer depot, bureau of insular affairs, procurement division, the balloon department of the aircraft production board, and the director general of military railways. always there were the united states shipping board, the emergency fleet corporation, and the demands for these alone were a business. in addition to all this the committee made allocation of orders for the argentine naval commission, the british war commission, the imperial munitions board, the italian commission and the belgian government. it doesn't seem such a large roster, but it took a world of wire to go around it. a few figures out of the total allocations will suggest what the total demand was and the task that it involved. [sidenote: some of the big demands] the first big call on the wire rope producers was for submarine nets to protect the fleet bases and harbors. there were supplied to the navy, for this purpose, , , feet of rope, and it was regular rope that was required in this service, for the german submarines had developed a way of slashing through the earlier and lighter nets. for the new type the rope ranged from an inch and a half to three-quarters of an inch; but it wasn't merely a matter of shipping reels of rope. almost all of it had to be cut into lengths and attachments made, for these barriers were designed in sections. this necessitated, for the navy order, , fittings. the army ordnance bureau used nearly a million feet of rope for nettings, which was shipped to various coast forts. the whole volume of wire rope for nettings was furnished within four months. [illustration: cup challengers, defenders and sailing vessels of all types secure their rigging with wire rope] another interesting order was from the quartermaster's department, which called for , , feet of rope and the manufacture of , pairs of traces, requiring , , splices. these are what are called thimble splices, and, while fitting one of them is ordinarily half an hour's work, the roebling plant, with a force chiefly of men who were utterly unskilled, was turning off ten thousand pairs of traces a day at the peak of production on this order. this harness, for artillery purposes, was on english designs, adopted after considerable delay, but by means of which a horse, when shot down, could be eliminated from the gun team in half a minute. the spruce production bureau took over , , feet of rope, the emergency fleet more than , , and the fuel administration drew on at the rate of , tons a month. and all the time the mines and mills and ordnance plants, locomotives, cranes and all other manufactures kept getting largely increased supplies of rope to carry on their own war-driven work. altogether the orders come to a figure that is hard to visualize. [sidenote: , , feet of rope and a half million fittings] but the climax, the call that taxed the wire rope makers most heavily and kept the arc lights burning in the mills was for the , , and odd feet of rope and half million fittings which were required by the naval establishment for the north sea mine barrage, which put a prompt and distinguished shackle on the german submarines. the fitting of this rope was a task of moment, calling as it did for delivery of the rope in lengths and made up ready for attachment on the ingenious plan which the mine involved. it was all done with time to spare. the adriatic barrage, an even more ambitious project since it dealt with a depth of , instead of feet, was all ready to be laid when the armistice was signed. this took over , , feet of rope. when the fighting stopped, there was a perfectly good mine barrage in the north sea that had to be taken up and put out of commission. this called for , feet more of rope, with fittings to make it of use. every mine was cancelled without a mishap, and there are now more than eighty million feet of "a no. " wire rope reposing at the bottom of the north sea. but it did its work, capturing no less than seventeen german submarines in the first week. [sidenote: and more than wire rope was asked for] the roebling plant, for the time, was given over to the manufacture of war necessities, hence its problems of material were made easy by the director of steel supply. but the roebling output for war purposes did not end with wire rope. in may, , the company was employing close to ten thousand men, and in addition to rope making they were busy with the manufacture of immense quantities of steel strand, strand for outpost cables, copper strand, telephone wire, copper wire and miscellaneous wires of all descriptions, which were needed in the service at home and abroad. a material part of the war work was the manufacture of wire especially for the field telegraph and telephone systems of the signal corps in europe, where the american army communications were the admiration of europeans. this material possessed certain peculiar characteristics, and while speed in its production was an essential yet it was necessary that every strand be perfect, for the fate of armies rested upon it. the manufacture of this wire involved a great deal of detail and intimate knowledge of all sorts of materials, for while copper is used for electrical transmission there is an exterior protection of other metals and materials, each of which has its peculiar manufacturing difficulties. [sidenote: the composite steel and copper strand] for example, the "composite steel and copper strand" wire used by the army was made up as follows: there was a center wire of tinned copper with ten outside wires of tinned steel. this wire had a maximum weight of pounds a mile with a maximum breaking weight of pounds. other types of wire were silk wrapped, covered with a rubber compound or with a covering of cotton braid treated with a waterproofing compound. [sidenote: to meet the signal corps' requirements] take one type of the thousands manufactured by the roebling company and see what must be done to make the finished product for the signal corps. this process, which includes both the manufacture of steel wire for the outer protection and copper wire for transmission, may be divided into the following parts: all steel materials are analyzed and inspected. acid open hearth steel is made in ingot form in special furnaces. the steel is classified, and the ingots are reheated and rolled into billets, which are cropped to eliminate all segregation. the steel billets are reheated and rolled into rods of about / inch diameter. the rods are then tempered for wire drawing. then comes an inspection and testing for physical characteristics of the metal, and the rods are cleaned in acid, washed, lime coated and left to dry. these rods are then drawn cold through dies to intermediate sizes requiring a repetition of the tempering, inspecting and cleaning operations. there is another series of drawing and then the final one through the hardest and toughest dies obtainable to a diameter of / inch. at this diameter one foot of the original rod has been extended to about feet. then comes another inspection and test of the mechanical properties. the wire is next cleaned in alkaline and acid solutions to remove all trace of the lubricants used in the wire drawing, and the wire is subjected to a bath in pure hot tin. finally there is a government inspection and test. so much for the manufacture of steel wire. the copper first appears in bars, which are inspected and tested for their metallic purity. the bars are heated and rolled into rods of about / inch diameter. these rods are cleaned in acid baths to remove all scale, and the wire drawn with the necessary annealing and cleaning until wire that is only . of an inch in diameter is the result. the final drawing of this wire requires the use of diamond dies with the necessary equipment and great skill of the wire drawers in piercing these minute openings. the copper wire then is annealed free from all scale and discoloration, and the tin coat applied by means of a liquid tin bath. then the government inspectors test the copper wire. ten strands of the steel wire are twisted about the one copper wire, and the government inspectors again make tests to see if the inner copper wire is intact and properly protected by steel wire. all grease is removed from the strand, and tussah silk wrapped over the whole. to this is applied a compound with per cent rubber, which is later vulcanized. then come inspections for mechanical injuries and electrical characteristics. the single conductors are braided, the braid waterproofed, polished, twined, inspected, reeled for shipment, inspected by the government agents, packed, inspected again by the government agents and finally shipped. all this is done with a great deal of rapidity but with no less care, the skill obtained by the workmen only by years of experience and by the technical men only by years of study. it required a thorough knowledge of steel and of the materials entering into the manufacture of steel, such as ore, pig iron and fuel, as well as of the properties and tests and manufacture of copper, tin, rubber, cotton, and various lubricants. and in the more general use of wire and wire rope, a thoroughly comprehensive knowledge of many other materials, all mechanical and electrical phenomena in fact, are essential. chapter vii a city built out of hand all up and down the delaware, between trenton and philadelphia, the "quality folks" in olden times used to build stately homes, with broad acres at their backs and looking lordly, with their grecian porticos, out from the high banks that command the stream. you may see some of them yet, faded and old and full of family history, most of which was not so important as it seemed to the builders. in the little towns that you pass on the trolley and the camden and amboy road, there is a certain eighteenth century somnolence, and a dingy pride of priority. they sleep on, as if it were creditable not to be busy. bordentown, a few minutes' ride from trenton, sits complacent amid its memories of the bonapartes. it is there you change for roebling. [sidenote: roebling, the town, a story in itself] roebling--the town, not the plant--to which some attention has been given, is a story in itself. it is an industrial disturbance in the quietude of a sleepy and beauteous country. it is a rattler of the dry bones of tradition, and pretty nearly the last word in corporation communities. roebling maintains no staff of highbrow sociologists to discuss the things capital should do in order to make labor's pathway broad and bright. there's a town superintendent to look after things and he earns his pay. [sidenote: built to make wire and rope] the town of roebling was built to help along the making of wire and the wire rope. making good rope, it is a good town, without any fanciful notions about "welfare work." the delaware, flowing by in its beauty, accounts for part of this. but to the roeblings the delaware means plentiful water supply and river transportation. to the workmen in the big mills which lie just at the back of the town, and to their families, which grow phenomenally, it means bathing, boating, a cool breeze on stifling midsummer nights, and a panorama that never ceases to be lovely. in both the city plants, as business grew, building followed building. a compact and populous section had grown up at trenton. more buildings could not be crowded into the original ground space. more land was needed, and as usual in such cases, men with land to sell all along to the south of the upper works, saw the company's need and had a brain storm about what the footage was worth. the roeblings tried a little farther down stream. but down stream didn't mean down price. so they made a clean job of it. ten miles down the river was a little old station called kinkora, where the real estate infection had not appeared. there was land well up above high water, and plenty of it. the delaware was very cheap down there, as compared with trenton city water rates, to a concern that used as much water as all the rest of the city put together. [sidenote: a likely place for a wire mill] it was a likely place for a wire mill, but if a dozen strangers had struck kinkora on the same evening the town would have had trouble to find beds for them all. it meant twenty miles rail travel a day for the workmen to live in trenton. so the roeblings decided to build. charles g. roebling was then alive. the new site and the planning and building of the town were his charge. but, again, they didn't go looking for any welfare engineers. the whole job of planning plant and town alike was done in the long engineering room of the roebling offices. at first they called the plant the kinkora. they do yet, off and on, but the mills were a little below the station, and when the new venture was well under way, and the machinery had begun to squeeze out wire, and perhaps a hundred brick houses of various types had been erected, the place had to have a station of its own. the pennsylvania railroad said it was roebling, and stamped the tickets that way. kinkora is wearing off. it is still a sleepy little station just up the line. between it and roebling there are a mile or so of distance and a whole century of time. the name "kinkora" harks back to the year , when king "brian boru" of ireland lost his life at the battle of clontarf. his palace was named "kinkora." in an ambitious irishman named rockefeller (not john d.) conceived the idea of an air line railroad from this spot where roebling now stands to atlantic city. in fond remembrance of erin's isle he named the terminus on the delaware "kinkora." the enterprise itself died an early death. the roebling company has more than acres of land in the new settlement, enough, in all conscience, to accommodate as big a business as almost anyone would want to do, and houses to shelter all its workmen. if the company should ever find it good business to shake the dust of trenton from its shoes altogether it certainly has a place to go. [sidenote: no time to let the grass grow] from the day when the thing was decided on, no grass grew under anybody's feet. there was sand along that bucolic and undeveloped river bank, sand that ran well back, getting more and more like loam as you left the river. it was broken and uneven. the freshets of centuries had left hollows here and hummocks there. they were levelled. the knolls--dunes they would call them along lake michigan--were scraped down and dumped into the swales, and the excess was thrown into a sedgy morass along the river front, to make it into solid ground and give a clean, healthy shore, which is now one of the chief charms of the place. for the sections where grass was meant to grow--for dooryards and the like--tons upon tons of "top soil" were brought in to give a fertile surface. the mill buildings went up first, on a broad space of one hundred acres levelled off for them, and then the town began to grow. that was sixteen years ago, and it has kept on growing. every year sees a lot of new houses, of various values, and one and all well built and comely. and in all grades they are better houses than a workman, or a mill boss either, can get anywhere else in america for the same money. [sidenote: to make a profit but to show a saving] that has been the doctrine from the beginning. charles g. roebling said at the time something to the effect that every workingman was a free moral agent, and didn't want to be tied to anybody's apron-strings, that he wanted a square deal and a chance to live his own life out of business hours, and to get the worth of his money when he spent it. "we purpose," he said, "to make a fair profit on our investment, but we can do that and still show a man a saving. and we stop there." it doesn't take long to realize that the roeblings are living up to the original schedule. the rents, the figures on all sorts of commodities at the "village store," which sells everything from a pork chop to a piano, and the drug store, which is just as "riker-hegeman" as any live town could wish, are all below the current price scale in the rest of the country, by a margin sufficient to mean something to a family when they "tote up" at the year's end. electric light, coal and the other things a man has to pay for in any town are charged for here, but it doesn't take a legislative fight or a big row in the newspapers to keep the price down where a man can afford to pay it. water is supplied free. the idea is that the man owes the company nothing but good work in return for his pay. after quitting time he's his own boss. the company tries to make life in the town pleasant enough so that he'll be glad to live there, and think he has a good job. and it recognizes that life has many sides. [sidenote: and the town had a bar] it was in pursuance of the general thesis that when the town opened it had a hotel with a bar. "there's no use," they said, "in trying to make a mollycoddle out of a mill man. when he wants a drink he's going to get it, especially the foreign born. we don't propose to pick his drinks for him. if he wants whiskey it's a good sight better for us that he should be able to get it here like a human being than to trail into trenton and take a chance with the stuff that goes over the bars where a workingman drinks. the whiskey here isn't gilt-edged, but it's decent, and it's worth what it costs." prohibition settled the drink question, but while the cafe lasted in roebling it kept the men from going to town to battle with the "embalming fluid," and not showing up for the customary three days. that too was good business. [sidenote: fire, police, banks, streets] after the dirt and noise and disorder of a city street, it is like a sedative to slip from the train into the peace and the wide spaces of roebling. the tidy station is at one side, at the other, beyond the switch tracks, the little gate-house which gives ingress to the mill enclosure--if you have the proper kind of pass. from here a trim concrete walk leads on past the ground of the plant and its fence of tall pickets, toward the river, and the town. as you go, you meet with courtesy. it is not drawing the long bow to say everybody in roebling--outwardly at least--is civil and good natured. just beyond the mill grounds you come upon the police office, with trig coppers who seem to have very little to do. like the shining fire engines, which stand in the adjoining building ready for service either in town or plant, they seem to be maintained chiefly for insurance and ornament. but they are practical organizations at that. the roebling company learned what fire was during the war, when two of the biggest buildings in the upper works were destroyed. from this point the streets lead away, broad, clean streets with the best of sidewalks, and drainage. the town has spread out now so that it looks no more like a toy city. the streets are feet wide, with the exception of main street and fifth avenue, which are feet wide. trees have been planted which already make it attractive. in front of every house is a dooryard, a patch of green grass to remind a man that god made the world. [sidenote: houses] adjoining fire and police houses, there was formerly a trim little bank whose business has expanded to such an extent that it has been enabled to move to the centre of the business section of the town in an attractive and up-to-date building of its own. the houses, while of widely different types, are for the most part made of brick. in order to avoid fire danger, the minimum of wood is used in all the buildings of the town. the houses are all constructed on the most improved plan of sanitation and hygiene. through the block, giving access to the back-doors, run clean alleys, wide enough to allow wagons to pass for the delivery of coal, foodstuffs and other commodities, and for the collection of waste. the company is now halting between the erection of an incinerator plant to consume the garbage for its and odd homes, or a "hog farm" as part of its three or four hundred acres, which without difficulty could turn out , to , head of swine a year, and further reduce the cost of living. it is possible, too, that it may some day produce its own milk. there is a marked difference between some of the houses first erected and those of more recent construction. at present the "bungalow" type is in great favor, since it facilitates the labor of housekeeping. more pretentious dwellings, for the men holding important positions in the plant, are sufficient to make a rent-ridden, janitor-jaded, bell-boy bossed new yorker wonder what he is being punished for. one handsome colonial home just built for a superintendent in one of the wire mills would be a credit to any commuter town. [sidenote: baseball, recreation building, theatre, ballroom] always as you pass through airy roebling you encounter some new institution built to make it seem like a regular place. there is a baseball ground which would be a credit to any city, with its tidy green grandstand and its carefully manicured diamond. the wire works team is now prominent in one of the state leagues. there is a recreation building, with billiard and pool tables and the best bowling alleys that can be built. there is a spacious assembly hall, with theatre stage and a scrumptious curtain bearing a picture of the roebling brooklyn bridge. the gallery is commodious. the seats are removable, leaving a ballroom of impressive size, and adjoining rooms are equipped with ranges, refrigerators and dishes for the preparation and service of suppers or of dinners great and small. take notice of the hotel, the boarding houses where single men live well and cheaply, of the public school, the hospital, the doctors, the nurses, the dispensary. and these last are busy functionaries. [sidenote: very little sickness, very many babies] there is very little sickness in roebling. the sanitation is studiously good, but when you are sick there they look after you, which is also "good business," and babies are a favorite form of diversion. this is impressively true. you sense it wherever you go. there are children everywhere--good looking wholesome "kids." and something makes them glad to live here, too. [sidenote: being a boy scout at roebling] to be a boy scout in roebling is about as good fun as a boy could have. for a long time the company gave the boys too much. then it woke up to the fact that half the sport of being a boy scout was to do things. so the scouts were told if they wanted to keep the perfectly corking club house on the river bank, with its big meeting room, its open mouthed fireplace, its mounted deer heads, and banners, and books and guns and spears and swords and all the other junk the boy soul loves, they'd have to work for it. goodness knows they do. the grounds around that shack in spring are turned up like a golf links. what they have done in the way of white birch rustic railings along the winding walks that lead to the grounds would make a chippewa indian sick with envy. this year they are to help build a long float from the club house to the water, to launch their canoes on. to the medical equipment is added a hospital for contagious diseases, standing away out in the fields. and in the outskirts also is land set apart for gardens, where the millworkers have allotted plots of ground for the raising of their own vegetables. the manure from the stables, where sixty horses are kept, helps to make gardening worth while. even to be a mule in roebling is comfortable. there are old mules there--you see them just wandering around the paddocks, eating and growing older--that will never see thirty-five or forty again. nobody ever will send them down the long trail. they have worked hard for the roebling company. it will feed them till they simply lie down and die of their own accord. feeding--whether mules or people--is habitual. when john a. roebling first made rope, he had three or four men working with him. they had a table in the shop. as the business has grown, this custom has continued. today the entire office force at the headquarters in trenton--some persons of all ranks--gets a dinner every day that for sheer quality cannot be equalled in any of the city hotels. it may be a fad to feed that whole crowd fresh yellow cream brought in every morning from the roebling farms, but--it's good business. [sidenote: the park] the high land on the bluff overlooking the river at roebling is a park, with trees and benches, and a place where the band can play while the folks sit taking the air on a hot summer night. in a neat enclosure of roebling wire, convenient to all parts of the town, are tennis courts, for general use. there is a sanitary barber shop, where five shining chairs are always full. roebling has the best barbered lot of foreign-born workmen in america. [sidenote: how the foreigner lives in roebling] in a town like this are lessons for those who like to try to translate the foreigner for the good of american industry. there are those who cherish a superstition that the foreign workman in the united states lives poorly. in roebling it is remarked that it is the foreigner who is the best customer in groceries and butcher's meat. he buys chickens instead of beef brisket, and not one chicken, but two and three. it is he also who buys the hood river apples and the best grape fruit. and as for bread--you should see the bakery. "sunny jim" would sing to see it--clean and shining, and turning out all kinds of bakestuffs besides the big round red-blond loaves of "european bread," which they say "has the strength" in it. the baker's wagon, loaded to the very top of the canvas cover, goes through the town and the workers' little children run homeward from it with two, three, four loaves altogether as big as themselves. crescent rolls, which cost a nickel at a french bakery in new york, are sold here for two cents apiece. so it goes in roebling. over on the one side are the negro quarters. they have everything anybody else has including a recreation house--and when they recreate, they just recreate. * * * * * if roebling was an experiment, it is not so any longer. it is full of comfortable people, and in seventy years the roebling theory as to what a workman wants and how he should be treated has never proved itself more conclusively than here. it is a suggestive fact that in all that time, save for some insignificant incidents, the roeblings have been free from the nightmare of "labor troubles." it may be because its workmen have nothing worth while to complain of. every effort is made to make them comfortable without making them feel like dependents. it is the outworking of a great business theory. in these times it is of impressive significance. added to the pulp in the beating engine. _yellow._--_chrome yellow_--the paper pulp is first impregnated with acetate of lead, and potassium or sodium bichromate added. this precipitates the chromate of lead as a yellow pigment. _chrome orange_--the addition of caustic alkali to the bichromate solution converts the chrome yellow into an orange. _blue.--prussian blue_--the paper pulp impregnated with iron salts is treated with potassium ferrocyanide. the blue colour is at once obtained. _brown.--iron buff_--a light yellow-brown colour due to the precipitation of ferrous sulphate by means of an alkali. _bronze._--manganese chloride followed by caustic soda. soluble colours. (a) natural dyes. these colouring matters are now seldom used. _yellow and brown._--the vegetable extracts, such as fustic, quercitron, cutch, turmeric, have practically all been replaced by aniline colours. _red._--madder (turkey red), brazilwood, cochineal (a dye obtained from dried cochineal insects). safflower. _black_.--logwood, used in conjunction with an iron salt. cutch, used with an iron salt. (b) coal tar dyes. the dyeing and colouring of paper pulp by means of the artificial organic substances has become a matter of daily routine, the expensive natural dyes and the ordinary pigments having been almost completely superseded. the numerous colouring matters available may be classified either by reference to their chemical constitution or simply on general lines, having regard to certain broad distinctions. if the latter classification is taken, then the dyes familiar to the paper-maker may be divided into-- (a) acid dyes, so called because the full effect of the colouring matter is best obtained in a bath showing an acid reaction. (b) basic dyes, so called because the colour is best developed in an alkaline solution, without any excess of mordant. (c) substantive dyes, which do not require the use of a mordant, as the colour is fixed by the fibre without such reagents. some of the most frequently used colouring matters are shown in the accompanying table on page . the distinction between _acid_ and _basic_ dye-stuffs is largely due to certain characteristics possessed by many of them. thus magenta, which is the salt of the base known as rosaniline, belonging to the basic colouring matters, a group of dyes which do not possess the fastness of colour peculiar to acid dyes, has a limited application. but by treatment with sulphuric acid magenta is converted into an acid magenta, and this dye has wider application than the basic salt. similarly the basic dye called aniline blue is insoluble in water, and therefore has only a limited use, but by treatment with sulphuric acid it is converted into alkali blue, soluble blue and so on, which dissolve readily in water and are good fast colours. the acid dyes generally have a weaker colouring power than the basic dyes, but they produce very even shades. -------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------- colour.| acid. | basic. | substantive. -------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------- yellow | metanil yellow. | auramine. | cotton yellow. and | paper yellow. | chrysoidine. | chrysophenine. orange.| orange ii. | | | naphthol yellow s.| | | quinoline yellow. | | | | | red. | fast red a. | rhodamine. | congo red. | cotton scarlet. | paper scarlet. | benzopurpurin. | erythrine. | safranine. | oxamine red. | ponceau. | magenta. | | | | blue | water blue n. | methylene blue. | azo blue. and | fast blue. | victoria blue. | violet.| acid violet. | new blue. | | | indoine blue. | | | methyl violet. | | | crystal violet. | | | | brown | naphthylamine | bismarck brown. | | brown. | vesuvine. | | | | black | nigrosine. | coal black b. | | brilliant black b.| | | | | green | | diamond green. | | | malachite green.| -------+-------------------+-----------------+----------------- the difference in the composition of the basic and acid dyes is taken advantage of in the dyeing of paper pulp to secure a complete distribution of the colouring matter upon the pulp, with the result that the intensity of colour is increased, its fastness strengthened, and the process of dyeing generally rendered more economical. this is effected by the judicious addition of a suitable acid dye to the pulp already coloured with the basic dye. the direct colouring matters have but a very limited application for paper dyeing owing to their sensitiveness to acids and alkalies. in the colouring of paper pulp, attention is given to many important details, such as:-- _fading of colour._--some loss of colour almost invariably occurs even with dyes generally looked upon as fast to light. the shade or tint of the paper is affected not only by exposure to light, but by contact of the coloured paper with common boards on which it is often pasted. the alkalinity of straw boards, for example, is frequently one source of serious alteration of colour, and the acidity of badly made pastes and adhesives another. in all such cases, the dyes must be carefully selected in order to obtain a coloured paper which will show a minimum alteration in tint by exposure to light or by contact with chemical substances. this is particularly necessary in coloured wrapping paper used for soap, tea, cotton yarn, and similar goods. _unevenness of colour._--the different affinity of the various paper-making fibres for dyes is apt to produce an uneven colour in the finished paper. this is very noticeable in mixtures of chemical wood pulp or cellulose and mechanical wood pulp. the ligno-cellulose of the latter has a great affinity for basic dyes, and if the required amount of dye is added to a beater containing the mixed pulps in an insufficiently diluted form, the mechanical wood pulp becomes more deeply coloured than the cellulose. if the former is a finely ground pulp, the effect is not very noticeable, but if it is coarse, containing a large number of coarse fibres, then the paper appears mottled. the defect is still further aggravated when the paper is calendered, especially if calendered in a damp condition. in that case the strongly coloured fibres of mechanical wood are very prominent. when dyes have been carelessly dissolved and added to the beating engine without being properly strained, unevenness of colour may often be traced to the presence of undissolved particles of dye. _irregular colour of the two sides._--many papers exhibit a marked difference in the colour of the two sides. when heavy pigments are employed as the colouring medium, the under side of the sheet, that is, the side of the paper in contact with the machine wire, is often darker than the top side. the suction of the vacuum boxes is the main cause of this defect, though the amount of water flowing on to the wire, the "shake" of the wire, and the extent to which the paper is sized are all contributory causes. by careful regulation of these varying conditions the trouble is considerably minimised. the under surface of the paper is not invariably darker than the top surface. with pigments of less specific gravity the reverse is found to be the case. this is probably to be explained by the fact that some of the colouring matter from the under side is drawn away from the paper by the suction boxes, and the pigment on the top side is not drawn away to any serious extent, because the layer of pulp below it acts as a filter and promotes a retention of colour on the top side. it is interesting to notice that this irregularity sometimes occurs with soluble dyes, as for example in the case of auramine. the decomposition of this dye when heated to the temperature of boiling water is well known, and the contact of a damp sheet of paper coloured by auramine with the surfaces of steam-heated cylinders at a high temperature brings about a partial decomposition of the dye on one side of the paper. generally speaking, acid dyes are more sensitive to heat than basic dyes. the presence of china clay in a coloured paper is also an explanation of this irregular appearance of the two sides. china clay readily forms an insoluble lake with basic dyes, and when the suction boxes on the machine are worked with a high vacuum the paper is apt to be more deeply coloured one side than another. _the machine backwater._--economy in the use of dyes to avoid a loss of the colouring matter in the "backwater," or waste water from the paper machine, is only obtained by careful attention to details of manufacture on the one hand and by a knowledge of the chemistry of dyeing on the other. the loss is partly avoided by regulating the amount of water used on the machine, so that very little actually goes to waste, and further reduced by ensuring as complete a precipitation of the soluble dye as possible. the _acid_ dyes generally do not give a colourless backwater, and all pulps require to be heavily sized when acid dyes are used. the _basic_ dyes are more readily precipitated than the acid dyes, particularly if a suitable mordant is used, even with heavily coloured papers. the addition of an acid dye to pulp first coloured with a basic dye is frequently resorted to as a means of more complete precipitation. _dyeing to sample._--the matching of colours has been greatly simplified through the publication of pattern books by the firms who manufacture dyes, in which books full details as to the composition of the paper, the proportion of colour and the conditions for maximum effects are fully set out. the precise results obtained by treating paper pulp with definite proportions of a certain dye, or a mixture of several dyes, is determined by experimental trials. a definite quantity of moist partially beaten and sized pulp, containing a known weight of air-dry fibre, is mixed with a suitable volume of water at a temperature of ° to ° f. and the dye-stuff added from a burette in the form of a per cent. solution. if preferred a measured volume of a per cent. solution of the dye can be placed in a mortar, and the moist pulp, previously squeezed out by hand, added gradually and well triturated with the pestle. the dyed mixture is then suitably diluted with water, made up into small sheets of paper on a hand mould or a siphon mould, and dried. the effect of small additions of colour to the contents of a beating engine is frequently examined in a rough and ready way by the beaterman, who pours a small quantity of the diluted pulp on the edge of the machine wire while the machine is running. this gives a little rough sheet of paper very quickly. the comparison of the colour of a beaterfull of pulp with the sample paper which it is desired to match is also effected by reducing a portion of the paper to the condition of pulp, so that a handful of the latter can be compared with a quantity of pulp from the engine. this is not always a reliable process, especially with papers coloured by dyes which are sensitive to the heat of the paper machine drying cylinders. _detection of colours in papers._--the examination of coloured papers for the purpose of determining what dyes have been employed is a difficult task. with white papers which have been merely toned the proportion of dye is exceedingly small, and a large bulk of paper has to be treated with suitable solvents in order to obtain an extract containing sufficient dye for investigation. with coloured papers dyed by means of pigments, the colour of the ash left on ignition is some guide to the substance used, a red ash indicating iron oxide, a yellow ash chromate of lead, and so on. with papers dyed by means of coal tar colours the nature of the colouring matter may be determined by the methods of analysis employed for the examination of textile fibres. the following hints given by kollmann will be found useful:-- tear up small about grammes of paper, and boil it in alcohol, in a flask or a reflux condenser. this must be done before the stripping with water, so as to extract the size which would otherwise protect the dye from the water. of course the alcohol treatment is omitted with unsized paper. the paper is now boiled with from three to five lots of water, taking each time only just enough to cover the paper. this is done in the same flask after pouring off any alcohol that may have been used, and also with the reflux condenser. the watery extract is mixed with the alcohol extract (if any). three cases may occur:--( ) the dye is entirely stripped, or very nearly so. ( ) the dye is partly stripped, what remains on the fibres showing the same colour as at first or not. ( ) the dye is not stripped. to make sure of this the solution is filtered, as the presence in it of minute fragments of fibre deceive the eye as to the stripping action. in the first two cases the mixed solutions are evaporated down to one half on the water bath, filtered, evaporated further, and then precipitated by saturating it with common salt. the dye is thrown out at once, or after a time. it may precipitate slowly without any salt. the precipitated dye is filtered off and dried. to see whether it is a single dye or a mixture, make a not too dark solution of a little of it in water, and hang up a strip of filter paper so that it is partly immersed in the solution. if the latter contains more than one dye they will usually be absorbed to different heights, so that the strip will show bands of different colours crossing it. if it is found that there is only one dye, dissolve some of it in as little water as possible, and mix it with "tannin-reagent," which is made by dissolving equal weights of tannin and sodium acetate in ten times the weight of either of water. if there is a precipitate there is a basic dye, if not, an acid dye. in the former case mix the strong solution of the dye with concentrated hydrochloric acid and zinc dust, and boil till the colour is destroyed. then neutralise exactly with caustic soda, filter, and put a drop of the filtrate on to white filter paper. if the original colour soon reappears on drying, we draw the following conclusions:-- (_a_) the colour is red; the dye is an oxazine, thiazine, azine, or acridine dye, _e.g._, safranine. (_b_) it is orange or yellow; the dye is as in (_a_), _e.g._, phosphine. (_c_) it is green; the dye is as in (_a_), _e.g._, azine green. (_d_) it is blue; the dye is as in (_a_), _e.g._, nile blue, new blue, fast blue, or methylene blue. (_e_) it is violet; the dye is as in (_a_), _e.g._, mauveine. if the original colour does not reappear on drying, but does so if padded with a per cent. solution of chromic acid, we draw the following conclusions:-- (_a_) the colour is red; the dye is rhodamine or fuchsine, or one of their allies. (_b_) it is green; the dye is malachite green, brilliant green, or one of their allies. (_c_) it is blue; the dye is night blue, victoria blue, or one of their allies. (_d_) it is violet; the dye is methyl violet, crystal violet, or one of their allies. if the original colour does not reappear even with chromic acid, it was in most cases a yellow or a brown, referable to auramine, chrysoidine, bismarck brown, thioflavine, or one of their allies. if the tannin reagent produces no precipitate, reduce with hydrochloric acid and zinc, or ammonia and zinc, and neutralise and filter as in the case of a basic dye. the solution when dropped on to white filter paper may be bleached (_a_), may have become a brownish red (_b_), may have been imperfectly and slowly bleached (_c_), or may have undergone no change (_d_). (_a_) if the colour quickly returns the dye is azurine, indigo-carmine, nigrosine, or one of their allies. if it returns only on padding with a per cent. solution of chromic acid, warming, and holding over ammonia, some of the dye is dissolved in water mixed with concentrated hydrochloric acid, and shaken up with ether. if the ether takes up the dye, we have aurine, eosine, erythrine, phloxine, erythrosine, or one of their allies. if it does not, we have acid fuchsine, acid green, fast green, water blue, patent blue, or one of their allies. if the colour never returns, heat some of the dye on platinum foil. if it deflagrates with coloured fumes, the dye is aurantia, naphthol yellow s., brilliant yellow, or one of their allies. if it does not deflagrate, or very slightly, dissolve a little of the dye in one hundred times its weight of water, and dye a cotton skein in it at the boil for about fifteen minutes. then rinse and soap the skein vigorously. if the dyeing is fast with this treatment we have a substantive cotton yellow or thiazine red; if it is not, we have an ordinary azo dye. (_b_) the dye is an oxyketone, such as alizarine. (_c_) the dye is thiazol yellow, or one of its allies. (_d_) the dye is thioflavine s., quinoline yellow, or one of their allies. if the dye is not stripped by alcohol and water, it is either inorganic or an adjective dye, such as logwood black, cutch, fustic, etc.; and we proceed according to the colour as follows:-- if it is red or brown, the dyed fibre is dried and divided into two parts. one is boiled with bleaching powder. if it is bleached entirely or to a large extent, the dye is cutch. if the bleach has no action, incinerate some of the dyed fibre in an iron crucible and heat the ash on charcoal before the blowpipe. if a globule of lead is formed, we have saturn red. the second portion is boiled with concentrated hydrochloric acid. if there is no action, we have cologne umber; if there is partial action, we have real umber; if the dye dissolves completely to a yellow solution, we have an ochre; if the solution is colourless instead of yellow, and chlorine is evolved during solution, we have manganese brown. if the colour is yellow or orange, boil with concentrated hydrochloric acid. if we get a green solution and a white residue, we infer chrome yellow or orange. if we get a yellow solution, we boil it with a drop or two of nitric acid and then add some ammonium sulphocyanide. a red colour shows an ochre or sienna earth. if the colour is green, boil with caustic soda lye. if the fibre turns brown, we have chrome green. if no change takes place, boil with concentrated hydrochloric acid. a yellow solution shows green earth; a red colour logwood plus fustic. if the colour is blue or violet, boil with caustic soda lye. if the fibre turns brown, we have prussian blue. if no change takes place, boil with concentrated hydrochloric acid. a yellow solution shows smalts. if the colour is destroyed, and the smell of rotten eggs is developed, we have ultramarine. if the colour is black, warm with concentrated hydrochloric acid containing a little tin salt. if the black is unchanged, we have a black pigment. if we get a pink to deep red solution we have logwood black. by means of the tests above detailed at length the group to which the dye belongs is discovered, and often the actual dye itself. once the group is known it is generally easy, by means of the special reactions given in many books, _e.g._, in schultz and julius's "tabellarische Übersicht," to identify the particular dye. when one has to deal with a single dye and simply desires to determine its group, the following table, due to j. herzfeld, will suffice. originally intended for textiles, it will serve, with some modifications here made in it, for the rapid testing of paper. .--red and reddish brown dyes. boil the paper with a mixture of alcohol and sulphate of alumina. if no dye is extracted or a fluorescent solution is formed, we have an inorganic pigment, or eosine, phloxine, rhodamine, safranine, or one of their allies. add bleaching powder solution, and heat. if the paper is bleached, add concentrated hydrochloric acid. a violet colour shows safranine or an analogue. if there is no colour, but the fluorescence disappears, we have eosine, phloxine, rhodamine, or one of their allies. if the paper is not bleached test for inorganic colouring matters. cutch brown is partly but not entirely bleached. if the alumina solution gives a red or yellow solution without fluorescence, add to it concentrated sodium bisulphite. if bleaching takes place, heat a piece of the paper with dilute spirit. a red extract shows sandal wood, fuchsine, etc. if there is little or no extract, we have acid fuchsine or one of its allies. if the bisulphite causes no bleaching, boil a piece of the paper with very dilute hydrochloric acid. if the colour is unchanged, heat another piece of the paper with dilute acetate of lead. if no change takes place, we have an azo dye. if the colour turns to a dark brownish red, we have cochineal or the like. if the boiling with very dilute hydrochloric acid darkens the colour we have a substantive cotton dye. .--yellow and orange dyes. heat some of the paper with a not too dilute solution of tin salt in hydrochloric acid. if the colour is unchanged, with a colourless or yellow solution, boil some more paper with milk of lime. a change to reddish or brown shows turmeric or a congener. absence of change shows phosphine, quinoline yellow, or a natural dye-stuff. if the acid tin solution turns the paper red, and then quickly bleaches it to a pale yellow, we have fast yellow, orange iv., metanil yellow, brilliant yellow, or the like. if the tin turns the paper greyish, heat another portion with ammonium sulphide. a blackening shows a lead or iron yellow. if there is no change, we have naphthol yellow, auramine, azoflavine, orange ii., chrysoidine, or one of their allies. .--green dyes. heat a sample of the paper in dilute spirit. if the spirit acquires no colour, warm for a short time with dilute sulphuric acid. if both paper and solution become brownish red, we have logwood plus fustic. if this fails, boil with concentrated hydrochloric acid. a yellow solution shows green earth. if this fails, boil with concentrated caustic soda. browning shows chrome green. if the spirit becomes blue, it is a case of paper which has been topped with blue on a yellow, brown, or green ground. the solution and the insoluble part are separately tested. the case is probably one of an aniline blue dyed over a mineral pigment. if the spirit becomes green, heat with dilute hydrochloric acid. if the fibre is completely or nearly bleached, and the acid turns yellow, the dye is brilliant green, malachite green, or one of their allies. .--blue and violet dyes. heat some of the paper with dilute spirit. if the alcohol remains colourless, we have prussian blue or ultramarine. if it becomes blue or violet, shake some of the paper with concentrated sulphuric acid. a dirty olive green shows methylene blue, and a brownish colour shows spirit blue, water blue, victoria blue, methyl violet, etc. if the spirit turns yellow, and the colour of the paper changes, we have wood blue or wood violet. chapter xi paper mill machinery in the case of common printings and writings, which form the great bulk of the paper made, the possibility of one mill competing against another, apart from the important factor of the cost of freight, coal, and labour, is almost entirely determined by the economy resulting from the introduction of modern machinery. the equipment of an up-to-date paper mill, therefore, comprises all the latest devices for the efficient handling of large quantities of raw material, the economical production of steam, and the minimum consumption of coal, matters which are of course common to most industrial operations, together with the special machinery peculiar to the manufacture of paper. the amount of material to be handled may be seen from the table on page , which gives the approximate quantities for the weekly output of a common news and a good printing paper. _economy in coal consumption._--the reduction to a minimum of the amount of coal required for a ton of paper has been brought about by the use of appliances for the better and more regular combustion of the coal, such as mechanical stokers, forced and induced draught, the introduction of methods for utilising waste heat in flue gases by economisers, and the waste heat in exhaust steam and condensed water by feed-water heaters, the adoption of machines for securing the whole energy of the live steam by means of superheaters, adequate insulation of steam mains and pipes, high pressure boilers, and engines of most recent design. the firing of steam boilers is now conducted on scientific principles, the coal being submitted regularly to proper analysis for calorific value, the evaporative power of the boilers being determined at intervals by adequate trials, the condition of the waste flue gases being automatically table showing the materials required for news and printings. -----------------------------+--------------+------------------ -- | common news.| good printings. -----------------------------+---------------+----------------- weekly output of paper, say | tons | tons mechanical wood pulp, moist, | | per cent. dry | " | nil. chemical wood pulp, dry | " | tons esparto | nil. | " soda ash | nil. | " coal | tons | " lime | nil. | " china clay | tons | " bleach | nil. | " alum, rosin, and chemicals | tons | " water, per ton paper | , gallons| , gallons -----------------------------+---------------+----------------- _the sarco combustion recorder._--this instrument is a device which automatically records the percentage of carbonic acid gas in the waste gases from boiler furnaces. the flue gases are analysed at frequent and regular intervals, and the results of the analysis can be seen on a chart immediately, so that it is possible to determine the effect of an alteration in the firing of the boilers within two minutes of its taking place. the apparatus is rather complicated, but the principle upon which it is based is simple. measured quantities of the flue gases are drawn into graduated glass tubes and brought into contact with strong caustic soda solution, which absorbs all the carbonic acid gas. the remaining gases not absorbed by the caustic soda are automatically measured and the percentage of carbonic acid gas registered on the chart. the use of suitable boiler feed-water is also an important factor in modern steam-raising plant. the hot condensed water from the paper machine drying cylinders, and exhaust steam from the engines and steam-pipes, is returned to the stoke-hole to be utilised in heating up the cold water which has been previously softened by chemical treatment. [illustration: fig. .--conventional diagram of a water softening plant. a. water supply. b. regulating tank. c. lime mixer. d. soda tank. e. settling tank and filter. f. outlet for softened water. ] _water softening._--the water softeners available on the market are numerous, and as each possesses special advantages of its own, it would be almost invidious to select any one for particular notice. they are based upon the principle of mixing chemicals with the water to be treated, so as to precipitate the matters in solution and give a boiler feed-water free from carbonates and sulphates of lime and magnesia. the chemicals are added in the form of solutions of carefully regulated strength to the water, which flow in a continuous stream into a tank. the flow of the water and chemical reagent is adjusted by previous analysis. the various machines differ in details of construction, and in the methods by which the mixing of the water and reagents is effected. the object to be achieved is the complete precipitation of the dissolved salts and the production of a clear water, free from sediment, in an apparatus that will treat a maximum quantity of water at a cheap rate per , gallons. the process needs proper attention. the addition of reagents in wrong proportions will do more harm than good, and possibly result in hardening the water instead of softening it. the following may be quoted as an example:-- ----------------------+-----------+-----------+------------ composition of water. | before | after | change. | treatment.| treatment.| ----------------------+-----------+-----------+------------ calcium carbonate | · | · | · gain calcium oxide (lime) | · | · | · " calcium silicate | · | · | · " calcium sulphate | · | · | · " magnesia | · | · | · " ferric oxide, etc. | · | · | · " +-----------+-----------+------------ scale forming mineral| · | · | · gain +-----------+-----------+------------ calcium chloride | · | · | · gain magnesium chloride | · | · | · loss sodium chloride | · | · | · " +-----------+-----------+------------ soluble salts | · | · | · gain +-----------+-----------+------------ total mineral matter | · | · | · gain +-----------+-----------+------------ carbonic acid gas | · | · | · loss oxygen gas | · | · | · " ----------------------+-----------+-----------+------------ treatment required: · lbs. of lime, · lbs. soda ash per , gallons. apparently · lbs. of lime were being used and no soda (stromeyer). _superheated steam._--the effective application of the energy of the high pressure steam is probably one of the most important problems in paper mill economy. the use of superheated steam is being extended in every direction, and, in addition to the advantages obtained in the steam engine itself, its wider possibilities for the boiling of esparto, wood, and fibres generally have been noted. the following case may be quoted as the result of a trial at a paper mill, showing for stated conditions the advantages of superheated steam:-- --------------------------+-------------+---------- -- | superheated | ordinary | steam. | steam. --------------------------+-------------+---------- duration of test hours | | | | coal consumed (lbs.)-- | | per hour | · | · per h.-p. hour | · | · | | water evaporated (lbs.)-- | | per hour | , | , per h.-p. hour | · | · from and at ° f. | · | · | | steam, temperature f. | | pressure | · | · | | steam engine-- | | h.-p. total | · | · temperature f. | · | · | | coal used per h.-p.-- | | per hour at boiler | · | · --------------------------+-------------+---------- this appears to show a saving of per cent. _gas producers._--the substitution of gas for steam in the paper mill has not yet proved a success. the fact that heat is required for the drying cylinders of a paper machine, and that the heat is most cheaply and readily obtained in the form of exhaust steam from the engines driving the paper machine, militates considerably against economies which might otherwise be possible. the difficulties of heating such cylinders, or rather of properly controlling and regulating the temperature by any other means than steam, may easily be surmised. gas engines of over h.-p. seem to give considerable trouble at present, but no doubt in course of time the required improvements will be effected. it is generally supposed that gas producers can only be economical when utilised for the production of gas on a large scale, and for distribution to engines of smaller capacity than the main steam engine required in a paper mill. the peculiar conditions of the manufacture of paper do not appear to be favourable to the adoption of the gas producer system in its present form. _motive power._--the paper-maker has taken advantage of every modern improvement in steam engines for the purpose of reducing the cost of motive power. amongst other alterations in this direction the use of a high speed enclosed engine and the employment of the modern steam turbine may be noted. in the enclosed engine the working parts are boxed in by a casing fitted with oil-tight doors. the cranks and connecting rods splash into the oil, which is thus thrown about in all directions, so as to ensure sufficient lubrication. another feature of this engine is the variable speed, and it is possible to run the paper machine at speeds varying from to ft. per minute without the use of change wheels. _electrical driving._--the application of electricity for motive power has made steady advances in the paper mill. at first it was limited to the driving of machinery in which variations of speed or load were not required to any large extent, but of recent years beating engines, calenders, and paper machines have all been fitted with electrical drives. [illustration: fig. .--an "enclosed" steam engine.] the following details relate to the installation at the linwood paper mills:-- the installation consists of -k.w. steam dynamos. the engines are willan's high speed triple expansion, working with a boiler pressure of lbs. per square inch at the stop valve, the steam being superheated to give a temperature of ° fahr. at the engine. by means of jet condensers a vacuum of to ½ inches is obtained on the engines. the two boilers are of the babcock type, and have , square feet of heating surface each. the furnaces have chain grate stokers, and the boilers are arranged with their own superheaters. the motor equipment consists of eight , two , and ten b.h.p. motors. six of the b.h.p. drive the beating engines, and it has been found that the motors readily respond to an overload of per cent. without beating or other trouble. to remedy the excessive and sudden variation a belt drive was adopted. an motor drives the pulp refining engine. the two paper-making machines have each two motors, one a and a and the other two b.h.p. motors. the speed can be regulated with exactitude. the auxiliary plant of the paper-making machine, pumps, agitators, etc., is worked from lines of shafting driven by motors. calender motors are of the variable speed type, being designed to run from revolutions per minute to revolutions per minute. variations from to revolutions per minute can be regulated by the shunts, the loss being negligible. several of the motors are geared up to the various machines, as is the case with the calender. as regards cost, the capital outlay on the -k.w. generating plant, including engines, dynamos, boilers, condensers, steam pipes, filters, etc., and all engine room accessories, was £ , . [illustration: fig. .--an electrically driven paper machine.] in addition to the above, the plant also contains a parson's steam turbine of , k.w., driving two continuous current dynamos. [illustration: fig. .--diagram of the "eibel" process.] _the eibel patent._--one of the most important improvements in connection with the manufacture of newspaper is the eibel process, designed to increase the speed of the machine and to reduce the amount of suction at the vacuum box. in the ordinary machine the wire has usually been arranged to move in a horizontal plane. in some machines means have been provided for adjusting the breast-roll end of the wire to different elevations to provide for dealing with different grades of stock, but the wire has never hitherto been so inclined as to cause the paper stock to travel at a speed, under the action of gravity, to equal or approximate the speed of the wire. in all previous methods of working, the wire has for a considerable portion of its length, starting from the breast-roll, drawn the stock along in consequence of the wire moving much faster than the stock, and the stock has waved, or rippled, badly near the breast-roll end of the wire. this has gradually diminished until an equilibrium has been established and an even surface obtained, but not until the waving or rippling has ceased at some considerable distance from the breast-roll have the fibres become laid uniformly, and the machines have therefore necessarily been run slowly to give ample time for the water to escape and for the fibres to lie down so as to make them a uniform sheet. in many cases the breast-roll has been raised or inches, and the stock rushes, as it were, downhill. as, during the formation of the paper, the stock and the wire practically do not move relatively to each other, there is no drag of the stock upon the wire; consequently there is a more rapid and uniform drainage of the water from the stock, the full influence of the "shake" is made effective to secure uniformity in the distribution and interlocking of the fibres, and the regularity of the formation of the paper is not disturbed by waves or currents, which would otherwise be caused by pull of the wire upon the stock. this ingenious device is now working successfully in many paper mills. _machinery._--in setting out the plant necessary for a paper mill which is designed to produce a given quantity of finished paper, the manufacturer takes into consideration the class of paper to be made and the raw material to be employed. the following schedule has been prepared on such a basis:-- plant and machinery for high-class printings. _paper._ high-class printings made of wood pulp and esparto, used alone or blended in varying proportions as required. quantity, tons weekly. _raw material._ esparto; chemical wood pulp. quantity: esparto, about tons; wood pulp, to . china clay and usual chemicals. in the estimation of materials required for the production of about tons of paper, it is assumed that the tons of esparto fibre will yield tons bleached esparto fibre, and that the mechanical losses which take place during manufacture are counterbalanced by the weight of china clay added to the pulp. these conditions naturally vary in different mills, but such variations do not affect the schedule of machinery. _unloading sheds._ steam or electric cranes for handling fibre, clay, alum, bleach, rosin, coal, and finished paper. -ton weighbridge. -cwt. platform scales. _steam plant._ -ft. by -ft. lancashire boilers. fuel economiser. feed-water pump and tank. water softening apparatus. -h.-p. main steam engine, for fibre departments and beater floor. _chemical department._ hoist for clay, alum, bleach, lime, &c. causticising pans, ft. diameter, ft. deep. storage tanks. chalk sludge filter presses. clay-mixing vats, ft. diameter, ft. deep. starch mixer, ft. diameter, ft. deep. size boiler, ft. diameter, ft. deep. size storage tanks, , gallons each. bleach-mixing vats. bleach liquor settling tanks. clear bleach liquor storage tanks. alum dissolving tank. _recovery department_:-- _soda._ multiple effect evaporating plant. rotary furnace. lixiviating tanks, , gallons each. storage tanks for clear liquor from lixiviating tanks, , gallons capacity. _fibre._ tanks for receiving machine backwater. fullner's stuff catchers, or some other system of treating backwater. filter presses. _esparto department._ esparto duster. travelling conveyer for cleaned esparto. sinclair vomiting boilers, each of tons capacity. measuring tanks for caustic liquor. washing engines, cwt. capacity. tower bleaching engines. presse-pâte. galvanised iron trucks. _wood pulp department._ pulp disintegrators and pumps. tower bleaching engines. washing tanks or drainers. galvanised iron trucks. _beater floor._ , -lbs. beating engines. marshall refiners. galvanised iron trucks. _paper machine room._ paper machines, in. wide, with stuff chests, strainers, and engines complete. paper machine, in. wide, with stuff chests, strainers, and engines complete. patent dampers for each machine. _calendering room._ -in. supercalenders. -in. supercalenders. -reel cutters. -h.-p. main steam engine. _finishing room._ sorting tables. packing press. weighing machine. _repairs department._ usual repair outfit, such as lathes, planing machine, drilling tools, etc. blacksmith's shop outfit. carpenter's shop outfit. calender roll grinder. _water supply._ main storage tank, , gallons capacity. water pumps. piping and connections to various departments. bell's patent filters (if necessary). chapter xii the deterioration of paper recent complaints about the quality of paper and the rapid decay of manuscripts and papers have resulted in arousing some interest in the subject of the durability of paper used for books and legal documents, and in the equally important question of the ink employed. the society of arts and the library association in england and the imperial paper testing institute in germany have already appointed special committees of inquiry, and from this it is evident that the subject is one of urgent importance. it is sometimes argued that the lack of durability is due to the want of care on the part of manufacturers in preserving the knowledge of paper-making as handed down by the early pioneers, but such an argument is superficial and utterly erroneous. the quality of paper, in common with the quality of many other articles of commerce, has suffered because the demand for a really good high-class material is so small. the general public has become accustomed to ask for something cheap, and since the reduction in price is only rendered possible by the use of cheap raw material and less expensive methods of manufacture, the paper of the present day, with certain exceptions, is inferior to that of fifty years ago. the causes which favour the deterioration of paper are best understood by an inquiry into the nature of the fibres and other materials used and the methods of manufacture employed. _the fibres used._--cotton and linen rags stand preeminent amongst vegetable fibres as being the most suitable for the production of high-class paper capable of withstanding the ravages of time. this arises from the fact that cotton and linen require the least amount of chemical treatment to convert them into paper pulp, since they are almost pure cellulose, cotton containing · per cent. of air-dry cellulose, and flax · per cent. the processes through which the raw cotton and flax are passed for the manufacture of textile goods are of the simplest character, and the rags themselves can be converted into paper without chemical treatment if necessary. as a matter of fact certain papers, such as the o. w. s. and other drawing papers, are manufactured from rags without the aid of caustic soda, bleach, or chemicals. the rags are carefully selected, boiled for a long time in plain water, broken up and beaten into pulp, and made up into sheets by purely mechanical methods. the liability of papers to decay, in respect of the fibrous composition, is almost in direct proportion to the severity of the chemical treatment necessary to convert the raw material into cellulose, and the extent of the deviation of the fibre from pure cellulose is a measure of the degradation which is to be expected. the behaviour of the fibres towards caustic soda or any similar hydrolytic agent serves to distinguish the fibres of maximum durability from those of lesser resistance. it may be noted that in the former the raw materials, viz., cotton, linen, hemp, ramie, etc., contain a high percentage of pure cellulose, while in the latter the percentage of cellulose is very much lower, such fibres as esparto, straw, wood, bamboo, etc., giving only - per cent. of cellulose. the two extremes are represented by pure cotton rag and mechanical wood pulp. other things being equal, the decay which may take place in papers containing the fibre only, without the admixture of size or chemicals, may be considered as one of oxidation, which takes place slowly in cotton, and much more rapidly with mechanical wood pulp. experimental evidence of this oxidation is afforded when thin sheets of paper made from these materials are exposed to a temperature of ° to ° c. in an air oven. the cotton paper is but little affected, while the mechanical wood pulp paper soon falls to pieces. the order of durability of various papers in relation to the fibrous constituents may be expressed thus: ( ) rag cellulose; ( ) chemical wood cellulose; ( ) esparto, straw, and bamboo celluloses; ( ) mechanical wood pulp. the rate and extent of oxidation is approximately shown by the effect of heat as described. the differences between the celluloses are also shown by heating strips of various papers in a weak solution of aniline sulphate, which has no effect on wood or rag cellulose, dyes esparto and straw a pinkish colour, and imparts a strong yellow colour to mechanical wood pulp and jute. _physical qualities._--the permanence of a paper depends not only upon the purity of the fibrous constituents and the freedom from chemicals likely to bring about deterioration, but also upon the general physical properties of the paper itself. other things being equal, the more resistant a paper is to rough usage the longer will it last. the reason why rag papers are so permanent is that not only is the chemical condition of the cellulose of the highest order, but the physical structure of the fibre is such that the strength of the finished paper is also a maximum. the methods of manufacture may be modified to almost any extent, giving on the one hand a paper of extraordinary toughness, or on the other hand a paper which falls to pieces after a very short time. thus a strong bank-note paper may be crumpled up between the fingers three or four hundred times without tearing, while an imitation art paper is broken up when crumpled three or four times. a thorough study of the physical qualities of a paper is therefore necessary to an appreciation of the conditions for durability. the physical structure of the fibre, the modifications produced in it by beating, the effect of drying, sizing, and glazing upon the strength and elasticity of the finished paper, are some of the factors which need to be considered. _strength._--the strength of a paper as measured by the tensile strain required to fracture a strip of given width, and the percentage of elongation which the paper undergoes when submitted to tension, are properties of the utmost importance. the elasticity, that is, the amount of stretch under tension, has not received the attention from paper-makers that it deserves. if two papers of equal tensile strength differ in elasticity, it may be taken for granted that the paper showing a greater percentage of elongation under tension is the better of the two. the strength of a paper, as already indicated, is greatly influenced by the conditions of manufacture. this has been explained in the chapter devoted to the subject of beating, and other examples are briefly given in the following paragraphs. _bulk._--the manufacture during recent years of light bulky papers for book production has accentuated the problem in a marked degree, and the factor of _bulk_ as one of the causes of deterioration is therefore a comparatively new one. it is interesting to notice that the rapid destruction of such books by frequent use is in no way related to the chemical purity of the cellulose of which it is composed, or to the influence of any chemical substance associated with the fibre. it is purely a mechanical question, to be explained by reference to the process of manufacture. this paper is made from esparto entirely, or from a mixture of esparto and wood pulp. the pulp is beaten quickly, and for as short a time as possible, little or no china clay being added, and only a very small percentage of rosin size. the wet sheet of paper is submitted to very light pressure at the press rolls, and the bulky nature is preserved by omitting the ordinary methods of calendering. the paper thus produced consists of fibres which are but little felted together. the physical condition and structure of the paper are readily noticeable to the eye, and when these peculiarities are reduced to numerical terms the effect of the conditions of manufacture is strikingly displayed. the effect of this special treatment is best seen by contrasting the bulky esparto featherweight paper with the normal magazine paper made from esparto. in the latter case a smoother, heavier, stronger sheet of paper is made from identically the same raw material. but the pulp is beaten for a longer period, while mineral matter and size are added in suitable proportions. the press rolls and calenders are used to the fullest extent. the difference between these two papers, both consisting, as they do, of pure esparto with a small proportion of ash may be emphasised by comparing the analysis by _weight_ with analysis by _volume_. the two papers in question when analysed by weight proved to have the following composition:-- -------------------------------------------- | parts by weight. +----------------+------------ -- | featherweight. | ordinary. --------------+----------------+------------ esparto fibre | · | · ash, etc | · | · | ----- | ----- | · | · --------------+----------------+------------ but if the papers are compared in terms of the _composition by volume_, it will be found that the featherweight contains a large amount of air space. --------------+----------------------------- | composition by volume. +----------------+------------ -- | featherweight. | ordinary. --------------+----------------+------------ esparto fibre | · | · ash, etc | · | · air space | · | · | ----- | ----- | · | · --------------+----------------+------------ in other words, the conditions of manufacture for the bulky paper are such that the fibres are as far apart from one another as possible, and the cohesion of fibre to fibre is reduced to a minimum. while paper of this description is agreeable to the printer, and probably to the general reading public, yet its strength and physical qualities, from the point of view of resistance to wear and tear, are of the lowest order. it is very difficult to rebind books made from it, which is not altogether to be wondered at, seeing that the bookbinder's stitches can hardly be expected to hold together sheets containing to per cent. of air space. this concrete case emphasises the necessity for including in a schedule of standards of quality a classification of papers according to strength and bulk. _surface._--the introduction of new methods of printing has brought about some changes in the process of glazing and finishing paper which are not altogether favourable to the manufacture of a sheet having maximum qualities of strength and elasticity, two conditions which are essential to permanence. in other words, the very high finish and surface imparted to paper by plate-glazing, supercalendering, water finish, and other devices of a similar character is carried to excess. all papers are improved in strength by glazing up to a certain point, but over-glazing crushes the paper, renders it brittle and liable to crack. unfortunately, the maximum strength of a paper is generally reached before the maximum of finish, with the result that the former is frequently sacrificed to the latter. the usual result of glazing is found in an increase of to per cent. in the tensile strength, but a diminution of elasticity to the extent of to per cent. with supercalendered magazine papers, the high surface is imparted for the sake of the illustrations which are produced by methods requiring it. the addition of considerable quantities of clay or mineral substances improves the finish, so that the question of the relation of glazing to strength, surface, and loading is one which affects the subject of deterioration of paper very materially. with writing paper the false standard of an "attractive" appearance is almost universally accepted by the public as the basis of purchase without any reference to actual quality. _mineral substances._--china clay, sulphate of lime, agalite and other inert mineral substances are important factors in lowering the quality of paper, not so much in promoting the actual deterioration of paper by any chemical reaction with the fibres, as in making the paper less capable of resistance to the influence of atmospheric conditions and ordinary usage. clay in small, well-defined quantities serves a useful purpose, if added to some papers, because it favours the production of a smooth surface, but when the combination of mineral substances is carried to an extreme, then the result from the point of view of permanence is disastrous. this is well recognised by all paper-makers, and in germany the limits of the amount of clay or loading in high-grade paper have been rigidly fixed. in the case of _imitation art_ paper, which contains to per cent. of its weight of clay, the strength and resistance of the sheet is reduced to a minimum. the paper falls to pieces if slightly damped, the felting power of the fibres being rendered of no effect owing to the weakening influence of excessive mineral matter. this paper is used chiefly for catalogues, programmes, circulars, and printed matter of a temporary and evanescent character, and so long as it is confined to such objects it serves a useful purpose, being cheap, and suitable for the production of illustrations by means of the half-tone process; but its lasting qualities are of the lowest order. the addition of per cent. of any mineral substance must be regarded as the maximum allowance for papers intended for permanent and frequent use. _coating material._--the ingenious method for producing an absolutely even surface on paper by the use of a mixture of clay or other mineral substance and an adhesive like glue or casein brushed on to the surface of the paper, is responsible for many of the complaints about the papers of the present day. the sole merit of this substance is the facility with which half-tone process blocks can be utilised for the purpose of picture production. beyond this, nothing can be said. the paper is brittle, susceptible to the least suspicion of dampness, with a high polish which in artificial light produces fatigue of the reader's eye very quickly, heavy to handle, and liable to fall to pieces when bound up in book form. as the fibrous material is completely covered by mineral substances, it is frequently considered of secondary importance, with the result that the "value" of the paper is judged entirely by the surface coating, with little regard to the nature of the body paper. in such cases, with an inferior body paper, the pages of a book very quickly discolour, and the letterpress becomes blurred. analysis of a typical art paper. ---------+-----------+-----------+------------ | per cent. | | volume -- | by | -- | composition | weight. | | per cent. ---------+-----------+-----------+------------ fibre | · | fibre | · ash, etc.| · | ash | · | | air space | · | ----- | | ----- | · | | · ---------+-----------+-----------+------------ _rosin._--the presence of an excess of rosin is a well-known factor in the disintegration of the paper, even when the fibrous composition is of the highest order. the decomposition is largely due to the action of light, many experiments having been made by herzberg and others to determine the nature of the reactions taking place. one of the chief alterations is the change brought about in the ink-resisting qualities of the paper. the actual character of the chemical reactions as far as the effect on the fibre is concerned is not accurately known. the degradation of a hard-sized rosin paper by exposure to strong sunlight, for example, is probably due to the alteration in the rosin size, and not to any material change in the cellulose. it is hardly conceivable that in a pure rag paper sized with rosin and yielding readily to ink penetration, after about one year's exposure to light, the cellulose itself had undergone any chemical changes capable of detection. _gelatine._--papers properly sized with gelatine are preferable to those sized with rosin for the majority of books and documents preserved under normal circumstances. but the nature of a tub-sized paper may be, and often is, greatly altered by unusual climatic conditions. in hot, damp countries papers are quickly ruined, and high-class drawing papers sized with gelatine often rendered useless. the change is scarcely visible on the clean paper, and is only observed when the paper is used for water-colour work, the colour appearing blotchy in various parts of the sheet where the gelatine has been decomposed by the united action of heat and damp. the artist is frequently compelled in such cases to put a layer of heavy white colour on the sheet of paper before proceeding to paint the picture. the storage of books under favourable conditions has a great deal to do with the permanence of the paper, and the degradation of a paper in relation to the tub-sizing qualities is much hastened by the presence of moisture in the air. _starch._--the same is true of starch, which is largely employed as a binding or sizing material in paper. the degradation of gelatine, starch, and similar nitrogenous substances is due to the action of organisms, and the following experiments, suggested by cross, are interesting in this connection. if strips of paper are put into stoppered bottles with a small quantity of warm water and kept at a temperature of about ° f., fungus growths will be noticed on some of them after the lapse of fourteen days. rag papers sized with gelatine will show micro-organisms of all kinds. a pure cellulose paper, like filter paper, will not produce any such effects. the result in the first case is due to the nitrogenous substance, viz., the gelatine used in sizing, since the two papers are identical as far as the cellulose fibres are concerned. high-class wood pulp papers, unless sized with gelatine, would not show similar results. the action of the organisms upon the nitrogenous material by a process of hydrolysis is in the direction of the production of soluble compounds allied to the starch sugars capable of being assimilated by organisms. the cellulose of esparto and straw are readily attacked, and it is on this account that the tissues of the various straws are digested more or less when eaten by animals. it is for this reason that the celluloses from straw and esparto are inferior to the cotton cellulose in producing a paper likely to be permanent. _chemical residues._--the necessity for manufacturing a pure cellulose half-stuff is fully recognised by paper-makers. this was not the case in the early days of the manufacture of wood pulp, for it is a matter of common experience that many of the books printed on wood pulp paper between and are in a hopeless condition, and it is quite easy to find books and periodicals of that date the pages of which crumble to dust when handled. this serious defect has been proved to be due to the presence of traces of chemicals used in manufacture which have not been thoroughly removed from the pulp. the precautions necessary in bleaching pulp by means of chloride of lime, in order to prevent ( ) any action between the fibre and the calcium hypochlorite, ( ) the presence of residual chlorine or soluble compounds derived from it, and ( ) the presence of by-products arising from the use of an antichlor, are also well known to paper-makers. the subject has been closely studied by chemists, who have shown that the deterioration of many modern papers may be ascribed to carelessness in bleaching. the questions relating to the chemical residues of paper can only be adequately dealt with by a discussion of actual cases which arise from time to time. there are certain conditions in manufacture, common to all papers, which may give rise to the presence of chemical residues, of which two have already been mentioned. the acidity of papers is frequently quoted as an instance. it is true that the presence of free acid in a paper is most undesirable, as it seriously attacks the cellulose, converting it into an oxidised form. this in course of time renders the paper so brittle as to destroy its fibrous character. the change is brought about by the acid, which itself suffers no material alteration, so that the process of deterioration is continued almost indefinitely until the cellulose is completely oxidised. most papers, however, show an acid reaction when tested with litmus, the usual reagent employed by those not familiar with the proper methods of testing paper. all papers which have been treated with an excess of alum for sizing purposes would show an acid reaction with litmus without necessarily containing any free acid. the presence of iron is undesirable, particularly in photographic papers, and since cellulose has a remarkable affinity for iron, the conditions of manufacture which tend to leave iron in the pulp have to be taken into consideration. the presence of minute quantities of iron in the form of impurities must not be confused with the presence of iron in large quantities derived from the toning and colouring of paper by means of iron salts. the fading of colour is frequently observed when coloured papers are tested on boxboards, particularly those made of straw. this fading may often be traced to the presence of alkali in the straw board which has not been completely removed in the process of manufacture. the blurring of letterpress is a defect which often occurs with printing papers made of chemical wood pulp. the oil in the ink seems to separate out on either side of the letter, producing a discoloration. in such cases the paper itself frequently exhibits an unpleasant smell. these defects are usually determined by the presence of traces of sulphur compounds in the paper resulting from incomplete washing of the pulp in manufacture. the presence of sulphur compounds sometimes associates itself with papers which have been coloured by means of ultramarine, which in presence of alum is slightly decomposed by the heat of the drying cylinders. some knowledge of the effect of chemical residues in paper is important, not only in regard to the deterioration which takes place in the fibre itself, but also in relation to the fading of the ink which is used. the subject of the ink has received much attention from chemists on account of the serious difficulties which have been experienced by state departments in various countries. the united states department of agriculture have devised certain methods for ascertaining the suitability of stamping ink used by the government and suggest the qualities desirable in such an ink. the ink, first of all, must produce an indelible cancellation; that is, it must be relatively indelible as compared with the ink used for printing the postage stamps. the post-mark made with the ink must dry quickly in order that the mail matter may be handled immediately without any blurring or smearing of the post-mark. both this property and the property of the indelibility involve the question of the rate at which the ink penetrates or is absorbed by the fibre of the paper. a satisfactory ink does not harden or form a crust on the ink-pad on exposure to air. there must be no deposition of solid matter on the bottom of the vessel in which the ink is stored, and the pigments on which the indelibility of the ink depends, if insoluble, must not settle out in such a way as to make it possible to pour off from the top of the container a portion of the ink which contains little or none of the insoluble pigment or pigments. _colour._--if the subject of deterioration of paper is to be considered in its broadest sense as including changes of any kind, the fading of colour must be taken into account. the use of aniline dyes which are not fast to light results in a loss of colour in paper just as with textiles, and the fading may be regarded as a function of the dye and not as arising from its combination with the paper. the gradual fading of some dyes, however, and of many water-colour pigments may be traced to the presence of residual chemicals in the paper and to the presence of moisture in an atmosphere impregnated with gaseous or suspended impurities. in fact the latter is a greater enemy to permanence of colour than light, since it has been proved by experiment that most colours do not fade when exposed to light in a vacuum. the oxygen of the air in combination with the moisture present is the principal agent in bringing about such changes. the dulling of bronze, or imitation gold leaf, on cover papers is a practical illustration of this, though this can hardly be quoted as an instance of actual deterioration of the paper. the maintenance of the original colour can only be assured by the careful selection of pure fibrous material, the use of fast dyes, and the preservation of the book or painting from the conditions which favour the fading as described above. for common papers such precautions become impossible, but for water-colour drawings and valuable papers they are essential. the demand for an abnormally white paper is indirectly the cause of deterioration in colour, but in this case the ultimate effect is not a fading but a discoloration of white to a more or less distinct yellow or brown colour, due to changes in the fibre which may often be traced to excessive bleaching. in this case the fading of colour is directly due to deterioration of the paper itself, and may occur in celluloses of the best type. with lower-grade papers containing mechanical wood pulp the degradation of colour and fibre is inevitable. _air and moisture._--the exact effects produced on paper freely exposed, or in books as ordinarily stored, depend upon the condition of the atmosphere. pure air has little or no action upon paper, cellulose being a remarkably inert substance, and even in impure mechanical wood pulp, if merely exposed to pure dry air, the signs of decay would be delayed considerably. the combined action of air and moisture is of a more vigorous character in promoting oxidation changes in the fibres, or a dissociation of the sizing and other chemical ingredients of the paper. the presence of moisture is, indeed, absolutely essential for the reaction of some substances upon one another, and it is easy to show that certain chemical compounds can be left in ultimate contact, if absolutely dry, for a lengthened period without reacting, but the addition of a little moisture at once produces chemical union. this may be shown by a simple experiment. thus a piece of coloured paper which may be bleached immediately if suspended in an atmosphere of ordinary chlorine gas will remain unbleached for several hours if first thoroughly dried in an oven and exposed to dry gas. in the case of books and papers, these conditions which promote slow disintegration are aggravated by the presence of impurities in the air, such as the vapours of burning gas, the traces of acidity in the atmosphere of large manufacturing towns, the excessive dampness and perhaps heat of a climate favouring the growth of organisms. all these factors are of varying degrees in different places, so that the deterioration of papers does not proceed in the same measure and at the same rate everywhere. _moisture._--it may not be out of place to discuss some important relations between moisture and the physical qualities of a sheet of paper. a paper in its normal condition always contains a certain proportion of water as one of its ingredients, and the presence of this moisture has much to do with the strength, elasticity, and use of the paper, the absence of moisture giving rise to defects and troubles in the use of the paper which to a certain extent lower its commercial value and deteriorate it, though not perhaps in the sense of permanent degradation of quality. one trouble frequently experienced by stationers and others is that known as wavy edges. the edges of a stack containing sheets of paper piled upon one another frequently twist and curl, producing what are known as wavy edges. this arises from the fact that the paper when manufactured was deficient in natural moisture, and that when stacked it has gradually absorbed moisture, which is taken up first by the edges exposed to the air. this causes unequal expansion of the fibres with the production of the so-called wavy edges. the only remedy in such cases is the free exposure of the sheets before printing, so that the moisture is absorbed equally all over the sheet. the cracked edges of envelopes may be explained by reference to the same conditions. the paper is worked up into envelopes in an over-dry condition, and the fibres, being somewhat brittle, readily break apart from one another. if the paper is kept in stock for some time before use this defect can be very largely remedied. with supercalendered papers it is only possible to obtain the best results by allowing the paper to stand for several days after making before it is glazed. it is evident from these few examples that many of the troubles experienced by printers are due to the fact that orders for paper are frequently accompanied by an instruction for immediate delivery, under which circumstances it is impossible to obtain the best results. the expansion of papers used for lithography, and the bad register frequently seen in colour work, may be explained by reference to the behaviour of the individual fibres towards moisture. the expansion is usually greater in one direction of the paper than in the direction at right angles to it, and this is due to the fact that fibres have a greater ratio of expansion in the diameter than in the length. the behaviour of papers when damped is a peculiarity well known to paper-makers and printers. for certain purposes it is desirable that paper should not show any material alteration when damped, since any expansion of the sheet is liable to throw the printing out of "register." the liability of papers to such stretch or expansion is largely minimised by careful manipulation of the pulp during the process of beating, and also by a proper regulation of the web of paper as it passes from the wet end of the paper machine over the drying cylinders to the calenders. the paper which fulfils the necessary qualifications as to a minimum stretch is prepared from pulp which has not been beaten for too long a period, so that the pulp obtained is fairly light and bulky. by this means the expansion of the fibres takes place in the sheet itself without making any material alteration in its size. that is to say, as the sheet of paper is fairly _open_, there is sufficient room for expansion, which thus takes place with the least alteration of the total area of the sheet. the paper which is allowed to shrink on the machine during the process of drying, without undue tension, usually exhibits a minimum amount of expansion subsequently in printing. it is important to notice that the expansion of paper is different for the two directions, that is for the machine and cross directions. this arises from the fact that in the machine-made paper the greater proportion of the fibres point in the direction of the machine while the paper is being made. in consequence of this the expansion of the paper is greatest in what is known as the cross direction of the paper, that is, in the direction at right angles to the flow of the pulp along the machine wire. this is to be explained by reference to the behaviour of fibres when damped or brought into contact with an excess of water. the question of the exact changes in the dimensions of a fibre due to absorption of water has been dealt with in an interesting manner by hohnel. he points out that the well-known peculiarity of the shrinkage of ropes which have been lying in the water can be explained by an examination of the behaviour of the single fibres. he relates in detail the experiment which can be carried out for the exact observation of the fibres when in contact with water. a dry fibre when soaked in water appears to become to per cent. greater in diameter, whereas in length it is usually only increased by one-tenth per cent. the method adopted by hohnel was to place a fibre of convenient length on a glass slip down the centre of which was a fine narrow groove capable of holding water, so that the fibre could be wetted. over the fibre was a cover glass with a small scale marked on it. the loose end of the fibres passed over a small roller and was stretched by a light weight. the movements of the fibre were measured by means of an eye-piece micrometer. in this way it is possible to determine alterations in length to within · per cent., and this variation can be directly seen under the microscope. hohnel observes in his account of the experiments that all fibres become thicker when wetted, that vegetable fibres are more susceptible than animal fibres. animal fibres expand about to per cent. in diameter, but vegetable fibres as much as per cent., as shown in the following table:-- -------------+----------+------------------+---------- animal fibre.| per cent.| vegetable fibre. | per cent. -------------+----------+------------------+---------- human hair | · | new zealand flax | · angora wool | · | aloe hemp | · alpaca wool | · | hemp | · tussah silk | · | cotton | · -------------+----------+------------------+---------- the reverse is the case when the expansion of the fibres in regard to length is considered, since animal fibres expand · to · per cent. of their length, and vegetable fibres only · to · per cent. the maximum amount of expansion in the case of the vegetable fibres is obtained by gently breathing upon them rather than by the use of an excess of water. these figures are important as explaining many of the peculiar characteristics of vegetable and animal fibres. advantage is taken of the greater expansion of the latter in the manufacture of instruments for the measurement of moisture, such as the hair hygrometer, in which the elongation of a stretched hair registers the variation in the moisture of the atmosphere. _quality of book papers._--the committee of the society of arts in dealing with the evidence as to the permanence of finished papers suggest the following classification as indicating the desired standards of quality:-- (a) classification as to fibres. a. cotton, flax, and hemp. b. wood celluloses, (_a_) sulphite process, and (_b_) soda and sulphate process. c. esparto and straw celluloses. d. mechanical wood pulp. the committee find little fault with the principles which govern the trade in the manufacture of high-class papers, and limit the result of their investigation to the suggestion of a normal standard of quality for book papers required in documents of importance according to the following schedule:-- _fibres._--not less than per cent. of fibres of class a. _sizing._--not more than per cent. rosin, and finished with the normal acidity of pure alum. _loading._--not more than per cent. total mineral matter (ash). with regard to written documents, it must be evident that the proper materials are those of class a, and that the paper should be pure, sized with gelatine and not with rosin. all imitations of high-class writing papers, which are in fact merely disguised printing papers, should be carefully avoided. these recommendations are good as far as they go, but in order to establish the proper standards of quality some specifications must be laid down with regard to the strength of the paper and its physical properties, together with a reference to the use for which the paper is intended. the physical condition of the paper itself apart from the nature of the fibre has much to do with its resistance to wear and tear, and this is easily proved by comparing modern book papers made from esparto with book papers of an earlier date made from the same material. the only official schedule of requirements in relation to public documents is that issued by the stationery office. the details set out relate chiefly to questions of weight and strength, the limits being expressed in definite form and not allowing much margin for variation in respect of strength or fibrous constituents. mechanical wood pulp is excluded in all papers except common material as stated in the schedule. the papers required for stock are divided into twelve classes. in each class the trade names of various sized papers are given, the size of the sheet and the weight of the ream, and, where required, any special characteristics are set out. the schedule is as follows:-- _class . hand-made or mould-made._ _general specification._--hand-made or mould-made. animal tub-sized. ("hand-made" or "mould-made" to be marked on the wrapper.) where special water-marking is required mould will be supplied by the stationery office for those papers made by hand. _class . writings, air-dried._ _general specification._--plate rolled. machine made. animal tub-sized. air-dried. (must bear ink after erasure.) _note._--the mean breaking strain and mean stretch required are given for each paper. the figures represent the mean of the results obtained for both directions of the sheet, and are calculated on a strip of paper five-eighths of an inch wide and having a free length of seven inches between the clips. _class . writings, ordinary._ _general specification._--rolled. machine-made. animal tub-sized. _class . writings, coloured._ _specification._--highly rolled. machine-made. animal tub-sized. _class . blotting papers._ _specification._--all rag. machine-made. free from loading. _class . printing and lithographic papers._ _general specification._--rolled. machine-made. engine-sized. loading not to exceed per cent. _class . coloured printings._ _general specification._--rolled. machine-made. engine-sized. _class . copying and tissue papers._ _specification._--machine-made. free from loading. (copying papers are required to give three good copies.) _class . brown papers, air-dried._ _specification._--air-dried. machine-made. _note._--the mean breaking strain and mean stretch required are given for each paper. the figures represent the mean of the results obtained for both directions of the sheet, and are calculated on a strip of paper two inches wide and having a free length of seven inches between the clips. in the case of papers indicating a larger breaking strain than the minimum required, a proportional increase in the stretch must also be shown. _class . brown paper, cylinder-dried._ _general specification._--machine-made. _note._--the mean breaking strain required is given for each paper. the figures represent the mean of the results obtained for both directions of the sheet, and are calculated on a strip of paper two inches wide and having a free length of seven inches between the clips. _class . smallhands._ _general specification._--machine-made. engine-sized. _class . buff papers._ _specification._--highly finished both sides. machine-made. hard engine-sized. mechanical wood pulp must not be used in the manufacture of any papers, with the exception of engine-sized coloured printings, and buff papers, where an addition up to per cent. will be allowed. all animal tub-sized papers are required to be as far as possible free from earthy matter; and, except where specially stated, the amount of _loading_ added to other papers must not exceed per cent. when sulphite or soda pulps are used, either separately or conjointly, in the manufacture of printing papers, the quantity of neither material shall separately exceed per cent. the most complete specification as to the requirements for standard papers is that published by the paper testing institute in germany, and used as the basis of most contracts, at least for public and official documents. _standards of quality in germany._--the classification of papers according to the raw materials used and the nature of the finished paper is very complete. the classification is made under three headings: (_a_) raw material; (_b_) strength; (_c_) uses. _(a) classification according to material._ ( ) paper made from rags only (linen, hemp, and cotton). ( ) paper made from rags with a maximum of per cent. of cellulose from wood, straw, esparto, manila, etc., but free from mechanical wood pulp. ( ) paper made from any fibrous material, but free from mechanical wood pulp. ( ) paper of any fibrous material. _(b) classification according to strength._ ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------ class | . | . | . | . | . | . ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------ mean tearing length | | | | | | in metres | , | , | , | , | , | , | | | | | | elasticity per cent. | | · | | · | | · | | | | | | resistance to folding | | | | | | (schoppers' method, | | | | | | number of foldings) | | | | | | ----------------------+-------+-------+-------+-------+-------+------ the tests for tearing length, resistance to folding, elasticity, etc., are made in air showing relative humidity of per cent. the calculations for tearing length are made on strips of paper dried at ° c. _(c) classification according to use._ ------+-------------------+------+----------+-----------+--------------- | | | | | weight of | |fibre.| strength.| size of +-------+------- class.| uses. |class.| class. | sheets. | , | sq. | | | | cm. |sheets.| metre. | | | | | kg. | grms. --+---+-------------------+------+----------+-----------+-------+------- | writing papers for | | | | | | important documents | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | paper for state | | | | | | documents | | | · × | | -- | | | | | | | paper for registers, | | | | | | account books, | | | | | | and ledgers-- | | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) first quality | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | (_b_) second quality | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | documents intended to | | | | | | be preserved longer | | | | | | than ten years-- | | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) foolscap paper | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | letter paper | | | | | | (quarto size) | | | · × | · | -- | | | | | | | letter paper | | | | | | (octavo size) | | | · × | · | -- | | | | | | | duplicating | | | | | | paper | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | (_b_) official | | | | | | writing paper | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | paper for documents of| | | | | | lesser importance-- | | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) foolscap paper | | -- | × | | -- | | | | | | | letter paper | | | | | | (quarto size) | | -- | · × | · | -- | | | | | | | letter paper | | | | | | (octavo size) | | -- | · × | · | -- | | | | | | | (_b_) official | | | | | | writing paper | | | × | | -- | | | | | | | envelopes and | | | | | | wrappers-- | | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) first quality | -- | | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | (_b_) second quality | -- | | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | writing paper of | | | | | | medium quality | -- | - | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | covers for documents--| | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) that required | | | | | | for frequent use| | tearing | × | · | | | | length | | | | | | , | | | | | |elasticity| | | | | | · % | | | | | | | | | | (_b_) for other | | | | | | purposes | | tearing | × | · | | | | length | | | | | | , | | | | | |elasticity| | | | | | · % | | | | | | | | | | printing paper-- | | | | | | | | | | | | (_a_) for important | | | | | | printed matter | | | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | (_b_) for less | | | | | | important | | | | | | printed matter | | | -- | -- | -- | | | | | | | (_c_) for common use | -- | - | -- | -- | -- --+-----------------------+------+----------+-----------+-------+------- chapter xiii bibliography analysis, technology, etc. abel, dr. e. hypochlorite und electrische bleiche. _halle_, . arabol manufacturing co.--theory and practice of the sizing of paper. _new york_, ^o, . behrens, h.--anleitung zur mikrochemischen analyse der wichtigsten verbindungen. heft . die wichtigsten faserstoffe. _hamburg und leipzig_, . beveridge, j.--paper-makers' pocket book. _london_, sm. ^o, . bourdillat, e. die entfärbung und das bleichen der hadern. _weimar_, . corput, e. van den.--de la fabrication du papier au point de vue de la technologie chimique. ^e éd. _paris_, ^o, . cross, c. f. and bevan, e. j.--a text-book of paper-making. _london_, sm. ^o, . ditto, nd edition. . ditto, rd edition. . cross and bevan.--manuel de la fabrication du papier. traduit de la ^e édition anglaise. par l. desmarest. . cross, bevan, beadle and sindall.--the c.b.s. units: a book on paper testing. . deterioration of paper.--society of arts report. . engelhardt, b. hypochlorite und electrische bleiche (technisch-constructiver teil). _halle_, . engels, j. a.--ueber papier und einige andere gegenstände der technologie und industrie. _duisburg_, sm. ^o, . englÄnder.--technologie der papierfabrikation. lehrbuch für spezialkurse an handelsfachschulen u. fachlich. fortbildungsschulen sowie lehrbehelf zum selbststudium. . erfurt, j. färben des papierstoffs. mit proben in stoffgefärbten papiere, te aufl. _berlin_, ^o, . erfurt, j. the dyeing of paper pulp; from the nd german edition, by j. hübner. _london_, ^o, . finkener.--ueber die quantitative bestimmung des holzschliffes in papier nach goddefroy und coulon. . flatters.--microscopical research. . griffin, r. b. and little, a. d.--the chemistry of paper-making, with principles of general chemistry. _new york_, ^o, . hassak.--wandtafeln für warenkunde u. mikroskopie. . haywood, j. k.--arsenic in papers and fabrics. . (u.s.a. department of agriculture.) herzberg, w.--mikrosk. untersuchung des papiers. . herzberg, w.--papierprüfung. leitf. bei d. unters. v. papier. . ditto, nd edition. . ditto, rd edition. . herzberg, w.--paper testing as carried out in the government laboratory at charlottenburg. from the german, by p. n. evans, _london_, ^o, . herzberg, w.--mitteilungen aus den königl. technischen versuchsanstalten zu berlin. , _et seq._ hÖhnel, f. v.--die mikroskopie der technisch verwendeten faserstoffe. . hÖlbling, v.--die fabrikation der bleichmaterialien. _berlin_. hoyer, e.--le papier; étude sur sa composition, analyses et essais. de l'allemand. _paris_, ^o, . hoyer-kraft.--die spinnerei, weberei und papierfabrikation, aufl. . jagenberg, f.--die thierische leimung für endloses papier. _berlin_, ^o, . johannsen.--mitteilungen über mikrophotographie von faserstoffen im durchfallenden und auffallenden licht. . klemm, p.--papier industrie kalender. , _et seq._ lauboeck.--Über die saugfähigkeit der löschpapiere. mitteilungen des k.k. technologischen gewerbe-museums. _wien_, . leach, c. e.--on the shrinkage of paper (excerpt). _newcastle_, ^o, . martens, a.--mitteilungen aus den königl. technischen versuchsanstalten (jährlich). erscheinen seit . die jahrgänge bis enthalten aus der abteilung für papierprüfung die im jahrgang , dieses kalenders verzeichneten arbeiten. martens, a.--apparaten zur untersuchung der festigkeitseigenschaften von papier. königl. techn. versuchsanstalten. mitteilungen. ergänzungsheft. no. . ^o, . martens, a.--ueber druckpapier der gegenwart. königl. techn. versuchsanstalten. mittheilungen. ergänzungsheft. no. . ^o, . martens, a.--untersuchung japanischer papiere. königl. techn. versuchsanstalten. mittheilungen. ergänzungsheft. no. . ^o, . martens und guth.--das königliche materialprüfungsamt der technischen hochschule berlin auf dem gelände der domäne dahlem beim bahnhof gross-lichterfelde west. _berlin_, . melnikoff, n.--prüfung von papier und pappe nebst adressbuch der russischen papierfabriken. _petersburg_, . mÜller, l.--die fabrikation d. papiers in sonderheit d. a. d. maschine gefertigten. aufl. . mÜller und a. haussner.--die herstellung u. prüfung des papiers. . mÜller, a.--qualitative und quantitative bestimmung des holzschliffes im papier. . muth. die leimung der papierfaser im holländer und die anfertigung fester papiere. . naylor, w.--trades waste. _london_, . normalpapier.--sammlung der vorschriften für amtliche papier- und tintenprüfung. _berlin_, . piette, l.--traité de la coloration des pâtes à papier. précédé d'un aperçu sur l'état actuel de la fabrication du papier. avec échantillons de papiers colorés. _paris_, ^o, . rejtÖ, a.--anleitung für private zur durchführung der papierprüfung. _budapest_, . rossel.--papiere und papierprüfung mit berücksichtigung der in der schweiz verwendeten schreib- und druckpapiere. _biel_, . schumann, dr. g.--welche ursachen bedingen die papierqualität. _biberach_, . sindall, r. w.--paper technology. _london_, . stevens, h. p.--the paper mill chemist. _london_, . wiesner, j.--mikroskopische untersuchung des papiers mit besonderer berücksichtigung der ältesten orientalischen und europäischen papiere. _wien_, . wiesner, j.--mikroskopische untersuchung alter ostturkestanischer und anderer asiatischer papiere nebst histologischen beiträgen zur mikroskopischen papieruntersuchung. _wien_, . winkler, o.--die trockengehalts-bestimmung d. papierstoffe. . winkler, o., und karstens, h.--papieruntersuchung. . wurster.--le collage et la nature du papier. _paris_, . wurster, dr. c.--die neuen reagentien auf holzschliff und verholzte pflanzenteile zur bestimmung des holzschliffs im papier. _berlin_. zirm, a.--der papierfärber. _tilsit_, . cellulose, etc. beadle, c.--viscose and viscoid. franklin institute reprint. . bersch, j.--cellulose, celluloseprodukte u. kautschuksurrogate. . bockmann, f.--das celluloid, sein rohmaterial, fabrikation, eigenschaften u. technische verwendung. . te aufl. . bornemann, gr.--ueber cellulose and neuere umwandlungsprodukte derselben. _biberach_, . bottler, m.--die vegetabilischen faserstoffe--hartleben's chemisch-technische bibliothek. . butschli, o.--untersuchgn. an gerinnungsschaumen, sphärokystallen u. d. struktur v. cellulose. . cross, c. f., and bevan, e. j.--cellulose. _london_, . nd edition. . cross and bevan.--researches on cellulose. - . ditto, - . margosches, dr. b.--die viskose, ihre herstellung, eigenschaften und anwendung. _leipzig_, . schlesinger.--künstliche seide (zellstoff-seide). mechanisch-technologische untersuchung der aus nitriertem zellstoffs hergestellten seide. . fibres, etc. andÉs, l. e.--die verarbeitung des strohes. _wien_, . bagshaw.--photomicrography. elementary. bengal government.--jute in bengal, and on indian fibres available for the manufacture of paper. report by h. kerr. _calcutta_, fol., . bleekrode, s.--grondstoffen voor papierbereiding, bijzonder in neerlandsch-indië (excerpt). ^o, . bottler, m.--die animalischen faserstoffe. . carter.--spinning of fibres. . cobbett.--a treatise on cobbett's corn. . (printed on paper made of corn husks.) christy.--commercial plants and drugs. . cross and bevan.--report on indian fibres. . cross, c. f.--report on miscellaneous fibres. . cross, c. f.--bast fibres. _manchester_, . dalen, g.--jute. manila, adansonia. . dÉpierre, j.--traité des apprêts et spécialement des tissus de coton, blancs, teints et imprimés. dodge, c. r.--leaf fibres of the united states. . garÇon, jules.--bibliographie de la technologie chimique des fibres textiles. _paris_, . gelder zonen, van.--een woord over nieuwe grondstoffen voor papier, met monsters van ded proeven, etc. _amsterdam_, sm. ^o, . georgievics, g. v.--lehrbuch der chemischen technologie der gespinnstfasern. - . georgievics, g. v.--lehrbuch d. chemischen technologie d. gespinnstfasern. te tle. - . georgievics, g. v.--technology of textile fibres; from the german. . grothe, h.--die technologie der gespinnstfasern. - . goodale.--physiological botany. . hammarsten, o.--untersuchungen über d. faserstoffgewinnung, . hannan, w. i.--textile fibres of commerce. . hoyer, e. von.--die verarbeitung der faserstoffe. (spinnerei, papierfabrikation.) te aufl. . johnstone.--esparto. (society of arts lecture.) . kew bulletin.--vegetable fibres. . lecomte, h.--les textiles végétaux; leur examen microchimique. _paris_, . liotard.--materials in india suitable for paper-making. _calcutta_, . morris, dr.--commercial fibres. (cantor lectures.) . mÜller, hugo.--pflanzenfaser. _leipzig_, . payen, a.--succédanés des chiffons. paris universal exhibition. rapports du jury international, classe , sect. ii. ^o, . pfuhl, e.--papierstoffgarne, ihre herstellung, eigenschaften u. verwendbarkeit. . posselt, e. a.--the structure of fibres, yarns, and fabrics, being a practical treatise for the use of all persons employed in the manufacture of textile fibres. vols., . rostaing and others.--précis historique, descriptif, analytique et photomicrographique, des végétaux propres à la fabrication de la cellulose et du papier. _paris_, ^o, . routledge, t.--bamboo considered as a paper-making material, with remarks upon its cultivation and treatment. _london_, ^o, . routledge, t.--bamboo and its treatment. . silbermann, h.--fortschritte auf dem gebiete der chemischen technologie d. gespinnstfasern, - . te tle., - . trabut.--Étude sur l'alfa. . urbain, v.--les succédanés du chiffon en papeterie. _paris_, ^o, . vÉtillart.--Études sur les fibres végétales. _paris_, . wieck, f. g.--bilder aus gewerbskunst (aus tomlinson's "objects in art manufacture"), i. papier. _leipzig_, sm. ^o, . witt, o. n.--chemische technologie der gespinnstfasern, ihre geschichte, gewinnung, verarbeitg. u. veredlung. - . zetzsche.--die wichtigsten faserstoffe der europäischen industrie. anleitung zur erkennung und unterscheidung. . zimmermann, a.--morphologie und physiologie der pflanzenzelle. historical. blanchet, augustin.--essai sur l'histoire du papier et de sa fabrication. _paris_, . breitkoff, j. g. j.--ursprung der spielkarten, die einführung des leinenpapieres, etc., in europa. (completed by j. g. f. roch.) _leipzig_, vols., ^o, - . briquet, c. m.--bemerkungen über das sammeln von wasserzeichen oder papiermarken, überreicht bei der ausstellung der alten papiermarkerkunst zu paris. . briquet, c. m.--papiers et filigranes des archives de gênes - . _geneva_, . briquet, c. m.--geschichte der papierzeichen von ihrem erscheinen gegen bis . mit beigabe von . . butler paper co.--the story of paper-making. _chicago_, sm. ^o, . collett, c. d.--history of taxes on knowledge. _london_, . congress.--international congress de fabricants de papier et carton, antwerp. comptes rendu des séances. _bruxelles_, ^o, . dropisch, b.--die papiermaschine, ihre geschichtliche entwicklung u. construction. . egger, e.--le papier dans l'antiquité et dans les temps modernes. _paris_, ^o, . evans, l.--the firm of john dickinson & co., with an appendix on ancient paper-making. _london_, sm. ^o, . gamble, j.--collection of documents (specifications, official reports, etc.) respecting the claims of l. robert as the original inventor, and of j. gamble as the first introducer of the french paper-machine. fol., -- . hoernle, a. f.--who was the inventor of rag paper? . hÖssle, f. von.--geschichte der alten papiermühlen in ehemaligen stift kempten und in der reichsstadt kempten. , ^o, . hunter, j.--specimen of marks used by early manufacturers of paper (excerpt). _london_, ^o, . imberdis, j.--le papier ou l'art de fabriquer de papier. traduction au français de (papyrus sive ars conficiendæ papyri, ), par a. blanchet. avec le texte latin. . jackson, j. b.--an essay on the invention of engraving and printing in chiaro oscuro, as practised by durer, etc., and its application to the making of paperhangings. _london_, sm. ^o, . jansen, h.--essai sur l'origine de la gravure, etc. _paris_, vols., ^o, . jenkins, r.--paper-making in england, , etc., from the _library association record_, september, -april, . _london_, ^o. karabacek, j.--das arabische papier. _wien_, . kent & co.--paper and paper-making chronology. _london_, ^o, . kirchner, e.--die papiere des xiv. jahrhunderts im stadtarchive zu frankfurt a. m. . kirchner, e.--das papier. die geschichte d. papierindustrie; die rohstofflehre d. papierindustrie. bde., - . kirchner, e.--das papier. historisch-technologische skizzen. jahresbericht der techn. lehranstalten in chemnitz. . klein, a.--entwicklung und aufgaben der papierindustrie. _biberach_, . klemm, p.--papier-warenzeichen ... vom okt., , bis ende , für klasse , umfassend papier, etc., eingetragenen wort- und bildzeichen. _leipzig_, sm. ^o, . koops, m.--historical account of paper, and of substances used prior to its invention (printed on paper made from straw and wood). _london_, ^o, . ditto, nd edition, . lacroix, a.--historique de la papeterie d'angoulême suivi d'observations sur le commerce de chiffons en france. _paris_, ^o, . lalande, j. j. le f. de.--l'art de faire le papier. acad. roy. des sciences. description des arts et métiers, vol. . fol., . lettre sur les découvertes de m. didot aîné dans les arts de ... la papeterie (l'invention du papier-vélin). _paris_, ^o, . leuchs, j. c.--beschreibung der in den letzten acht jahren in der papierfabrikation gemachten verbesserungen. nachtrag. _nürnberg_, ^o, . marabini.--bayrische papiergeschichte. teil. die papiermühlen im gebiete der weiland freien reichsstadt nürnberg. _nürnberg_, . maurel, f.--le papier japonais. histoire et fabrication d'après les documents anglais et indigènes (excerpt). _paris_, ^o, . meerman, g., and others.--epistolæ, etc., de chartæ vulgaris lineæ origine. ed. j. van vassen, hagæ com. sm. ^o, . midoux, e., and matton, a.--Étude sur les filigranes des papiers employés en france aux ^e et ^e siècles. _paris_, ^o, . millar, o.--papier-industrie. schweizerische landesausstellung, . berichte, gruppe , . murray, j.--practical remarks on modern paper, etc., with an introductory account of its former substitute. _edinburgh_, ^o, . parlatore, p.--mémoire sur le papyrus des anciens et sur le papyrus de sicile, acad. des sciences. paris. mèm. par divers savans.... ^e serie, tome . ^o, . peignot, e. g.--essai sur l'histoire du parchemin et du vélin. _paris_, ^o, . penig.--(patentpapierfabrik zu penig.) ein beitrag z. geschichte d. papiers, . robert, n. l.--le centenaire de la machine a papier continu. son invention par n. l. robert en . biographie de l'inventeur, par j. breville. historique des divers perfectionnements ... par didot saint-leger, - . _paris_, ^o, . robertson.--fifty years' experience in paper-making. _leith._ schaeffer, j. c.--proefnemingen en monster-bladen om papier te maaken zonder lumpen of met een gering byvoegzel derzelven. uit het hoogduits vertaald. deel - . _amsterdam_, vols., sm. ^o, . schaeffer, j. c.--sämtliche papierversuche, te aufl. nebst mustern und kupfertafeln. _regensburg_, vols. in one, sm. ^o, . schaeffer, j. c.--erweis in musterbogen dass die neuen papierarten ... sich allerdings auch zu tapeten übermahlen und gebrauchen lassen. _regensburg_, fol. smith, j. e. a.--history of paper, genesis and revelations. _holyoke, mass., u.s.a._, . sotheby, s. l.--the typography of the th century ... exemplified in a collection of facsimiles from works, with their watermarks. _london_, fol. . sotheby, s. l.--principia typographica. an attempt to elucidate the paper marks of the period. _london_, vols., fol. . spechthausen.--hundert jahre der papierfabrik spechthausen. festschrift, z. . spicer, a.--the paper trade. _london_, . stoppelaar, j. h. de.--het papier in de nederlanden gedurende de middeleeuwen, inzonderheid in zeeland. _middelburg_, ^o, . tomlinson, c.--illustrations of the useful arts. no. , paper. _london_, ^o, . villette, c. marquis de.--[oe]uvres, with specimens of paper. _londres_, ^o, . willkomm, m.--Über den lotos und papyros der alten Ägypter und die papiererzeugung in altertume. _prag_, . paper manufacture. archer, t. c.--the manufacture of paper. bevan. british manufacturing industries, viii. sm. ^o, . arnot.--technology of the paper trade (cantor lecture, society of arts). _london_, . barse, j.--Études comparées sur l'industrie française, ii. la fabrication et le commerce du papier en et en . _paris_, l. ^o, . beadle, c.--paper manufacture--lectures. . beadle, c.--chapters on paper-making. vol. . _london_, . vol. , answers to technological questions. . vol. , practical points in paper manufacture. . vol. , ditto. . beaumont, f.--report on apparatus and processes used in paper-making, etc. paris universal exhibition, . british commercial reports, vol. . ^o, . bennett, j. b.--paper-making processes and machinery, with illustrations of paper-making machinery constructed by bertrams, ltd. _edinburgh_, ^o, . bertrams, ltd.--specimens of paper. _edinburgh_, obl. ^o, . blanchet, a.--fabrication du papier. rapports, paris universal exhibition, . brown, h. t.--the manufacture of paper from wood in the united states. . burot.--note sur la fabrication du papier de paille. _paris_, ^o, . campredon, e.--le papier. Étude monographique sur la papeterie française et en particulier sur la papeterie charentaise. i. historical; ii. descriptive of modern paper-making; iii. co-operative paper-making. _paris_, ^o, . charpentier, p.--le papier. fremy, e. encycl. chim., tome x. ^o ( ), . clapperton, g.--practical paper-making. _london_, sm. ^o, . ditto, nd edition, . coney, e.--paper-making machinery and fibres. philadelphia international exhibition, . u.s.a. centennial commission reports and awards, group xiii. ^o, . dalheim, c. f.--taschenbuch f. d. prakt. papierfabrikanten. te aufl. . dammer, o.--papierfabrikation. davis, c. t.--the manufacture of paper. _philadelphia_, ^o, . doumerc and others.--matériel et procédés de la papeterie, etc. paris univ. exhibition, . rapports du jury international, classe . ^o, . doyle, p.--paper-making in india, being notes of a visit to the lucknow paper mill. _lucknow_, ^o, . dropisch, b.--handb. d. papierfabrikation. e aufl. taf. in fol. . dunbar, j.--the practical papermaker. _leith_, ^o, . hartmann, c.--handb. d. papierfabrikation. taf. . hassak, k.--die erzeugung des papieres. hausner, a.--der holländer. eine kritische betrachtung seiner arbeitsweise mit bezug auf die einzelabmessungen seiner teile und die verarbeiteten fasern. . herring, r.--paper and paper-making, ancient and modern. _london_, ^o, . ditto, nd edition, . ditto, rd edition, . hofmann, c.--a practical treatise on the manufacture of paper in all its branches. _philadelphia_, ^o, . hofmann, c.--praktisches handbuch d. papierfabrikation. . hoffmann, th.--papierprägung. _berlin._ hoyer, e.--das papier, seine beschaffenheit und deren prüfung. _münchen_, . hoyer, e.--Über die entstehung und bedeutung der papiernormalien, sowie deren einfluss auf die fabrikation des papieres. _münchen_, . hoyer, e.--die fabrikation des papiers. . hoyer, e.--die fabrikation des papiers, nebst gewinnung d. fasern. . hÜbner, j.--paper manufacture (cantor lectures to the society of arts). . jagenberg, f.--das holländergeschirr. remscheid. . kirchner-strohbach.--holländer-theorie. biberach. . klemm, dr. p.--Über papier. klimsch's graphische bibliothek bd. (farbe und papier im druckgewerbe). teil. _frankfurt a. m._ . korschilgen und selleger.--technik und praxis der papierfabrikation. _berlin_, . kraft, m.--grundriss der mechanischen technologie. abt. ii. spinnerei, weberei, und papierfabrikation. te aufl. _wiesbaden_, ^o, . lenormand, l. s.--manuel du fabricant de papier. _paris_, vols., ^o, . ditto, nd edition. . lenormand, l. s.--nouveau manuel complet du ... fabricant de papiers peints. nouv. ed. par vergnand. _paris_, ^o, . lenormand, l. s.--handbuch der gesammten papierfabrikation, te aufl., von c. hartmann. _weimar_, vols., ^o, . merz.--behandlung der papiermaschine. meynier, h.--papier und papier-fabrikate. paris univ. exhibition, . austrian comm. berichte. heft . ^o, . mierzinski, st.--handbuch d. papierfabrikation. bde. . mÜller, f. a. l.--die fabrikation des papiers, in sonderheit der auf der maschinen gefertigten, etc. te aufl. _berlin_, ^o, . mÜller, dr. l.--die fabrikation des papiers. _berlin_, . olmer, georges.--du papier mécanique. onfroy.--l'art du papier et le papier d'arches. . paper-making.--paper-making, by the editor of the paper mills directory, london. nd edition. ^o, . paper-maker.--the paper-makers' handbook and guide to paper-making, by a practical paper-maker. _london_, sm. ^o, . paper-manufacture.--essays by a society of gentlemen. no. vi., pp. - . . parkinson, r.--treatise on paper, with outline of manufacture. . ditto, nd edition, . payen, a., and others.--la fabrication du papier et du carton. ^e ed. _paris_, ^o, . payen, a., and vigreux, l.--la papeterie. Études sur l'exposition de . vol. . ^o, . pfau, f.--der junge papierhändler. _berlin_, . piette, l.--manuel ... de papeterie et les succédanés (des chiffons). _paris_, vols., ^o, . planche, g.--de l'industrie de la papeterie. _paris_, ^o, . planche, g.--der papierfabrikation. bearbeitet von c. hartmann. _weimar_, ^o, . planche, g.--bericht über die reinigung der stoffe zur papierfabrikation. uebersetzt und vervollständigt durch eine chronologische skizze der papier-erzeugung und der verbesserungen an den maschinen zur reinigung des papier-stoffs von a. rudel. _leipzig_, ^o, . prouteaux, a.--practical guide for the manufacture of paper and (paper) boards. with a chapter on wood paper in the u.s. by h. t. brown. _philadelphia_, ^o, . prouteaux, a.--guide de la fabrication du papier et du carton. _paris_, ^o, . raab, r.--die schreibmaterialen und die gesamte papierindustrie. _hamburg_, . reed, a. e.--paper manufacture. society for the promotion of scientific industry. artisans' reports upon the vienna exhibition. ^o, . richardson, w. h.--the industrial resources of the tyne ... [paper]. . schubert, m.--traité pratique de la fabrication de la cellulose. trad. p. e. bibas. toile. . schubert, m.--die praxis der papierfabrikation mit besond. berücksichtigung der stoffmischungen und deren calculationen. . schubert, m.--die papierverarbeitung. bde. - . bd. i. die kartonnagen-industrie. bd. ii. die buntpapierfabrikation. sindall, r. w.--the manufacture of paper pulp in burma. government press. _rangoon_, . sindall, r. w.--the manufacture of paper. . constable & co. _london._ twerdy, e.--papier industrie. berichte. _wien_, . vachon, m.--les arts et les industries du papier. _france_, - . valenta, e.--das papier, seine herstellung, eigenschaften, prüfung. . wanderley, g.--die papierfabrikation und papierfabrikanlage. _leipzig_, . watt, a.--the art of paper-making, with the recovery of soda from waste liquors. _london_, sm. ^o, . weber, r.--papier-industrie. vienna universal exhibition, . wehrs, g. f.--vom papier, den vor der erfindung desselben üblich gewesenen schreibmassen und sonstigen schreibmaterialien. _halle_, ^o, . winkler, o.--der papierkenner. . paper, special kinds. andÉs, l. e.--papier-spezialitäten, praktische anleitung zur herstellung. . andÉs, l. e.--treatment of paper for special purposes. translated from german. . andÉs, l. e.--die fabrikation der papiermaché und papierstoff-waren. _leipzig_, . andÉs, l. e.--blattmetalle, bronzen und metallpapiere, deren herstellung und anwendung. _wien_, sm. ^o, . boeck, j. p.--die marmorirkunst für buchbindereien, buntpapierfabriken. _wien_, sm. ^o, . briquet, m.--de quelques industries nouvelles dont le papier est la base. _genève_, . exner, w. f.--tapeten- und buntpapier-industrie. paris univ. exhibition, . austrian comm. berichte. heft . . exner, w. f.--tapeten- und buntpapier. vienna universal exhibition, . officieller ausstellungs-bericht. heft . ^o, . fichtenberg.--nouveau manuel complet du fabricant de papiers de fantaisie, papiers marbrés, etc. _paris_, ^o, . herring, r.--guide to varieties and value of paper. . hofmann, a. w.--report on vegetable parchment (gaine's patent, no. of ). _london_, ^o, . kaeppelin, d.--fabrication des papiers peints. lacroix e., Études sur l'exposition de . vol. . ^o, . kaeppelin, d.--fabrication des papiers peints. . lindsey, g.--pens and papiermaché. bevan, g. p., brit. manufacturing industries (iii.). ^o, . morton, g. h.--the history of paper-hangings, with review of other modes of mural decoration. _liverpool_, ^o, . sanborn, k.--old time wall papers. . schmidt, c. h.--die benutzung des papiermaché. _weimar_, ^o, . schmidt, c. h.--die papier-tapetenfabrikation. te aufl. _weimar_, ^o, . schmidt, c. h.--the book of papiermaché and japanning. _london_, . seeman, th.--die tapete, ihre aesthetische bedeutung u. techn. darstellung, sowie kurze beschreibung der buntpapierfabrik. . silcox.--manufacture of paper barrels. vienna exhibition, . u.s.a. reports, ii. smee, a.--report on vegetable parchment (gaine's patent, no. of ). _london_, ^o, . thon, c. f. g.--der fabrikant bunter papiere, te aufl. _weimar_, ^o, . weichelt, a.--buntpapier-fabrikation. _berlin_, ^o, . whiting paper co.--how paper is made. _holyoke, mass._, ^o, . winzer, a.--die bereitung und benutzung der papiermaché und ähnlicher kompositionen, te aufl. _weimar_, ^o, . ditto, th edition, . woolnough, c. w.--the whole art of marbling, as applied to paper, book edges, etc. _london_, ^o, . wyatt, sir m. d.--report on paper-hangings. paris univ. exhibition, . brit. comm. report, vol. ii. ^o, . statistics and various. akesson.--lexikon der papier-industrie. deutsch-englisch-französisch, te aufl. . archer, t. c.--british manufacturing industries. vol. . industrial statistics. _london._ barth, e.--arbeitsregeln für fabriken mit besonderer berücksichtigung von papierfabriken. _karlsruhe_, . baudisch, j.--einige ins papierfach schlagende berechnungen. _biberach_, . dyson.--mosely commission report. _manchester_, . ermel.--rapport sur le matériel et les procédés de la papeterie, etc. paris univ. exhibition, . rapports. classe . ^o, . foreign office, no. ( ).--reports on the manufacture of paper in japan. _london_, fol., . geyer, a.--registry of water-marks and trade-marks. compiled from the american paper trade ( nd edition). _new york_, . ditto, th edition, . gratiot, a.--description de la papeterie d'essonnes, london international exhibition of , prospectuses of exhibitors. vol. . ^o, . krawany, f.--warte der papier-halbstoff- und pappenfabriken oesterreich-ungarns. . landgraf, j.--papier-holzschliff und seine zollpolitische würdigung. _mannheim._ lockwood & co.--american dictionary of printing and bookmaking. _new york_, . ludwig, g.--trockengehalts-tabellen. _pirna_, . macnaughton, j.--factory book-keeping for paper mills. . mahrlen.--papierfabrikation, im königr. württemberg (im jahre ). _stuttgart_, ^o, . marr, d.--kosten der betriebskräfte bei - stündiger arbeitszeit täglich und unter berücksichtigung des aufwandes für die heizung. _münchen_ u. _berlin_. melnikoff, n.--lehrbuch der papier-holzschliff, zellstoff und pappenfabrikation. _petersburg_, . melnikoff, n.--kleines handbuch papierfabrikation. _petersburg_, . melnikoff, n.--geschichte, statistik u. literatur der papierindustrie nebst russischen wasserzeichen. _petersburg_, . munsell, j.--chronology of paper-making. _albany_, ^o, . ditto, th edition, . munsell, j.--chronology of the origin and progress of paper and paper-making. _albany_, . munsell, j.--observations illustrative of the operation of the duties on paper. _london_, ^o, . munsell, j.--matériel et procédés de la papeterie, etc., . rapports du jury. classe . ^o, . paris univ. exhibition.--papiers peints, . rapports du jury. classe . ^o, . passerat, a. l.--barème complet pour papeteries. _paris._ patents.--patent abridgments. class . patent office abstracts on paper-making. from to date. roulhac.--papeterie. paris univ. exhibition, . rapports du jury. classe , sect. . ^o, . sampson, j. t.--paper-staining. mansion house committee. artisans' reports, paris exhibition. ^o, . treasury.--report of the excise commission. . vogel, k.--papierindustrie, etc., auf der weltausstellung in chicago. chicago exhibition, . austrian central committee. officieller bericht. heft iv. ^o, . voigt, g.--papiergewichtstabellen. _merseburg_, . ward, sir w.--report on german paper-making industry. parliamentary paper, . water-marks.--water-marks and trade-marks registry ( nd ed.). _new york_, ^o, . wood pulp and pulp wood. british and colonial printer.--history of wood pulp. vol. . . dunbar.--wood pulp and wood pulp papers. fittica, dr. f.--geschichte der sulfitzellstoff-fabrikation. _leipzig_, . fittica, dr. f.--forestry and forest products. [edinburgh forestry exhibition. .] gottstein.--holzzellstoff in seiner anwendung für die papier- und textil-industrie und die bei seiner herstellung entstehenden abwässer. . griffin, m. l.--sulphite processes. american society c. e. . . harper, w.--utilisation of wood waste by distillation. _u.s.a._, . harpf, a.--die erzeugung von holzschliff und zellstoff. _wien_, . harpf, a.--flüssiges schwefeldioxyd. _stuttgart_, . hubbard.--utilisation of wood waste. . johnson, g.--wood pulp of canada. - . yearly. michaelis, o. e.--lime sulphite fibre manufacture in the united states. with remarks on the chemistry of the processes, by m. l. griffin (excerpt). _new york_, ^o, . phillips, s. c.--uses of wood pulp. . rosenheim, g. m.--die holzcellulose. _berlin_, . schubert, m.--die holzstoff oder holzschliff-fabrikation. . schubert, m.--die cellulosefabrikation (zellstofffabrikation). praktisches handbuch für papier- u. cellulosetechniker. . sindall, r. w.--the sampling of wood pulp. _london_, ^o, . veitch, l. p.--chemical methods for utilising wood. u.s.a. department of agriculture. . veitch, l. p.--wood pulp, uses of. u.s.a. consular reports, vol. xix. * * * * * banks and crate.--pulpwood problems. letters to the _globe_, toronto, canada. . gamble, j.--indian timbers. graves.--the woodsman's handbook. _u.s.a._ pinchott, g.--forestry primer. _u.s.a._, . pinchott, g.--the adirondack spruce. _u.s.a._ rattray, j., and mill, h. r.--forestry and forestry products. _edinburgh_, . schlich.--forestry manual. * * * * * some more or less interesting articles on "paper" will be found in the following encyclopædias, etc.:-- date. . chambers's encyclopædia. . barrow. dictionary of arts. . new. universal history of arts. . royal dictionary of arts. . howard. a royal encyclopædia. . gregory. a dictionary of arts and sciences. . encyclopædia perthensis. . nicholson. the british encyclopædia. . martin. circle of the mechanical arts. . pantologia. . rees' cyclopædia. . encyclopædia londoniensis. . jamieson's dictionary. . oxford encyclopædia. . the london encyclopædia. . edinburgh encyclopædia. . phillip's dictionary of arts. . partington. british cyclopædia. . archæologia, vol. xxvi. . barlow. encyclopædia of arts. . the penny encyclopædia. . encyclopædia metropolitana. . useful arts of great britain. s.p.c.k . knight's cyclopædia of industry. . appleton's dictionary of mechanics. . hebert. mechanic's encyclopædia. . knight's english cyclopædia. . new american cyclopædia. . tomlinson's dictionary of arts. . yeats. the technical history of commerce. . clarke's practical magazine. . ure's dictionary of arts. . globe cyclopædia. . american mechanical dictionary. . johnson's universal cyclopædia. . wylde. industries of the world. . spon's encyclopædia of manufactures. . encyclopædia britannica. . chambers's encyclopædia. . blaikie. modern cyclopædia. . popular encyclopædia. . spon's workshop receipts. . gilman. international encyclopædia. . encyclopædia americana. . tweney's technological dictionary. newspapers. _england._ papermaker and british paper trade journal. s. c. phillips, london. papermakers' circular. dean & son, london. papermakers' monthly journal. marchant, singer & co., london. paper box and bag maker. s. c. phillips, london. papermaking. london. the paper and printing trades' journal. london. world's paper trade review. w. j. stonhill, london. _canada._ pulp and paper magazine. biggar-wilson, ltd., toronto. _united states of america._ american bookmaker. howard lockwood & co., new york. the paper trade. chicago. the stationer. howard lockwood & co., new york. paper mill and wood pulp news. l. d. post & co., new york. paper trade journal. howard lockwood & co., new york. the paper world. c. w. bryan & co., holyoke, mass. _france._ bulletin journal des fabricants de papier. paris. journal des papetiers. m. edmond rousset, paris. le moniteur de la papeterie française. paris. la papeterie. paris. la revue de la papeterie française et Étrangère. m. edmond rousset, paris. le papier. h. everling, paris. _germany._ centralblatt für die Österreichisch-ungarische papierindustrie. adolf hladufka, wien. der papierfabrikant. otto elsner, berlin. der papier-markt. carl dobler, frankfurt a. main. deutsche papier- und schreibwarenzeitung. s. richter, berlin. die postkarte. gustav fahrig, leipzig. export-journal. g. hedeler, leipzig. holzstoff-zeitung. camillo drache, dresden. papierhändler zeitung für Österreich-ungarn. wien. papier-industrie. berlin. papier- und schreibwaren-zeitung. wien. papier-zeitung. c. hofmann, berlin. schweizer graphischer central-anzeiger. h. keller, luzern. wochenblatt für papierfabrikation. guntter-staib biberach (württ). wochenschrift für den papier- und schreibwarenhandel. dr. h. hirschberg, berlin. analysis, technology. beadle and stevens.--blotting paper, nature of absorbency. . winkler.--estimation of moisture in wood-pulp. . translated by dr. h. p. stevens. hauptversammlung.--published annually by the verein der zellstoff- und papier-chemiker. _berlin_, et. fibres, etc. dodge, c. r.--catalogue of useful fibre-plants of the world. report no. . dept. of agriculture. _u.s.a._, . duchesne, e. a.--répertoire des plantes utiles et des plantes vénéneuses du globe, etc. _bruxelles_, . gabalde, b.--essai sur le bananier et ses applications à la fabrication de papier. . montessus de ballore.--alfa et papier d'alfa. . pecheux.--les textiles, les tissus, le papier. pp. _paris_, . renouard.--Études sur les fibres textiles. _paris._ renouard.--les fibres textiles de l'algérie. _paris._ riviere, auguste et charles.--"les bambous." société d'acclimatation. _paris._ richmond, g. f.--philippine fibres and fibrous substances. _manila_, bureau of printing, . historical. briquet, c. m.--recherches sur les premiers papiers employés du x^e au xiv^e siècle. pp. . _paris_, . briquet, c. m.--de la valeur des filigranes du papier comme moyen de déterminer l'âge de documents. pp. . _genève_, . briquet, c. m.--la légende paléographique du papier de coton. pp. . _genève_, . briquet, c. m.--lettre sur les papiers usités en sicile à l'occasion de deux manuscrits en papier dit le coton. pp. _palermo_, . desmarest, n.--art de la papeterie. _paris_, . delon, c.--histoire d'un livre. _paris_, . didot, a. f.--le centenaire de la machine à papier continu. pp. . _paris_, . dickinson, j.--dickinson's paper mills. _calcutta_, . girard, a.--le papier. ses ancêtres. son histoire. _lille_, . julien, s.--description des procédés chinois pour la fabrication du papier. traduit de l'ouvrage chinois par thien-kong-kha-we. . kay, j.--paper, its history. pp. . _london_, . lempertz, h.--beiträge zur geschichte des leinen-papiers. _köln_, . paper manufacture. bory, p.--les métamorphoses d'un chiffon. _abbeville_, . chabrol, l.--la réglementation du travail dans l'industrie du papier. pp. . _paris_, . demuth, f.--die papier-fabrikation. . demuth, f.--die störungen im deutschen wirtschaftsleben . _leipzig_, . limoge.--cercles d'Études commerciales, le papier. pp. . _limoge_, . paper, special kinds. spalding and hodge.--printing papers; a handbook. _london_, . statistics, etc. beadle, c.--development of water-marking. _london_, (society of arts). dumercy.--bibliographie de la papeterie. pp. . _bruxelles_, . bruce, h.--gladstone and paper duties. _edinburgh_, . ellis, j. b.--hints for the paper warehouse. _leeds_, . webster, j.--synopsis of sizes of paper. _southport_, . whitson, w.--the concise paper calculator. _edinburgh_, . wood pulp, etc. dropisch, b.--holzstoff und holzcellulose. _weimar_, . index acid dyes, in papers, size, agave, alum, , aniline dyes, sulphate, animal size, , antichlors, art paper, imitation, testing, asbestos, ash in paper, backwater, , bagasse, bamboo, barker, beating engines, patents, power consumed, beating, conditions of, early methods of, experiments in, process of, , bibliography, bisulphite of lime, bleaching, , powder, blue prints, board machine, , boards, manufacture of, duplex, , book papers, quality of, books, decay of, brown papers, carbonic acid recorder, casein, , caustic soda, , cellulose, derivatives of, hydrolysis of, , oxidation of, percentage of, in plants, properties of, chemical residues in paper, wood pulp, chemicals, china clay, , , , , coal consumption, coated paper, cold ground pulp, colophony, colour of paper, fading of, , matching, unevenness of, colouring of paper pulp, analysis of, cotton, , cyanotype papers, cylinder machine, density of paper, deterioration of paper, , digesters, , , dilution tables, , duplex boards, dyeing of paper, eibel patent, electrical power, electrolytic bleaching, engine sizing, , esparto, bleaching of, composition of, test for, in papers, yield of, evaporation apparatus, , tables, featherweight papers, fibres for paper-making, examination of, reagents for staining, flax, fourdrinier machine, early, french chalk, gas producer, gelatine, , , glue, , , grinders, history of paper, hoernle, hollander, , , , hot ground pulp, imitation art paper, , kraft paper, parchment, improvements in paper-making, iron in paper, kraft papers, laid papers, lime, , bisulphite, sulphate, linen fibre, loading, m. g. caps, machinery, , manila paper, mechanical pulp, detection of, metanil yellow, middles, mitscherlich pulp, moisture, influence of, multiple effect evaporation, neutral size, newspaper, , output of a paper machine, paper, art, ash in, brown, bulk of, chemical residues in, clay in, colour of, , colour in, analysis of, deterioration of, fibres for, history of, , iron in, permanence of, rags used for, sizing of, special kinds of, standards of quality, strength, of, , surface of, volume composition of, paper machine, early, output of, papier-maché, papyrus, , paraffin paper, parchment, paper, peat, phloroglucine, pigments, porion evaporator, presse-pâte, prussian blue, rag paper, manufacture of, origin of, rags, bleaching, boiling, classification, sorting, ramie, records, early, recovered ash, recovery processes, , refiners, rope browns, rosin size, , , screens, sealings, shrinkage of paper, sizing of paper, , , society of arts, soda, soda pulp, , recovery, silicate of, , softening of water, spent liquors, , staining reagents for fibres, standards of quality, , , starch, , stationery office, stone beater rolls, straw, sulphate pulp, sulphite pulp, sulphites, , supercalender, superheated steam, tinfoil paper, transfer paper, ultramarine, volume composition of paper, vulcanised fibre, water softening, watermarks, wavy edges, waxed paper, wet press machine, wiesner, willesden paper, wood, pulp, chemical, mechanical, soda, , sulphite, wove papers, wrappers, bradbury, agnew, & co. ld., printers, london and tonbridge. van nostrand's "westminster" series bound in uniform style. fully illustrated. price $ · net each. the volumes in the _"westminster" series_ have been designed to meet the growing demand for books on practical subjects; to bring within the ken of the non-technical reader an accurate knowledge of manufacturing processes and the practical application of modern science to industries. each volume is written by an expert to the end that practical readers and all who are engaged in the numerous allied branches of the engineering and technical trades may have reliable works of reference. the series provides for a class not hitherto reached in published works. the volumes can be easily read by the general public, and make excellent handbooks at a moderate price for the student. the series is well suited to public libraries and will be found valuable for libraries in engineering shops and factories. d. van nostrand company _publishers and booksellers_ , murray and , warren streets, new york. $coal.$ by james tonge, m.i.m.e., f.g.s., etc. (lecturer on mining at victoria university, manchester). with illustrations, many of them showing the fossils found in the coal measures. list of contents: history. occurrence. mode of formation of coal seams. fossils of the coal measures. botany of the coal-measure plants. coalfields of the british isles. foreign coalfields. the classification of coals. the valuation of coal. foreign coals and their values. uses of coal. the production of heat from coal. waste of coal. the preparation of coal for the market. coaling stations of the world. index. this book on a momentous subject is provided for the general reader who wishes accurate knowledge of coal, its origin, position and extent, and its economical utilization and application. $iron and steel.$ by j. h. stansbie, b.sc. (lond.), f.i.c. with illustrations. list of contents: introductory. iron ores. combustible and other materials used in iron and steel manufacture. primitive methods of iron and steel production. pig iron and its manufacture. the refining of pig iron in small charges. crucible and weld steel. the bessemer process. the open hearth process. mechanical treatment of iron and steel. physical and mechanical properties of iron and steel. iron and steel under the microscope. heat treatment of iron and steel. electric smelting. special steels. index. the aim of this book is to give a comprehensive view of the modern aspects of iron and steel, together with a sufficient account of its history to enable the reader to follow its march of progress. the methods of producing varieties of the metal suitable to the requirements of the engineer, foundryman and mechanician are described so that the worker may learn the history of the material he is handling. $natural sources of power.$ by $robert s. ball$, b.sc., a.m.inst.c.e. with diagrams and illustrations. contents: preface. units with metric equivalents and abbreviations. length and distance. surface and area. volumes. weights or measures. pressures. linear velocities, angular velocities. acceleration. energy. power. introductory water power and methods of measuring. application of water power to the propulsion of machinery. the hydraulic turbine. various types of turbine. construction of water power plants. water power installations. the regulation of turbines. wind pressure, velocity, and methods of measuring. the application of wind power to industry. the modern windmill. constructional details. power of modern windmills. appendices a, b, c. index. two departments of engineering and their applications to industry form the subject of this volume: the "natural" sources of water and wind power which supply mechanical energy without any intermediate stage of transformation. most people will be surprised at the extent to which these natural power producers are used. the widespread application of water power is generally known, but it is interesting to learn that the demand for windmills was never so great as it is to-day, and there are signs of abnormal expansion in the direction of their useful application in the great agricultural countries of the world. though primarily of importance to the engineer, this work will be of great interest to every manufacturer who in economizing his means of power production can take the natural forces that lie to his hand and harness them in his service. the author is the son of sir robert ball, the eminent mathematician and astronomer. $liquid and gaseous fuels, and the part they play in modern power production.$ by professor vivian b. lewes, f.i.c., f.c.s., prof. of chemistry, royal naval college, greenwich. with illustrations. list of contents: lavoisier's discovery of the nature of combustion, etc. the cycle of animal and vegetable life. method of determining calorific value. the discovery of petroleum in america. oil lamps, etc. the history of coal gas. calorific value of coal gas and its constituents. the history of water gas. incomplete combustion. comparison of the thermal values of our fuels, etc. appendix. bibliography. index. the subject of this book has, during the last decade, assumed such importance that it is hoped this account of the history and development of the use of various forms of combustible liquids and gases for the generation of energy may do some service in its advancement. $electric power and traction.$ by f. h. davies, a.m.i.e.e. with illustrations. list of contents: introduction. the generation and distribution of power. the electric motor. the application of electric power. electric power in collieries. electric power in engineering workshops. electric power in textile factories. electric power in the printing trade. electric power at sea. electric power on canals. electric traction. the overhead system and track work. the conduit system. the surface contact system. car building and equipment. electric railways. glossary. index. the majority of the allied trades that cluster round the business of electrical engineering are connected in some way or other with its power and traction branches. to members of such trades and callings, to whom some knowledge of applied electrical engineering is desirable if not strictly essential, the book is particularly intended to appeal. it deals almost entirely with practical matters, and enters to some extent into those commercial considerations which in the long run must overrule all others. $town gas and its uses for the production of light, heat, and motive power.$ by w. h. y. webber, c.e. with illustrations. list of contents: the nature and properties of town gas. the history and manufacture of town gas. the by-products of coal gas manufacture. gas lights and lighting. practical gas lighting. the cost of gas lighting. heating and warming by gas. cooking by gas. the healthfulness and safety of gas in all its uses. town gas for power generation, including private electricity supply. the legal relations of gas suppliers, consumers, and the public. index. the "country," as opposed to the "town," has been defined as "the parts beyond the gas lamps." this book provides accurate knowledge regarding the manufacture and supply of town gas and its uses for domestic and industrial purposes. few people realize the extent to which this great industry can be utilized. the author has produced a volume which will instruct and interest the generally well informed but not technically instructed reader. $electro-metallurgy.$ by j. b. c. kershaw, f.i.c. with illustrations. contents: introduction and historical survey. aluminium. production. details of processes and works. costs. utilization. future of the metal. bullion and gold. silver refining process. gold refining processes. gold extraction processes. calcium carbide and acetylene gas. the carbide furnace and process. production. utilization. carborundum. details of manufacture. properties and uses. copper. copper refining. descriptions of refineries. costs. properties and utilization. the elmore and similar processes. electrolytic extraction processes. electro-metallurgical concentration processes. ferro-alloys. descriptions of works. utilization. glass and quartz glass. graphite. details of process. utilization. iron and steel. descriptions of furnaces and processes. yields and costs. comparative costs. lead. the salom process. the betts refining process. the betts reduction process. white lead processes. miscellaneous products. calcium. carbon bisulphide. carbon tetra-chloride. diamantine. magnesium. phosphorus. silicon and its compounds. nickel. wet processes. dry processes. sodium. descriptions of cells and processes. tin. alkaline processes for tin stripping. acid processes for tin stripping. salt processes for tin stripping. zinc. wet processes. dry processes. electro-thermal processes. electro-galvanizing. glossary. name index. the subject of this volume, the branch of metallurgy which deals with the extraction and refining of metals by aid of electricity, is becoming of great importance. the author gives a brief and clear account of the industrial developments of electro-metallurgy, in language that can be understood by those whose acquaintance with either chemical or electrical science may be but slight. it is a thoroughly practical work descriptive of apparatus and processes, and commends itself to all practical men engaged, in metallurgical operations, as well as to business men, financiers, and investors. $radio-telegraphy.$ by c. c. f. monckton, m.i.e.e. with diagrams and illustrations. contents: preface. electric phenomena. electric vibrations. electro-magnetic waves. modified hertz waves used in radio-telegraphy. apparatus used for charging the oscillator. the electric oscillator: methods of arrangement, practical details. the receiver: methods of arrangement, the detecting apparatus, and other details. measurements in radio-telegraphy. the experimental station at elmers end: lodge-muirhead system. radio-telegraph station at nauen: telefunken system. station at lyngby: poulsen system. the lodge-muirhead system, the marconi system, telefunken system, and poulsen system. portable stations. radio-telephony. appendices: the morse alphabet. electrical units used in this book. international control of radio-telegraphy. index. the startling discovery twelve years ago of what is popularly known as wireless telegraphy has received many no less startling additions since then. the official name now given to this branch of electrical practice is radio-telegraphy. the subject has now reached a thoroughly practicable stage, and this book presents it in clear, concise form. the various services for which radio-telegraphy is or may be used are indicated by the author. every stage of the subject is illustrated by diagrams or photographs of apparatus, so that, while an elementary knowledge of electricity is presupposed, the bearings of the subject can be grasped by every reader. no subject is fraught with so many possibilities of development for the future relationships of the peoples of the world. $india-rubber and its manufacture, with chapters on gutta-percha and balata.$ by h. l. terry, f.i.c., assoc.inst.m.m. with illustrations. list of contents: preface. introduction: historical and general. raw rubber. botanical origin. tapping the trees. coagulation. principal raw rubbers of commerce. pseudo-rubbers. congo rubber. general considerations. chemical and physical properties. vulcanization. india-rubber plantations. india-rubber substitutes. reclaimed rubber. washing and drying of raw rubber. compounding of rubber. rubber solvents and their recovery. rubber solution. fine cut sheet and articles made therefrom. elastic thread. mechanical rubber goods. sundry rubber articles. india-rubber proofed textures. tyres. india-rubber boots and shoes. rubber for insulated wires. vulcanite contracts for india-rubber goods. the testing of rubber goods. gutta-percha. balata. bibliography. index. tells all about a material which has grown immensely in commercial importance in recent years. it has been expressly written for the general reader and for the technologist in other branches of industry. $glass manufacture.$ by walter rosenhain, superintendent of the department of metallurgy in the national physical laboratory, late scientific adviser in the glass works of messrs. chance bros. and co. with illustrations. contents: preface. definitions. physical and chemical qualities. mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties. transparency and colour. raw materials of manufacture. crucibles and furnaces for fusion. process of fusion. processes used in working of glass. bottle. blown and pressed. rolled or plate. sheet and crown. coloured. optical glass: nature and properties, manufacture. miscellaneous products. appendix. bibliography of glass manufacture. index. this volume is for users of glass, and makes no claim to be an adequate guide or help to those engaged in glass manufacture itself. for this reason the account of manufacturing processes has been kept as non-technical as possible. in describing each process the object in view has been to give an insight into the rationale of each step, so far as it is known or understood, from the point of view of principles and methods rather than as mere rule of thumb description of manufacturing manipulations. the processes described are, with the exception of those described as obsolete, to the author's definite knowledge, in commercial use at the present time. $precious stones.$ by w. goodchild, m.b., b.ch. with illustrations. $with a chapter on artificial stones.$ by robert dykes. list of contents: introductory and historical. genesis of precious stones. physical properties. the cutting and polishing of gems. imitation gems and the artificial production of precious stones. the diamond. fluor spar and the forms of silica. corundum, including ruby and sapphire. spinel and chrysoberyl. the carbonates and the felspars. the pyroxene and amphibole groups. beryl, cordierite, lapis lazuli and the garnets. olivine, topaz, tourmaline and other silicates. phosphates, sulphates, and carbon compounds. an admirable guide to a fascinating subject. $patents, designs and trade marks: the law and commercial usage.$ by kenneth r. swan, b.a. (oxon.), of the inner temple, barrister-at-law. contents: table of cases cited--_part i.--letters patent._ introduction. general. historical. i., ii., iii. invention, novelty, subject matter, and utility the essentials of patentable invention. iv. specification. v. construction of specification. vi. who may apply for a patent. vii. application and grant. viii. opposition. ix. patent rights. legal value. commercial value. x. amendment. xi. infringement of patent. xii. action for infringement. xiii. action to restrain threats. xiv. negotiation of patents by sale and licence. xv. limitations on patent right. xvi. revocation. xvii. prolongation. xviii. miscellaneous. xix. foreign patents. xx. foreign patent laws: united states of america. germany. france. table of cost, etc., of foreign patents. appendix a.-- . table of forms and fees. . cost of obtaining a british patent. . convention countries. _part ii.--copyright in design._ introduction. i. registrable designs. ii. registration. iii. marking. iv. infringement. appendix b.-- . table of forms and fees. . classification of goods. _part iii.--trade marks._ introduction. i. meaning of trade mark. ii. qualification for registration. iii. restrictions on registration. iv. registration. v. effect of registration. vi. miscellaneous. appendix c.--table of forms and fees. indices. . patents. . designs. . trade marks. this is the first book on the subject since the new patents act. its aim is not only to present the existing law accurately and as fully as possible, but also to cast it in a form readily comprehensible to the layman unfamiliar with legal phraseology. it will be of value to those engaged in trades and industries where a knowledge of the patenting of inventions and the registration of trade marks is important. full information is given regarding patents in foreign countries. $the book; its history and development.$ by cyril davenport, v.d., f.s.a. with plates and figures in the text. list of contents: early records. rolls, books and book bindings. paper. printing. illustrations. miscellanea. leathers. the ornamentation of leather bookbindings without gold. the ornamentation of leather bookbindings with gold, bibliography. index. the romance of the book and its development from the rude inscriptions on stone to the magnificent de luxe tomes of to-day have never been so excellently discoursed upon as in this volume. the history of the book is the history of the preservation of human thought. this work should be in the possession of every book lover. van nostrand's "westminster" series list of new and forthcoming volumes. $timber.$ by j. r. baterden, a.m.i.c.e. $steam engines.$ by j. t. rossiter, m.i.e.e., a.m.i.m.e. $electric lamps.$ by maurice solomon, a.c.g.i., a.m.i.e.e. $the railway locomotive.$ by vaughan pendred, m.i.mech.e. $leather.$ by h. garner bennett. $pumps and pumping machinery.$ by james w. rossiter, a.m.i.m.e. $workshop practice.$ by professor g. f. charnock, a.m.i.c.e., m.i.m.e. $textiles and their manufacture.$ by aldred barker, m.sc. $gold and precious metals.$ by thomas k. rose, d.sc., of the royal mint. $photography.$ by alfred watkins, past president of the photographic convention. $commercial paints and painting.$ by a. s. jennings, hon. consulting examiner, city and guilds of london institute. $ornamental window glass work.$ by a. l. duthie. $brewing and distilling.$ by james grant, f.c.s. $wood pulp and its applications.$ by c. f. cross, e. j. bevan and r. w. sindall. $the manufacture of paper.$ by r. w. sindall. d. van nostrand company _publishers and booksellers_ , murray and , warren streets, new york. +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ | transcriber's notes | | | | the following inconsistencies were kept: | | | | -k.w. -- k.w. | | back-water -- backwater | | bed-plate -- bedplate | | buntpapier-fabrikation -- buntpapierfabrikation | | cc. -- c.c. | | coloration -- colouring | | conical-shaped -- conical shaped | | cwts. -- cwts. | | darthford (cited) -- dartford | | drum washers -- drum-washer | | economiser -- economizing | | edge runner -- edge-runner | | gesamte -- gesammten | | grams -- grammes | | h.p. -- h.-p. | | holzschliffes -- holzschliffs | | hydral-cellulose -- hydra-cellulose | | india-rubber -- india-rubber | | midfeather -- mid-feather | | mitteilungen -- mittheilungen | | oval shaped -- oval-shaped | | oxy-cellulose -- oxy-cellulose | | oxy-cellulose -- oxycellulose | | paper-maker -- papermaker | | papiererzeugung -- papier-erzeugung | | papierfabrikation -- papier-fabrikation | | per cent. -- per cent. | | realise -- realize | | schreibwarenzeitung -- schreibwaren-zeitung | | sugarcane -- sugar-cane | | utilisation -- utilization | | utilised -- utilized | | vulcanised -- vulcanization | | watermarks -- water-marks | | workman -- work-woman | | | | the following changes have been made: | | | | p. iii "versâ" replaced by "versa" | | p. ix "presse-pÀte" replaced by "presse-pÂte" | | p. "kulturhistorischen" replaced by "kulturhistorisches" | | (caption fig. ) | | p. "vollstandige muhlen" replaced by "vollständige mühlen" | | p. "couch-rolls" replaced by "couch rolls" | | p. "back-fall" replaced by "backfall" | | p. "beaume" replaced by "baumé" | | p. "tes" replaced by "test" | | p. "beaume" replaced by "baumé" | | p. "lignocellulose" replaced by "ligno-cellulose" | | p. "ubersicht" replaced by "Übersicht" | | p. "press-pâte" replaced by "presse-pâte" | | p. "paper makers" replaced by "paper-makers" | | p. "andes" replaced by "andés" | | p. "muller" replaced by "müller" | | p. "hoessle" replaced by "hössle" | | p. "paralatore" replaced by "parlatore" | | p. "muller" replaced by "müller" | | p. "bookbinding" replaced by "bookmaking" | | p. "parish" replaced by "paris" | | p. - b further corrections in german, dutch and french | | book titles without separate notices. | | ( ) "bye-products" replaced by "by-products" | | ( ) "evey" replaced by "every" | | | | | +--------------------------------------------------------------------+ (this file was produced from images generously made available by the internet archive/million book project) transcriber's note: minor typographical errors and inconsistencies have been corrected. some words had inconsistent hyphenation throughout the book; these have been made consistent. in the mathematical and chemical expressions, the caret character represents "to the power of", e.g. e^ means e-squared. curly braces are used to represent underscores, e.g. n{ } means n with a subscript of . equal signs are used to represent =bold words=, and underscores are used to represent italics. on page naco{ } has been corrected to na{ }co{ }. on page , the variable n has been replaced with the correctly subscripted forms n{ } and n{ }. the index entry for hemlock bark had no page number in the original text, so the correct page number, , has been supplied. ions are shown as fe+++, instead of using superscripts. there is some inconsistency in the notation used in the original text for chemical formulae such as na{ }cr{ }o{ }( h{ }o). these have been regularized to use the modern mid-dot, for example, na{ }cr{ }o{ }· h{ }o. greek letters in the original have been represented in this version by the name of the letter enclosed in square brackets, e.g. [alpha]. animal proteins by hugh garner bennett, m.sc. (leeds) member of the society of leather trades' chemists; formerly assistant lecturer and demonstrator at the leather industries department of the university of leeds author of "the manufacture of leather" london bailliÈre, tindall and cox , henrietta street, covent garden (_all rights reserved_) general preface the rapid development of applied chemistry in recent years has brought about a revolution in all branches of technology. this growth has been accelerated during the war, and the british empire has now an opportunity of increasing its industrial output by the application of this knowledge to the raw materials available in the different parts of the world. the subject in this series of handbooks will be treated from the chemical rather than the engineering standpoint. the industrial aspect will also be more prominent than that of the laboratory. each volume will be complete in itself, and will give a general survey of the industry, showing how chemical principles have been applied and have affected manufacture. the influence of new inventions on the development of the industry will be shown, as also the effect of industrial requirements in stimulating invention. historical notes will be a feature in dealing with the different branches of the subject, but they will be kept within moderate limits. present tendencies and possible future developments will have attention, and some space will be devoted to a comparison of industrial methods and progress in the chief producing countries. there will be a general bibliography, and also a select bibliography to follow each section. statistical information will only be introduced in so far as it serves to illustrate the line of argument. each book will be divided into sections instead of chapters, and the sections will deal with separate branches of the subject in the manner of a special article or monograph. an attempt will, in fact, be made to get away from the orthodox textbook manner, not only to make the treatment original, but also to appeal to the very large class of readers already possessing good textbooks, of which there are quite sufficient. the books should also be found useful by men of affairs having no special technical knowledge, but who may require from time to time to refer to technical matters in a book of moderate compass, with references to the large standard works for fuller details on special points if required. to the advanced student the books should be especially valuable. his mind is often crammed with the hard facts and details of his subject which crowd out the power of realizing the industry as a whole. these books are intended to remedy such a state of affairs. while recapitulating the essential basic facts, they will aim at presenting the reality of the living industry. it has long been a drawback of our technical education that the college graduate, on commencing his industrial career, is positively handicapped by his academic knowledge because of his lack of information on current industrial conditions. a book giving a comprehensive survey of the industry can be of very material assistance to the student as an adjunct to his ordinary textbooks, and this is one of the chief objects of the present series. those actually engaged in the industry who have specialized in rather narrow limits will probably find these books more readable than the larger textbooks when they wish to refresh their memories in regard to branches of the subject with which they are not immediately concerned. the volume will also serve as a guide to the standard literature of the subject, and prove of value to the consultant, so that, having obtained a comprehensive view of the whole industry, he can go at once to the proper authorities for more elaborate information on special points, and thus save a couple of days spent in hunting through the libraries of scientific societies. as far as this country is concerned, it is believed that the general scheme of this series of handbooks is unique, and it is confidently hoped that it will supply mental munitions for the coming industrial war. i have been fortunate in securing writers for the different volumes who are specially connected with the several departments of industrial chemistry, and trust that the whole series will contribute to the further development of applied chemistry throughout the empire. samuel rideal. author's preface it has been the author's chief concern that this volume should fulfil its own part in the programme set forth in dr. rideal's general preface. the leather, glue, and kindred trades have been for many years recognized as chemical industries, but the great development of colloid chemistry in the last few years has given these trades a more definite status as such, and they can now be placed in the category of applied physical chemistry. the time is probably not far distant when some knowledge of pure physical chemistry will be a first essential to students, chemists, chemical engineers, and to all engaged in these industries in supervision, administration, or control. it is hoped that this volume will stimulate the study of these industries from that standpoint. as the author has previously written upon one of the industries involved herein ("the manufacture of leather": constable & co.), he has, rather inevitably, found it difficult to avoid altogether his own phraseology. the changes of a decade, however, together with the wider field and newer view-point, have made possible a radical difference of treatment. the author desires to acknowledge the help he has received from the many books, essays, and researches which are mentioned in the references at the end of each section, especially to procter's "principles of leather manufacture," and also to thank dr. rideal for many useful suggestions. the author would like also to acknowledge here his indebtedness (as well as that of the trade generally) to the work of dr. j. gordon parker, who, through his researches, lectures, and teaching work, has done more than any other man to disseminate a knowledge of practical methods of tanning. the author's thanks are also due to his brother, mr. w. gordon bennett, m.sc., a.i.c., m.c., for assistance in proof revision, and to his father, rev. john bennett, for some literary criticism. h. garner bennett. beverly, _june_, . contents general preface author's preface contents introduction * * * * * part i. hides for heavy leathers. section . the raw material of heavy leathers . the preparation of pelt . vegetable tannage . finishing process . sole leather . belting leather . harness leather . upper leathers . bag leather . picking band butts * * * * * part ii. skins for light leathers. . principles and general methods of light leather manufacture . goatskins . sealskins . sheepskins . calfskins . japanned and enamelled leathers * * * * * part iii. chrome leathers. . the nature of chrome leathers . general methods of chrome leather manufacture . chrome calf . chrome goat and sheep . heavy chrome leathers * * * * * part iv. miscellaneous tannages. . alum tannages . fat tannages . oil tannages . formaldehyde tannage . synthetic tanning materials . combination tannages . the evolution of the leather industry * * * * * part v. gelatine and glue. . properties of gelatine and glue . raw materials and preliminary treatment . extraction . clarification and decolorization . bleaching . evaporation . cooling and drying . uses of gelatine and glue . the evolution of the gelatine and glue industry * * * * * part vi. miscellaneous proteins and bye-products. . bye-products of the leather trades . bye-products of the gelatine and glue trades . food proteins . miscellaneous animal proteins index animal proteins introduction proteins are organic compounds of natural origin, being found in plants and in animals, though much more plentifully in the latter. they are compounds of great complexity of composition, and of very high molecular weight. the constitution of none of them is fully understood, but although there are a great number of different individual proteids, they present typical resemblances and divergences which serve to differentiate them from other groups of organic bodies, and also from one another. proteins resemble one another in both proximate and ultimate analysis. they contain the usual elements in organic compounds, but in proportions which do not vary over very wide limits. this range of variation is given approximately below:-- element. per cent. carbon to hydrogen . to . oxygen to nitrogen to sulphur . to . the most characteristic feature of the protein group is the amount of nitrogen usually present. this is generally nearer the higher limit, seldom falling below per cent. this range for the nitrogen content is determined largely by the nature of constituent groups which go to form the proteid molecule. roughly speaking, proteins consist of chains of amido-acids and acid amides with smaller proportions of aromatic groups, carbohydrate groups and thio compounds attached. in these chains an acid radical may combine with the amido group of another amido acid, the acid group of the latter combining with an amido group of another amido acid, and so on. hydrogen may be substituted in these chains by alkyl or aromatic groups. there is obviously infinite possibility of variation in constitution for compounds of this character, the general nature of which varies very little. practically all of the proteins are found in the colloid state, and this makes them very difficult to purify and renders the ultimate analysis in many cases doubtful. it is, for example, often difficult to ascertain their moisture content, for many are easily hydrolyzed with water only, and many part easily with the elements of water, whilst on the other hand many are lyophile colloids and practically cannot be dehydrated or dried. a few, such as gelatin and some albumins, have been crystallized. the constituent groups have been investigated chiefly by hydrolytic methods. the chains of amido acids are split up during hydrolysis, and individual amido acids may thus be separated. the hydrolysis may be assisted either by acids, alkalies or ferments, but follows a different course according to the nature of the assistant. under approximately constant conditions of hydrolysis, the products obtained are in approximately constant proportions, and this fact has been utilized by van slyke in devising a method of proximate analysis. it is not possible in this volume to enter deeply into the constitution of the different proteids. reference must be made to works on pure chemistry, especially to those on advanced organic chemistry. it will be interesting, however, to mention some of the amido acids and groups commonly occurring in proteids. these comprise ornithine ( : diamido valeric acid), lysine ( : diamido-caproic acid), arginine ( amido, guanidine valeric acid), histidine, glycine (amidoacetic acid), alanine (amido propionic acid), amido-valeric acid (amido-iso-caproic acid), liacine, pyrollidine carboxylic acid, aspartic acid, glutamic acid (amido-glutaric acid), phenyl-alanine, serine (hydroxy-amido propionic acid), purine derivatives (_e.g._ guanine), indol derivatives (_e.g._ tryptophane and skatol acetic acid), cystine (a thioserine anhydride), glucosamine, and urea. there are a few general reactions which are typical of all proteins, and which can usually be traced to definite groupings in the molecule. amongst these is the biuret reaction: a pink colour obtained by adding a trace of copper sulphate and an excess of caustic soda. this is caused by the biuret, nh(conh{ }){ } radical or by similar diacidamide groups, _e.g._ malonamide, oxamide, glycine amide. another general reaction is with "millon's reagent," a solution of mercuric nitrate containing nitrous fumes. on warming the proteid with this reagent, a curdy pink precipitate or a red colour is obtained. this reaction is caused by the tyrosine group (p. oxy [alpha] amido phenyl-propionic acid). another general reaction is to boil the protein with : nitric acid for some days. a yellow flocculent precipitate of "xanthoproteic acid" is obtained, and this dissolves in ammonia and caustic alkalies with a brown or orange-red colour. another characteristic of proteins is that on dry distillation they yield mixtures of pyridine c{ }h{ }n, pyrrol c{ }h{ }n, and their derivatives. on the subdivision, classification and nomenclature of the proteins much ink has been spilled, and it is impossible in this volume to go into the various systems which have been suggested. it should be noted, however, that some writers habitually use the terms "proteid" or "albuminoid" as synonyms for protein. the classification of proteins adopted in this work is used because it is the most suitable for a volume on industrial chemistry and has the additional merits that it is simple and is already used in several standard works on industrial chemistry. it is based upon the behaviour of the proteins towards water, a matter of obvious moment in manufacturing processes. on this basis proteins may be divided into albumins, keratins and gelatins. cold water dissolves the albumins, does not affect the keratins, and only swells the gelatins. the behaviour in hot water confirms and elaborates the classification. when heated in water, the albumins coagulate at temperatures of °- ° c., the gelatins (if swollen) dissolve readily, whilst the keratins only dissolve at temperatures above ° c. albumins and keratins may be distinguished also from gelatins by adding acetic acid and potassium ferrocyanide to their aqueous solutions. albumins and keratins give a precipitate, gelatins do not. another distinguishing reaction is to boil with alcohol, wash with ether, and heat with hydrochloric acid (s.g. . ). albumins give a violet colour, keratins and gelatins do not. =albumins= may be first discussed. they are typified by the casein of milk and by white of egg. their solutions in water are faintly alkaline, optically active, and lævorotatory. they are coagulated by heat and also by mineral acids, alcohol, and by many poisons. the temperature of coagulation (usually about ° c.) is affected by mineral salts, the effect being in lyotrope order (see part v., section i.). the coagulated albumin behaves in most respects like a keratin. some of the albumins (globulins) are, strictly speaking, not soluble in cold water, but readily dissolve in weak solutions of salt. the albumins are coagulated from these solutions, as usual, when heated. into this special class fall myosin (of the muscles), fibrinogen (of the blood) and vitellin (of egg yolk). by a gentle or limited hydrolysis of the albumins with dilute acids in the cold, a group of compounds called albuminates are obtained. they dissolve in either acids or alkalies, and are precipitated by exact neutralization. they may also be "salted" out by adding sodium chloride or magnesium sulphate. they are not coagulated by heat. after further hydrolysis with either acids, alkalies or ferments, very soluble compounds are obtained called albumin peptones or albumoses. these are soluble in alkalies, acids and water, and are readily hydrolyzed further into amido acids and acid amides. they are very similar to the peptones obtained from keratins and gelatins. they are not coagulated by heat. =keratins= are typified by the hair of animals. they soften somewhat in cold water and even more in hot water, but are not dissolved until digested for some time at temperatures exceeding ° c. with some keratins, however, the cystine group is to some extent easily split off by warm water, and on boiling with water hydrogen sulphide is evolved. the sulphur content of keratins is often greater than the average for proteids. all keratins are dissolved with great readiness by solutions containing sulphydrates and hydrates, _e.g._ a solution of sodium sulphide. in solutions of the hydrates of the alkali and alkaline earth metals, keratins behave differently. some dissolve with great ease, some with difficulty, some only on heating and some not even if digested with hot caustic soda. they are dissolved (with hydrolysis) by heating with mineral acids, yielding peptones and eventually amido acids, acid amides, etc. many keratins have a comparatively low content of nitrogen. =gelatins= are very difficult to distinguish from one another, their behaviour being closely similar to reagents. they are also very readily hydrolyzed even with water, and the products of hydrolysis are even more similar. the gelatins are known together, commercially, under the general name of gelatine. gelatins of different origin, however, have undoubtedly a different composition, the nitrogen content being variable. if the gelatins are not bleached whilst they are being manufactured into commercial gelatine, they are called "glue." gelatine is colourless, transparent, devoid of taste and smell. it is usually brittle. its s.g. is about . , and it melts at ° c. and decomposes. it is insoluble in organic solvents. when swelling in cold water it may absorb up to times its own weight of water. the swollen product is called a "jelly." jellies easily melt on heating and a colloidal solution of gelatine is obtained. this "sets" again to a jelly on cooling, even if only per cent. gelatin (or less) be present. the solution is optically active and lævorotatory, but with very variable specific rotation. some observers have thought that the different gelatins have different specific rotations and may so be distinguished. gelatins are precipitated from solutions by many reagents, such as alcohol, formalin, quinone, metaphosphoric acid, tannins, and many salt solutions, _e.g._ those of aluminium, chromium and iron, and of mercuric chloride, zinc sulphate, ammonium sulphate, potassium carbonate, acidified brine. many of these precipitations have analogies in leather manufacture (see parts i. to iv.). the gelatin peptones or gelatoses are formed by hydrolysis with acids, alkalies, ferment or even by digestion with hot water only. a more detailed description of the properties of gelatine is given in part v., section i. gelatine is sometimes called "glutin" and "ossein." animals are much the most important source of proteins, especially of those which are of importance in industrial chemistry. proteins occur in nearly every part of all animals, and the "protoplasm" of the living cell is itself a protein. the keratins include the horny tissues of animals: the epidermis proper, the hair, horns, hoofs, nails, claws, the sebaceous and sudoriferous glands and ducts, and also the elastic fibres. the gelatins are obtained from the collagen of the skin fibres, the bones, tendons, ligaments, cartilages, etc. fish bladders yield a strong gelatin. the albumins are obtained from the ova, blood, lymph, muscles and other internal organs of animals. the classification of proteins herein adopted fits in well with the scope and purpose of this volume. the keratins are of little importance in chemical industry, but are of immense importance in mechanical industry, _e.g._ the woollen trade, which is based upon the keratin comprised by sheep wool. the collagen of the hide and skin fibres is of vast importance to chemical industry, and is the basis of the extensive leather trades discussed in parts i. to iv. the waste pieces of these trades, together with bones, form the raw material of the manufacture of gelatin and glue, as discussed in part v. the proteids of animals' flesh and blood, milk and eggs form the source of the food proteins discussed in part vi. the food proteins embrace chiefly albumins, but gelatins and even keratins are involved to some extent. part i.--hides for heavy leathers section i.--the raw material of heavy leathers the term "hide" possesses several shades of meaning. in its widest sense it applies to the external covering of all animals, and is sometimes used derogatively for human skin. in this wide sense, it is almost synonymous with the term "skin." the term "hide," however, has a narrower meaning, in which it applies only to the outer covering of the larger animals, and in this sense is used rather in contrast with the term "skin." thus we speak of horse hides, cow hides, camel hides, and buffalo hides. it is used in this sense in the title of part i. of this volume. as such hides are from large animals, the leather which is manufactured therefrom is thick and in large pieces, and is therefore commercially designated as "heavy leather." from the standpoint of chemical industry hides are amongst the most important of animal proteins, and their transformation into leather for boots, shoes, belting, straps, harness, and bags comprises the "heavy leather trade," which is one of the largest and most vital industries of the country. the heavy leather trade predominates over other branches of leather manufacture, not only because of the comparatively large weight and value of the material handled, but also because the resulting products have a more essential utility. there is also a still narrower use of the term "hide," in which it applies only to the domesticated cattle--the ox, heifer, bull and cow--which use arises from the fact that the hides of these are both the largest and most valuable portion of the raw material of the heavy leather industries. in a very narrow sense the term is also sometimes applied only to ox hides, which for most heavy leathers are the ideal raw material. =the home supply= of hides forms a large important proportion of the total raw material. its importance, moreover, is rapidly increasing, for the excellence and abundance of the home supply determines the extent to which it is necessary for the industry to purchase its raw material abroad. the position of our national finances makes this an increasingly serious matter, for hides are comparatively a very expensive material. the quality of our home supply of hides is very valuable, being determined by the conditions of the animal's life, its precise breed, and by other factors such as age and sex. the best hides are usually obtained from animals which have been most exposed to extremes of wind and cold, as such conditions tend naturally to develop a thicker and more compact covering. broadly speaking, these include the hides from cattle of the northern and hilly districts. the age of the animal when killed is also a dominating factor. calf skins are very soft, fine grained and compact, the state of rapid growth favouring the existence of much interfibrillar substance. the youngest animals supply suitable raw material for various light leathers (see part ii., section v.), and are also very suitable for chrome work (see part iii., section iii.). bull and cow hides, on the other hand, are from animals whose growth is complete, and show in consequence a lack of interfibrillar substance, coarse fibres and a rough and often wrinkled grain. the resulting leather tends consequently to be spongy, thin, empty and non-waterproof. intermediate between these extremes are the hides of the ox and heifer, large, yet of good texture, and well supplied with interfibrillar substance. these hides are much the best for sole leather, a firm, smooth-grained and well-filled leather being needed. the term "kip" is often applied to small hides and to hides from large calves. in the trade, however, "kip" is sometimes used also for larger hides, as a verbal enhancement of value; just as a man with a few old fowls is said to keep "chickens." cow hides tend to be "spready," _i.e._ to have a large area per unit weight, and are therefore more suitable for dressing leather. bull hides are thicker in the neck and belly, and thinner in the back, which characteristics reduce their commercial value. market hides are sold by weight, and are therefore classified chiefly by their weight, which is marked on near the tail by a system of knife-cuts. the animals are flayed after cutting the hide down the belly and on the inside of the legs. of the various breeds, "shorthorns" yield a large supply of useful hides. the name, however, covers a variety of similar breeds, and the hides therefrom are rather variable in texture and quality. they tend to be greasy owing to high feeding. the "herefords," obtained from midland markets, are generally excellent hides for sole and harness leathers. they give a good yield of butt pelt, a stout and smooth shoulder, and are not often greasy. "devons" yield a good-textured and well-grown hide, but are often badly warbled. the "sussex" cross breeds yield somewhat larger hides. "suffolk red polls," common in east anglia, yield a good butt, and the cow hides make good dressing leather. "channel island" cattle yield very thin hides, but with a fine undamaged grain. scotch hides possess deservedly the very highest reputation. the climatic conditions favour the production of a hardy race of cattle with thick well-grown hides, yielding a large proportion of butt. these hides are amongst the best obtainable for heavy leather, and particularly for sole leather. "highlanders," "aberdeen angus," "galloways" are typical breeds, with short neck, legs and straight backs. cross breeds are also excellent (_e.g._ "scotch shorthorns"). the natural value of these hides is further enhanced by the usual care in flaying. "ayrshires" yield good milch cows and consequently yield often a more spready hide. the welsh breeds for rather similar reasons also yield valuable hides. the irish "kerrys" are small but stout, and yield hides suitable for light sole leather. irish cross-breeds, shorthorns, have a rather bad reputation, and are often ill flayed. all the varieties of the home supply are subject to various defects, which influence seriously their commercial value. one of these defects is warble holes or marks, caused by the ox warble fly (_hypoderma bovis_). this is a two-winged fly about half an inch long. the larva of this fly, the "warble maggot," lives and thrives in the skin of cattle, and causes a sore and swelling. the life-history of this insect is still in dispute, but it is generally thought that the eggs are laid in the hair on the animal's back, and the young larva eats its way through the hide until just below the dermis, and there feeds until mature. it then creeps out of this "warble hole," falls to the ground, pupates for a month, after which the imago or perfect insect emerges from the chrysalis. hides which have been thus infected have, in consequence, often quite a number of holes through the most valuable part of the hide, thereby rendering it unsuitable for many kinds of leather. even old "warbles" which have more or less healed up are a weakness, and warbled hides and leather fetch a decidedly lower price than undamaged. another of these defects is bad flaying. clearly the hide should be as little cut as possible, but many of our market hides are abominably gashed and often cut right through. this, of course, often reduces seriously the commercial value of the hide. careless treatment after flaying also results in another common defect, viz. taint. as the term implies, the hide is partly putrefied, sometimes only in patches, but sometimes also so extensively as to render the hide quite rotten and quite incapable of being made into leather at all. hides are of course putrescible, and dirt, blood, dung and warm weather encourage rapid putrefaction. as market hides are usually uncured, this defect is constantly appearing, and is a cause of considerable loss. other defects are due to injuries to the animal before it is killed, _e.g._ brands, scratches due to hedges and barbed wire, old scabs, goad and tar marks. all these reduce the value of the hide. all the defects in hides involve a very serious loss to the community, and the time is rapidly approaching when their continuance is insufferable. the loss is not usually very considerable to any individual, though very large in the aggregate. the hide is a minor part of the beast's value, and a somewhat damaged hide does not involve a very serious loss to the farmer. some with typical stupidity regard a few warbles as "the sign of a healthy beast." these defects involve practically no loss to the hide merchant, tanner or currier, as each pays less for damaged material. the loss falls upon the community, and the time is ripe for the community to insist upon the elimination of these defects. the national resources will be for some years strained to their uttermost, and preventable damage must be considered intolerable. the principal defects in hides are preventable, and ought to be prevented. the warble fly could, by a united effort, be rendered before long practically extinct, a task which is facilitated by the fact that it is not migrative. bad flaying and careless treatment of hides resulting in putrefaction are still more easily remedied. the communal slaughter-house is long overdue from the standpoint of public health, and would, under conditions of cleanliness and skilled workmanship and oversight, also solve the problem of ill-flayed and tainted hides. the question of the raw material is of first importance to the leather trades. there was, before the commencement of the european war, a steadily increasing scarcity of hides, causing a constant increase in their price. this was due partly to the fact that cattle were increasing at a less rate than the population, partly to the growth of civilization, and more extensive use of leather in proportion to the world's population, and partly to the constant discovery of new uses for leather, _e.g._ for motor cars, aeronautics, etc. the question of raw material was under these conditions serious enough. the terrific slaughter, necessary at the same time to provide the belligerents with food and the army with leather, is bound to result in a serious crisis for the leather industries; and in conjunction with the country's financial condition, will make it absolutely necessary that all care should be taken with the raw material of one of our most important industries. the farmer who pays no heed to the warble fly, the man who gashes the hide in flaying and who allows the hide to putrefy, are equally criminal with the man who throws bread crusts into the dustbin. it is impossible to foresee, as yet, anything in the nature of a satisfactory solution to the problem of raw material, especially in respect to heavy leather production, for the food question will rank first in the popular mind, and the earlier slaughter enjoined for the more economical production of meat will scarcely tend to increase the proportion of heavy hides. =the foreign supply= of hides is also of great importance and value. in the case of imported hides precautions to prevent putrefaction are essential, and some method of "curing" is always used. =salting= the hides is one of the most satisfactory methods for temporary preservation. the action of salt is hygroscopic, and mildly antiseptic. moisture is withdrawn from the hides, which are then under conditions no longer favouring the growth of bacteria. well-salted hides will keep for years, especially if quite clean. a light salting is also useful for a short preservation, and is becoming common in hide markets and tanneries during the summer and autumn months. salting is a method used extensively in the united states. the "packer hides" of the stockyards are carefully and systematically salted with about per cent. of salt and stored in cool cellars. the hides are so piled up in heaps, that brine easily drains away. the great disadvantage of salting is the so-called "salt stains." these stains have been ascribed to the iron in the salt, to the iron in the blood, to calcium sulphate in the salt, and also to chromogenic bacteria, whose development is favoured by salting. the relative importance of these factors is not yet satisfactorily determined, but cleanliness and pure salt tend to eliminate the trouble. =drying= the hides is a less satisfactory cure. the principle is similar, viz. removal of moisture. dried hides are, however, much drier than salted, and are quite hard and horny, hence the name "flint hides." the hides also lose much weight, a considerable advantage in reducing freight. tropical hides are often flint-dry, and where preservatives are expensive or unprocurable, it is often the only practicable method of cure. nevertheless, the method has many serious disadvantages, and is difficult to execute. if dried too slowly the hides putrefy partially; if too quickly they dry on the outside, and the interior is left to putrefy. the fact that hides are of uneven thickness, and the climate often hot, increases the difficulty, and often results in partial destruction of the fibrous structure of the hide. when dried, moreover, the hides are still subject to the attacks of insect larvæ, for the prevention of which the usual sprinkling of naphthalene or arsenic is only an imperfect remedy. this method of cure is also a nuisance to the tanner, who has to employ labour, pits and time in attempting to restore the hides to their original condition, and often loses up to ten per cent. of the goods in so doing. dried hides are also subject to the presence of anthrax. =dry salting= the hides is an excellent method of curing. as the name implies, it combines methods of drying and salting which are used alternatively. the method is used extensively in south america. a modified form of it is also used for preserving the "e.i. kips," which are cured, however, not with common salt, but with earth containing up to per cent. of sodium sulphate. dry-salted hides are largely free from the defects of dried hides, but of course are more trouble to the tanner in the process of soaking (see section ii.) than the wet-salted goods. =freezing= the hides is now a commercial process. on the whole the process is satisfactory, but the expansion of water after freezing may tend to damage the hide fibres. sterilizing the hides has been frequently suggested, but no method has yet been advocated which does not interfere either with the tanning processes or with the quality of the finished leather. hides from the european continent, usually wet salted and well flayed, exhibit much the same variable quality as the home supply, those from highland districts tending to be thick, yet even, well grown, tight textured and smooth grained, whilst those from lowland regions are less satisfactory. thus hides from the swiss alps and scandinavia have ranked high, whilst the spready dutch cows are typical of a lowland hide. in the hides which once came from germany the same features appear. bavarian highland hides had an excellent reputation, whilst those from berlin, cologne, etc., tended to be long in shank and not well grown. french hides are often ill flayed, and spanish and portuguese are often subject to scratches. italian hides have a very good name, being small but stout in butt. the american supply is important. south america yields an excellent class of hide, salted or dry-salted. they are from an excellent breed of animals, slaughtered and flayed with every care, and efficiently cured. a most serious defect in this class of hide is the "brand," which is both deep and large and in the most valuable part of the hide. one side, however, is usually unbranded, so that each hide yields one good "bend." these hides, _e.g._ "frigorifics," have recently been much more extensively tanned in britain because of the shortage in the home supply of market hides caused by the european war. south america also yields good horse hides. north american hides are usually wet-salted (_e.g._ packer hides). they are usually good. central america yields mostly dried hides exhibiting usual defects. the asiatic supply comprises the frozen china hides, which are clean but small, with flaying of uncertain quality. there are the buffalo hides from asia and east europe, which are suitable for cheap and sole and strap leather, and also the dry-salted "e.i. kips," obtained from a small breed of indian cattle, and extensively made into upper leather. the asiatic humped cattle also provide a limited supply. the african supply is of increasing importance. the tropical parts yield dried hides of uncertain quality, but the more temperate parts of south africa yield a growing supply of good quality. references. "the manufacture of leather" (bennett), pp. - . "principles of leather manufacture" (procter), pp. - . "the ox warble or bot fly" (e. ormerod). "the making of leather" (procter), pp. - . section ii.--the preparation of pelt before hides are tanned it is necessary for them to pass through a series of preparatory processes. the object of these processes is to obtain from the hide the true hide substance in a pure and suitable condition. each class of leather has its own appropriate processes, the adjustment of which largely determines the quality of the finished article. so prominent is the influence of these preparatory methods that the paradox "good leather is made before tanning" is in trade circles almost a platitude. these processes, sometimes lumped together under the general name of "wetwork," comprise soaking, liming, beam house work and deliming. these will be discussed in turn. the term applied to the hide after these processes, but before tannage, is "pelt." =soaking= has for its object the cleansing and softening of the hides, chiefly by means of water. it aims at the removal of dirt, blood, dung, and curing materials by washing. the process is usually simple, and is much the same for all classes of leather. the ideal to be aimed at is to restore the hide to its condition when it left the animal's back. cleanliness in leather manufacture is as essential at the commencement as anywhere, for the hide is in its most putrescible state. the soluble proteids (blood, lymph, part of dung, etc.) which always adhere to hides encourage the rapid growth of putrefactive bacteria, and cannot be washed away too soon. dung is often difficult to remove, being caked on the butt end amongst the hair. soaking only softens it, and mechanical removal is usually necessary. if such substances are not removed, they go forward with the goods into the lime liquors, causing stains, loss of hide substance, and counteracting plumping. the detailed method and time of soaking are determined mainly by the nature of the cure. one of the purposes of the soak liquors is to dissolve the salt used in curing hides and to rehydrate the hide and make it again soft and pliable. as a -per-cent. salt solution exerts a solvent effect on hide substance, it is necessary soon to change the first soak liquor of salted goods. market hides, which are uncured, require the least soaking, the cleansing effect being most needed. the hides are inserted into pits ("water dykes") of water for a few hours, and the water changed once or twice. the soaking should not be prolonged as the hides are so putrescible, and where it is customary to leave the goods in a soak liquor overnight, it is advantageous to add a little slaked lime to the water before inserting the goods. this not only softens hard water, but is mildly antiseptic and plumping, and forms a suitable introduction to the liming proper. each pit contains a "pack" of - hides, according to its capacity, which varies in different tanneries from to gallons. tainted goods, which are indicated by a characteristic white colour on the flesh side and by loose hair, need a preliminary washing either in a "drum," "tumbler" or in a "paddle." this ensures a rapid change of liquor and the removal of most of the putrefactive agencies. bad cases may need the application of antiseptics, such as immersion in . per cent. carbolic acid; but if possible these should be avoided, as they lengthen the time required for liming. after drumming or paddling, tainted goods should be placed directly into a lime liquor. salted hides need very similar treatment to uncured hides, but the soaking is longer, because of the dehydration caused by salting. hence they receive also a greater number of changes of water, three or four usually, but often more. as much loose salt as possible should be shaken from the hides before insertion into any liquor. the employment of drum or paddle before pit soaking is extremely useful to effect the rapid removal of superficial salt, and is also useful after pit soaking to remove the last traces. dried and dry-salted goods need a soaking still more prolonged, up to one week if water alone be used. with the assistance of caustic soda, however, the process can be shortened to about two days. the first soak liquor should consist of a . per cent. solution of caustic soda, and after the goods have been inserted twenty-four hours, they will be materially improved by a few hours' drumming or paddling. another caustic soda soak will complete the process. sodium sulphide crystals may replace caustic soda, but about three times the weight will be needed. carbonate of soda and caustic lime also are a convenient commercial substitute for caustic soda. for lbs. caustic soda, use lbs. carbonate and lbs. lime. extra lime should be added in all cases when the water is hard. acid liquors will also soften dried and dry-salted goods, but such processes do not fit in so well with the subsequent liming. the use of putrid soaks and stocks may be now considered out of date. =liming= follows soaking, and consists essentially in immersing the hides for - days in milk of lime. the chief object in view is to loosen the hair and prepare for its mechanical removal. liming takes place in pits, the tops of which are level with the limeyard floor. the lime is slaked completely and mixed well with water in the pit, being particularly well plunged just before the insertion of a pack of goods. saturated limewater is only a . -per-cent. solution. the goods are occasionally "handled" _i.e._ hauled out of the pit and reinserted after plunging ("hauling" and "setting"). this is necessary to keep the liquor saturated with lime. the hides are inserted one by one, each being "poked down" to ensure its contact with the liquor. the goods are invariably immersed first in a previously used lime liquor. most tanneries now carry this out in a systematic way, so as to ensure regularity in the process. as the goods are large and heavy it is less laborious to carry out the whole process in one pit. in this "one-pit system" the goods are inserted for (say) four days in an old used lime liquor, with occasional handling; this liquor is then run to the drain and a new liquor made up in the same pit, into which the goods are inserted for (say) five days. they are then hauled and sent to the unhairers. each pack thus gets two liquors, old and new. a better method is the "three-pit system." in this case each pack receives three liquors and has (say) three days in each, first an "old lime," then a "medium lime," and finally a "new lime." this system ensures a greater regularity of treatment, and is deservedly the most popular method for liming hides for sole leather. after being used once as a "new lime," a liquor then becomes a "medium lime," and after being thus used becomes the "old lime" which receives the green hides from the soaks. the system involves the goods being shifted twice to another pit, which is more laborious than reinsertion into the old pit, but if the limeyard be arranged in "sets" or "rounds" of three pits, the shift is usually only to the adjacent pit. one special advantage of this system is that the top hides in one pit become the bottom hides in the next pit, and _vice versâ_. rounds of more than three pits are sometimes used. many factories have now adopted systems in which there is no handling at all. the hides are suspended in lime liquors which are agitated by mechanical contrivances (_e.g._ tilston-melbourne process), or by jets of compressed air (_e.g._ forsare process). the goods are soaked and limed "mellow to fresh" by changing the liquors by means of pumps, air ejectors, etc. thus the hides need no labour from first being inserted until drawn for depilation. in liming, the whole of the epidermis as well as the hair is loosened, and is subsequently removed in depilation. the corium or true hide substance becomes much more swollen by imbibation of water, and when taken out of the new lime is "plumped" to very firm jelly. this plumping is a matter of prime importance to the tanner. the coarser fibres are thereby split up into the finer constituent fibrils, which fact assists very materially in obtaining a quick and complete tannage, good weight, and a firm leather. during the liming, the natural grease of the hide is saponified or emulsified, which prepares for its removal in scudding. liming is thus a complex process: the hair is loosened, the hide is plumped, and the grease is "killed." all these results may be hastened by the use of other alkalies in addition, and most heavy leather yards assist the liming by adding also sodium sulphide or caustic soda or both. sodium sulphide is a powerful depilatant, and will alone unhair hides easily in strong solutions even in a few hours. as in solution it forms caustic soda by hydrolysis, it possesses also the powerful plumping and saponifying powers characteristic of the latter. the addition of arsenic sulphide (as{ }s{ }) (realgar) to the lime when slaking causes the presence of calcium sulphydrate in the lime liquors thus made. this is also a powerful depilatant, but not much used for heavy leather. the function of the lime in depilating is complex and has occasioned much discussion. its main purpose, however, is that of a partial antiseptic. when hides putrefy, one of the first results is that the hair is loosened. in america depilation by "sweating" is carried out commercially by such a mild putrefaction, the lime liquor permits a similar fermentation at a slower rate, and all tannery lime liquors are swarming with putrefactive bacteria. liming is thus a safer method than sweating, which may be easily carried too far. various workers have isolated specific organisms--wood a _bacillus_, schmitz-dumont a _streptococcus_--but it seems highly probable that the limeyard bacteria are just the common organisms of putrefaction sorted out or selected by the exact nature of the liquor and the method of working the limes. many putrefactive bacteria are very adaptable and could easily accommodate themselves in this way. it is known that the exact nature of the culture medium has a great influence on the rate of development of such organisms, and which particular species thrive and obtain predominance in any limeyard will depend upon the amount and nature of the dissolved organic matter available as food, and upon the exact alkalinity and the concentration of other apparently inert substances, such as common salt and sodium, calcium and arsenic salts. hence no two lime liquors operate alike, and approximate regularity is only assured by systematic method. in handling and shifting, the organisms are subjected to further selection, and the most adaptable survive. it is probable that different species may act symbiotically. the depilating organisms of lime liquors are probably mostly anærobes, but some may be anærobic by adaptation. it is probable that ærobic ferments commence the depilation, but this will be done before the goods are put into work, or at any rate before they reach the limes. more strictly, it is the enzymes secreted by bacteria which are directly responsible for the hydrolytic work; these enzymes are chiefly proteolytic (proteid splitting), but the lipolytic (fat splitting) enzymes have also a place. the lime, however, not only limits and selects the course of the putrefaction, but also affords more positive assistance. lime plays its own hydrolytic part and assists the depilation by purely chemical action. lime will unhair without the assistance of bacteria, but its action is slow and forms a minor part of the operation in the average limeyard. this action is due chiefly to its progressive formation of calcium sulphydrate from the cystine group of the softer keratins. lime also plays an essential part in assisting the putrefactive fermentation. it softens the keratins and thus assists the bacterial attack, it hydrolyzes other proteids and provides the bacteria with food in solution, the calcium ion increases the proteolytic action of certain enzymes, and finally the apparently inert excess of undissolved lime has an accelerating effect on the bacterial activity. in the average limeyard these various functions are inextricably mixed up, and it is impossible to assign any definite proportion of the total depilatory effect to any of the factors at work. lime alone will unhair, bacteria alone will unhair, and sulphides will also unhair without lime or bacteria, but in the limeyard all three agencies are at work. putrefactive fermentation, however, obtains a good start. Ærobic fermentation commences with the slaughter of the animal, and the anærobic organisms soon commence their part, and are at work in the hide house and soaks. on entering the limes, the purely chemical hydrolytic action of lime is added to that of the bacterial enzymes as well as the action of lime as bacterial assistant, and the three continue to operate side by side. each gives rise to the formation of calcium sulphydrate, whose own special solvent effect is superadded. if sulphydrates be deliberately added to the liquors there is yet another factor assisting. speaking broadly, the bacterial enzymes have their maximum activity in the old limes, and the chemical action of sulphydrate formed from the keratin cystine is also at a maximum in these liquors. the chemical action of added sulphide, and the simple hydrolytic action of calcium hydrate have their maximum activity in the new limes. most observers would agree that in practice the bacteria shoulder the greater part of the work. from the limeyard is taken about the only waste bye-products of the tannery, viz. the residues from the soak and lime pits. these consist mainly of lime and chalk, with some hair and dung, and possibly a little sulphide. the sludge possesses some value as a manure, especially if from the soak pits on account of the greater nitrogen content. (part vi., section i.) =the beam house work= consists in the mechanical removal of those parts of the hide not wanted for leather manufacture. _unhairing_ removes the hair and the epidermis made loose in liming. the hides are placed over a sloping "beam" with a convex surface, and the hair scraped off with a blunt concave and double-handled knife. the hides are then thrown into a pit of water. the hair is carefully collected, washed well with water, preferably centrifuged, and then dried out by a current of warm air. it forms a valuable bye-product. white hair is usually kept separate and fetches a higher price. _fleshing_ is the next process. the hides are again placed over a beam, with the flesh side (_i.e._ the side nearest the flesh) uppermost. skilled workmen then cut off, with a sharp convex knife, the fat, flesh and connective tissue left in flaying. _rounding_ is usually the next process. the unhaired and fleshed hide is spread out flat and cut up into butt, shoulder and a pair of bellies. these parts have different commercial values, and may afterwards be tanned by different methods for very different purposes--for dressing leather, and sometimes even for sole leather. _scudding_ is the last piece of beam work. the fleshed hides (whether rounded or not) are washed, or at least rinsed, with water, and again placed on the beam grain side up. they are then scraped with a rather sharp concave knife, to remove "scud," which consists of hair roots and sheaths, lime soaps, fat, pigment and other dirt. short hair is shaved off by a very sharp hand knife. the beam work demands a certain amount of skill from the workmen, especially from the flesher, whose sharp knife may prove very wasteful in incompetent hands. hand labour was slowly but surely being replaced by machinery before the war, and war-time conditions have greatly accelerated the rate of transition. beam house machinery is rapidly becoming universal. the machines are cumbrous and expensive in cost and in power, but machine work is quicker, less laborious, and needs much fewer workmen. many types of machine have been suggested, but the most useful are those in which the hides pass over rollers and are simultaneously acted upon by a rapidly revolving cylindrical knife with spiral blades, one half being a left-handed and the other a right-handed spiral, so that the hide is scraped outwards as well as in the direction of motion. the part of the hide being acted upon rests on a pneumatic roller. by changing the type of spiral knife cylinder the machine will unhair, flesh or scud. =deliming= is a general name covering a number of similar operations whose primary object is the neutralization and removal of the caustic lime and soda in the plumped pelt, or at any rate on the surface of the hide. this is a preparation for the tan liquors. all the tannins and many associated substances darken rapidly with oxidation when in alkaline solution, so that to place the fully limed hide in a tan liquor would give a dark-coloured leather. a short insertion in a bath of weak acid would secure the elimination of surface lime and the disappearance of this difficulty, but there are other purposes in deliming. the more completely lime is removed the more the plumped pelt "falls" into a soft, pliable, unswollen and relaxed condition, and this change assists very materially in the production of a soft dressing leather, suitable for boot uppers, bags, etc. for such leathers, therefore, the deliming must be much more complete than for sole leather, in which the object is to obtain a firm and plump leather. in the case of the softer dressing leathers, experience indicates the advisability of allowing some further bacterial action on the interfibrillar substance in order to produce the requisite pliability and softness. this is secured by "bating" the hides. this process consists in immersing the goods into a cold fermenting infusion of hen or pigeon dung. the infusion is made in a special tub or pit with warm water and allowed to stand for a day or two until the fermentation has commenced, and then run into the bating pit through a coarse filter such as sacking. the hides are immersed for some days, but are handled frequently to ensure an even effect. the bate is always slightly alkaline. the caustic alkalinity increases rapidly at first owing to the diffusion of caustic lime, then at a slower rate, afterwards slowly declining. this is explained by the production of organic acids, and their salts with weak bases from the dung infusion by the action of bacteria. the total alkalinity of the bate liquor increases rapidly at first owing to the diffusion of lime and its liberation of organic bases, then very slowly, but towards the end of the operation the total alkalinity increases very rapidly indeed, owing probably to the commencement of a violent anærobic fermentation which produces ammonia and other organic bases, and which heralds the approach of a putrefactive action, which if allowed to continue for even a short time will ruin the hides. bating is consequently a risky process, and needs experienced oversight. for goods which need only a mild bating, there is the alternative of giving a longer liming in older limes. this of course involves more bacterial hydrolysis, and perhaps does it in a safer, more economical and certainly in a less offensive manner. bating is often followed by a further deliming by acids. boric, lactic, acetic, formic and butyric acids are all used, and with care even hydrochloric and sulphuric acids may be employed. innumerable "artificial" bates have been put on the market, but most are merely weak acids, acid salts or salts of strong acids with weak bases. an american "bacterial bate" consists of a lactic fermentation of glucose in the presence of glue. closely similar to bating is "puering," investigated by wood. drenching is another fermentive deliming process. in this the goods are inserted into an infusion of bran. this is made by scalding the bran with hot water, and allowing it to stand until it is about °- ° f. the infusion is then "inoculated" with a few gallons of old drench liquor, and the goods are immersed. this fermentation has been examined carefully by j. t. wood. first the enzyme cerealin converts bran starch into glucose, which is then fermented by the drench bacteria with the production of lactic acid, some acetic acid and small amounts of formic and butyric acids. the butyric fermentation is liable to become too violent. these acids, as they are formed, neutralize the lime in the hides and plump the pelt slightly. various gases (carbon dioxide, hydrogen, nitrogen, methane and sulphuretted hydrogen) are involved, and the proportion produced in the pelt itself has a peculiar opening effect on the hide fibres. the activity of the drench can be decreased by dilution and by using a less starchy bran, and can be increased by adding pea meal or rye meal. drenching usually follows bating. scudding sometimes follows deliming. the theory of the volume and elasticity changes of pelt during preparation will be better understood after considering the behaviour of gelatine gels. the determining factors are the _nett_ charge of hydroxyl ions on the disperse phase, resulting from ionic adsorptions, and the lyotrope influence of dissolved substances on the continuous phase. in softening dried hides the swelling may be due to either influence, but the latter tends to loss of hide substance and the production of soft leather. in liming, the nett adsorption of hydroxyl ions is the principal factor, but the lyotrope influence of the alkali cations and of the impurities is important. plump pelts are those in which the contained water is in a relatively greater average state of compression. few substances can assist plumping, but many can hinder it. in plumping all lyotrope influence is objectionable, and "sharp" (pure) alkali solutions are required. mellow limes reduce elasticity and plumpness by lyotrope influence. in bating and puering the essential change is that before the process the swelling is due chiefly to adsorption of hydroxyl ions, whereas afterwards it is due chiefly to a composite lyotrope influence. references. "principles of leather manufacture," procter, pp. - . "the manufacture of leather," bennett, pp. - . "lyotrope influence and adsorption in the theory of wetwork," bennett, _j.s.l.t.c._, , pp. - . "analytical examination of bating," bennett, _leather trades review_, , p. , and , p. . "the bating, puering and drenching of skins," by j. t. wood. section iii.--vegetable tannage all tannages have for their object the conversion of the readily putrescible hide tissue of the corium (the pelt) into an imputrescible, insoluble and permanent material called "leather" which, possessing considerable strength and pliability, is capable of application to a variety of useful purposes. the conditions necessary for this transformation have been clearly stated by procter.[ ] for the production of leather from pelt "it is not only necessary to dry the fibres in a separate and non-adherent condition, but so to coat them or alter their chemical character that they are no longer capable of being swelled or rendered sticky by water." whatever substance will secure this permanent dehydration of the hide fibres in a separate condition is called a "tanning material." the change from pelt to leather is known as "tannage," the process is termed "tanning," and those who undertake it are "tanners." [footnote : "principles of leather manufacture," p. .] in "vegetable tannage" the tanning materials are of vegetable origin, and contain a group of organic compounds called "tannins" which are extracted by the infusion of these materials with water. pelt, when immersed in these infusions, is converted into leather, rather slowly; but a gelatin solution gives an immediate precipitate of "amorphous leather," even if the tannin infusion be exceedingly dilute. the tannins are aromatic compounds of phenolic character, and contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen only, but our knowledge of their chemical constitution is exceedingly small owing to their instability and colloid nature, which make impossible their preparation in a pure state. they are all, however, derived from either catechol or pyrogallol, and yield these substances if carefully heated to about ° c. the tannins are soluble in water, alcohol, acetone, ethyl acetate and acetic acid, but insoluble in benzene, chloroform, carbon disulphide, petroleum ether, dilute sulphuric acid and _pure_ ethyl ether. the aqueous infusions of the tannins are in reality colloidal solutions; _i.e._ heterogeneous systems of two phases. the systems are lyophile, or, more particularly, hydrophile, _i.e._ there is an affinity between the two phases. as usual with lyophile systems the two phases may be considered as both liquid, and an aqueous infusion of tannin forms an emulsoid sol, which therefore is subject to the phenomenon of adsorption. the tannins are all precipitated by solutions of basic lead acetate and copper acetate, and many of them with varying completeness by solutions of many other metallic salts and hydroxides, of basic dyestuffs and of alkaloids. they give dark colorations with ferric salts. the tannins are widely distributed in plant-life, but only in a limited number of cases do the plants contain sufficient tannin to render them of commercial importance. tannin is found in all parts of plants, but usually in greatest amount in the bark or fruit. the tannins are classified into "pyrogallol tans" and "catechol tans," according to the parent phenol. this classification is confirmed by their chemical, analytical and practical behaviour, and the vegetable tanning materials may be classified into the same two groups, for, although even the same plant contains both pyrogallol and catechol tans, it is usual to find in any one part of the plant that one group is predominant. =pyrogallol tans=, which are oftenest obtained from fruit or leaves, contain usually about per cent. of carbon. used alone they produce a rather soft and porous leather. associated with them--in many cases probably as decomposition products--are certain other substances of well-known properties and constitution. these substances are not only typical of the group, but also form the most valuable clue to the chemical constitution of the group and the key to their chemical behaviour. one of these substances is gallic acid ( : : trihydroxy-benzoic acid c{ }h{ }(oh){ }cooh), which possesses properties very similar to the tannins, but does not precipitate gelatin and will not itself make leather. another of these substances is ellagic acid c{ }h{ }o{ }, a double lactone of a hexa-hydroxy-diphenyldicarboxylic acid. this is deposited as an insoluble yellow powder from infusions of many pyrogallol tans, by boiling with dilute acids only, allowing them to stand for a few days. in practice the deposit is found as mud at the bottom of the tan pits, and also upon the leather, to which it strongly adheres. it is technically known as "bloom." it is insoluble in acids and cold alcohol, but soluble in alkalies. it is a feeble dye-stuff. the pyrogallol tans yield very different amounts of bloom. other associated substances are the sugars. in practice these sugars ferment to lactic, acetic, and other acids which cause "sour" liquors. such liquors plump the hides and tend to give firm, thick leather. these acids also probably cause increase of adsorption of tannin by the hide and therefore assist in giving "good weight." solutions of pyrogallol tans all give a blue-black colour with a dilute solution of ferric alum. if a solution of sodium arsenate be added to an infusion of pyrogallol tan diluted until no longer distinctly coloured, and the mixture allowed to stand for about two hours, a green colour develops at the surface of the liquid. the reaction is due to gallic acid or a similar grouping, and is, in the author's experience, the most satisfactory qualitative test for the group. another test is to mix equal volumes of a . per cent. infusion of tan and a per cent. solution of sodium bisulphite; a few drops of per cent. potassium chromate are added, and either a transient blood-red colour or a more permanent deep purple is obtained. the former colour is due to gallic acid. if a tannin infusion be largely diluted with hard water and a little iodine solution added, the pyrogallol tans yield either a purple-red or a dark blue colour, the former being a reaction of gallic acid. pyrogallol tans yield no precipitate with bromine water. they yield a yellow or brown colour when one drop of infusion is added to concentrated sulphuric acid. myrabolans is one of the most important of the pyrogallol tanning materials. it is a name given to the dried fruit of _terminalia chebula_ and other species of indian trees. the nuts resemble an elongated walnut. they are dried and exported from many parts of india to all parts of the world, but largely to this country. the varieties of commerce are named according to origin and quality: thus we have "j 's," _i.e._ jubbelpore, no. quality, "r 's" (rajpore, no. ), "b 's" (bhimley, no. ), etc. the little difference in tannin strength (about per cent.) in these varieties is usually compensated by corresponding differences in price. the quality of myrabolans cannot be safely judged by appearance. much bloom is deposited by myrabolans liquors, especially by "j's." myrabolans are amongst the most sugary of tanning materials, containing up to - / per cent. it is therefore one of the best materials for giving a plump leather. broadly speaking, those varieties which yield most sugar yield least bloom, and _vice versâ_. myrabolans tannin has a small affinity for hide substance and penetrates the hide very slowly. it gives a "mellow" tannage, but a bright, good colour, which characteristics are imparted to the leather when the material is blended with other materials containing dark or astringent tannins. when used alone it yields a rather spongy leather, and it is not considered a good weight-giving material, though its acid-producing powers are very helpful to other more astringent tannins. valonia has been the other staple tanning material of the heavy leather trade. it is the acorn cup of oaks common in asia minor and greece, chiefly the turkish oak (_quercus ægilops_). the fruit is gathered when ripe and dried in layers of about one foot deep until the acorn drops out, smyrna is the great export centre. greek valonia is obtained from many parts of the archipelago and mainland. it is gathered in a more immature condition and includes the acorn. it is considered slightly inferior in strength and colour to the smyrna valonia. the exterior of the acorn cup is covered with rather scaly protuberances known as "beard," which contains usually about per cent. of tannin. the cup alone contains usually about per cent. tannin, and the whole about per cent. the valonia tannin has been thought to contain two chemical individuals, only one of which produces bloom. parker and leach[ ] found that the tannin of the cup produces more bloom than that of the beard, and that smyrna valonia yields more bloom than greek. the more bloom is deposited, the less acid will be produced. under all conditions the yield of bloom is large, and its deposition in and on the leather assists materially in giving the weight and water-resisting powers associated with sole leather which has been largely tanned with valonia. the valonia tannins have only a moderate affinity for hide, which, like myrabolans, they penetrate very slowly. when used alone the leather is less yellow than that from myrabolans, and is also duller. after most of its bloom has been deposited valonia makes a very suitable tannage for dressing leather, and in conjunction with gambier has been largely thus used. since the outbreak of war the turkish product has, of course, not been available for importation. [footnote : _j.s.s.i._, , .] sumach[ ] is the other pyrogallol tan of commercial importance. it consists of the leaves and small twigs of the sicilian sumach (_rhus coriaria_) cultivated in italy extensively for export. the leaves are hand picked, dried and often ground to powder. it contains - per cent. of a tannin which yields little or no bloom, but much gallic acid. it is an unstable tannin, and its infusion rapidly ferments. sumach is a very valuable tanning material, and when used alone gives an exceedingly durable leather of excellent light colour. it gives a soft mellow tannage, and is therefore most suitable for light leather tanning, and is extensively used for this purpose. it is used, nevertheless, in large quantities by the heavy leather tanners for finishing purposes, for it contains some organic reducing agent which exerts a powerful bleaching action on other tannages, and which assists to brighten as well as lighten the rather dull appearance of leathers largely tanned with valonia. it is rather an expensive tannin, but most manufacturers find that its results are worth its cost. [footnote : also spelt sumac and shumac, and always pronounced like the latter.] other pyrogallol tans are also used to a limited extent. algarobilla and divi-divi are the fruit pods of several species of american _cæsalpina_. they are strong in tan ( per cent.) and yield a light-coloured and bright leather, but are unstable tans, yielding much bloom. babla is a small pod yielding a mellow tannage and much gallic acid. celavinia is another pod containing no colouring matter and giving an almost white leather. the tannin is closely similar to that of oak galls. these last were once extensively used for tanning in austria. willow bark is used for tanning in russia and denmark. valuable pyrogallol tannins are obtained from oak wood and chestnut wood, but the woods are not used in tanning as the percentage of tan is so small. =catechol tans=, often obtained from barks, contain usually about per cent. of carbon. they are seldom used alone, for they usually have little or no sugar associated, and hence their liquors do not either "sour" or "plump." they can be used alone if artificially acidified, but without acidifying or blending would give a rather flat leather, though possibly firm. they yield no bloom or gallic acid, but have associated with this other characteristic substances. of these the catechins are the most typical, and have been considered as the parent substances of the catechol tans. the catechins are white crystalline substances, apparently isomers with the general formula c{ }h{ }o{ }. they have different melting-points, and varying amounts of water of crystallization, but are otherwise exceedingly similar in properties. they are sparingly soluble in cold water, but freely in hot, and in alcohol and ether. they are precipitated by lead acetate, mercuric chloride and albumin, but not by gelatin, tartar emetic or alkaloids. in gambier liquors they are especially strong, and sometimes crystallize on the side of the pits, being thus known as "whites." the phlobaphenes or "reds" are also typical of catechol tans from which grow catechins; they can be formed by boiling with dilute mineral acids. they are considered to be anhydrides of the catechol tans. they are difficultly soluble in cold water, but freely in hot, and in cold alcohol and dilute alkalies. they are true tannins and alone are capable of making a red leather, but in practice are often found as mud in the tan liquors owing to their limited solubility. they naturally influence the colour of leather made with catechol tans, which is usually distinctly redder than the leather made from pyrogallol tans. infusions of catechol (_cp._ catechin) give a green-black colour with iron alum. the sodium arsenate test gives a red colour due to catechin. the chromate and iodine tests mentioned for pyrogallol tans give negative results with the catechol tans, but bromine water gives a precipitate, and sulphuric acid a crimson colour. mimosa bark is one of the most important catechol tans. it is usually obtained in this country from natal ("natal bark"); but the tree (sydney green wattle, _acacia mollissima_) is a native of australia. it is being cultivated now extensively in south africa, and forms a most valuable portion of the empire's stock of tanning material. its more extensive use has been long recommended by the author,[ ] but its gradually increasing employment in british tanneries has been greatly accelerated by the war, which has prevented its delivery in germany and has cut off turkish valonia from britain. it yields about per cent. of a stable and excellent tannin, and will produce a firm, durable leather, with a colour much less red than that obtained from many other catechol tans. it is an astringent tan, and if carelessly used yields a harsh or even "drawn" grain. most of the tannin is easily extracted, yielding a clear infusion which penetrates fairly quickly and gives good weight. it contains less than per cent. of sugar, which unfortunately rapidly ferments to carbonic acid, so that it is not a good plumping material. it makes in all respects an excellent blend with myrabolans. like all catechol tans, the resulting leather darkens on exposure to sunlight. [footnote : j.s.c.i., , .] oak bark, from _quercus robur_, is the ancient tanning material of britain, and is still used to a limited extent. it contains about per cent. of tannin and is mainly a catechol tan, but also contains a pyrogallol derivative. it yields catechin, and gives a red colour with the sodium arsenate test, but also will yield some bloom and gallic acid, and gives a blue-black with ferric salts. the tannin itself is exceedingly similar to that of mimosa bark, but the material contains about - / per cent. of sugar, which makes it possible to employ oak bark alone for making sole leather. it is noted for yielding a sound, durable leather of good typical tan colour. its tannin combines well with hide and penetrates quickly. the fatal disadvantage of oak bark is its weakness in tannin strength compared with other materials. this results in heavy freight and heavy cost per unit tannin, bulky storage, expensive handling in the factory, comparatively large bulk of spent tan, after relatively greater trouble in extracting, and the impossibility of making the strong liquors so necessary in these days to produce good weight in a short time. no satisfactory extract has yet been made from it. pine bark, from _pinas abies_, is one of the staple materials of the continent. it contains up to per cent. of a catechol tan, and, unlike most of this group, contains a high proportion of sugar and will give good results alone. hemlock bark has been the staple tanning material of north america. it is obtained from the hemlock, or _pinus canadensis_. it contains up to per cent. of tan and much phlobaphene, and yields a characteristic red leather of good quality, but which rapidly darkens with sunlight. it contains some sugar, but is usually employed in conjunction with sulphuric acid or with sugary materials. mallet bark yields another catechol tan similar to that of mimosa, but somewhat less astringent and more yellow in colour. quebracho wood and mangrove bark have been used, but are now made into extracts. =leaching.=--whatever class of leather is being made, and whatever blend of tanning materials is being employed, the tannins must be efficiently extracted by water in order to make the tanning liquors. this process is called "leaching." the tanning materials, after being ground, crushed or shredded, are placed in large pits arranged in "rounds," "sets," or "batteries" of , or units, through which water is percolated systematically, so as to secure a continuous extraction. water itself is added to only one of the pits of material. the liquor produced is passed on to the next pit, and then to the next, and is continually gathering strength. after passing thus through the series, the liquor becomes the source of the strong extracted tan liquors which are used in the tannery proper. with this system the stronger leach liquors are being acted upon by fresh material, and the nearly "spent" material is being acted on by the weakest liquors, and finally by water, thus ensuring a complete extraction. in the press leach system, which is now practically universal, the bottom of one pit communicates with the top of the next, and the liquor presses round by gravity flow caused by a few inches "fall." liquor is thus constantly percolating downward through the material in each pit. the "head leach" and "tail leach" are always adjacent in a double row of pits, and when the material in the latter is quite spent, it is "cast," and the pit is filled with fresh material. the liquor is then pressed round into this pit by adding water to the tail leach. hot water is used to secure better diffusion. at least two such sets of leaches ("taps" and "spenders") are necessary to spend the material of the average tannery and to obtain liquors of the necessary strength. =the manufacture of extracts.=--in addition to the use of the natural tanning materials described above, modern leather manufacturers employ also a variety of "tanning extracts," _i.e._ vegetable tanning materials in which the tannin has been already extracted, and which are supplied in form of a solid or concentrated liquid. such extracts only need to be dissolved in warm water in order to make a tan liquor, and the cost and trouble of leaching is avoided. they are a great convenience as making strong liquors of definite strength. many vegetable tanning materials are too weak in tan for the tanner to leach, and indeed to justify the cost of importation have been made available by manufacturing an extract at the source of the material. with such weak materials the extract manufacturer has had to secure a much more complete extraction than in ordinary leaching, and to concentrate his infusions by means of steam-heated vacuum pans. with such experience he has naturally begun to make extracts also from the stronger materials, such as myrabolans and mimosa bark, and it is now possible to have a tannery without any leaches at all. tanners also have begun to realize the advantages not only of more rapid and complete extraction, but also of doing the work for themselves, and extract factories are beginning to appear as an adjunct to the larger tanneries. the more complete extraction of tan also involves a greater extraction of unwanted colouring matters, hence decolorization is a feature of extract manufacture. =chestnut extract= is from the wood of the spanish chestnut (_castanea vesca_), which contains - per cent. of a valuable pyrogallol tan very similar to that of valonia. its weight-giving and water-resisting powers are as good as valonia, and its penetrating power is even better, so that it forms an exceedingly suitable material for the modern short tannage, and also for drum tannages. the extract is manufactured extensively in france. the wood is stripped of bark and usually piled for some months to dry and to allow the resins to become insoluble. some factories, however, use the green wood direct. there are two methods of extraction, viz. in open vats and in closed vats under pressure. the two methods yield extracts which differ in composition and properties. in either case the vats have a capacity of up to , gallons, and hold up to - / tons of wood. they are arranged in series, as in leaching, and the liquor passes in succession through all the vats over wood less and less spent. the temperature is highest in the vat containing the fresh water and nearly spent wood. in open vats of wood or copper the temperature is near boiling-point, whilst in the closed autoclaves (copper or bronze) the pressure reaches about two atmospheres and the temperature about ° c. ( ° f.). the series may contain , , or even vats, and the liquor obtained has a strength of ° to - / ° beaumé ( ° to ° bkr.). after extraction the liquor is allowed to stand, and much insoluble matter settles out--resins, wood, fibre, etc. the clarified and settled liquor is then passed through a cooler up to about ° c., and then run into the decolorizing plant, a deep vat fitted with a copper steam coil and mechanical stirrer attached to power. the best decolorizer is bullock's blood, which is run into the vat and well mixed. the temperature is next raised to about ° c., causing the blood albumin to coagulate. it carries down with it a little tannin, but much colouring matter. after standing a few hours the settled liquor is run off direct to the evaporator. a multiple-effect evaporator is usually employed, and the concentrated liquor, which has a strength of about ° beaumé, is run into suitable oak casks. the extracts contain - per cent. tannin. an extract made with open vats has about per cent. soluble non-tanning matters, whilst a "pressure extract" may contain up to per cent. of these "non-tans." pressure extracts obtain also a better yield of tannin, which more than compensates for the slightly lower price. open extraction yields, however, the purer product and an extract with better penetrating powers, and is consequently the more suitable for drum tannages. chestnut extract is extensively used by the heavy leather tanners. =oakwood extract= is manufactured from the wood of the common oak (_quercus robur_). the centre of the industry has been the oak forest of slavonia. the wood contains - per cent. of a tannin very similar to that of chestnut wood, but somewhat more astringent. the manufacture is also similar to that of chestnut extract, but decolorization is often omitted, and greater care has to be taken and in other ways to keep the colour within limits. one of these is to strip the wood more completely of bark. another is to operate at as low a temperature as possible, about ° c. the extraction is made in large circular vats about feet high and holding about two tons material. a battery is composed of about eight vats or extractors. open extraction is used, and the liquor is passed forward after - hours' boiling, so that the material is spent in about hours. a liquor of about ° bé ( bkr.) is obtained, and the strength of the material reduced from to / per cent. of tannin. getting rid of insoluble matter is a difficulty, and is attained by settling, by rapidly cooling, and then passing through a filter press of wood. for evaporation a double-effect vacuum pan is preferred, which operates first at about ° f., and afterwards at ° f. with a higher vacuum. the liquor is concentrated from ° to ° beaumé (s.g. . and . respectively). the extract has a much higher colour than chestnut, and is not used now as much as some years ago. as the principal supply was german, it has been unavailable. =quebracho extract= is made from the wood of the south american tree _loxopteryngium lorenzii_, which contains about per cent. of a typical catechol tan. it is associated with a little catechin, much phlobaphene, but practically no sugar. the tannin is very astringent, penetrates quickly and gives a firm red leather which darkens on exposure to light. it is not noted for weight-giving powers. the wood itself, as chips or shavings, has been used in british tanneries, to a limited extent, but the great bulk of the material is made into extract chiefly in south america. the crude "extract," made by evaporating aqueous infusions of the wood, is largely exported for refinement in europe. it is also refined on the spot to a large extent and converted into solid extract containing per cent. of tannin. the great difficulty with quebracho has been the disposal of the phlobaphenes, and a great variety of quebracho extracts are now available which deal with this problem in different ways. in some the more soluble reds are simply left in the extract under the idea that they are really tannins and may be of some use in some part of the tanning process; in others they have been removed by settling and filtration at appropriate temperatures and concentrations; in most, however, they have been solubilized by treatment with alkalies, in the presence of reducing agents, notably by heating with sodium bisulphite in closed vats. the base combines with the phlobaphenes, which are made completely soluble and available for tanning. sulphurous acid is evolved, and its reducing powers assist materially in retaining and promoting a good colour in the product. such "sulphited extracts" are now extensively manufactured in this country from the imported "crude" extract, and sold as liquid extracts containing , or per cent. of tan according to the requirements of the buyer; "mixed extracts" which are solubilized quebracho blended with about per cent. of myrabolans, are also used. by solubilizing quebracho with excess of bisulphite an extract is obtained which possesses considerable bleaching powers, and such extracts are also extensively manufactured for the "vatting" or bleaching of heavy leather after tannage. the excess of sulphurous acid not only bleaches the leather, but also swells it up and thus permits a further absorption of strong tan liquor, which is conducive to good weight. these bleaching extracts are usually of - per cent. strength in tan. =gambier= is an extract of the leaves and twigs of the eastern shrub _nauclea gambir_. it is a catechol tan of peculiarly mellow quality and great practical value. it contains much catechin, but little phlobaphene, and yields a beautifully soft leather, but without weight. it is an exceedingly suitable material for the early stages of tanning, and is much liked for tanning leathers that have to be curried, and is widely used in the manufacture of upper leather. it is, however, an exceedingly expensive tannin, and the extract is made in a very crude way by chinese and malays without much supervision. hence its strength in tan and general quality is extremely variable. the plant is cultivated for the purpose of extract manufacture, and prunings are taken in the plant's third year. they are bruised and boiled with water in the open. the infusion is strained, concentrated, and poured into cooling vessels in which it sets to a paste. two varieties of gambier are well known, "cube gambier" and "block gambier." in the latter the extract remains as a paste containing to per cent. of tannin. it is sold in oblong blocks of or cwt., either wrapped in cocoanut matting or in wooden boxes. cube gambier is made by running the concentrated syrup into trays inches deep and drying in the sun. when partly dry, it is cut up into - / -in. cubes and dried further on cocoanut matting. the rough "cubes" as imported contain - per cent. of tannin. =myrabolans extract= is now largely manufactured in this country. a liquid extract of , or even per cent. strength is made for home consumption, and a solid extract for export. the light colour, high strength and easy extraction of the natural material have all facilitated the task of the manufacturer. the material is extracted in open vats or stills of copper, which take one ton or more of nuts. a battery of , or of such stills is usually employed, and the temperature is kept well below boiling-point except in the vats containing the nearly spent material. the liquors move forward quickly, and the material is quite spent in hours. the material when cast contains less than / per cent. of tannin. the liquor obtained is °- ° bkr. ( - - / per cent. tan), and after settling is concentrated at °- ° f. in a single effect vacuum pan, which though more costly in steam is quicker than the multiple effects, and gives the low temperature required. for solid extract the more concentrated liquor is run direct into tarred bags, in which it soon solidifies. =hemlock extract= is manufactured from the north american pines and imported into this country to some extent. it gives a very red colour. =mangrove extract= is made from the bark of _rhizophona mangle_ and other species of mangrove which grow freely in the tropical swamps of west africa, borneo, etc. much solid and liquid extract has been made from this material, but is not very popular on account of its harsh tannage and dark red colour. =pine bark extract= (_larch extract_) is made in sweden from the norway spruce (_pinus abies_). it is slightly sulphited and gives a good colour. it is a liquid extract of about per cent. strength, and is sometimes used as a chestnut substitute. it should not be confused with the so-called "spruce" or "pine wood" extract, which is a paper trade bye-product and contains ligneous matters rather than tannin. =american chestnut extract=, made from the chestnut oak, is either a liquid or a solid extract in powder form. it gives a wretched brown-black colour, which is quite unsuited to the usual british needs. theory of vegetable tannage. vegetable tannage is a phenomenon of colloid chemistry. the old arguments as to whether tanning was a chemical or a physical process have been rendered obsolete by the advent of a new set of explanations, which, though shedding light on many obscure points, have enormously increased the complexity of the problem. in vegetable tannage an emulsoid gel (pelt) is immersed in a complex emulsoid sol (tan liquor), which immersion results, not in simple reaction or change, but in a series of changes. one of these changes is _adsorption_. pelt is a gel which possesses a great development of surface. it not only exhibits like gelatine the phenomenon of imbibition and dehydration to a very marked extent, but also possesses a very fine fibrous structure due to its organic origin; thus pelt possesses an enormous specific surface, further intensified by the preparation processes previously discussed, which split up the hide fibres into smaller bundles and into much finer constituent fibrils. tannins, on the other hand, are hydrophile colloids which in water form emulsoid sols, and which may thus be expected to exhibit the phenomenon of adsorption. a tan liquor usually contains several tannins in addition to other closely similar substances, also in colloidal solution, and is therefore a sol of considerable complexity. the immersion of pelt into a tan liquor results in an adsorption, which consists essentially in an inequality of concentration in the sol, the greater concentration being at the interface. this inequality between the surface concentration and the volume concentration of the sol, is due primarily to considerations of surface tension and surface energy, and exists before the immersion of the pelt. the surface layer having excess over the volume concentration, any considerable extension of surface in a fixed volume of sol must produce a very considerable decrease in the volume concentration. this is what occurs when pelt is immersed in a tan liquor, the immersion being the considerable extension of surface. it should be especially remembered that the inequality of concentration is in the sol, on the liquid side of the interface. in adsorption, the substance adsorbed, _i.e._ the excess at the surface, is too frequently regarded as bound to the solid immersed. this is because the excess is in the layer which wets the solid and remains wetting it when the solid is removed. thus the immersion of pelt produces primarily only a change in the distribution of the tannins in the liquor. it follows from this that the adsorption is an equilibrium, and that if the sol be diluted, the equilibrium will become the same as it would have been by immersing the pelt directly into the dilute solution. thus, if pelt be first immersed in one tan liquor and then into a weaker one it will yield tan to the latter solution. the chief object in heavy leather tanning is to obtain the maximum possible adsorption in the minimum possible time, or in other words, to obtain good weight quickly. the amount adsorbed is proportional to the actual extension of surface, _i.e._ the adsorption is a function of the specific surface of the adsorbent. hence, to obtain good weight it is necessary to develop in the pelt its maximum possible specific surface. this is one of the objects of "plumping," which splits up the fibres. it is attained also by the solution of interfibrillar substance in limes and bates. the amount adsorbed is also a function of the volume concentration in the sol after equilibrium is reached. hence the better weights are obtained with stronger liquors. the adsorption law is y/m = ac^( /n) where y is weight adsorbed by the weight m of adsorbent, and c the volume concentration after adsorption; a and n are numeral constants. hence weight is determined by the strength of the liquor which the goods finally leave. the commencement of tannage is necessarily in weak infusions, in order to secure the maximum diffusion into interior of the fibres before they become heavily coated on the exterior. as the equilibrium is being established in such liquors the volume concentration diminishes, and thus makes it less likely that good weight will be attained; hence it is necessary in practice to move the goods constantly into fresh liquors of gradually increasing strength, and so maintain the rate of adsorption and save time. a further consequence of the adsorption isotherm is that as y varies as c^( /n) and n is > , y is increased appreciably only by a relatively large increase in c. hence, though stronger liquors give better weight, there is a limit beyond which any further gain in weight is not justified by the enormous increase in the concentration necessary to attain it. such great increase in c is impracticable not only on the ground of expense, but also on account of the great viscosity of the sol. the amount of adsorption depends also upon the exact nature of the sol. it has been previously pointed out that the tannins differ largely in their penetrating and weight-giving powers. some are readily adsorbable and are deposited in great concentration at the surface of the fibre, but for good weight it is necessary to use also the less adsorbable and more diffusible tans, which penetrate the fibre itself. hence it is necessary for good weight to use a blend of materials, and so supply many grades of liability to adsorption. it is particularly advantageous to blend judiciously the two main types of material, the pyrogallol and catechol tans. it is also necessary for good weight to present to the pelt the more diffusible and less adsorbable tannins first, in order to secure the maximum diffusion into the interior of the fibre before the exterior of the fibre is heavily coated with the heavily adsorbable and astringent tans. the least adsorbable materials are therefore used in the early stages of tanning, and the most adsorbable materials at the end of the tanning process. thus gambier is added to the early liquors (suspenders), solubilized quebracho to the later liquors (handlers), and mimosa bark extract to the final liquors (layers). there is also another excellent way of ensuring this progressive astringency of the liquors; this consists in leaching the required blend of materials together (or mixing them in the case of extracts) and presenting the mixed infusion to the nearly tanned goods, which adsorb chiefly the more astringent tannins. the liquor is then used for goods at a less advanced stage of tanning, which again take the most adsorbable constituents. this is repeated until the stage is reached when the fresh pelt is inserted into the nearly exhausted liquor, which naturally contains only the least adsorbable substances. this system is almost universal, and in practice is known as "working the liquors down the yard." it has the additional advantage of being a systematic method of economically exhausting ("spending") the tan liquors. when free acid is present in the tan liquors, it tends to distend the fibres composing the pelt by a strong and rapid adsorption. thus distended or plumped the fibres present a still greater surface for adsorptive operation, but the distension naturally leaves less space between the fibres for the diffusion of the sol. hence acid or "sour" tan liquors give in the long run more weight, but tan more slowly. pelt tanned whilst thus plumped forms naturally a thicker and less pliable leather. this occurs in tanning sole leather, to a less extent with heavy dressing leather, and to a very small extent in the case of softer dressing leathers. in addition to adsorption, there is another phenomenon of colloid chemistry in operation, viz. the _mutual precipitation_ of the sols in the liquid by the gels in the hide. in most sols the disperse phase is electrically charged. the sol therefore possesses electric conductivity, and migration occurs in the electric field to the cathode or anode according to the nature of the charge. oppositely charged sols precipitate one another, the precipitate containing both colloids. the maximum precipitation occurs when the + charge of one sol exactly equals and neutralizes the - charge of the other. there is thus an electrical equivalence; an amount of sol which is equivalent to a given amount of the other. this is not a chemical equivalence, however, and the precipitate is not a chemical compound in spite of its fairly constant composition. the composition of the precipitate, indeed, is not quite constant, for the optimum precipitation may not correspond exactly with the electrical equivalence, being influenced by the number of particles required, their size (dispersity), the rate of mixture, and the relative concentrations of the sols. this mutual precipitation is exhibited by emulsoids as well as suspensoids, but the charge (+ or -) on an emulsoid is in many instances largely an accidental matter, being determined by the medium in which it happens to be, its normal condition being electrical neutrality. gelatin and pelt are such emulsoids, and a positively charged gelatin sol has been observed to precipitate a negatively charged gelatin sol. it is thought, however, that gelatin is primarily a positive sol. pelt (whether delimed or not) is rapidly acidified by the quickly penetrating and strongly adsorbed organic acids of the old tan liquors and becomes positively charged before the tannins are adsorbed. the positive charge increases with the acidity of the liquor. other emulsoids are not electrically neutral, but are electrically charged and exhibit considerable conductivity. into this class fall the tannins, and in tanning it is thought that there is a mutual precipitation of the negative tannin sol with the positive hide gel, the precipitation of the negative sol being favoured by the acid condition of the liquor. the effect of increasing acidity soon falls off, however, as a saturation limit is soon reached. this mutual precipitation of colloids in tanning is in reality but an extension of the adsorption theory, which explains the predominant effect of h+, and oh- on the electric charge by stating that these ions are more readily adsorbed than other ions, and that as oh- is more readily adsorbed than h+ most sols are negative to water. in addition to the adsorption phenomena described, there are in vegetable tannage _secondary changes_ which are slow and "irreversible." these changes are obscure and are difficult to investigate. oxidation, dehydration and polymerization have all been suggested, but there is little direct evidence. certain it is, however, that time renders the tannage more permanent. it perhaps should be pointed out that in the very strongest tan liquors the viscosity of the tannin sol is so great that adhesion would be a better term than adsorption. there is no abrupt division between the two phenomena. in the theory of vegetable tannage there is another factor the importance of which has been strongly emphasized by the author, viz., _lyotrope influence_. this has been most conveniently discussed in connection with gelatin gels, but its effect on hide gels is analogous. it has also an effect upon the diffusion and gelation of the tannin and non-tannin sols. =mechanical operations.=--in the tanyard the liquors are almost invariably divided up into sections, called "rounds" or "sets," in which the mechanical operations are different in aim and method. in the first pits entered by the goods there is rapid adsorption in spite of the low concentration and small astringency, and the great aim is to obtain evenness of action and a good level colour. it is also necessary to maintain the rate of adsorption. all the aims are attained by frequently moving the goods. heavy leather is suspended vertically in the pits of tan liquor and handled up and down as well as forward from pit to pit. such pits are termed "suspenders." in the earliest suspenders it is indeed advantageous to have the goods in constant motion. this is done by suspending on wooden frames which are rocked gently by mechanical power; such pits are termed "rockers." for dressing leather in which firmness and smooth grain are not so essential, the goods may be paddled in the first liquors. this is occasionally done with stronger liquors for the express purpose of working up the "grain" pattern. the goods after passing through the suspenders are usually passed to "handler" rounds, in which they are moved less frequently. in these pits the goods are laid horizontally one above the other. one advantage of handlers is that the goods flatten thoroughly and straighten one another by their own weight; another is that more goods can be placed in one pit than in suspenders. they are not so convenient to work, however, as suspenders, and the goods do not feed so rapidly. hence the tendency is now to tan more in suspension, and to economize labour by an extension of the rockers. the handling of the goods is also saved by pumping the liquors and by working rounds of suspenders or rockers like the press leach system, with the difference that the stronger liquor is pumped in to the head pit, and the liquor passes upwards through the goods. finally the goods are placed in "layers" or "layaways," in which they remain undisturbed for a decidedly longer time. these pits contain the strongest liquors of the yard, and their principal function is to complete the tannage and give weight and firmness by the adsorption of bloom, reds, etc., in the interior of the hide. the goods are placed in horizontally, and are dusted in between with fresh tanning material which maintains the local strength of the liquor and keeps the goods somewhat apart. drum tanning attains a more rapid penetration of the pelt by giving constant motion in stronger infusions. it is of course liable to result in an under-tannage of the interior of the fibre. after the goods have been "struck through" in the ordinary way, however, drumming in extract is increasingly used as a substitute for much labour in handling, and also to save the time spent in the early layers. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. - . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. - . bennett, "celavima and babla," l.t.r., , . dumesny and noyer, "manufacture of tanning extracts." _theory_:-- meunier and seyewetz, collegium, , . stiasny, collegium, , - , , , . procter and wilson, collegium (london), , . wilson, collegium (london), , , , . moeller, collegium (london), , , , , ; and _j.s.l.t.c._, , , , . bennett, _j.s.l.t.c._, , - , - ; , ; , - ; _s.l.r._, , march. section iv.--finishing processes after the tannage is complete, leather is hung up to dry. in the case of heavy leather this drying must be very carefully carried out in order to obtain a product of satisfactory appearance and saleable qualities. associated with the drying are many mechanical operations (scouring and rolling) which assist very materially in imparting the desired qualities. after tanning, however, the quality of the final product is most strongly influenced by the amount of grease added in finishing. some grease is always used in finishing, partly because even sole leather requires some measure of pliability and partly because a coating of oil over the leather during drying prevents the loose tannin from being drawn to the surface of the leather by capillarity, thereby causing dark and uneven patches and a "cracky" grain. the added grease is also a contribution to the "weight" of the finished article--a primary consideration for heavy leather, which is usually sold by weight. the finishing processes, indeed, tend to be dominated by this consideration, and become a series of efforts to retain as much tannin and add as much grease as are consistent with the requirements of the class of leather being manufactured. sole leather does not contain more than about per cent. grease, or its firmness is impaired. belting leather, in which considerable pliability is needed, may contain about per cent., whilst harness leather, which must be exceedingly tough and durable, may contain up to per cent. of fatty matters. upper leathers, which need to be soft and pliable as well as waterproof and durable, are very heavily "stuffed" and often contain up to - per cent. of grease. sole leather is thus rather distinct from the rest, which are called "curried," "stuffed," or "dressed" leathers. the actual drying out before, after and between the various mechanical operations, each have an appropriate degree of wetness. in this country the drying is usually under the prevailing atmospheric conditions and is known as "weather drying." the goods are suspended by hooks or strings or by laying over poles in special sheds fitted with louvre boards by which the rate of drying can be roughly controlled. weather drying is cheap, but exceedingly slow, and in unfavourable weather is very unreliable. the goods, moreover, need constant attention to obtain an even result. steam pipes are usually laid along the shed floors, and are used in winter and damp weather to accelerate the drying, and also in the final shed stove to remove the last traces of moisture. wet weather, however, will not stand a high temperature, and steam drying is better avoided when possible. air-dried leather still contains about per cent. of moisture. many systems of shed ventilation have been suggested to hasten the drying and to secure a better control of the process. in one system a screw fan is fitted at one end of a shed (without louvre boards) and sucks air through the goods from an inlet at the other end. the air can be heated by a steam coil near the inlet. in another system a centrifugal fan blows air through an arrangement of pipes which distributes it to the drying sheds, and discharges it close to the floor by various branch pipes. the outlets are near the roof. a system of dampers permits hot air, warm air and the used wet air to be blended in the desired proportions. in america turret drying has been used. the sheds are vertically above one another and have latticed floors. heated air is admitted at the bottom and rises through the goods up the building just as in a chimney. for many of the finishing operations it is important to obtain the leather in a uniformly half dry or "sammed" condition. this may be done by careful drying, and wetting back the parts that have become too dry with tepid water or weak sumac liquor, and then leaving the goods "in pile" until of uniform humidity. it may also be done by "wetting back" leather which has been completely dried out. there are also "samming machines" which by means of rollers squeeze out the excess liquor. sole leather is dried out and finished immediately after tanning, but dressing leather is often "rough dried" out of tan liquors and wet back for finishing when required. dressing leather is often treated in different factories; tanners selling it as rough leather and "curriers" finishing it. scouring is one of the first operations in finishing leather. the grain side is wet and worked with brushes and stones until the bloom and loose tannin are removed. this process aims at producing a good even colour and level surface, but is liable to cause a loss of weight. dressing leather is often scoured on both grain and flesh, and weak soap or borax solutions are used to assist the process. in this operation hand labour has been now quite superseded by machine work. a great variety of machines have been devised. the mechanical working of leather takes place in various parts of finishing. these operations, known as "striking," "setting," "pinning," "jacking," may be carried out often by the same machine as used for scouring, but with a change of tool. the object of these operations is to get rid of wrinkles and creases, to produce softness, pliability and area, and to remove superfluous moisture, grease, dirt. the tools are of steel, brass, slate or vulcanite. scouring is often effected by putting the goods into rotating drums together with extract and sumach. the bloom is removed by friction, the colour is improved by the sumach, whilst the extract keeps up the weight. in finishing sole leather firmness is enhanced by "rolling." a brass roller passes to and fro over the goods with the exertion of considerable pressure. the operation is carried out by machinery. shaving is an important operation in the case of many dressing leathers. its object is to produce a uniform thickness of the leather and an even surface on the flesh side. the sammed goods are laid over suitable beams and shaved with special sharp knives which possess a turned edge. this hand process, which demanded considerable skill, is fast becoming extinct, and machine shaving is already almost universal on account of its greater speed. the machines consist essentially of two rollers, one of which is smooth, whilst the other is a spiral knife-blade cylinder (cp. section ii.). the sammed goods are held in the hands and placed over the smooth roller, which is raised to the cutting roller by a foot treadle. a number of similar operations ("flatting," "whitening," "buffing") are carried out by a suitable change of tool. in all these operations good samming is important. splitting is another important operation on tanned leather. in this process the leather is cut parallel to its grain surface, thus yielding two pieces with the same area as the original, the "grain" and the "flesh split." it is essentially a machine operation, and is carried out by presenting the carefully sammed leather to a sharp knife-edge, towards which it must be constantly pressed. the "band knife" machine is the most popular arrangement. the knife is an endless belt, which continually revolves round two pulley wheels of equal size. in between these the knife is horizontal, and is then used for splitting. the sammed leather is pushed towards the blade by two feed rollers, and the grain passes above the knife on to a small platform, whilst the flesh or "split" passes below and falls to the ground. emery grinders and thick felt cleaners in the lower part of the machine keep the knife in good condition. the adjustment of the machine is delicate and requires considerable experience. with care splits may be obtained down to / " thick, and sometimes as many as or splits are obtained from one hide. oiling is still usually done by hand, and cod oil is still preferred for many classes of goods. of recent years there has been a great extension of the use of sulphonated oils, which have the valuable property of forming an emulsion with water or tan liquor. with these materials it is easier to ensure the goods being completely covered with oil. the penetration of the oil into the leather is also quicker and more complete. these oils have often the disadvantage of leaving solid fats on the exterior of the leather, which gives it an ugly smeared appearance. stuffing the dressing leathers is carried out in a variety of ways and with a variety of materials. the old process of hand stuffing employs a mixture of tallow and cod oil called "dubbin." this is made by melting the ingredients together and allowing them to cool with constant stirring to a nearly homogeneous salve. the dubbin is brushed thickly on to the flesh side of the sammed leather, which is then hung up to dry. as the moisture dries out the oils and soft fats penetrate the leather and leave the more solid fats on the outside. the proportions of tallow and oil are varied with the time of year and with the method of drying, for if the dubbin be too soft it will run off the leather, and if too hard will not penetrate it so well. drum stuffing is a more modern development in which a higher temperature is employed, about ° f. the drum is heated up by steam or by hot air, and the sammed goods are then inserted and drummed for a few minutes until they are warmed. the drum is fitted with a heated funnel containing the melted grease, which is run in through the hollow axle. after a half to three-quarters of an hour's drumming the grease is completely absorbed by the leather. the drumming is continued for a while until the goods have cooled. whilst still warm they are "set out" to remove creases and superfluous grease. drum stuffing is not only quicker than hand stuffing, but also makes it possible to use the hard fats, and so make a leather which carries more grease without appearing greasy. thus in drum stuffing, paraffin wax and wool fat are used, and their penetration assisted by small proportions of cod oil or dégras. if the leather be too wet the grease is not absorbed, whilst if it be drier than usual the leather will take more grease, but the resulting colour is not so good. there is also another method of stuffing which originates from the continent. it is known as "burning in" and involves the use of still higher temperatures ( ° to ° f.). wet leather will, of course, not stand this temperature, so that it is first necessary to make the leather absolutely dry. this is effected by drying in stoves at temperatures up to °- ° f. there are two ways in which the grease is applied. in one method the melted grease is poured by a ladle on to the flesh side and brushed over until evenly distributed. a second application of grease is made to the thicker parts. the hides are then put into warm water ( ° f.) for about a quarter of an hour, and then drummed for half an hour. in the other method the goods are completely immersed in the melted fats for a few minutes in a steam-jacketer tank at a temperature of ° f. after softening in water at ° f. the goods are drummed. "burning in" is used for the heavier dressing leathers such as belting and harness. it does not give good colour, but permits the employment of still more hard fats. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. , . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. - . bennett, "principles of leather stuffing," _leather trades review_, , . section v.--sole leather leather for the soles of boots and shoes is a matter of essential interest to all, and forms one of the best appreciated applications of animal proteids to useful purposes. methods for its manufacture are as numerous as the factories producing it, hence all that can be done is to describe broadly the general method which is typical of our time, to classify the many varieties into types, and to indicate the recent changes and present tendencies. sole leather is mainly manufactured from butt pelt, and the great aim is to produce a firm, thick, waterproof and smooth grained leather which will bend without cracking. it must have a light tan colour to be saleable, and contain as much weight as possible to be profitable. the modern mixed tannage of "sole butts" or "scoured bends" generally utilizes ox-hides of the scotch and english markets, though salted continentals and south americans are also employed. after the usual soaking a short and sharp liming is given. the special aim in liming sole hides is to obtain the maximum plumping effect with the minimum loss of hide substance. both these achievements are necessary to obtain good weight. the limes should be kept as clean as possible, which is best obtained by putting clean hides into work. this reduces bacterial activity and loss of hide substance. the "shortness" of the process is attained by the use of sodium sulphide (from to ozs. per hide of sulphide crystals), by which depilation may be accomplished easily in about nine days. the amount of sulphide should be increased somewhat in the short-hair season and in cold weather. some factories take up to about days using less sulphide, whilst others will lime in about a week by using the larger quantities. the amount of lime used varies enormously, and is invariably in great excess of the actual requirements. "probably - per cent. on the green weight of the hides is all that can be really utilized, the remainder being wasted."[ ] this amounts to about - / lbs. lime per hide, but in practice it is more frequent to find , , or even lbs. per hide being used. the excess is innocuous, owing to the limited solubility of lime. some excess is desirable, to replace in the liquor the lime adsorbed by the goods in plumping, to assist bacterial activity, and also because in sharp lime liquors the undissolved portions do not remain so long in suspension. the use of sulphide and other alkalies does not "make it possible" to reduce the amount of lime used, it merely renders the excess more superfluous. the use of sulphide not only shortens the process, but also sharpens it, on account of the caustic soda produced by hydrolysis. usually for sole leather, however, it hardly sharpens it sufficiently, and it is very common to add also caustic soda (or carbonate of soda) to the limes. about ozs. caustic soda (or its equivalent in carbonate) is used per hide. the hides are limed generally by the three-pit system, giving about three days in each pit. they should be handled each day in the first pit (old lime) and once in the other pits. [footnote : procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. .] unhairing and fleshing by hand labour is still common, in order to avoid great pressure on the plumped hide. scudding should be very light, and in some yards is entirely omitted. only the lime on the surface of the hide should be removed by deliming, and this immediately prior to the insertion of the butts into the tan liquor. this is to ensure good colour and yet keep the butts plump. boric acid is the best for this purpose, using - lbs. per butts. the goods are inserted (and preferably rocked) in a dilute solution for a few hours only. about the same quantity of commercial lactic acid may be substituted for the boracic. this deliming can also be accomplished by adding the acid to the worst suspender in the tanyard. to obtain firmness and plumping it is necessary that the early liquors in tanning should be more acid than for other leathers. with old methods of tanning one could trust to the natural sourness of the liquors to complete the deliming and replump the goods with acid. in such cases any deliming was also unnecessary. in the modern yard, however, we get "sweet" liquors coming down the yard, partly on account of the greater proportion of extract used and partly because the liquors themselves are not so old. hence it is now practically always necessary to acidify artificially the tan liquors. this may be done by adding a few gallons of lactic, acetic, formic, or butyric acid to the handlers and suspenders, especially in the winter and spring. it is now increasingly common to place sole butts in a special acid bath after they have been in tan liquor for about a week. this bath is often made from sulphuric acid, and may be or or even per cent. in strength. the actual tanning of sole butts lasts three to four months, and just prior to the war the tannage consisted often of about one-third myrabs, one-third valonia, and one-third extract. the myrabs and valonia were leached together, and the extract added to the best leach to make layer liquors of the required strength. some mimosa bark was generally used also, and now it is extensively employed to replace the valonia. the most widely preferred extract is chestnut, but quebracho, myrabs extract and mixtures have also a prominent place, and mimosa bark extract an increasing importance. it is recognized that this tannage is if anything too mellow, and that if only a smooth grain and plump butt can be ensured in the first weeks of tanning, it is much better for sole leather to employ the most astringent tans possible and the sharpest liquors (_i.e._ liquors with a small relative proportion of soluble non-tannin matters). hence there is the tendency in sole-leather tanning to employ fresh clear liquors for the butts and use up the more mellow liquors on the "offal" (shoulders and bellies). four types of sole butt tannage will now be described, all of which illustrate the methods employed in a modern mixed tannage. = .= the first type consists in a four-months tannage, in which the liquors are worked down the yard. the butts pass first through the suspenders ( °- ° bkr.) in about a week, and are rocked in the first liquors. they next enter the handlers ( °- °) rounds of eight pits, six floaters and two dusters. myrabs, or a mixture with algarobilla is used as dusting material. the goods remain in this set for two weeks, and should then be struck through. the suspender handlers ( °- °) are next entered, in which they remain up to three weeks in suspension, being shifted forward on alternate days. the goods now enter the layers, of which four are given: first ° for one week; second ° for two weeks; third ° for three weeks; and fourth ° for a month. the goods thus take sixteen weeks to tan, of which ten weeks ( - / per cent.) are in layers. the system of working the liquors is expensive, and is only possible if the butt liquors can be spent out by the offal. the best or fourth layer, °, is made from the best leach liquor, °, and extract (chestnut with some oakwood or mimosa bark). after use it becomes the second layer, °. the third layer, °, is also made from fresh leach liquor and extract (chestnut with some myrabs or mixed extract). after being used thus it is used for the first layer, °. the used first and second layers are mixed together and used partly to form the belly layers, and partly to make a sharp liquor for the handlers ( °- °) by diluting with ° leach liquor and adding quebracho extract. the old handler liquor is run to the suspenders ( °- °), and finally used for colouring off the offal in drum or paddle °. the suspender handlers ( °- °) are made from fresh leach liquor and chestnut extract. they are afterwards used to make shoulder layers. the course of the liquors is shown in the diagram below. it will be seen that fresh leach liquor and fresh material are used to each set except the suspenders, which must have some mellowness to ensure plumping and smooth grain. layer liquors are used twice only, and then (when only five weeks old) pass to the handlers. these are further sharpened by fresh leach liquor and fresh extract and dry materials. the forward handlers are fresh liquors with fresh extract. this tannage is fairly typical of high-class sole leather, in which the liquors are worked down the yard, but worked towards the offal, which thus receives liquors with relatively greater proportions of mellow tans and soluble non-tans. ----------leach liquor------------------- | / \ | | v \ | | th layer, ° \ | | | v | | v rd layer, ° | | nd layer, ° | | | \ v | | \ st layer, ° | \ \ / | \ \ / | \ v v | \ (mixture)[-->bellies] | \ / v v v suspender handlers-->( °- °)(shoulders) handlers, °- ° | v suspenders [-->offal] = .= the second type consists in a tannage of about four months, in which the liquors are not worked down the butt yard. in this method also there is an attempt to save much of the labour in handling, first by shortening the time in the handlers by one week (as compared with the above), and second by fusing the two progressive handler sets into two sets of equal strength, through which the goods pass more slowly and with less disturbance. the goods go through the suspenders ( °- °) in about a week, rocking in the early liquors, and then into large rounds of handlers ( °- °) for one month. the handlers consist of floaters and several dusters, in which the butts are laid away with - cwt. myrabs. the goods next enter the layers, of the same strength as in type , and in which they remain the same time. the total tannage is thus weeks, of which weeks (nearly per cent.) are in layers. the best or fourth layer is made up from leach liquor and extract, and is then used successively as a third, second and first layer, and then passes to the offal layers. the handler liquor is made entirely from fresh leach liquor and quebracho extract, and is a sharp liquor of greater strength than its bkr. strength would indicate. the old handler liquor is run to the butt suspenders. the course is represented thus:-- leach liquor / | / th layer, ° / | / rd layer, ° / | / nd layer, ° / | / st layer, °-->[offal layers] v handlers ( °- °) | v suspenders ( °- °) = .= the third type consists of a short three-month's tannage in which the liquors are worked straight down the yard. to compensate for the short time it is necessary to have stronger layer liquors in which the goods spend a still greater proportion of their total time. the stronger liquors involve a greater proportion of extract, particularly of quebracho, which fact causes the whole of the liquors to be sharper than their bkr. strength indicates, and justifies them being worked straight down the yard. the goods go through suspenders ( °- °) as usual one week, and then pass into suspender-handlers ( °- °) for two weeks, and thence to the layers. in the first two of these ( ° and °) they are actually in suspension, a week in each liquor. they are then dusted down for ten to eleven days, first in ° and then in a ° liquor, and finally for a month in a liquor of °. the total tannage is thus twelve weeks, of which nine weeks ( per cent.) are in layers. there is considerably less handling than in type , and it is more convenient, the goods being in suspension. = .= the fourth type is also a three-month's tannage. in this it is attempted to obtain even greater weight with still less labour. the layer liquors are kept much stronger by the more extensive use of extract, and this makes it impracticable as well as too costly to run these liquors down the yard. they are therefore repeatedly strengthened with extract and used again. the goods go through suspenders ( °- °) as usual one week, and then through a round of suspender-handlers ( °- °) consisting of fresh sharp liquor from the leaches together with quebracho extract. they are in this set two weeks, and then are laid away. they receive three layers: first, ° for weeks; second, ° for three weeks; and finally, ° for a month. of the twelve weeks, therefore, nine weeks ( per cent.) are spent in layers. in this method the goods are immersed in per cent. sulphuric acid after passing through the suspenders. there is possible, of course, a tremendous number of variants of the above types. the number of handler rounds is determined by the number of butts being dealt with. with a large number it is more easily possible to arrange for them to be in progressive strength as in type . there are also many systems of working the layers, of which the most notable is to make the second or third layer from fresh leach liquor and extract, and strengthen it with extract for the succeeding layers. it is then used as a first layer and worked down the yard. the bellies and shoulders often go through separate sets of liquors, but it is common to put them through suspenders, and even handlers together. they receive, of course, a distinctly shorter tannage, and are often drummed with extract before laying away or after the first layer. by way of illustration, the course of the offal and their liquors may be given in the case of type . the shoulders and bellies are coloured off in a paddle or drum with old butt suspender liquor, which is then quite exhausted. they then pass through suspenders ( °- °) together in - days, and go through a handler round ( °- °) for weeks, including one duster. the bellies are removed after weeks, and given three layers ( °, °, °) of a week each. they receive, therefore, nearly weeks in all. the shoulders also have three layers ( °, ° and °) of , and weeks respectively. the course of the liquors is shown thus:-- butt layers butt suspender butt suspenders (and + extract) handlers (+ extract) | | | | v v | belly layers shoulder layers | ( °- °) ( °- °) | \ / | v v | offal handlers ( °- °) | | v v offal drums offal suspenders ( °- °) ( °) \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / \ / v v drain the tanned butts are piled for - days, sometimes rinsed to remove dusting material, and then scoured either by machine or by drumming with sumac and extract. this removes bloom, but causes some loss of weight. "vatting" or "bleaching" now follows, in which it is attempted not only to bleach the colour of the leather, but also to impart as much weight as possible. the vat liquor is made several degrees stronger than the last layer by means of quebracho bleaching extract and good coloured chestnut or myrabs extract. the liquor is kept warm by a steam coil, at about ° f., but not much more without risk. the goods remain in the bleach liquor - days and are then horsed or suspended to drain. sumach is sometimes used in the vats. a new vat liquor must be made up after some weeks' use. the goods are sometimes rinsed in weak sumac liquor before vatting to get good penetration, and sometimes after to ensure good colour. the butts are next oiled and hung up in a dark shed and allowed to dry slowly and evenly to an "india-rubbery" consistency and rather slimy feel. they are then "struck out" by machine, wiped, re-oiled and again hung up to dry, preferably with sulphonated oil. after a short drying to a suitable and even condition they are "rolled on," and, possibly after further drying, "rolled off" with greater pressure, and then dried for a day or two with the help of a little steam. finally they are machine-brushed and sent to the warehouse, where they are weighed and classified. the offal is often drum oiled. it needs more striking and is more difficult to obtain in suitable condition for striking, rolling. it is treated similarly to butts, but often also goes for dressing leather, and may be split. it is of some interest to compare the above processes with that once very popular manufacture of "bloomed butts" in the west of england from south american salted hides. these receive a liming from - days, using - lbs. of lime per hide. they receive then a tannage of about months, comprising weeks in suspenders ( °- °)--very sour and mellow liquors-- weeks in handlers ( °- °), weeks in dusters ( °), weeks in round made from hemlock extract ( °), and weeks in six layers ( °- °) in which they were dusted heavily with valonia. oakwood extract was used for the layers, which took per cent. of the total time. the butts were scoured in a much-dried condition, so that only the loose and surface bloom was removed. no bleaching was given in the modern sense. in the old oak-bark tannage of sole leather up to months were taken for tanning, two-thirds to four-fifths of which time the goods were in layers. the strongest liquor rarely exceeded ° even where valonia and gambier were also used, and rather more than ° if not. it will be understood from the above that the tendency for many years has been to shorten the time and the labour required for tanning. drum tanning is obviously the next stage in shortening the time. in one such process the butts are put through suspenders ( °- °) for weeks, drummed for hours in an ° extract liquor, and finally in a neat extract ° for hours. drum tanned sole leather, however, is not as yet of good quality; the grain is not smooth, and the heavy weight finish (striking and rolling) needed to counteract this tendency is liable to cause poor "substance." the leather, too, readily wets and goes out of shape. possibly some drumming may be adopted to save time in the early layers, but the most serious rival to the months' tannage is the waterproof chrome sole leather (part iii., section v.). references. parker, _j.s.c.i._, , . procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . bennett, _j.s.c.i._, , . section vi.--belting leather the manufacture of belting leather is well illustrated by the tanning and finishing of "strap butts." in general, the tannage presents many points of great similarity with the tannage of sole leather; indeed, the resemblance is so close that in some factories there is little difference observed, and the currying and finishing operations are relied on to produce the desired difference in final results. nevertheless, there is considerable difference in the type and ideal of the two leathers, which may be expressed in trade parlance as a greater "mellowness" for the belting leather, and in the best methods of manufacture this fact is in evidence throughout the whole process of manufacture. in liming, there need be little difference between sole and belting hides, and a sharp treatment of - days, by the three-pit system, with a day or two extra in the coldest weather, would meet ordinary needs. for the conservation of hide substance and for the saving of time a shorter liming is sometimes given, in which more sulphide is employed than is usual for sole leather. even the very short processes of liming, to days, which involve the use of strong solutions of sodium sulphide, have been successfully employed for belting leather. the tendency to harsh grain with such processes is not so serious a defect with belting as with sole leather, and can be minimized by careful deliming. american and continental factories tend to favour the use of those quick processes which employ warm water in addition to sulphide. the hides after a short liming in sulphide limes are immersed in warm water, which greatly accelerates both the chemical and bacterial actions. for example, after about days' liming, in which both old and new limes are used as usual, the hides may be thrown into water from °- ° f., and will be ready for depilation in or hours. even a stronger liming may be given, especially if the soaking is unusually prolonged. such processes undoubtedly save hide substance, and the pelt is obtained more free from lime, but they have the disadvantage that the natural grease of the hide is only imperfectly "killed" (_i.e._ saponified or emulsified), and may interfere with the normal course of the tannage. the plumping is also apt to be insufficient. on the other hand, liming processes are also used in which a mellower liming or a longer liming is preferred in order to produce the desired degree of softness and pliability in the finished leather. belting must not be too soft, of course, and it will be clear that the required difference from sole leather can be produced either in liming or tanning or partly in both. these considerations also decide whether bating is to be omitted or not. a hard astringent tannage in sour liquors after a sharp liming might make bating essential, but in these days it is usual to avoid it and produce the effect in other ways. a light bating of a few hours is sometimes given, but it is more unusual to delime the grain thoroughly with boric acid, using up to lbs. per butts. crackiness is a fatal defect in strap butts, so that a sound grain must always be obtained. generally speaking, therefore, strap butts receive more washing in water, and rather more deliming than sole leather, even when they are not bated. it is also usual to scud much more thoroughly, and to round a larger proportion of butt, especially in length. the tannage is usually carried out with a blend which includes a much greater proportion of the fruit tans, and correspondingly less of extract. distinctly more myrabs are used than in sole leather tannages, in the dry material, and amongst the extracts chestnut is preferred to quebracho, and myrabs to mimosa bark, though all these may be used in some degree. in the past the most favoured extract has been undoubtedly gambier, which gives a tannage which is easily curried and imparts the required mellowness to the uncurried leather. the great expense of this material, however, together with the advent of drum stuffing and shorter tannages in stronger liquors, have tended to cause a considerable reduction in the proportion used for strap butts, and to limit its employment to the earlier stages of tanning. the same tendencies for reducing the time taken to tan, employing stronger liquors, and securing economy of labour in handling, have been evidenced in the tannage of strap butts as in sole butts. it is nevertheless true that, broadly speaking, strap butts receive rather more handling and rather weaker liquors than sole butts. a greater amount of mechanical assistance is also employed with early stages (paddling, drumming, rocking). this is less objectionable for curried leather than for sole butts. the handling is more usually in suspension. the liquors are usually worked straight down the yard as a greater mellowness is needed in the early liquors than for sole butts. the offal is given a separate tannage and often used for different purposes, _e.g._ the shoulders for welting and the bellies for fancy goods. plumping with sulphuric acid is generally considered inadmissible for strap butts. it has been shown that leather containing sulphuric acid tends to perish after the lapse of a number of years. sole leather will be worn up before this effect is observed, but belting is an article which is intended to last much longer, and the use of sulphuric acid is consequently inadvisable. plumping must be obtained, to a considerable extent, but must be achieved by the organic acids (lactic, acetic, formic and butyric acids). a few gallons of such acids are consequently added to the handlers, especially in the winter and spring. less may be used in the autumn, when the layer liquors which fermented in the summer months have worked down to the suspenders. a mixture of these acids is usually better than any one alone, for they not only differ very considerably in price, but also have different powers of neutralizing lime and plumping the goods. lactic acid (m.w. ), acetic acid (m.w. ), and formic acid (m.w. ) are each monobasic acids; consequently lbs. formic will neutralize as much lime as lbs. acetic or lbs. lactic. their plumping powers are somewhat influenced by the anion. in determining what quantities to take, the commercial strength of the acids must also be considered. formic is often - per cent. pure, acetic - per cent., and lactic - , but may be as low as per cent. the blend must be adjusted accordingly. as strap butts do not need the firmness of sole leather, less of these acids may be used than for sole butts. the exact nature of the tannage and the strength of the liquors is largely influenced by commercial considerations. if the manufacturer is both tanner and currier, he need not go to such great expense in strong liquors and in time in layers, for he can obtain some of this weight in currying. if, however, the tanner sells the butts rough dried, he must naturally aim at obtaining greater weight in tanning. the actual details of the tanning processes are as usual very varied, but may be classified according to type, just as in the case of sole butts. illustrations will now be given. =type =, which may be compared with type for sole butts, is a tannage of about months. the goods pass through suspenders ( °- °) in - / weeks, and then pass to the handlers ( °- °), in which they remain a month; they are then put into suspension again and pass through the suspender handlers ( °- °), which takes - / weeks. in this round much gambier is added, and the goods are frequently handled. four layers are usually given, viz. first layer °, one week; second layer °, two weeks; third layer °, four weeks; and fourth layer °, four weeks. the tannage is thus weeks, of which weeks ( per cent.) are in layers. extra layers may be given to heavier goods, using stronger liquors made up with extract. all liquors work straight down the yard. the tannage consists of per cent. myrabs, per cent. valonia, per cent. natal bark, and per cent. extract, chiefly gambier, though some chestnut and quebracho are used. =type = represents the modern tendency to use stronger liquors and a shorter time. the strap butts pass through the suspenders ( °- °) in - / weeks, during about a third of which time they are rocked. they next pass through two sets of suspender-handlers ( °- ° and °- °), which takes a month, and thence to the layers. three layers are given ( °, ° and °), in which the goods remain one, three and four weeks respectively. the tannage is thus - / weeks, of which weeks (nearly per cent.) are in layers. the liquors work down the yard. longer time may be given to heavier goods. the tannage consists of per cent. myrabs, per cent. valonia or natal bark, and per cent. extract, chiefly chestnut, though some gambier may be added to the suspenders. however tanned, strap butts are first dried out rough over poles. this assists in making the tannage permanent, on account of secondary changes discussed in section iii. they are next wet back for currying by soaking in water or sumach liquor for a few hours and piling to become soft and even. the first operation is "skiving," which is a light shaving on the flesh side, carried out by a sharp slicker with a turned edge. the butts are next scoured thoroughly by machine on both flesh and grain, and sumached in a vat for several hours at ° f., after which they are slicked out and hung up in a cool shed to samm for stuffing. hand stuffing is often still preferred, with tallow and cod oil. the butts are next set out, and it is important that this should be thoroughly done. machines are now generally used, and the goods are often reset after further drying. after drying out completely they are given a light coating of tallow and laid away till wanted for cutting up into straps, which is now done by machinery. a continental method for making belting leather is to give weeks in a suspender set ( °- °) of twelve pits arranged on the press system, running two fresh liquors a week, and to give them two layers ( ° and °) of and weeks. the material is chiefly pine bark, but some oak bark, valonia, myrabs and quebracho are also used. the goods are stuffed by "burning in," molten fat being poured on the flesh side. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp , . section vii.--harness leather when discussing the question of oak bark (section iii.), reasons were advanced for its decreased use and popularity. these were quickly appreciated in the sole leather trade, but the obsolescence of oak bark in the dressing-leather section was much more prolonged, partly because there was less pressing need to obtain good weight in the actual tanning, and partly because in some branches of dressing leather, such as belting and harness, a leather was required of great durability and toughness, for which qualities oak bark tannage had a deservedly high reputation. hence harness leather manufacture affords a good illustration of the transition between the methods of the late nineteenth and those of the twentieth century. with the use of oak bark lingered the old methods of liming, bating and tanning in weak liquors for a long time with plenty of gambier. hence in this section it will be necessary to observe a gradual transition of method, both in wet work and tanning. it should be pointed out that this transition has not been and is not going on in all factories at the same rate. many factories remain in which the old methods are still preferred at some stages of the manufacture, and some remain in which many of the changes indicated below have not taken place at all. the leather trade has always been considered conservative in its methods, but it should be realized that much of the prejudice in favour of old methods is due to the public, and that after all tanners and curriers, like other business men, have to suit their customers. the march of industry is not like a regiment in line; it is rather more like nature, a survival of the most adaptable. hides for harness leather are limed in various ways, of which the following are types. . a rather mellow liming of - days (longer than for sole leather), in which nothing but lime is used, and a certain amount of old liquor used in making up the new limes. the liming was carried out by the one-pit system, but the goods and liquors were kept clean by a good soaking process. hence the loss of hide substances was not very great; goods so treated were bated before tanning. . a shorter liming than the above by the three-pit system. this saved time (taking - days), saved hide substance, and ensured greater regularity of treatment. the limes were about as mellow, but a little sulphide ( - ozs. per hide) was used to assist the depilation, especially during the short-hair season. these goods were also bated. . a distinctly longer liming, - days, in mellower limes. this differed from type also in the respect that greater regularity was ensured by the three-pit system; a foot or two of old liquor was used in making up the new lime. more hide substance was lost than in either of the above processes, but this was deliberate, the object being to dispense with bating, which is always light for harness hides. thus a longer and mellower but systematic liming was used as a substitute for shorter liming and bating. no sulphide was used in this process. . a short liming of - days, using up to ozs. of sulphide per hide. the object here is to save time and hide substance. the three-pit system is preferred. bating again becomes necessary, but the pigeon-dung bate is replaced by artificial bates, less objectionable, quicker, and more scientific in management. . a still shorter process of about five days, using still more sulphide (about - ozs. per hide), together with some calcium chloride to reduce harshness. in such a method there is a tendency to revert to the one-pit system, which involves rather less labour. the three-pit system shows to a great advantage in the longer processes of liming when the process is reduced to five days; there is little difference between the two, for a one-pit system is a two-liquor method. hence again an artificial bate is used. the various methods of liming, together with analogous variations in tannage, have resulted in great variety in bating. sometimes up to three days' bating has been given at ° f., but more often the goods are merely immersed overnight, and then delimed with boric acid, but with sulphide processes it is an advantage to use some of the commercial bates of the ammonium chloride type, and finish off with boric acid. scudding is always more thorough than for sole or belting, the hides are rounded into long butts which include most of the shoulder "harness backs." the goods are sometimes bate shaved. a few tannages will now be outlined, in order of historic type. =type = may be taken to represent the so-called "high-class" process in which oak bark myrabs and valonia are the staple materials. a good deal of gambier is also used, and a little myrabs and chestnut extract are helpful in attaining the desired strength of liquor. the "backs" go first through suspenders ( °- °), which takes up to three weeks, and then in to handlers ( °- °) for four weeks, consisting of rounds of clear liquor. they next go through a duster round, in which they are put for a week with oak bark and myrabs into a liquor of °. four layers are given ( °, °, ° and °), in which the goods remain for two, three, four and five weeks respectively, oak bark being the chief dusting material. the tannage is thus for twenty weeks. light backs receive less time in the layers (only weeks). if the tanner is also the currier, the fourth layers are omitted. he then saves five weeks and gets the weight in the stuffing. =type = is a tannage in which oak bark and valonia are replaced by myrabs, mimosa bark and chestnut extract. it is therefore considerably cheaper and probably no less durable. expense is also curtailed in handling. the harness backs go through suspenders ( °- °) in two weeks, handlers ( °- °) in four weeks, and then receive four layers of the same strength as in type , but only one, two, three and four weeks respectively. the last layer is omitted for light harness, and an extra layer of ° is given if the tanner is not the currier also. thus the usual tannage is - weeks, of which - weeks ( - per cent.) are in layers. =type = is a tannage which may consist of myrabs ( per cent.), valonia or mimosa bark per cent., and extract ( per cent.). the extract is chiefly quebracho, though some chestnut may be used. more valonia and less myrabs may be used if desired (and when possible), and myrabs extract will then replace quebracho and chestnut. the goods are coloured off in drums or paddles, and then pass through two sets of suspenders handlers ( °- ° and °- °). they are handled up and down very frequently in the first set and rapidly pass into stronger liquors. the backs then receive three floaters at °, in each of which they remain one week. the tannage is completed by three layers: first, ° for one week; second, ° for one week; third, ° for two weeks. the tannage is thus weeks, of which weeks involve little labour. if the tanner is not the currier, still stronger liquors may be used. in all these tannages little or no acid is used for plumping, as the natural acids of the liquors are sufficient to ensure what is necessary in this direction for this class of leather. a little organic acid or even boric acid may be used in the earliest liquors for deliming purposes, when necessary. after tanning the goods are dried out and sorted in the rough state. harness is a somewhat broad term, and there is scope for considerable variety in classification. the hides are sometimes not rounded until after tanning. the finished article may be any grade between heavy harness for artillery and leather for ordinary bridles. in currying heavy black harness, the backs are soaked and sammed for shaving. lighter goods may be machine-shaved, but the heaviest are shaved lightly by hand over the beam or merely "skived" with the shaving slickers. the neck needs most attention, and it is often advisable to stone by machine and split. the scouring should be thorough, on flesh and grain. this is done by machine, and not only cleans the goods from bloom, dirt and superfluous tan, but also assists in setting out. sumaching may be for several days, merely overnight or even only for a few hours, being stoned after wetting back to temper. hand-stuffed goods get a coat of cod oil first, and during the drying are often well set out. drum-stuffed goods are well set out by machine, and after some drying, stoned and reset by hand. it is now usual to buff the grain, _i.e._ remove the coarser parts by light shaving. this prevents cracking in the finished article. the goods are blacked with logwood, iron and ammonia, thinly dubbined again, again well set out and tallowed. setting out, indeed, may be done at any convenient opportunity. the superfluous grease is removed by slicking, scraping, brushing with a stiff brush, and finally with a soft brush. for brown harness the goods are more carefully selected, more thoroughly scoured and sumached, and bleached frequently with oxalic acid. they are hand stuffed, stained twice, and after the usual setting out, glassing and brushing, are finally rubbed with flannel. for bridle leather the goods are carefully shaved but are not stuffed, being merely oiled with cod oil on flesh and grain. they are dried out before scouring, and then sized, set out, stained and resized. the goods are heavily glassed during the finishing. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . section viii.--upper leathers the manufacture of leather for the uppers of boots and shoes embraces a bewildering variety of goods, suitable for anything between a baby's shoe and a man's shooting boot. almost all degrees of lightness, softness, and waterproofness are in demand. a great variety of finish is also involved, determined by the ingenuity of the currier and the ever-changing fancy of the public. even greater is the variety of methods by which all these results are obtained by methods which superficially seem quite different; the desired qualities being imparted in one case largely by the tannage and in another case almost entirely by the currying. under such circumstances the selection of types becomes a problem. the variety, moreover, commences from the earliest stages, the selection of the raw material. upper leather may be made from light calfskins, heavy calfskins, kips (home and foreign), light dressing hides and heavy dressing hides, which last may replace any of the former after splitting to the required substance. in this section it will be necessary to take kips as typical of the rest, and to use it in a rather broad sense, including heavy calf and light dressing hides. speaking quite generally, kips for upper leather receive usually a long and mellow liming, a thorough bating and a sweet and very mellow tannage in weak liquors. in currying they are well scoured and set out, heavily stuffed and stained black, being sometimes finished on the grain and sometimes on the flesh. these outstanding features of upper-leather methods will be further illustrated by a brief account of the tanning of kips (light hide and heavy calf), and outlining the best known types of finish for butt, shoulder and belly. the goods receive usually a long and mellow liming of - days, using only lime as a rule. in some factories lime liquors are used repeatedly for successive packs to an almost indefinite extent. dissolved hide substance, ammonia, mud and dust, and bacteria accumulate for months and sometimes for years. it is obvious that in such liquors "putrefaction" is a more correct term than "liming" for the depilation. such methods have been used even in recent years, but there has now been a tendency for some time to make the liming more methodical. such old limes make a leather which is empty, loose, and dull grained, but the defects are minimized by the system of stuffing heavily and finishing the flesh, and hence the ancient lime remained with surprising tenacity. even so late as we find that procter with characteristic caution could write, "probably no lime ought to be allowed to go for more than three months at the outside limit without at least a partial change of liquor." it is within the writer's experience to find an upper leather factory with limes which had never been emptied for over three years. in other factories, however, there has been a revulsion of feeling with regard to such processes, and it has been found advantageous to adopt a more scientific routine, in which the lime pits are cleaned out at regular intervals. there is little doubt that a mellow liming is desirable, but this can be secured by blending some old lime liquors with fresh lime liquor in a systematic manner. similar considerations apply to the question of working the various packs through the limes. it is clear that with a mellow liming a one-pit system is quite possibly satisfactory, but the revulsion of feeling against a lack of method produced a method of liming more elaborate than usual, and it is now not uncommon to find kips limed in a "round" of - pits, the goods passing through each pit. they remain in one pit about two days, and are shifted forward. in the green or old limes the goods are handled up and down. the old limes are, of course, mellower than the new and exert the desired softening effect. the working is quite analogous to that of a round of handlers. unhairing is sometimes assisted by the use of arsenic sulphide. e.i. kips need a thorough soaking before any liming; several days are usually needed. the old methods involving putrid soaks and stocks may be considered out of date, and it is usual to soften back in caustic soda or sulphide soaks with some assistance by drumming. a little sulphide is sometimes added to the older limes to continue the treatment. the goods are next thoroughly bated and delimed. the hen or pigeon dung bate is still usual, and probably gives the best results, though closer approximations have been made of recent years on artificial lines. some bating with solution of hide substance seems necessary for these goods. the lighter goods are often drenched also to complete the deliming, using per cent. bran on the weight of pelt. the heavier goods are more often treated with boric acid after bating, which not only delimes completely and gives a soft relaxed felt, but also acts as antiseptic and stops the action of the bate, a matter of some importance (see section ii.). lactic acid may substitute boric, in which case about per cent. on the pelt weight of per cent. acid may be required. it is important to avoid a strong solution and local excess, hence lactic acid must be added gradually so that the liquor is never stronger than . per cent. drumming and paddling is an advantage in deliming. the tannage is light in most cases, partly because some of the finished goods are sold by area, but partly also because even if sold by weight, the weight is obtained quicker and more easily by stuffing, which course is also often preferable to obtain the desired mellow feel, waterproofness and durability. hence it is seldom that strong liquors are employed. the tannage is also mellow, on account of the softness and pliability required; no acids are consequently employed, and no material which is liable to yield sour liquors. gambier is easily the first favourite amongst the tanning materials, whilst oak bark comes second. it should be observed, however, that a hypothetical tannage of equal weights of cube gambier and oak bark is in reality a tannage by four-fifths gambier and one-fifth oak bark, on account of the relatively greater strength of the former. this observation is so apposite with respect to some tannages that it is nearly correct to say that the tannage is gambier and the oak bark an excuse for having leaches through which the gambier liquors may be run occasionally to clear and to sharpen slightly. no serious theoretical objection to such a method is possible if the liquors are weak and the system of working the liquors is scientific and the process carefully regulated. upper-leather tannages, however, have scarcely merited scientific praise. it is often a case, not of poor methods, but of no method at all. the same lack of system, principle, and regularity observed with regard to the limeyard has been equally obvious in the tanyard, when perhaps the need was even greater. even a mellow tannage has varying degrees of mellowness possible to it; there still remains the question of the soluble non-tans. however, method in the upper-leather tanyard has often been conspicuously absent. there has been many a factory where any one tan liquor was as good as any other in the yard. in the writer's experience are two such cases: in one the liquors were all ° bkr., in the other they were all ° bkr. in such cases, handling the goods from pit to pit is somewhat futile, and handling forward from set to set still more so. hence it is possible to find dressing leather tanned by putting it slowly through one round of handlers, adding a few buckets of gambier where it apparently is necessary. it is, from one point of view, surprising to see what serviceable and excellent-looking upper leather can be manufactured by such happy-go-lucky processes. it is, however, also possible to see how this may occur. gambier is a stable tan, and no souring and little decomposition take place in gambier liquors. it is also extremely mild and non-astringent, and is always used in weak liquors. the hides, moreover, are completely delimed, and there is little danger of bad or uneven colour. tanning under these conditions is at its easiest; it is almost more difficult to spoil the goods than make them right. under such conditions tanning deteriorated rather than improved in method. when neglecting it made little difference to the finished leather, it was neglected. this state of affairs, however, was embarrassing whenever a tanner wished to try any other tanning material. the expense of gambier and oak bark made valonia and mimosa bark into obviously desirable alternatives and substitutes. methods which would tan with gambier, however, would not work with natal bark or valonia, and many a tanner has had to revise his method of tanning from end to end. the use of myrabs also raised the problem of souring, and it has become evident that "working the liquors down the yard" is as desirable a method for dressing leather as after all other tannages. it will be clear from the above that types of upper-leather tannages are less typical than for other leathers, but nevertheless the more progressive manufacturers have for some years now been working on sounder lines, economically and scientifically. in such cases it is now usual to pass the goods through at least two sets of handlers, and through liquors of gradually increasing strength. occasionally dusters or layers are given, especially for the heavier goods. the tannage is nearly always commenced now by paddling the goods in the oldest liquor. this paddling may be anything from half an hour up to twenty-four hours. it is sometimes desired to work up a "grain," and the old liquor is then often sharpened by the addition of fresh gambier or leach liquor. the same tendency to save labour in handling is to be observed in upper leather tannages as in sole and other dressing leather factories. there is also a tendency to obtain rather more weight in tanning by using stronger liquors, and in the heavier goods to shorten somewhat the time taken. the following methods may be taken to illustrate modern processes, in order of evolution. they all last about seven weeks. _type _.--in this process the kips are first paddled in an old liquor ( °), and passed to the first handlers ( °- °) for three weeks. after working through this set they pass through the second handlers ( °- °), in which they are not handled quite so frequently. they are in this set also three weeks. heavy goods may then receive a floater ( °) for another week. _type _.--in this process the goods are paddled, and then enter a large handler round ( °- °), through which they pass in five weeks. the goods are handled frequently in the early stages. the tannage is completed by one layer of two weeks ( °). the layer is made by the ancient method of putting the goods and dust alternately into an empty pit, and then filling up with liquor from the best leach. oak bark, valonia and myrabs are used as dust, though sumach and gambler have been used. _type _.--in this process an attempt is made to save handling and obtain more complete tannage. the goods are paddled for three to five hours in a rather sharp liquor of °, and are then handled well for a week in the first handlers ( °- °). the goods then go through the second handlers ( °- °) in six weeks, and heavy goods may then receive an extra floater ( °) for one week. in type the leaching material is two-thirds oak bark and one-third valonia; in type it is half oak bark and half mimosa bark; in type it is one-third oak bark, one-third valonia or natal bark, and one-third myrabolans. in all cases the strongest handler is obtained from the leaches, and made up to the required with strong infusion of gambier. when the liquor has passed through the forward handlers, it is returned to the leaches to clear and sharpen, and then run to the green handlers. after passing through this round it is returned to the paddle, from which it passes to the drain. the rest of the paddle liquor may be from the forward handlers. it is often customary to obtain the best liquor from the second leach, and allow the best leach to stand for a few days. this allows the bloom to deposit in the leaches. the system secures the result desired, but the deposition of bloom involves a loss of tannin, which waste makes the system expensive. heavier dressing hides are tanned by methods similar to the above, but with floaters, dusters and occasionally layers added after they have passed through two sets of handlers. thus they may have first handlers ( °- °) two weeks; second handlers ( °- °) for six weeks, making twelve weeks in all. lighter goods may receive two rounds, being two weeks in each. after tanning, the kips are rounded usually into butts, shoulders and bellies, to which different finishes are given. the currying may be illustrated by selecting types, but it must be borne in mind that there is much elasticity in this matter. thus kips may be made into waxed butts, satin shoulders and lining bellies, but also may be cut down the back in "sides," both of which are finished limings. waxed kip butts are a type of many similar upper leathers (waxed shoe butts, waxed calf, waxed splits, etc.). the finish is on the flesh side. the kip butts are soaked carefully, and shaved by machine. they are then drummed in sumach for an hour or two, slicked out and sammed for stuffing. the sumaching is also the scouring unless the goods be too heavily bloomed. the samming is often done by machine. drum stuffing follows, wool fat and stearin being staple greases, with varying amounts of degras and cod oil, and of tallow and cod oil. a little paraffin wax and resin are also used sometimes. the goods are well slicked out and dried. they may be now dubbined and laid away to mellow for whitening, which consists of a careful shaving of the flesh by a turned-edge slicker or by machine. the grain is stoned, set out and "starched," and the butts grained by boarding the flesh. in the waxing, one of two courses may be adopted. the butts may be blacked with lampblack and oil, "bottom sized" with glue, soap and logwood, and then "top sized" with glue, dubbin, beeswax and turpentine; or they may be given a "soap-blacking" of soap and logwood and lampblack, applied by machine, and sized once only. dressing hide butts may also be given a grain finish, such as the "memel butts" for heavy uppers. the butts are soaked, shaved or split, sumached in drum, and preferably thoroughly scoured on flesh and grain. they are then sammed and heavily stuffed in the drum. the grain is buffed and stained black with logwood, ammonia and iron solution (curriers' ink). the butts are then dried, set out, thinly sized and slowly dried. when dry on the face they are printed or embossed by machine to give the characteristic memel pattern and dried out completely. they are then grained four ways. the grain is finished by a coating of linseed oil containing resin, and the flesh is whitened, french chalked and glassed. shoulders for "satin" receive a currying which strongly resembles the "waxed" finishes, but the smooth finish is on the grain side. the grain is buffed, and blacked, dubbined, set and reset, with intermediate drying, and is sized and finished by compositions similar to those used for waxed leathers. the flesh is whitened. satin hide and satin calf are dressed similarly. shoulders may also be finished for "levant." after soaking, splitting, and shaving to substance, they are drum-sumached, machine-sammed, and oiled up to dry. they are stained with logwood on the grain, and at once printed with the typical "levant grain," blacked and dried out. they are then softened by machine, seasoned with logwood and albumen, glazed, grained and oiled lightly with mineral oil. it will be observed that stuffing is omitted. bellies may be dressed for linings. after soaking and splitting to the required substance, they are bleached in a weak and warm solution of oxalic acid, and drum-sumached at ° f. after slicking well out they are hand-stuffed on the grain with dubbin and water, or merely oiled, and hung up to samm. they are then set-out flesh and grain. if the grain be coarse, it is buffed and reset. after drying out the flesh is fluffed and the grain dusted with french chalk. in this section may be conveniently discussed the manufacture of legging leather. whilst in many respects a typical dressing leather there are some rather important differences from the average upper leather. broadly speaking, the differences are that legging leather needs a smooth grain, greater firmness and more thorough tannage on account of the absence of stuffing. the liming and bating are somewhat similar to dressing leather, though a shorter liming with sulphides and a milder bating would be in order. the tannage is mellow, but not so much as is usual for upper leather. thus gambier is used, but more valonia and myrabs are employed, and the liquors may be strengthened with chestnut and quebracho extracts. the hides are rounded before tanning into long butts or backs, and the tannage is commenced in suspenders ( °- °), which are kept acid by the addition of lactic or acetic acid, in order to obtain the required firmness; the goods are three weeks in these liquors. the backs next go through rounds of dusters ( °- °), in which they are put down with oak bark and natal bark. they are six weeks in this section, and then pass to the layers. three layers are given, first ° for one week; second ° for two weeks; and third ° for two weeks. the tannage thus takes fourteen weeks. in finishing, the goods are soaked and split, and then scoured flesh and grain. they are heavily sumached, slicked out thoroughly, oiled up with linseed oil and dried out. they are then next damped back, stoned and flatted. after further wetting and tempering they are dressed with irish moss and tallow on the flesh, and with gum tragacanth on the grain. they are glassed whilst drying out, and then stained twice and glassed again. they are again brushed, seasoned and glassed by machine. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. - and - . section ix.--bag leather hides to be tanned for bag leather receive a treatment which is little different in fundamental principle from that of dressing hides for upper leather, except that the tannage is usually shorter. hides for bags and portmanteaux represent a type of dressing leather in which the outstanding features are that the goods are split but not rounded. the splitting is done at all stages, according to the requirements of the tanner. some tanners split "green," _i.e._ split the pelt itself. the advantage of this is that the fleshes may then be treated in quite a different way, _e.g._ pickled or given a much cheaper tannage. other manufacturers split after tanning, the advantage being that there is much less material to handle. the general opinion, however, favours a middle course in which the hides are split after being in the tan liquors for a short time. the advantage of this course is that the hides are easiest to split under these conditions--a great consideration--being coloured through with tan, just a little plumped, but not hard. a smoother flesh is obtained together with more even substance. here again, however, are differences; some tanners prefer to split after two days, others after two weeks in tan. much depends upon the nature of the tan and the strength of the liquors. for this class of work, flat, spready and evenly grown cowhides are obviously the most suitable material, and are invariably used. it is important, however, that the grain be good, and free from scratches and similar defects. the tannage must be sweet and mellow, _i.e._ contain no acid and little astringent tan. hence myrabolans and gambier have always been the favourite tanning materials. a soft and mellow tannage is the more important, inasmuch as the leather is not heavily stuffed with grease in finishing. these types of method for tanning split hides will now be outlined, and the nature of the currying then indicated. _type _.--in this a long mellow liming of - days is given, much like that described for harness leather in section iii., type . only lime is used, but the liquors are not allowed to get dirty. the three-pit system is much the best. the hides are trimmed at the rounding tables, and then bated in hen or pigeon dung for three days at °- ° f. the deliming is commenced by washing in tepid water before bating, and is completed by a bath of boric acid, using up to lbs. acid per hides as necessary. in this and other processes for split hides it is essential to obtain all the lime out, but to do no plumping with acid. lactic acid may also be used, but it is not so convenient to hit the neutral point with it. the tannage consists of oak bark and myrabs together with gambier. these may be partly replaced by natal bark, valonia, and quebracho respectively. it is sometimes desired to have a smooth finish, but sometimes to work up a "grain." in the latter case the hides are first put through colouring pits containing fresh leach liquor. in these they are constantly handled for a few hours. a little experience indicates which leach liquor will serve the purpose. the hides then go through the "green handlers" ( °- °) in two weeks. the liquor is the old forward handler liquor made up with gambier. the hides may be sammed and split up at this stage, but the heavier goods may be tanned further. these heavies and the grains of the split hides now go through the "forward handlers" ( °- °) for four weeks, and the heaviest goods given two layers ( °) of two weeks each, and making ten in all. _type _.--in this a shorter liming of - days is given with the help of sulphide. no dung bate is used, but the goods are washed with water and bated with ammonium chloride and boric acid. the tannage is chiefly of myrabs, but some valonia or natal bark may be used together with chestnut extract and some quebracho. gambier is used in the early liquors. the goods are coloured off in drum or paddle and tanned in several sets of handlers, viz. green handlers ( °- °) three or four days; second handlers ( °- °) two weeks; forward handlers ( °- °) - / weeks; and floaters ( °- °) for three weeks. the tannage is thus - / weeks in all. the arrangement of pits is a matter of local convenience, and the number of sets of equal strength is determined by the number of hides being tanned. the hides are split green or after passing through the green set. after tanning they are oiled with cod oil and dried out. _type _ is illustrated by american methods. the goods are tacked on laths or racks with copper nails in order to ensure smooth grain. they are then suspended in tan liquors. the tannage is largely with gambier and in weak liquors, which also help to give smooth grain. the tendency is to employ handler rounds involving a rather large number of pits, and to work these on the press system. handling is also saved by plumping the liquors instead of shifting the goods forward, and by rocking the suspenders instead of handling up and down. the hides are split after about a month, and the heavier grains laid away in hemlock liquors. _type _.--this is a rapid process throughout. the hides are limed in - days with the help of sulphide, and "bated" by washing in warm water and then in cold to which hydrochloric acid is gradually added, finishing off again in tepid water. the hides are now coloured off in paddles, put through a small handler round ( °- °) for half a week, and then split. the grains are drum tanned in a mixture of chestnut and quebracho extract, over a period of about three days in which the liquor is strengthened gradually from ° to °. the fleshes are drum tanned with the old grain liquors after strengthening with quebracho. the split hide grains for bag work, after tanning, are drummed in sumach, rinsed, drained, and oiled up to dry out, with some setting out. after wetting back they are shaved if necessary, hand scoured, and heavily sumached again to get a light even colour. the goods are slicked out, oiled up to samm, reset and dried out. they are next stained, sammed, printed by machine, dubbined or tallowed, "grained" (see part ii., section i.), brushed and rubbed with flannel. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . section x.--picking band butts it is the paradox of vegetable tannage that the less the pelt is tanned the stronger is the leather produced. the manufacture of butts for picking bands affords a good illustration. what is required is a leather of maximum toughness, pliability and durability. any factor reducing the tensile strength of the leather is fatal. hence, compared with most other tannages, picking band butts are under-tanned. to ensure the desired softness and pliability, moreover, it is necessary to have a mellow liming, rather heavy bating, and a soft mellow tannage in sweet and weak liquors. the required durability and the necessity for weak liquors both point to oak bark as the most suitable tanning material, assisted by some gambier in the early stages. a good quality hide is chosen, and given a long and mellow liming of about - days. the one-pit system may be used, and the hides are put into an old lime for about five days with frequent handling and then placed in a new lime which is made up in a pit containing about a foot depth of the old liquor. after about twelve days another / cwt. of lime may be added. after unhairing and fleshing the goods are bated in pigeon dung for four days at a temperature of about ° f., handling twice on the first and last days. the bating is stopped and the deliming completed by paddling with boric acid ( lbs. per butts). the tannage is commenced by paddling in a spent handler liquor ( °) to which a little gambier has been added. the butts then go through the first handlers ( °- °), which are rounds of ten pits in which the goods are handled every day in the first week, and alternate days in the second week, and are shifted forward twice a week in the next pit. the goods are therefore in this set for five weeks. gambier is added to these liquors as needed. the butts next pass to duster rounds of four pits, in which they are dusted down in a liquor of ° for four weeks with - cwt. of oak bark. the liquor is obtained from the leaches, and afterwards run alternately to the leaches and to the first handlers. as many as six layers are now given of °- ° strength, in which the butts are dusted down with - cwt. oak bark for three weeks. the layer liquors are received from and returned to the leaches, which are made from the "fishings" from the layers. the tannage lasts, therefore, weeks, of which weeks (two-thirds) are in layers. shorter tannages are now often given, using stronger liquors, much as in ordinary dressing leather. the tanned butts are rough dried, and then wet in for shaving. they are thoroughly scoured, flesh and grain. they are next drummed for three-quarters of an hour in sumach, struck out and hung up to samm. hand stuffing is best, to avoid any tendering owing to high temperature, but drum stuffing is also used. after setting out and stoning on the grain they are stuffed with warm cod oil and laid away in grease for several weeks, re-oiling occasionally. they may be stained before stuffing. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . part ii.--skins for light leathers section i.--principles and general methods of light leather manufacture the term "skin," like the term "hide," in its widest sense applies to the natural covering for the body of any animal, but is generally used with a narrower meaning in which it applies only to the covering of the smaller animals. thus we speak of sheep skins, goat skins, seal skins, pig skins, deer skins, and porpoise skins. it is in this sense that it will be used in this volume. the treatment of such skins to fit them for useful purposes comprises the light leather trade. whilst this branch of the leather industry is certainly utilitarian, the artistic element is a great deal more prominent in it than in the heavy leather branch. thus the light leathers are often dyed and artistically finished, and their final purposes (such as fancy goods, upholstery, bookbinding, slippers, etc.) have rather more of the element of luxury than of essential utility. the total weight and value of the skins prepared, and of the materials used in their preparation, are naturally considerably smaller than those of the heavy leather trade. in the latter, moreover, one has to consider the purpose in view from the very commencement of manufacture and vary the process accordingly, but in light leather manufacture one aims rather, in the factory, at a type of leather such as morocco leather, and only after manufacture is it fitted to such purposes as may be particularly suited to the actual result. these results depend very largely upon the "grain pattern" which is natural to the skin of any one species of animals. hence in part ii. of this volume it has been found most convenient to deal with the different classes of skins in different sections. just as the hides of ox and heifer were much the most numerous and important of hides, so also naturally are sheepskins the most prominent section of the raw material of the light leather trade. this is the more true because the skin is valued for its wool as well as for its pelt; indeed, the wool is often considered of primary importance, and receives first consideration in fellmongering. unfortunately for the light leather trade, sheepskins, though most numerous, do not give the best class of light leather, the quality being easily surpassed in strength, beauty and durability by the leather from goat or seal skins. in the wet work for the preparation of skins for tannage much the same general principles and methods are embodied as in the case of hides, but with appropriate modifications. as soft leathers are chiefly wanted, a mellow liming is quite the usual requirement for all skins. it is also usual to have a long liming, for some skins (like those of sheep and seal) have much natural fat which needs the saponifying influence of lime and lipolytic action of the enzymes of the lime liquors; whilst other skins (like those of goat and calf) are very close textured and need the plumping action of the lime and a certain solution of interfibrillar substance. in consequence of the long mellow liming, sulphides are not usually necessary, and indeed sodium sulphide is not usually desirable, on account of its tendency to make the grain harsh. it is used, however, for unwoolling sheepskins, in such a manner that the grain is not touched. similarly caustic soda is seldom required, and the yield of pelt by weight is usually a small consideration. systems of liming show some variety. the one-pit system is very common, and is less objectionable for a long mellow liming, but rounds of several pits are also used, and in some cases even more than one round. this is obviously conducive to regularity of treatment, and as the work involved in shifting the goods is much less laborious than in the case of heavy ox hides, it would seem a preferable alternative. the depilation of sheepskins involves very special methods of treatment (sweating and painting) on account of the importance and value of the wool, the quality and value of which would be impaired by putting the skins through ordinary lime liquors. the pelts, however, are limed after unwoolling. in deliming light leathers the process of puering is widely used. this consists in immersing the skins after depilation in a warm fermenting infusion of dog-dung. in principle this disgusting process presents a close analogy with bating, and indeed the two terms are both used somewhat loosely, but there are nevertheless several points in which the two processes are radically different. the dog-dung puer is a process carried out at a higher temperature than the fowl-dung bate; it is also a much quicker process, and the infusion employed is generally more concentrated. whilst the fowl-dung bate is always slightly alkaline to phenolphthalein the dog-dung puer is always acid to this indicator, and the course of the puering may be conveniently followed by testing the pelts with it. the mechanism of the two processes is also probably somewhat different. the mechanism of the dog-dung puer has been largely made clear by the researches of wood and others, and been found due partly to a deliming action by the amine salts of weak organic acids and partly to the action of enzymes from a bacillus of the coli class, which received the name of _b. erodiens_, and which effects a solvent action on the interfibrillar substance. as we have noted (part i., section ii.), the fowl-dung bate involves two fermentations, in each of which (ærobic and anærobic) several species of bacteria are probably active. wood found the bacteria of the bate to be chiefly cocci, and ascribed part of the difference in mechanism by the nature of the media, which in the bate includes also the urinary products. in the dog-dung puer, also, a lipolytic action is probably an essential part of the total effect. the puer gives a much more complete deliming and a much softer and more relaxed pelt than the bate, it is therefore particularly suited to the needs of light leather manufacture. the puering action has been imitated fairly successfully by artificial methods. "erodin" (wood, popp and becker) involves the use of _b. erodiens_ and a suitable culture medium including organic deliming salts: "oropon," "pancreol" and others involve the use of ammonium chloride and trypsin, together with some inert matter. light-leather goods are usually drenched after puering. they are also often split green after the wet work. sheepskins thus yield "skivers" (the grain split), whilst the flesh split is often given an oil tannage (see part iv., section iii.). the greasy nature of sheep and seal skins necessitates the processes of "degreasing." in the case of sealskins this is done largely before liming, but with sheepskins either after being struck through with tan, or after tannage is complete. sheepskins are often preserved in the pelt by pickling with sulphuric acid and salt, which process forms a temporary leather. the fibres of the pelt are dried in a separate condition, but the adsorption is easily reversible and the pelts may be "depickled" by weak alkalies and afterwards given an ordinary vegetable tannage. in the vegetable tannage of skins for light leathers, the same theoretical considerations have force as in the heavy-leather section, but the former has its own rather special requirements and aims. generally speaking, a softer and more flexible leather is required, but these qualities must not be imparted by stuffing with grease as in the currying of dressing leather, because a bright and grease-free result is usually required. hence it is important that a sweet mellow tannage be given. the durability of the leather is also a primary consideration for goods intended for bookbinding, upholstery, etc., and the tannage must be arranged to impart this quality and avoid anything tending to cause the perishing of the fibre. thus oak bark is a popular tanning material, and sulphuric acid very definitely avoided. the tannage must be fast, and take the dyestuffs well, and for the production of light shades of colour in dyeing must be a light-coloured tannage. all these qualities are imparted by sumach, which also fits in excellently with the other general requirements, such as softness, brightness and durability. hence sumach is the principal light-leather tanning material, but the tendency is to employ other materials--oak bark, myrabs, and chestnut extract--to do much of the intermediate tanning, so that the expensive and useful sumach may be used for setting the colour and grain at the commencement, and for brightening, bleaching and mordanting the leather at the end of the tanning process. weight is generally no consideration, but area is often a definite aim, partly because some goods are sold by area and partly because the striking out, setting out and similar operations improve the quality of the leather by giving evenness of finish. leather well struck out, moreover, is less liable to go out of shape. as the grain pattern is so important in the finished leather, appropriate care must be taken during tannage. if a smooth or a fine grain finish is wanted, for example, the goods must not be allowed to get wrinkled, creased, doubled or unduly bent to and fro during the tanning. for such goods, suspension, careful handling and even the "bag tannage" may be desirable, whilst for coarser and larger grains paddles or drums may be more extensively used. amongst the finishing processes dyeing holds an important position. the nature of the process has many points of similarity with that of tanning. the great specific surface of pelt is probably more enhanced than otherwise during tannage, at any rate with light leathers, owing to the isolation of fibres, and consequently leather is as liable as pelt to exhibit adsorption. the dyestuffs, on the other hand, are substances very easily adsorbed. some (like eosin and methylene blue) are crystalloids, some (like fuchsin and methyl violet) are semi-colloids, whilst others (like congo red and night blue) are undoubted colloids forming sols (usually emulsoid) with water as dispersion medium. the crystalloids and semi-colloids may also be obtained in colloidal solution, sometimes being so changed on the mere addition of salts to the solution. in addition, the pelt has been mordanted with tannin. if, however, leather has been kept long in the rough-tanned or "crust" state, this may not be so effective, owing probably to the secondary changes in tanning (part i., section iii.), but such leathers are usually "retanned" or prepared for dyeing by sumaching (which process also incidentally bleaches). the tannin mordant assists materially in the fixation of the dyes. in the case of basic dyestuffs, lakes also are formed, _i.e._ there is a mutual precipitation of oppositely charged colloids (+dye, -tannin). the dyeing of leather is thus a case of colloid reactions even more complicated than that of tanning. another finishing operation typical of the light leathers is "graining" or "boarding." in this the skins after dyeing and drying are worked by a board which is covered by cork, rubber, perforated tin or other material, and so grips or "bites" the leather. the object of "graining" is to work up the grain pattern by pushing or pulling a fold on the skin with the board. the nature of the grain varies with the thickness and the hardness of the skin, with the amount of pressure applied, with the nature of the board, with the direction of the boarding and with the total number of directions boarded. there is thus infinite scope for variety of finish, and hence arise bold grain, fine grain, hard grain, straight grain, cross grain, long grain, etc. the operation requires considerable skill and experience. in the case of skins with little natural grain (such as sheepskin) embossing and printing machines impress the desired pattern. in seasoning, a dressing is applied containing essentially albumins and emulsified fats, _e.g._ egg albumin and milk. colouring matters are also often added to intensify or modify the shade. after seasoning the goods are usually "glazed" by a machine which rubs the seasoned grain with considerable pressure, by a glass or hardwood tool, and so produces a high gloss, for which the seasoning is very largely a preparation. light leathers are very lightly oiled with linseed or mineral oil. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. , . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. - , , - , - , , . wood, "puering, bating and drenching of skins." lamb, "leather dyeing and finishing." section ii.--goatskins goatskins are amongst the most valued raw material for the manufacture of light leather. the leather obtained from them is of the very finest quality in respect to durability and adaptability to the principal purposes in view. the texture of the fibres in goatskin is exceedingly compact and very strong, whilst the grain exhibits naturally a characteristic pattern which renders it most suitable for a grained finish. hence for purposes like upholstery, bookbinding, slippers, it forms almost an ideal material. the tanning and finishing of goatskins into "morocco leather" may indeed be taken as a quite typical example of light leather manufacture. the skins are obtained from all quarters of the globe where goats exist, and the excellent quality of the leather produced has created a demand which is greater than the supply. this is due not only to the demand for morocco leather, but also to the popularity of the goatskin chrome upper leathers such as "glacé kid" (see part iii., section iv.). the large american trade in the latter has produced the saying that wherever there is a goat there is an american waiting for it to die! the european supply of skins is somewhat limited. they are obtained from the balkans and bavaria, in which case they are small, fine-grained and plump skins. the swiss goatskins are larger, and have also a fine grain; they are well grown and well flayed. scandinavian skins have a poor reputation, being very flat. the african supply is important; abyssinian skins are exceedingly compact and tough, and are very suitable for "bold grain" finishes. the cape skins are particularly large, strong and thick, but their quality is often impaired by the cure, the skins being flint-dry, and, like hides so cured, prone to unsoundness. large quantities of goatskins also come from the east. many of these are imported in a tanned state (e.i. goat). these skins are tanned with turwar bark, which contains a catechol tannin. they are also heavily oiled with sesame oil, and need degreasing. the tannage is also stripped as far as practicable, and the skins retanned with sumach before finishing. they make good morocco leathers for many purposes, but the primary catechol tannage renders them ineligible for finishing under the specifications of the committee of the society of arts. the skins have a persian or indian origin. india also supplies a large number of raw dried goatskins which are small and of variable quality. these, however, are more extensively used for chrome uppers. goatskins are imported in either a salted or a dried condition. the great aim of soaking is to obtain the skins in a thoroughly soft condition. hence the soaking is prolonged, and some mechanical treatment is desirable in addition to various steepings in water. to be certain of softness it is desirable to avoid the use of alkalies in the soak waters, for although they cause hydration of the fibres by imbibition, they also have a plumping effect which is not wanted at this stage. salted goatskins are first immersed in water and left until the following day. this dissolves the salt. they are then stretched and given a fresh soak liquor of water only to soften further, clean, and remove the rest of the salt. this second water lasts only a few hours, and the goods are then drummed well in running water. this not only cleans quickly, but has an excellent softening effect. they are again returned to a soak liquor, then softened mechanically by working them over a beam. this treatment must be repeated, drumming again if necessary, until the skins are perfectly relaxed and thoroughly softened. if the treatment be very prolonged it becomes advisable to use antiseptics in the soak waters after the first drumming. solubilized (or emulsified) cresols of the "jeyes fluid" type are the most suitable antiseptics, but too much must not be used or the sterilization affects the liming, in which bacterial action is needed. flint-dry skins are left longer in the first soak, which should be of water only. they are then given a fresh soak liquor containing . per cent. of sodium sulphide. sometimes a . per cent. solution of borax is used instead; it softens excellently, is antiseptic, and avoids the plumping effect, but is rather expensive. the goods are next drummed well, and resoaked and worked as for salted skins. in either case the soaking takes about a week. the liming of goatskins presents some points of contrast with the methods used for other skins. these differences are due to the exceedingly tight and compact nature of the skin fibres. this compactness of texture makes it quite necessary to dissolve the interfibrillar substance to a greater extent than usual, and also to plump the fibres and split them into the constituent fibrils. these effects are essential to obtain a rapid and complete tannage and a soft leather. too much bacterial action should be avoided, however, or the brightness and soundness of the grain may be impaired, which would be a fatal defect in such a leather. hence the liming is long rather than mellow, and sharp limes rather similar to those required for sole leather are often used. another result of the tight texture of goatskin is that depilation is not easily effected. this feature is rather intensified by the deepness of the hair-root. hence it is usual to employ sulphides to assist the depilation. in one method two rounds of five pits are used. the skins are given about two days in each pit, so that the liming lasts approximately three weeks. in the first round, which consists of rather mellow limes, arsenic sulphide is used to assist depilation. up to per cent. on the weight of lime is added during slaking. this is a comparatively large amount of arsenic sulphide, and the depilation is considerably hastened; the skins indeed are unhaired after passing through this round, _i.e._ after about days' liming. in the next round the object is plumping, and caustic soda (or carbonate) is added to the lime liquors in quantities comparable to those suggested for sole leather (part i., section v.). in this round the goods stay also for about days. an alternative to the above process is to hasten the earlier part of the liming by employing sodium sulphide instead of realgar. more sulphydrate may be obtained in solution in this way, and the unhairing may be in about half the time. the sulphide of soda also commences the plumping action which follows in the next round, but this alternative has the disadvantage that the skins are unhaired whilst the pelt is swollen with sulphide, which renders the grain both harsh and tender and consequently more liable to damage by the unhairer's knife. deliming is by puering and drenching, and is often associated with a further mechanical working of the goods. the skins are inserted into a puer liquor at ° f. and thoroughly pulled down. the caustic alkalies should be completely neutralized. a slight cut into a thick part at the butt end should develop no pink colour with phenolphthalein. the skins should be thoroughly relaxed, and the swelling so much eliminated that they are quite soft, weak and "fallen." the resilience and elasticity of the plumped skins should have quite disappeared, and the impressions of hand or thumb should be readily retained by the pelt. the grain should appear white and possess a soft and silky feel. in this condition they are again worked over the beam to soften further if possible. they are then rinsed and again worked over the beam. drenching follows with per cent. of bran on the pelt weight, the operation commencing at ° to ° f., and lasting till next morning. the skins are next scudded thoroughly to remove all dirt, but carefully so as not to damage the grain. in tanning, sumach and oak bark are the staple materials. sumach gives a much lighter colour, and hence it is used alone for goods that are to be dyed the lighter shades, but oak bark is a "faster" tannage and more preferable for dyeing in those cases where blacks and very dark shades are wanted. for ordinary purposes a blend is usually employed. a feature of oak bark, also, is that it tends to make a firmer leather, so that the proportion used must be adjusted with this fact in mind as well as the question of colour. for firmer moroccos the skins may pass through a handler round of oak-bark liquors ( °- °) in which a certain amount of sumach is added to the liquors. the sumach is leached and assists both in tanning and bleaching as the liquor works through the round. the old liquor is run to a paddle, and the tannage is commenced by paddling the drenched skins in this liquor. it is advantageous both for the tannage and for the efficient "spending" of the sumach if this liquor be slightly warmed. in the early pit liquors the goods are very frequently handled. there is, however, the usual tendency of the times to save labour in this direction, and hence it is common to have several paddles with liquors of gradually increasing strength, followed by a shorter round of handlers in which the handling is more infrequent. instead of paddles latticed drums may be inserted into pits containing liquors. these, however, are not quite so convenient. in some tanneries, especially where sumach only is employed, the tannage is in paddles throughout. a new liquor is made up with fresh sumach and is used repeatedly until exhausted. a three-paddle system sometimes obtains, in which case the operation closely resembles the three-pit system of liming (part i., section ii.), and the skins pass through an "old" liquor, a "medium" liquor and a "fresh" liquor. the goods need not be paddled the whole day through, and indeed in the later stages this is undesirable. the packs remain several days in each liquor and take up to days to tan. two to three bags of sumach are needed for about dozen goatskins. this method of tanning is efficient and convenient for bold-grain finishes, on account of the constant tumbling and bending of the skins which tends to work up a grain. for very soft leathers and fine-grain finishes, however, the "bag-tannage" or "bottle tannage" is favoured. in this method the pelt is stitched up by machine to form a bag, grain outwards, leaving a "neck" in the hind shank. the bag is nearly filled with a fairly strong infusion of sumach, inflated with air and tied up at the neck. the bags are then placed into a vat of warm sumach liquor, in which they just float. the bags are pushed down and the liquor stirred up, so that the goods are in constant motion. after a few hours they are piled on a rack, and the tan liquor of the interior is caused to diffuse through the skins by the pressure due to the weight of the pile. the bags are refilled with fresh and stronger sumach liquor and the process is repeated. the skins are thus lightly but effectively tanned in about hours, and the leather has very fine grain and soft feel. however tanned the skins are dried out after tanning, and sorted in the "crust" according to size and colour. the larger skins are preferred for upholstery and the smaller for fancy goods and bookbinding. to illustrate the course of finishing operations, the case of hard-grain morocco for bookbinding may be given as typical. the goods are wet back with warm water and drummed for - hours in warm sumac to prepare for dyeing. they are then struck out by machine, sammed and shaved. dyeing follows, with acid colours, in a drum. the goods are run first in a little water and the dyestuff added very gradually through a hollow axle. the acid required (preferably formic) is added later to develop the full shade. warm solutions are used, and the dye bath is practically exhausted. the goods are next placed in cold water to wash off superfluous liquor and free the skins from acid. they are then horsed to drain, struck out and hung up to samm. they are seasoned with milk and water and piled to temper. they are "tooth rolled" in the glazing machine two ways: right-hand shank to left fore shank and _vice versâ_, and piled again. after wetting back again they are "wet grained" by hand with a cork board in four directions: belly to belly, shank to shank, and across as before, and finally from neck to butt. they are immediately hung up in a warm shed to dry, and to fix the grain. they are then softened by "breaking down" with a rubber board, top seasoned, piled to temper and dry, brushed lightly, piled again, brushed more heavily, and dried out. they are finally softened by graining in three directions: shank to shank and across, and neck to butt. they are then brushed again. if these skins are wanted for upholstery they are shaved after dyeing, and nailed on boards to samm. they are also dried out in a cooler shed or "stove," to ensure softness. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , , , , . section iii.--sealskins a special class of morocco leather is manufactured from the skins of seals. this should not be confused with the "sealskin" of popular parlance, which is manufactured from the skin of a different animal. all the fin-footed mammals (_pinnipedia_), except the walrus, are termed seals, but they are divided into two families. the _otariidæ_ are known by their possession of small but distinct external ears: into this class fall the fur-seals whose skin is dressed with the fur on, for women's jackets, muffs and caps. the _phocidæ_ are that family without external ears: the skins of many species (_phoce greenlandica_, _phoco barbata_, etc.) of this family are unhaired and given a vegetable tannage, thus forming the raw material of sealskin morocco leather. it is with the latter that this section will deal. as the seal is a marine animal and is partial to the colder seas, its skin is very oily. the skins are imported in a salted condition from both the arctic and antarctic regions. north europe, north america and newfoundland supply many skins, and the southern material is supplied chiefly through the cape. sealskin shares with goatskin the properties of compact texture, strength of fibre, and great durability, all of which fit it for the manufacture of moroccos for upholstery, bookbinding, etc. it is, however, readily distinguishable from goatskin by its characteristic grain pattern. in soaking sealskins the object is not only to soften thoroughly, but also to effect the recovery of as much seal oil as possible before the liming commences. this is desired because the oil is in itself a valuable bye-product, and because its removal is essential to a satisfactory liming and tannage. the removal of the oil is materially assisted by raising its temperature, so that the soaking of sealskins is often done with warm water ( °- ° f.), after which treatment they are laid over the beam and scraped with a blunt knife on both flesh and grain. the oil flows away into a special receptacle. this treatment is repeated until the bulk of loose oil is removed. the process is known as "blubbering" or "brushing over." after some soaking the skins are drummed to ensure softness. the skins are then fleshed. more oil may be obtained from the fleshings. by fleshing before liming a more regular action of the lime is obtained. this is necessary to "kill" the grease still remaining in the skin. a long and mellow liming is given for the same reason. fully three weeks are given, and old limes are much preferred, partly to obtain the maximum lipolytic action and partly to avoid the intense ribbing of the pelt which new limes so easily impart to the older animals. these ribs are very difficult to eliminate in the subsequent work. some factories find it necessary to finish up in new limes, however, in order to plump and split the compact fibre bundles into their component fibrils. the plumped pelt is also easier to split green. no sulphides are usually employed. sweating (see section iv.) is sometimes used for depilation, and in this case the ribbing of the pelt does not take place. the puering is unusually thorough with sealskins. this is to obtain the maximum softness and take full advantage of the lipolytic action. the puer liquor is fully ° f., and the skins are paddled for about three hours, or until fully pulled down and completely delimed. scudding follows, now usually by machine. the skins are then well drenched. the action is intensified by the use of peameal in addition to the bran. about per cent. of the mixture on the weight of pelt is used. it is customary, however, to drench at a lower temperature ( °- °) than in the case of goatskins (section ii.), but the goods are left in the drench overnight only, as is usual in drenching. it is quite possible that drenches worked differently may have also a somewhat different fermentation and be due to other organisms than the symbiotic bacteria discovered by wood. it is equally possible that the acids produced are also different, in relative proportion, if not in nature, and that consequently there is a real difference in the practical effect. in the author's opinion, the great probability is that in the drench are several fermentations, and that if the action be reduced by lowering the temperature, but intensified by adding peameal to the bran, some of these fermentations are encouraged at the expense of others. the tannage of sealskins depends upon the size of the skins, the purpose for which they are intended, and whether they have been split or not in the limed state. the largest and coarsest skins intended for boot uppers, and those which have been heavily scratched on the grain and are only suitable for enamels, are given a tannage which may last about weeks. the liquors are made from oak bark and mimosa bark, and are made up to ° with gambier and possibly myrabolans extract. for fancy work also heavy skins are used, but a softer tannage is needed. if for blacks the tannage is with gambier and chestnut extract. two sets of handlers are given ( °- ° and °- °), using only gambier in the green sets. they are well sumached after tanning to bleach and to mordant. if for colours, only sumach and oak bark are employed. the skins are first paddled for - days in sumach liquors, in which they are coloured through. the liquors may be warmed; this quickens the tannage and also leaches the sumach. the skins are then split, and the grains pass through a handler set with liquors made from oak bark ( °- °). the skins are in this set for weeks, in the first half of which they are very frequently handled. they are finished off by paddling for or days in a fresh liquor containing much sumach, which mordants the skins and bleaches the bark tannage. the flesh splits are given a drum tannage in chestnut and quebracho extracts. if small skins are being tanned for bookbinding purposes, sumach only is employed, and usually the tannage is entirely in paddles. in finishing many types of grain may be obtained, in blacks and in colours. the finishing of "black levant" may, however, be selected as a typical case. the skins are soaked back, tempered, and either split or shaved, according to their substance and the size of grain wanted. the thin skins of course give the fine grains. mixed tannages need scouring and possibly sumaching. the skins are then oiled up with linseed oil, sammed, set out and blacked. in this last operation the grain is brushed over with a solution of logwood and ammonia, and afterwards with the iron mordant which often contains glue. they are next hung up for a while and then "wet grained" in four directions--belly to belly, shank to shank, across, and neck to butt. after hanging up in a hot stove to set the grain, they are cooled, fluffed on the flesh, and seasoned on the grain with a solution of milk and blood. a little black dyestuff may be added to the season. the season is well brushed in, the skins dried somewhat, and then glazed. they are then grained four ways again as above, dried out in the stove, and lightly oiled with warm linseed oil on the grain. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," , , , , , , , , . section iv.--sheepskins the most numerous class of skins for light leathers is from the common sheep. these skins have particular value inasmuch as they include the wool as well as the pelt. this wool, which is actually the most valuable part of the sheep's skin, is the raw material of our woollen industries, and is one of the most important of animal proteids. we have, therefore, in this section to consider this dual value of sheepskins, the proteid of the epidermis (wool), and the proteid of the dermis (pelt); one the raw material of the woollen industry, the other the principal raw material of the light leather trade. the first problem is to separate the two proteids. with other skins and hides the ordinary liming processes were sufficient and appropriate, but in the case of sheepskins the method is unsuitable, because the exposure of the wool to the action of caustic lime and possibly other alkalies would seriously impair its quality and reduce its commercial value. hence this separation of wool from pelt is usually quite a separate business, viz. that of the "fellmonger," whose occupation it is to collect the sheepskins from butchers and farmers, to separate the two important constituent proteids, and to hand the wool in one direction to the "wool stapler," who sorts it according to quality, and to hand the pelt in another direction to the light leather tanner, who tans and finishes the pelt to fit it for light upper work, fancy goods, etc. in the first instance, therefore, we have to consider the work of the fellmonger, the separation of wool and pelt. in this work the wool receives first consideration, and the raw material of the fellmonger is usually classified accordingly into "long wools," "short wools," and "mountain breeds." the skins vary very largely in quality of wool and in quality of pelt, being influenced very strongly by the conditions under which the sheep lived, and by the precise breed of animal from which the skin has been taken. as in the case of hides (part i., section i.), animals exposed to extremes of weather develop the best pelts, whereas those sheep which have been carefully bred and reared for the sake of their wool yield a thin and poor class of pelt. in britain, and more especially in england, are reared the finest and most valuable sheep. this is evident from the prices paid for them by foreigners and colonial breeders when seeking new blood for their flocks and fresh stock for their lands. as much as guineas have been paid by an argentine firm for a single lincoln ram. long wools are obtained from some of the best and most extensively bred animals. the "cotswolds" are the largest, and probably the original breed of england are still found on the cotswold hills. they have long wool, white fleeces, white faces, and white legs, and have no horns. the wool is fine, but the pelts are particularly greasy, especially along the back. a later breed originating in the midlands was called the "leicester" long wool. this breed gives a great cut of wool and much coarse mutton. it is very extensively distributed in the north of england and has been much crossed, so that many sub-breeds are now well known, _e.g._ the "border leicester"--the general utility sheep of scotland--and the "yorkshire leicester" or "mashams," much bred in wensleydale. "lincolns" are another long wool found only on the lincolnshire wolds. they also have white faces and shanks and yield a large pelt with fine grain. they give a big crop of wool. "devons" are a smaller breed common in somerset, devon and cornwall. they yield a fairly long wool of great strength, but not quite white. romney marsh sheep ("kents") are also long wools. they have white legs, white faces, a tuft of wool on the head, and no horns. the pelt is large and good. "roscommons" are an irish cross breed with much leicester blood. they yield a long wool and a spready pelt. short wools are typified by the "down" sheep. these sheep are extensively bred on the chalk lands which comprise a very large percentage of the southern counties of england. the "south downs" are the best and most important, the breed being the general utility sheep of england. they are small but well-shaped animals with grey faces, no horns and fine close wool. the pelt is only fair, but the mutton is excellent and provides the meat sold in our best shops. this breed has largely stocked new zealand. the "south down" is a somewhat delicate animal, and has therefore been largely crossed with cotswolds and other breeds. many well-known cross-breeds are found in the eastern and southern counties. the "suffolks," for example, are found in the eastern counties. they have black heads, faces and legs. "oxfords" and "hampshires" are similar, but larger. "shropshires" are another hardy cross-breed, which yield a heavier fleece. all the cross-breeds are larger than the south down and yield bigger pelts. mountain breeds yield wool of varying quality but give the best pelts. the "cheviots"--much favoured by the scotch farmers--have a wool of medium length but with much hair in it. they have white faces and legs and no horns, and yield excellent pelts. the "black-faced mountain sheep" have longer wool but coarse, and yield good pelts. they are kept in the hilly parts of north england and in the scottish highlands. "lonks" yield a large and good pelt, but very coarse wool. the mutton is good. they are a very large breed with much curved horns and black faces. there are also some small breeds, "soft wools," "shetlands," and "welsh mountain sheep." the wool of the last two is poor, but the welsh pelts are valued for their fine grain. there are large numbers of sheepskins also imported, from south and central america, and from australia, new zealand and the cape. the colonies, however, have often done their own fellmongering, and we have imported pickled pelts. they now tan the skins also, and many tanned sheepskins are now imported. there are also many indian skins imported after tannage with turwash bark (cp. e.i. goat, section ii.). the depilation is brought about by "sweating" (or "staling") and by "painting." the immediate object of both these types of method is to avoid using any thing which will affect the wool. the sweating process is the most ancient method of unhairing and is used in america for hides as well as sheepskins. it consists of a more or less regulated putrefaction. the loosening of hair or wool has long been accepted as evidence that putrefaction had commenced in a hide or skin, and it is the aim of the sweating process to stop the action at that stage, before any damage has been done to the pelt. this aim is achieved rather imperfectly by suspending the goods in closed chambers and regulating the temperature and humidity by means of steam and water. such chambers are known as "sweat pits" or "tainting stoves". in the case of sheepskins the "warm-sweat" system is generally used, and the operation is carried out at °- ° f. a satisfactory yield of wool is obtained in good condition, but the pelt is very liable to suffer bacterial damage and show "weak grain." the skins are first cleaned by a few "soaks" in clean fresh water, with intermediate help from a "burring machine" which presents a rapidly revolving set of spiral blades to the wool, and in the presence of a good stream of water quickly removes all dirt from the wool. the skins then enter the tainting stove, and the operation is commenced by a slight injection of live steam. in summer, about a week is sufficient to loosen the hair, but in winter up to two weeks may be necessary. little control of the process is possible, and all that can be done is to watch the goods carefully near the end of the operation. in one variety of this method of unwoolling the skins are painted on the flesh side with a creamy mixture of lime and water and piled for a day or two until the pelt is distinctly plumped. they are then washed with fresh water to remove the excess of lime, drained, and then enter the tainting stove. by this method the pelts are obtained in better condition and are less liable to damage by local excess of putrefaction. in unwoolling the skins are placed over a beam and the true wool is pulled out by hand. the wool is graded as it is pulled and different qualities kept separate: ewe wool, lamb wool, hog wool, etc. the hair is next removed from face and shanks by means of a blunt "rubbing knife," and the pelt then immersed in water. in the other method of depilation, by painting, advantage is taken of the loose texture of the sheepskin fibre and of the fact that the wool root is nearly halfway through the skin. the flesh side of the clean skin is painted with a creamy mixture of lime in a strong solution of sodium sulphide ( °- ° beaumé). care is taken to keep the depilatant off the wool. the skins are folded flesh to flesh and left for a few hours or until next day before unwoolling, according to the strength of the sulphide solution. the depilatory action is entirely chemical, being due to the solvent action of the sulphide on the hair root. the lime is sometimes omitted. after pulling, the skins are opened up and washed in fresh water. the various classes of wool are sold to the wool-stapler and so to the woollen industry. as this is a mechanical rather than chemical industry, its discussion is beyond the scope of this volume. however unwoolled, the pelt still needs further treatment by the fellmonger. it needs liming and unhairing. this is done in the ordinary way in pits of milk of lime, through which the goods pass from old to new limes in the course of about a week. this plumps the fibres, separates the fibrils and kills the grease. paddles are used also to save handling. shearlings are sometimes limed - days and unwoolled without sweating or painting. after liming the skins are unhaired and fleshed, and placed in clean strong limes until sold to the tanner. sheepskin pelts are sometimes preserved by pickling. this consists in placing them first in a solution of sulphuric acid (about / per cent.) together with some common salt. the pelts swell up and imbibe the acid solution. they are then placed in saturated brine, which causes a very complete repression of the swelling, the pelts being apparently leathered. in this condition or partly dried out they may be kept for years. the forces at work in this phenomenon are somewhat complex (see part v., section i.). the skins may be depickled by paddling in a per cent. salt solution to which weak alkalies such as borax, whitening, carbonate and bicarbonate of soda, etc., have been added. the leather manufacturer classifies sheepskins according to the size of the pelts. the large skins are tanned for light upper leathers and similar work. these are called "basils." many large skins are also split green into "skivers" which after vegetable tannage are finished for fancy goods, bookbinding, etc. the fleshes are often oil-tanned for chamois leather (part iv., section iii.). medium-sized skins such as are obtained from the down sheep are tanned for "roans," and finished as a kind of morocco leather. small skins are mostly "tawed" (part iv., section i.) for glove leathers, but some are made into roller leather by vegetable tannage. basils, which represent the heaviest sheepskin work, are tanned and finished in the following manner. the limed pelts are first bated lightly at about ° f. for two days, scudded and drenched. they are sometimes puered, but more often merely delimed with organic acids. in this last case they are first paddled in warm water to remove excess of lime, and a mixture of organic acids is very slowly added at definite intervals. when nearly free from caustic alkali the skins are removed and drenched overnight. there are two types of tannage. the west of england tannage is similar to those noted for sealskins when oak bark and sumach are employed (section iii.). there is also the tendency to paddle more and handle less, and to use the stronger tanning materials such as myrabs, gambier and other extracts. after about hours' tannage in paddles they are coloured through, and are then degreased by hydraulic pressure. the skins are piled in the press with layers of sawdust or bran between them, and the pressure applied very slowly. much grease runs out, for the natural sheepskin contains up to per cent. of oil and fat. degreasing may be postponed till tannage is complete, and the grease can then be extracted by solvents (benzene, acetone, etc.). degreasing after part tannage is usually considered preferable, and the skins may be tanned out in pit or paddle in about a week. the scotch tannage is with larch bark from _pinus larix_, which contains up to per cent. of a rather mellow catechol tan. this material has also some sugars and yields sour and plumping liquors. the basils are paddled in weak liquors ( °- °) for about days, and when struck through are degreased by hydraulic pressure. they are then soaked back and tanned out in stronger liquors ( °- °), which takes up to one week. they are then dried out and sorted in the crust. the finishing depends of course upon the purpose in view. if for linings they are soaked, shaved, sumached, struck out well, nailed on boards and dried right out. they are next stained with a solution of starch, milk and red dyestuff. after drying they are glazed by machine and softened with a hand board. for fancy slippers the crust skins are starched and stained directly, then "staked" (see part iii., section ii.), fluffed, seasoned and glazed. if intended for leggings and gaiters a flesh finish is given. the skins are soaked, stretched, shaved and sumached. they are then rinsed, drained, sammed and stained. a brown stain mixed with linseed jelly is usual. this is spread evenly over the flesh and glassed in. the skins are dried out, restained if necessary, and staked to raise a nap. basils for gaiters are dyed in paddle and fluffed over the emery wheel. skivers are split in the limed state and sometimes immediately degreased. they are next puered at ° f. for about hours in a paddle, and scudded. they are drenched at a low temperature ( °- ° f.), but often or days. they are again scudded and then rinsed and sent to tan. the skivers are tanned in a few days by sumach liquors working the goods up from mellow to fresh as usual. the liquors are warmed. care must be taken that the goods do not tear. a great variety of finish is possible, but the "paste grain skiver" for fancy goods and the plain finish for hat leathers are sufficiently typical. for paste grains they are soaked and "cleared" for dyeing by immersion in very weak sulphuric acid, excess of which is carefully washed out with water. paddle-dyeing follows, and is preferred to drum dyeing as the skins are so liable to tear. after being struck out they are "pasted," by spreading on to the flesh a glue jelly, using first the hand, then a stiff brush and finally a cloth. the goods are then dried out. they are then seasoned, partly dried and printed cross-grain. they are next grained two ways lightly; shank to shank, and across, lightly tooth-rolled and glazed. they are regrained two ways as before, dried out, and finally softened with a graining board. they are sometimes sized on the grain to fix the pattern and give a gloss. for hat leathers the skins are first soaked, sumached and struck out. if for white or cream finishes they are now lead-bleached. this consists of pigment dyeing with lead sulphate. they are immersed alternately in lead acetate and in sulphuric acid solutions until precipitation is sufficient. they are then dyed to shade. if for browns it is common to mordant with titanium and use basic dyestuffs, paddling afterwards in sumach to fix the dye. after dyeing the goods are struck out again, starched, and dried out on boards. they are again starched and rolled to give the plain finish. roans are not split. they are degreased, puered, scudded and drenched overnight at ° f. they are tanned with sumach usually in pits, and take rather longer than usual to tan. they are finished in much the same style as goatskins for morocco leather, but as the sheepskin has little natural grain it needs embossing or printing according to the type required. if for "hard grains," the skins are soaked, sumached, seasoned, dried, glazed and damped back for printing. this is done by the "hard grain" roller, and the goods are dried out to fix the pattern. they are damped back, sammed, and grained in four directions (cp. section ii.), dried out and boarded to soften. if for straight grains they are printed with a straight-grain roller, or grained neck to butt. after tooth rolling they are boarded, dried and glazed. they are softened down and "aired off" in a cool store. roller leather is a special class of sheepskin leather which is used to cover the rollers used in cotton spinning. the essential requirements are that a smooth plain finish should be given, and the leather must not stretch or be greasy. for this purpose small sheepskins with a fine small grain are chosen, such as those obtained from the welsh mountain sheep. the pelts are machine fleshed, short haired and often puered, but the deliming is also brought about by organic acids also. the pelts are drenched in pits fitted with paddles, which are used to stir up the infusion occasionally. a thorough scudding is given. for the smooth-grain finish it is necessary to tan in weak liquors, and to give plenty of time so as to ensure complete penetration. an oak-bark tannage is preferred, but a little extract is usual to assist. the goods are coloured through in paddle, like basils, and are then degreased by hydraulic pressure. this should be as complete as possible, and a little heat is used to assist the escape of grease. the pressed skins, moreover, must be quite freed from creases, and this is attained first by paddling in warm water to remove sawdust, and then by drumming in fairly hot water, in which they are left overnight. the skins are tanned out in suspenders, taking about weeks. the crust skins need careful sorting, and are soaked and hand shaved. they are sumached in drum, rinsed, struck out, sammed and set. the striking and setting should be thorough, in order to get rid of stretch. they are next "filled" by coating with linseed jelly or similar material, and dried out on boards in a thoroughly stretched condition. they are then trimmed, seasoned and rolled with a steel roller. they are then staked or perched, fluffed, reseasoned, dried and glazed. they are carefully short-haired, glazed again and finally ironed. e.i. sheepskins are imported in a tanned condition. these are soaked back and the turwar bark tannage "stripped " as far as possible by drumming with soda for - minutes at ° f.; after washing they are "soured" in weak ( / per cent.) sulphuric acid solution, and retanned with sumach paste for an hour, drumming at ° f. they may then be finished for basils, moroccos or roller leather as described above, but are often finished as imitation glacé kid. in this case they are drum dyed, lightly fat-liquored (see part iii., section iv.), struck out and dried. they are staked by machine, fluffed, seasoned and glazed. they may be re-staked and reglazed if desired. references. a. seymour jones, "the sheep and its skin." bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , , - , . section v.--calfskins calfskins are the raw material for many classes of leather. the term itself is rather broad. a calfskin may be obtained from a very young animal and weigh only a very few pounds, or it may be anything just short of a kip. goat, seal, and sheep skins are obtained from adult animals, but calfskins from the young of a large animal. thus there are many grades of quality, according to age, and the material must be chosen with regard to the purpose in view. some of these purposes have already been discussed. heavy calf is treated much like kip as a curried leather for upper work. even lighter skins are given the "waxed calf" and "satin calf" finishes, and make upper leather of excellent quality. to produce such leathers the treatment is much the same as described in part i., section viii. calfskins were also used for very light upper work, in which they were not so heavily greased in finishing, but rather dyed and finished as a light leather. in this direction, however, the vegetable tannage has been almost completely superseded by the mineral tannages, first by "calf kid," an alumed leather (part iv., section i.), and afterwards by the now popular chrome tannage of "box calf," "willow calf," "glacé calf," "dull calf," etc. (part iii., section iii.). in this section, therefore, we have only to consider calfskins as used to make a vegetable-tanned light leather, such as may be employed in bookbinding and in the manufacture of fancy goods. for these purposes the skins receive a mellow liming of - / - weeks. no sulphide need be employed, as the goods are soon fit to unhair. in such a mellow liming it is important that the bacterial activity is not too prominent, and hence it becomes advantageous to work the liming systematically in the form of a round of pits. to avoid over-plumping in the newest limes some old liquor is used in making up a new pit, and its bacterial activity is reduced by adding it to the new caustic lime whilst slaking. thus for a pack of - skins, - stone of lime may be slaked with about gallons of old lime, and the pit filled up with water. if it be necessary to shorten the process and to use sulphide, this should be added only to the tail liquors of the round, and with it should be added, if possible, some calcium chloride to reduce the harshness of the soda. the skins should be puered thoroughly to obtain the necessary softness, bate-shaved if desirable, and drenched with per cent. of bran overnight. in tanning for fancy work and for dark colours, the goods are coloured off and evenly struck through with sumach liquors, and then tanned further with liquors made from oak bark, myrabolans or chestnut extract. the methods are very closely similar to those used for goatskins and sealskins (part ii., sections ii. and iii.), and need not be described in further detail. the tannage is finished off in sumach. for bookbinding work, however, a pure sumach tannage is given, using liquor slightly warm ( ° f.). paddle tannages are common, but for bookbinding the bag or bottle tannage is often preferred. the skins are sewn together in pairs, grain outwards, and nearly filled with warm sumach infusion, just as described for goatskins. they are then handled in old sumach liquors for about days, and piled to drain and press. at this stage the bag is cut open, the goods worked on the flesh, and the tannage is completed with separated skins in newer sumach liquors, handling at least once a day for - days, as necessary. in finishing there is the usual variety, but a plain ungrained finish is most typical, as the smooth and fine grain of the young animal lends itself to this type of finish better than the skins of goat and seal, and gives a better quality leather than those from the sheep. the crust skins are wet back with water at about ° f., and, if necessary, sammed and shaved. sumaching follows, the operation being carried out in a drum for - hours. the skins are then well struck out. striking and setting should always be thorough for a plain finish, and this case forms no exception. dyeing follows next, the paddle being often preferred to the drum, which is liable to work up a grain. the dyed skins are placed in cold water for a while and again well struck out. they are often nailed on boards to samm, and are then set out, lightly oiled with linseed oil and dried out in a cool shed. seasoning follows, with milk and water only. the operation may be done with either brush or sponge, after which the goods are piled grain to grain and flesh to flesh to regulate. they may be next perched to soften and fluffed if desired. after top seasoning with milk, water and albumin the skins are hung up for a while, piled to regulate and brushed, first lightly and then more vigorously. they may be then oiled very lightly and dried out in a cool stove to ensure a soft leather. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , , , . section vi.--japanned and enamelled leathers the leathers which receive a japanned or enamelled finish are usually vegetable tannages, and so may be discussed at this stage. they are popularly known as "patent" leather, but for no obvious reason. the chief object is to obtain a leather with an exceedingly bright and permanent gloss or polish, and this is attained by coating the leather several times with suitable varnishes. the great difficulties are to prevent the varnish cracking when the leather is bent or in use, and to prevent it peeling off from the leather. almost all classes of vegetable tannage are japanned and enamelled. hides are split and enamelled for carriage, motor car and upholstery leathers, and enamelled calf, seal and sheep skins are used for boot uppers, toe caps, dress shoes, slippers, ladies' and children's belts, hat leathers, and so on. broadly speaking, a japanned leather is a smooth finish and is usually black, whilst an enamelled leather is a grain finish with a grain pattern worked up, and more often in colours. hence japanned leathers are often made from flesh splits or leathers with a damaged grain. it is in any case advantageous to buff the grain lightly, for this permits the varnishes to sink rather deeper and get a firmer grip, and avoids the too sudden transition from phase to phase which is one cause of stripping or peeling. many flesh splits, however, are printed or embossed to give an artificial grain and are then enamelled, which tends to fix the embossed pattern. almost any method of preparing dressing hides for upper or bag work will yield a suitable leather for enamelling and japanning (see part i., section viii.; and section ix.). if anything the liming should be somewhat longer and mellower in order to eliminate grease, as the natural grease of the hide causes the stripping of some varnishes. in finishing it is important to obtain even substance, or the varnish is liable to crack. hides are soaked and sammed in, and often split. sometimes they are split twice, giving grain, middle and flesh, the two former being enamelled and the last japanned. other goods are shaved very smooth. the goods should be next thoroughly scoured and stoned to get as much "stretch" as possible removed. they are often sumached, washed in warm water, slicked out again and sammed. they are then lightly buffed on the grain, and after oiling lightly are thoroughly set out and dried. embossing or printing for enamels is done before the goods are quite dry. considerable difference of opinion obtains as to the best oil to use in the above oiling. linseed oil is widely preferred as being most likely to agree with varnishes made from linseed oil. some manufacturers of japans do not dislike the use of mineral oil, but strongly object to cod oil, tallow or other stuffing greases as tending to cause the varnish to strip or peel. other manufacturers, on the other hand, will not have leather with mineral oil in it, and indicate that nothing but cod oil should be used. in all probability these various preferences are determined by the nature of the varnish, which differs widely in various parts of the globe. in this country the varnishes are made largely from linseed oil by boiling it with "driers." this oil contains much triglyceride of an unsaturated relative of stearic acid. the double bonds are very susceptible to oxidation with the production of resinous bodies of unknown constitution. this phenomenon is known as "drying the oil," and has been extensively used in the manufacture of linoleums. the driers are either oxidizing agents or oxygen carriers, such as litharge, prussian blue, raw umber, manganese dioxide, manganese borate, and "resinate." prussian blue is most preferred for british japans, as it always materially assists the attainment of the desired black colour. the exact details of the boiling, and the manufacture of the varnishes is still largely the trade secret of the master japanners, and differs indeed for the various stages of japanning. the varnish for the earlier coats is boiled longer, and the drying carried further, than in the case of the later coats. this is partly to obtain a product of such stiffness that it will not penetrate the leather. the driers and the pigments should be finely powdered and thoroughly mixed in. the boiling takes several days when at a low temperature, but if done in hours the temperature may be up to ° f. in the later coats driers are often not used, and the product is often mixed with copal varnish, pyroxylin varnish, etc., which greatly help in obtaining smoothness and gloss. turpentine, petroleum spirit and other solvents are also used to thin the varnishes. before boiling, the oil is often purified by a preliminary heating with nitric acid, rose spirit and other oxidizing agents, which precipitate impurities and thereby assist in obtaining a bright gloss. before the application of the varnishes, the leather is first dried thoroughly in a stretched condition. this is accomplished by nailing down on boards which fit like movable shelves into a "stove," a closed chamber heated by steam pipes. the temperature of the stove varies widely in different factories, from °- ° f., according to the nature of the varnishes. the first coat of warm and rather stiff japan is laid over the hot leather in a warm room, being spread over first by hand, then by a serrated slicker, and then again smoothed by hand. the goods are then put into the stove for several hours to dry. when dry the surface is pumiced and brushed and a second coat applied in a similar manner, but with increased care. this is repeated with finer japans until the desired result is obtained. brushes are used to apply the later coats. up to seven coats may be applied for the production of a smooth japan--three coats of ground japan, two coats of thinner japan, and two coats of finishing varnish. after the stoving is complete, the product is given a few days under ordinary atmospheric conditions to permit the reabsorption of moisture to the usual extent. enamelled leathers are then grained to develop the pattern. reference. bennett, "manufacture of leather," p. . part iii.--chrome leather section i.--the nature of chrome leathers in these days the manufacture of chrome leather has attained a position hardly less in importance than that occupied by the ancient method of tanning by means of the vegetable tanning materials, and large quantities of hides and skins are now "chrome tanned" after preparatory processes analogous to those described in connection with vegetable tannages (part ii., section ii.; and part ii., section i.). chrome leathers are made by tanning pelts with the salts of chromium, and are typical of what are known as "mineral tannages," in which inorganic salts are the tanning agents. tannage with alum and salt (see part iv., section i.) is one of the earliest mineral tannages, but is now of relatively minor importance. chrome tanning was first investigated by knapp ( ), who experimented with chromic chloride made "basic" by adding alkali, but his conclusions were unfavourable to the process. a patent was taken out later by cavallin in which skins were to be tanned by treating with potassium dichromate and then with ferrous sulphate which reduced the former to chromic salts, being itself converted into ferric salt. the product, which was a combination of iron-chrome tannage, did not yield a satisfactory commercial leather. another patent, taken out in by heinzerling, specified the use of potassium dichromate and alum. this in effect was a combination chrome-alumina tannage. the alum had its own tanning action and the dichromate was reduced to chromic salts by the organic matter of the skin itself and by the greases employed in dressing. the process, however, was not a commercial success. in patents were obtained by eitner, an austrian, whose process was a combination chrome and fat tannage. the chrome was employed as "basic chromium sulphate" made by adding common soda to a solution of chrome alum until a salt corresponding to the formula cr(oh)so{ } was obtained. such a solution is now known to be perfectly satisfactory, but at first it proved difficult to devise satisfactory finishing processes, and to supplement the chrome tannage with the fat tannage. the first undoubted commercial success in chrome tanning was obtained by the process of augustas schultz, whose patent was the now widely known "two-bath process," in which the skins are treated successively with a chromic acid solution and with an acidified solution of "hypo" (sodium thiosulphate). the first bath was made up commercially of potassium dichromate and hydrochloric acid, so that, strictly speaking, it contained potassium chloride also. the second bath contained, in effect, sulphurous acid, which reduced the chromic acid in the skin fibres to the tanning chrome salts. free sulphur is also formed in this bath and in the skin, and contributes to the characteristic product obtained by this process of tanning. many minor deviations from the original process of schultz have been introduced, but the main features have been unchanged, and this method of tanning is widely employed at the present time for both light and heavy chrome leather. in tanning by basic chromic salts was revived and the use of the basic chloride was patented by martin dennis, who offered such a tanning solution for sale. the validity of the patent has always been doubtful on account of the previous work of knapp and others, but the process itself was commercially satisfactory, and the many variants of this and of the basic sulphate tannages are now generally known as the "one-bath process" in contradistinction to the variants of the schultz process, and are widely used for all classes of chrome leather. a one-bath process which deserves special mention was published in by prof. h. r. procter. in this the tanning liquor was made by reducing potassium dichromate in the presence of a limited amount of hydrochloric or sulphuric acid by adding glucose. although a basic chrome salt is the chief tanning agent thus produced, there is little doubt that the organic oxidation products play an essential part in producing the fullness and mellowness of the leather thus tanned, but their nature and mode of action has not yet been fully made clear though lyotrope influence is probable. more recently balderston has suggested the suitability of sulphurous acid as reducing agent. a stream of sulphur dioxide gas is passed through a solution of sodium dichromate until reduction is complete. the resulting chrome liquor has been favourably reported upon by some chrome tanners. bisulphite of soda has also often been used as the reducing agent. other organic substances are also often used, instead of glucose, to reduce the dichromate. =theory of chrome tannage.=--as to the theory of chrome tanning there is still considerable difference of opinion and much room for experiment. some leather chemists regard the tannage as differing essentially from the vegetable tannages. mr. j. a. wilson has even suggested that the proteid molecule is in time partly hydrolyzed with the formation of a chromic salt with the acid groups. the author, however, strongly favours the view that in chrome tanning changes take place which are closely analogous to those which occur in vegetable tannage, the differences being mainly of degree. thus the hide gel is immersed into a lyophile sol--the chrome liquor--and there follows lyotrope influence, adsorption, gelation of the tanning sol, as well as diffusion into the gel, and finally also, probably, precipitation of the tanning sol at this interface. in chrome tannage the lyotrope influence is much more prominent than in vegetable tannage, but the effect is in the same sense, viz., to reduce the imbibition of the hide gel. thus the potassium sulphate in a chrome alum liquor has its own specific action of this kind and contributes to the leather formation. unhydrolyzed chromium sulphate and the sodium sulphate formed in "making basic" act also in the same sense. the tanning sol is probably chromium hydrate, formed by the hydrolysis of chromium sulphate: it is a lyophile or emulsoid sol and is in consequence very strongly adsorbed by the hide gel. this adsorption, involving a concentration of lyophile sol, is the first stage in gelation, which occupies a relatively more prominent place in chrome than in vegetable tannage. some diffusion into the gel also occurs, and both the gelation and diffusion of the sol are affected by lyotrope influence, but to a greater extent than in the vegetable tannage. thus far the analogy is almost complete. there remains the question of the precipitation of the tanning colloid at the interface. this is a point which has not yet been thoroughly investigated, and which offers considerable difficulty to a clear understanding, but the matter may be probably summarized thus: the adsorbed chromium hydrate is precipitated at the interface of gel and sol to some extent, chiefly through the neutralization of its charge by the oppositely charged ions of the electrolytes present, but possibly also--in the last stages of manufacture by the mutual precipitation of oppositely charged gel and sol. to illustrate the matter, the case of a basic chrome alum liquor will be considered. the chromium hydrate sol is primarily a positive sol, just like ferric and aluminium hydrate sols: _i.e._ in water they are somewhat exceptional in that they adsorb h+ rather than oh-. to cause precipitation therefore it is necessary to make the sol less positive and more negative. the positive charge of the sol, however, is greater than in water, because of the free acid formed in the hydrolysis, which results in the adsorption of more hydrions by the sol. hence to ensure precipitation steps must be taken to reduce the adsorption of hydrions by the chromium hydrate sol. in practice such steps are taken, and to such an extent that there can be little doubt that the chrome sol is not far from its isoelectric point. amongst these "steps" are ( ) making the liquor "basic," _i.e._ adding alkali to neutralize much of the free acid, which involves a considerable reduction in the stabilizing effect of the hydrions; ( ) the adsorption of hydrions by the hide gel when first immersed in approximately neutral condition; ( ) the operation of the "valency rule" that the predominant ionic effect in discharging is due to the multivalent anions. in this case the divalent so{ }-- ions assist materially in discharging the positive charge on the chrome sol; ( ) the final process of neutralization in which still more alkali is added. the operation of the valency rule is the most complex of these factors, for there is also to be considered the stabilizing effect of the kations, especially of the trivalent kation cr+++ from the unhydrolyzed chromium sulphate. it is quite possible also that in the last stages of chrome tanning there are "zones of non-precipitation" due to the total effect of multivalent ions, and it is quite conceivable that the chrome sol may change its sign, _i.e._ become a negative sol and thus give also a mutual precipitation with the hide-gel. this is particularly probable where a local excess of alkali occurs in neutralization. however that may be, it is probable that most of the tannage is accomplished by chromium hydrate in acid solution, and it is therefore legitimate to conclude that adsorption and gelation have a relatively greater part in chrome tannage. the operation of the valency rule makes it easy to understand why basic chlorides do not tan so well as sulphates; the precipitating anion is only monovalent (cl-) and chromic chloride contains no substance analogous to the potassium sulphate of chrome alum and hence contains a less concentration of the precipitating anion. hence also the stabilizing influence of common salt added to a basic alum liquor, the effect being to replace partially the divalent so{ }-- by the monovalent cl-. lyotrope influence, however, may be here at work. it is possible to make out a rather weak case that the tanning sol is not chromium hydrate at all, but a basic salt of chrome also in colloidal solution, and to contend that this salt, like most substances, forms a negative sol, but in practice not negative enough, hence the desirability of alkali, divalent anions, etc. from this point of view the analogy with vegetable tannage becomes more complete and the stabilizing effect of the soda salts of organic acids becomes easy to understand. it is highly probable that the electrical properties of the chrome sol need closer investigation on account of the complexity due to the prominent effect of multivalent ions. it is desirable to bear in mind the remarkable phenomenon observed by burton (_phil. mag._, , vi, = =, ), who added various concentrations of aluminium sulphate to a silver sol (negative). he observed ( ) a zone of non-precipitation due to protection; ( ) a zone of precipitation due to the trivalent kation; ( ) a second zone of non-precipitation due to protection after the sol has passed through the isoelectric point and become a positive sol; ( ) a second zone of precipitation due to the precipitating effect of the anion on the now positive sol. it seems to the writer that similar phenomena may possibly occur in chrome tanning, for whatever the sol actually is, it is not far from the isoelectric point. a few observations on the vegetable-chrome combination tannages will not be out of place at this stage. wilson refers to the well-known practical fact that chrome leather can take up about as much vegetable tan as if it were unchromed pelt, and considers this evidence that the two tannages are of fundamentally different nature. "in mineral-tanned leathers the metal is combined with carboxyl groups, while in vegetable-tanned leather the tannin is combined with the amino groups. this strongly suggests the possibility that the two methods of tanning are to some extent independent of one another, and that a piece of leather tanned by one method may remain as capable of being tanned by the other method as though it were still raw pelt" (_collegium_ (london), , - ). to the writer, however, it seems that the facts are evidence for the contrary proposition, that the tannages are fundamentally of the same nature. on the adsorption theory, one would expect chrome leather to adsorb as much tan as pelt; the readily adsorbable tan is the same, and the chrome leather is an adsorbent of very much the same order of specific surface as pelt. the adsorption theory would find it difficult to account for chrome leather not adsorbing as much tan as pelt. it is quite conceivable that a chrome leather could adsorb more tan than pelt, owing to the more complete isolation of the fibrils by the chrome tannage and to their being coated over by a more adsorbent gel. adsorption is often deliberately increased by a preparatory adsorption. thus sumach-tanned goatskins are wet back from the crust and "retanned" in sumach before dyeing, to coat the fibres with a fresh and more adsorbent gel and so ensure the even and thorough adsorption of the dyestuff. mordanting fabrics has a similar object,--the adsorption of colloidogenic substances which give rise to an adsorbent gel on the fibre. unless vegetable-tanned leather is so much loaded with tan that its specific surface is effectively reduced, one would similarly expect that vegetable-tanned leather would adsorb the chrome sol. this, of course, is exactly the case of semi-chrome leather. if, on the "chemical combination" theory, the vegetable tan combines with the amino groups and the chrome with carboxyl groups, it is natural to inquire which groups the dyestuffs combine with. as either tannage does not interfere with the adsorption of dye, are we to conclude similarly that tanning and dyeing are fundamentally different processes? those who favour this chemical combination theory, and who offer equations for the formation of vegetable and of chrome leather, should likewise suggest an equation for the formation of leather from pelt by the action of dyestuffs--a practical though hardly an economic process. the remarks made earlier in this volume (part i., section iii.) as to the occurrence of what have been called "irreversible changes" subsequent to the mutual precipitation of oppositely charged gel and sol, are equally applicable to the chrome tannages. chrome tannage was once thought to embrace such irreversible changes, but the process can now be "reversed" with ease. the reversibility of the chrome tannage is an easier proposition than that of vegetable tannage, partly because the leather is comparatively much less tanned, and partly because the acidity or alkalinity of the stripping agent may be adjusted, as desired, without the oxidation trouble. in approaching this question from the theoretical side one must consider mainly whether to solate the tanning agent to a positive or to a negative sol. our imperfect knowledge of the electrical forces in operation in the chrome tannage is thus a serious drawback, but the evidence on the whole points to the precipitation being effected by a negative sol near its isoelectric point but in faintly acid solution. hence, we should theoretically expect that reversion should take place into a negative sol in nearly neutral or even faintly alkaline solution. thus, suitable stripping agents for chrome leather would be the alkali salts of organic acids (especially if multivalent). now, procter and wilson have recently accomplished this stripping of chrome leather by the use of such salts. they approached the question from an empirical and practical point of view and found that rochelle salt, sodium citrate, and sodium lactate would strip the chrome tannage with ease. this important and very creditable achievement will have great practical and commercial importance. procter and wilson have deliberately and carefully refrained from offering an exact explanation of this reversible action, but point out that all their stripping agents are salts of _hydroxy-acids_, and strongly insist that these form soluble complexes with the chrome. whilst not denying this in the least, the present author would point out that according to the views advanced in this book, the salts of organic acids which do _not_ contain hydroxyl groups should, when combined with a monacid base, also strip the chrome tannage. this he has found to be the case. thus the chrome tannage is reversible in solutions of ammonium or potassium oxalate and of ammonium acetate. with these salts the full effect of multivalent anions is not attained, so that somewhat strong solutions are necessary. a per cent. solution of ammonium acetate shows some stripping effect after a few days, but a per cent. solution after a few hours. saturated ammonium oxalate is only a . per cent. solution, but shows a stripping effect in - days. potassium oxalate ( per cent.) shows distinct stripping in hours. potassium acetate and sodium acetate show only slight action, because the solution is too alkaline, but strip if acetic acid be added until litmus is just reddened. it is noteworthy from a theoretical point of view that a per cent. solution of ammonium acetate is distinctly acid, and indeed smells of acetic acid. there can be little doubt that such stripping actions are also connected with the solubility of the stripping agent in the gel, for the liquid must pass through the walls of the gel to dilute the liquid in the interior. this view fits in with the facts that hydroxy acids and ammonium salts are particularly efficient, for the tendency of chrome to form ammonia-complexes as well as hydroxy complexes is well known. from this point of view we should not expect a stripping action from a salt such as disodium phosphate, which would form an insoluble substance. actually sodium phosphate does not strip, and indeed reduces the stripping power of ammonium acetate. similarly, we might expect some stripping action by ammonia and ammonium chloride, with the formation of chrome ammonia complexes. this actually occurs, a pink solution being obtained. sodium sulphite does not strip, possibly partly on account of its too great alkalinity, but is interesting theoretically to observe that sodium sulphite as well as rochelle salt will strip salt stains (see yocum's patent, _collegium_ (london), , ; also procter and wilson, _loc. cit._). this points to the formation of a negative sol, and suggests many other substances for removing salt stains. =special qualities of chrome leather.=--a few words on the special peculiarities of the leather formed by chroming will not be out of place at this stage. one of the greatest disadvantages of the chrome tannage has been the absence of what is known as the "crust" or "rough leather" stage. in chrome tanning, the finishing operations have had to follow on immediately after the tannage. chrome leather, after tanning, may be dried out like other leathers, but if thoroughly dried, or if kept in a dried condition for any time, it will not "wet back" again with water. various suggestions have been made to overcome this difficulty but none yet have found much favour in practice. the discovery of the reversibility of the tannage, however, ought to solve this difficulty, and the author would suggest that any of the substances used for "dechroming" might also be suitable for "wetting in" chrome leather which has been well dried out. a piece of chrome leather, dried out well after neutralizing, and kept in a warm place for four years, wetted back easily in ammonium acetate, in the author's laboratory. another peculiarity of the chrome tannage is that any defects in the raw material always seem more obvious in chrome than in vegetable leather. this often necessitates the use of a better quality hide or skin. weak grain or loose grain becomes very obvious. the presence of short hair which both unhairing and scudding have failed to remove also is usually more evident. a more serious disadvantage of chrome leather is its tendency to stretch. in the case of belting leather this feature is an obvious nuisance, and has inevitably led manufacturers to use powerful stretching machines upon the goods before they are marketed. in chrome sole leather also there is a tendency to spread and throw the boot out of shape. further disadvantages arise from the fact that the chrome tannage is an "empty" tannage. compared with the vegetable tannage, very little of the tanning agent is adsorbed. hence there is little matter of any kind between the hide fibres isolated during tannage. the inevitable effect of this is that the leather has not the same solidity and firmness, and needs filling out with other materials. a commercial consequence is also that it is impossible to obtain the same yield of leather from any given quantity of raw material. in trade parlance chrome tannage does not give good "weight." another consequence is that (even when well filled with greases in finishing) chrome leather tends to be "woolly" on the flesh side or at cut edges. on the other hand, chrome tanning has very many advantages over the older process. the most obvious of these is the great saving in time. many chrome tannages involve only a day or two, and none more than a week or two. a chrome leather factory therefore needs less capital on account of the quicker turnover. if, moreover, the market be unfavourable, a chrome tanner can stop or reduce his output in a very short time, whereas a vegetable tanner is committed to many weeks' supply of the goods he is manufacturing. another notable advantage of chrome leather is its durability. in the finishing processes more grease is usually employed than in vegetable tannage, and this has a preservative effect upon leathers which often get wet. chrome sole leather and hydraulic leathers are cases in point. chrome leather will also stand changes of temperature and friction much better than vegetable tannages. the light chrome tannage results, further, in yielding a leather which has great tensile strength, and it is not surprising to find that chrome harness and chrome picking bands are highly thought of. the empty nature of the tannage necessitates the use of stuffing greases, but such large proportions of these may be used that chrome tannage becomes obviously suitable if one wishes to produce a waterproof leather. hence the popularity of chrome tannage for waterproof soling and hydraulic leathers. the advantages of the chrome process are very real, and very obviously such as will appeal to manufacturers. chrome leathers have now been for some time in the forefront as far as boot-uppers are concerned, especially for the best quality goods, in which the popular "box-calf" and "glacé kid" are so largely employed. there seems little doubt that this will continue to be the case. it is an unfortunate fact that in this important branch of tanning, british manufacturers have not quite risen to the occasion. their products have in the past been faced with very serious competition from continental and american manufacturers of chrome uppers, and there can be no doubt that these competitors produced a better article, and produced it more economically. the disorganization of the continental factories owing to the war should give british manufacturers a valuable opportunity of putting such businesses on a better basis. for sole leather also the chrome tannage makes constant headway, and the relative proportion of it becomes gradually greater. a great impetus to chrome sole leather has been given by the war conditions of britain. owing to the submarine campaigns of germany the tonnage question became all-important, and the bulky imports of vegetable tanning materials became a serious item. british tanners were therefore encouraged to make more chrome sole and less vegetable sole. the urgent need of leather for our armies also assisted in the same sense. the production of chrome sole progressed therefore enormously during and , and although some reaction will doubtless occur, there seems little doubt that chrome sole leather has taken a definite and permanent leap forward. once the general public fully appreciate its qualities of waterproofness and durability its future will be assured. on the whole the position and prospects of chrome tanning are good. the chrome tannages are making headway in all directions, and undoubtedly threaten the existence of many of the older processes of vegetable tanning. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. - . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . bennett, _j.s.l.t.c._, , . stiasny, _collegium_, , . section ii.--general methods of chrome leather manufacture it has been previously pointed out that the chrome tannage is an "empty" one; the primary principle in the wet work of goods for chrome leather is to avoid anything which will make this feature more obvious. in the vegetable tannages relatively larger amounts of the tanning agents are used, and these fill the interfibrillar spaces; indeed, as we have seen (part i., sections iii., v. and vi.), effort is made to increase these spaces and to fill them to their maximum capacity, thus yielding a leather of which per cent. is the tanning agent. in chrome tanning, however, the tanning agent may only be approximately per cent. of the finished leather, so that any trouble taken to split the hide fibres or to dissolve hide substance is usually not only superfluous, but also calculated to enhance the "emptiness." the governing principle of all the preparatory processes for chrome tannage is therefore the conservation of hide substance, and this principle determines the modifications of the processes of soaking, liming, and deliming, which are in vogue. now, in most of these processes there is usually some loss of hide substance, and it is the particular problem of chrome tanning to reduce this loss to a minimum in each stage. whether the loss of hide substance be due to alkaline or fermentive hydrolysis, or to solation of the hide gel, the effect is increased by swelling, and in the wet-work for chrome, therefore, any variations in the degree of swelling are objectionable. the preparatory processes should be carried out with as little change as possible in the volume and elasticity of the pelt. whether also the loss of hide be due to hydrolysis or solation, it is increased by time, hence short processes are (other things being equal) much to be preferred. fermentive hydrolysis is minimized by cleanliness, alkaline hydrolysis by avoiding strongly alkaline liquors, and solation of collagen is reduced by both, and also by avoiding, as far as possible, the presence of calcium and ammonium salts. soaking should be quick and clean. the use of the paddle or drum gives the greatest efficiency and also assists in procuring the softness so essential to the bulk of chrome leathers. liming chrome leather satisfactorily is almost an impossible ideal. every conceivable arrangement has some objection to it. the time of the process may be shortened either by the use of sulphide or by the use of mellow or old limes. to shorten time by the use of sodium sulphide unfortunately involves the employment of more alkali than is desirable, with a consequent plumping effect and tendency to harshness. if sufficient sulphide be used to make the liming very short, then the grease is not "killed" (saponified or emulsified). if the harshness and alkalinity be removed by using also an excess of calcium chloride, then the lyotrope influence of this substance enhances the solation of the hide gel. on the other hand the use of old lime liquors avoids the plumping effect, but increases considerably the bacterial activity, and the bacterial enzymes produce both hydrolysis and solation of the pelt. in practice what is generally done is to shorten time by both methods and so to admit both disadvantages to a limited extent. this is theoretically more sound than would appear, for in mellow limes sulphide has less plumping power but is just as strong a depilatant; whilst, on the other hand, a mellow liming shortened by sulphide is less objectionable as there is some evidence that bacterial activity is relatively less in the first few days. hence a mellow sulphide liming of - days is very common in practice, but sometimes a - days' process with more sulphide is also found satisfactory. it would seem probable that the real solution of the problem would be found by a different process altogether. in this connection it is interesting to note that a continental proposal to unhair by enzyme action only has been found most practicable with goods for chrome, and, in the author's opinion, some development on these lines, in which a lipolytic enzyme is used in addition to a proteolytic, might solve the difficulty, and give a rapid depilation which dispenses with liming, plumping and deliming with the consequent loss of valuable hide substance. in the usual short, mellow, sulphide liming it is clear that there is not much advantage in a "round" or "set" of pits. hence the one-pit system is popular on account of the less labour involved. the above remarks are less applicable in the case of chrome sole leather. in this case weight is a great consideration and plumping is necessary. in such leather the chrome tannage is supplemented by the use of waxes, which fill up the spaces between the fibres and give solidity and waterproofness to the finished article. with this leather an ordinary sole leather liming in sharp liquors is not unsuitable, handling the goods from "mellow to fresh," but there is, on the whole, a tendency to shorten the process to about a week by using more sulphide. processes for deliming pelt for chrome leather should also be chosen by our guiding principle of hide substance conservation. here again short processes involving little change in swelling should be preferred. now, the ordinary bating and puering processes give ( ) neutralization of lime by organic acids combined with weak bases; ( ) the solation of some hide substance; and ( ) a "pulling down" effect on the swollen pelt. now, neutralization is quite superfluous, as the acids of the chrome liquor (one-bath or two-bath) can quite well accomplish this; the solvent effect is undesirable altogether; and the "pulling down" effect is also unnecessary if the goods are not plumped up. with any method of liming, however, some plumping is obtained, and this creates a problem of practical importance. in the huge quantities of pelt which go for chrome upper leathers, a primary consideration is the soft, "kind," or mellow feel of the grain in the finished leather. this is obtained only by tanning the pelt when the grain at least is in a thoroughly deplumped and inelastic condition. it is essential to delime not only so that the alkaline plumping effect is completely removed, but also so that no acid plumping effect succeeds it. the practical problem is to decide whether, in any particular instance, dung puers and bates are necessary to obtain this result. bating is clearly not very desirable, on account of the length of the process, during which hide substance would be lost unnecessarily, and also because there will usually be a slight alkaline swelling. puering with dog-dung infusions is preferable; it is not such a long process, the liquor is just acid to phenolphthalein, and the action is more intense, and by puering for a short time only the loss of hide may be confined to the grain and flesh only, whilst the desired inelasticity of grain-pelt is soon obtained. many large firms have admittedly found themselves unable to dispense with puering, but others have succeeded in substituting for it the use of non-swelling deliming and lyotrope agents like ammonium chloride and boric acid. in all cases it is futile to delime or puer the grain and then allow the goods to stand until the centre lime has diffused outwards. the goods must pass into the chrome liquors when in the correct condition. for heavy chrome leather a surface deliming with boric acid is all that is necessary. even that is superfluous when the goods are to be pickled before tanning. =types of two-bath chrome tannage.=--although the original process of the schultz patent is quite a practicable one, many modifications have been introduced. these modifications have been made to suit the class of goods under treatment, to suit the particular mode of application which is available or suitable, and to effect economies of chrome and other material, and of time, and also to combine with the tannage a pickling effect or a partial alum tannage. other modifications arise from the precise acid, neutral, or alkaline condition of the pelt, being for example obviously necessary when pickled stock replace neutral pelts. the many two-bath processes which have been found useful have been classified previously by the author[ ] into three types: ( ) the "schultz type," in which such quantities of dichromate and acid are used that there is no excess of free acid (other than chromic), but an excess of unaltered dichromate; ( ) the "acid type," in which the chromic acid is completely free and the liquor contains also some excess of mineral acid also; and ( ) the "neutral type," in which neither of these main constituents is in excess, just sufficient mineral acid having been used to liberate all the chromic acid from the dichromate. [footnote : "types of two-bath chrome tannage," _leather_, , - .] now:-- k{ }cr{ }o{ } + hcl = kcl + cro{ } + h{ }o taking the commercial hydrochloric acid as a per cent. solution, parts will be obtained in about parts of commercial acid. hence parts dichromate need parts commercial hydrochloric acid for the above reaction;[ ] in other words, per cent. dichromate needs - / per cent. commercial acid. similarly per cent. and per cent. of dichromate need . per cent. and . per cent. respectively of commercial acid. if therefore such quantities be used we have the so-called "neutral type" of chroming bath. if less quantities of acid be used we have the "schultz type," and if greater quantities of acid be used we have the "acid type." the original schultz patent used per cent. dichromate and - / per cent. hydrochloric acid, and well exemplifies its type, for there is much undecomposed dichromate. the composition of some chroming baths in common use on a practical scale are given below under the heading of their type:-- ----------+--------------+--------------+-------+------------ type. | dichromate. | hydrochloric | salt. | aluminium | | acid. | | sulphate. ----------+--------------+--------------+-------+------------ | | - / | -- | -- | | - / | -- | schultz | | - / | | -- | | - / | | -- | | | -- | -- ----------+--------------+--------------+-------+------------ | | | -- | -- | | | | -- | | | | acid | | | | -- | | | | -- | | | | | | | | -- | | | | -- ----------+--------------+--------------+-------+------------ | | - / | | -- | | | -- | - / neutral | chromic acid | | | | | -- | | -- | | -- | | -- | | -- | | -- ----------+--------------+--------------+-------+------------ [footnote : commercial acids of course vary in strength, and the amount needed varies accordingly.] all the figures are percentages of the weight of pelt. as k{ }cr{ }o has a molecular weight of , and na{ }cr{ }o{ }· h{ }o a molecular weight of , in practice they may be considered as interchangeable, weight for weight. the sodium salt is cheaper and more often used. the corresponding amount of chromic acid, cro{ }, has an equivalent weight of , hence any weight of dichromate may in practice be substituted by two-thirds the weight of commercial chromic acid. equivalent weights of commercial sulphuric acid are sometimes used in place of hydrochloric. the quantity depends upon the strength of the sulphuric acid used. aluminium sulphate, al{ }(so{ }){ }· h{ }o (mol. wt. ), may be replaced by ordinary potash alum, k{ }so{ }·al{ }(so{ }){ }· h{ }o (mol. wt. ). in practice parts of the former and parts of the latter may be considered equivalent. it should be remembered that both these salts are hydrolyzed in solution, and therefore increase slightly the amount of free acid present. their presence decreases the amount of chrome taken up, and as little or no alumina is found in the leather, there is usually small advantage in their employment. the use of salt is common but often unnecessary. it is considered desirable in baths of the acid type to prevent swelling by the excess of acid, and in baths made up from commercial chromic acid to replace correspondingly that normally formed from the reaction of dichromate and acid. it is used also in all baths which are intended to treat pickled goods. like all electrolytes its presence decreases the adsorption of chromic acid. all these conceivable modifications will make good leather, and the choice of a process often depends largely upon market prices. on the whole the tendency is to prefer the neutral or acid type, on account of the greater ease and completeness with which the bath may be exhausted. pickled stock may be depickled before tanning, by a bath of salt, mixed with borax, whitening, or basic alum solutions. it may also be placed direct in the chroming bath, but the amount of acid thus added with the goods must be determined and allowed for when making up the bath. no allowance is usually necessary, however, if the "pickle" consist only of alum and salt. the chroming operation is carried out usually in drums or paddles. drums are preferable because more concentrated baths may be used; these solutions penetrate quicker and are easier to exhaust economically. they are also preferable for hides and heavy skins. paddles are preferable where grain is important, and for light skins in which little time is needed. small variations in the ratio of chrome to pelt, or in concentration of liquor, have little influence upon the resulting leather. the analytical investigation and control of chroming baths is usually simple. a suitable volume of liquor is titrated with n/ thiosulphate after acidifying with hydrochloric acid and adding potassium iodide. the operation should be conducted in a stoppered bottle, and the liquor allowed to stand for - minutes after adding the iodide and before titrating. a little fresh starch infusion should be added towards the end of the reaction. each c.c. n/ thiosulphate corresponds to . gram cro{ } or . gram k{ }cr{ }o{ }. the same volume of liquor should also be titrated with n/ caustic soda and phenolphthalein. potassium chromate is neutral to this indicator, _i.e._ chromic acid acts as a dibasic acid. any excess of hydrochloric acid is also titrated. more indicator should be added towards the end of the titration, as it is often oxidized. each c.c. n/ soda corresponds to . gram cro{ }, . gram "half-bound" cro{ } (_i.e._ present as dichromate), . gram k{ }cr{ }o{ }, or . gram hcl. if _a_ c.c. n/ thiosulphate and _b_ c.c. n/ soda be needed the type of chroming bath may be seen at a glance-- ---------------------------+-------------+----------------------- if | the type is | the bath contains ---------------------------+-------------+----------------------- _b_ is greater than / _a_ | schultz | potassium dichromate but is less than / _a_ | | and chromic acid _b_ is greater than / _a_ | acid | chromic acid and free | | hydrochloric acid _b_ equals / _a_ | neutral | chromic acid only ---------------------------+-------------+----------------------- if c.c. chrome liquor require _a_ and _b_ c.c. of thiosulphate and soda respectively-- i. c.c. of a schultz bath contain (b - / ×a) × . gram cro{ } and [(a× . ) - [(b - / ×a) × . ]] × . grams k{ }cr{ }o{ } ii. c.c. of an acid bath contain (a× . ) grams cro{ } and [(b - / ×a) × . ] grams hcl iii. c.c. of a neutral bath (a× . ) grams \ > cro{ } _or_ (b× . ) grams / the second bath of the two-bath chrome tannage consists of a solution of sodium thiosulphate acidified with hydrochloric acid. the reactions in this bath are somewhat complicated, several occurring simultaneously. broadly speaking, the final result is due to ( ) the reduction of the chromic acid to a chromic salt by the sulphurous acid; ( ) the formation of a basic chromic salt owing to the excess of thiosulphate; ( ) the reaction of the added acid and thiosulphate to give free sulphur, which is deposited in and on the leather. the relative intensity of these effects is variable, according to the conditions of operation, _e.g._ the amounts of chemicals used, their concentration, the nature and condition of the goods, the time of application, the manner of application, etc. in practice the most favourable conditions are usually discovered empirically, but, broadly speaking, the goods are usually added soon after the thiosulphate and acid are well mixed. there is some evidence that the reduction is in steps, intermediate products such as sodium tetrathionate and chromium dioxide are known to be formed. the goods change from yellow to dark brown, then to green, and finally to the familiar blue. the sulphur makes the final colour a lighter blue than in the case of a one-bath tannage, hence the two-bath process is often preferred for "colours." on account of the empirical character of this "hypo bath," it is impossible to fix any exact relation between the quantities of material used in the chroming bath, and the quantities of "hypo" and acid used in the reducing bath. the following rules, therefore, must be understood as rough approximations for practical use, and though they have been empirically discovered their theoretical significance is often fairly obvious. . the amount of hypo necessary is almost directly proportional to the amount of dichromate used. in chroming with baths of the acid or neutral type, the percentage of hypo should be about three times the percentage of dichromate used. thus per cent. dichromate needs per cent. hypo; and per cent. dichromate needs per cent. hypo on the pelt weight. in baths of the schultz type a less proportion of hypo may suffice, but the per cent. hypo for per cent. dichromate, recommended by the schultz patent, is generally considered rather insufficient. . the proportion of hypo is increased somewhat for the heavier classes of goods, and may even reach per cent. of the pelt weight. . an increase in the proportion of hypo is usual with an increase in the amount of free acid in an acid chroming bath. . the percentage of hydrochloric acid in the reducing bath is roughly half that of the hypo, but is the most variable factor. the quantity varies with the rate and mode of addition, the class of goods under treatment, and the composition of the chroming bath. . in baths of the schultz and neutral type it is better to add some acid to the hypo bath before adding the goods, but this is less essential for goods from an acid chroming bath. . in the case of goods from acid chroming baths, the amount of acid used in the reducing bath is an inverse function of the excess of acid in the first bath, _e.g._ take the following two processes:-- ------------------------------------+------------------------------- chroming bath. | hypo bath. ---------------+--------------------+----------+-------------------- dichromate. | hydrochloric acid. | hypo. | hydrochloric acid. ---------------+--------------------+----------+-------------------- | | | | | | ---------------+--------------------+----------+-------------------- . there should be some excess of hypo at the end of the process. this acts as a feeble alkali, and commences the neutralization. the process can be carried out in paddles or in drums as preferred, for reasons similar to those applicable in the case of the first bath. on the whole, however, drums are less popular for the second bath, for the dilute solutions of the paddle effect some economy of sulphurous acid, which is apt to escape into the air. a preliminary "hypo dip" is sometimes used to prevent the "bleeding" of the chromic acid. the use of many other reducing agents has been suggested as substitutes for hypo. sulphides, sulphuretted hydrogen, polysulphides, sulphites, bisulphites, hydrogen peroxide, nitrous acid, lactic acid, etc., have been used, but none are so easy to manipulate as thiosulphate. =types of one-bath chrome tannage.=--the one-bath process is simpler than the two-bath process inasmuch as only one kind of liquor is involved, viz. one in which the chromium is in the chromic state. hence the variants of the one-bath process consist mainly of variations in the composition of this liquor. the chief point of variation is in the readiness with which chromium hydrate is adsorbed. this is determined by the extent to which the chromic salt is hydrolyzed to form the tanning sol and free acid, and by the concentration and nature of this free acid as well as of other substances. it is difficult unfortunately to express these factors in terms which are comparable under general conditions. chromic salts are usually hydrolyzed to some extent, but this extent is very different even in water, according to the nature of the acid radical. the degree of hydrolysis is also largely affected by the extent to which the solution has been "made basic" by the addition of alkalies. by the neutralization of the free acid in this way there is further hydrolysis, the extent of which is again influenced by the nature of the acid radical involved and other dissolved substances, especially of organic matters. again, the hydrolysis is largely affected by the concentration of the solution even when the proportions of the ingredients are constant, and this is practically important on account of the necessity for exhausting the chrome liquors economically. nor is the matter entirely one of degree of hydrolysis, for (as we have noted in the preceding section) the electrical condition of the chroming sol is of great importance owing to the operation of the valency rule and the possibility of zones of non-precipitation. the alkaline, neutral or acid condition of the goods when first introduced has also its influence on all these points. it will be readily understood, therefore, that there is some difficulty in expressing the tanning power of a chrome liquor. as near as can be yet said this is determined by ( ) the concentration of the actual tanning sol, and ( ) its nearness to the isoelectric point. now, these points are not readily determined by analytical methods, and the best that can yet be done is to determine the conditions which have large influence upon these points. thus the degree to which the liquor is "made basic" by adding alkali is known, and can be expressed in formulæ by assuming that the acid neutralized by this alkali is replaced in the chrome salt by hydroxy groups. chromic chloride, cr{ }cl{ }, with the addition of soda to correspond to half the acid formed upon complete hydrolysis, would be considered then to be a solution of the salt, cr{ }(oh){ }cl{ }. this has given rise to the conception of the "basicity" of a chrome liquor, which may be expressed in many ways, the most common of which in practice is the number of grams so{ } still combined with grams cr. thus the salt corresponding to the composition cr(oh)so{ } is said to have a basicity of . the practical importance of such determinations of basicity has been much exaggerated, for they are but a rough guide to the degree of hydrolysis of the chrome and to the extent to which the sol is positive. thus if the chrome salt be actually a sulphate, a liquor of basicity has about the same _practical_ value as a chloride liquor of basicity , and in each case the figures are of little significance if many organic substances be present. if, however, as is usual in practice, there be approximately the same acid radicals throughout the tannage and about the same relative proportion of organic matters or of inorganic salts, then these determinations have some practical value for comparative purposes. the determination is itself simple: a portion of liquor is titrated direct with caustic soda. the titration is at boiling-point, and is continued until a permanent pink is obtained with phenolphthalein. the amount of so{ } corresponding to the soda required is then relative to the amount of cr in the same volume of liquor. a chromium estimation is therefore also necessary and is most readily done by evaporating a portion of liquor to dryness, igniting the residue and oxidizing the chrome to chromate by heating in a muffle furnace with magnesia and sodium carbonate in equal parts, or fusing in a blowpipe with sodium and potassium carbonates in equal parts. the oxidized residue is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and titrated with thiosulphate as described for the two-bath process. another attempt to determine the practical value of a chrome liquor is the empirical test suggested by mccandlish, in which c.c. of the liquor is titrated with standard alkali until the precipitation point is reached and a turbidity appears. the figure thus indicates approximately the degree of nearness to the precipitation point and the amount of free acid in the liquor. the author has found this a useful test taken in conjunction with the basicity determination. it is best expressed in the same units, _e.g._ grams so{ } per grams cr. another method is the determination of the hydrion concentration of the liquor. this has useful possibilities for research work, but is usually too laborious for rapid commercial control. the results, moreover, are not less empirical, for the hydrion concentration of the liquor indicates but imperfectly the electrical condition of the particles of the tanning sol. in classifying one-bath liquors into types, it is best to take together those in which the usual "basicity" and "acidity" determinations have at any rate approximate comparative value, and this is determined in the main by the method by which the liquor is manufactured. broadly speaking, there are three types of chrome liquor: ( ) those made from chromic salts by adding suitable amounts of alkali; ( ) those made from sodium dichromate by reduction with organic matter; and ( ) those made from sodium dichromate by reduction with sulphurous acid or its salts. of the first type the most common is that in which chrome alum (a bye-product of the dyeing industry) is the starting-point. to a solution of this a solution of washing soda is gradually added, with constant stirring, until the salt corresponding with the formula cr(oh)so{ } is obtained. now:-- k{ }so{ }cr{ }(so{ }){ }· h{ }o + na{ }so{ } \___________________________________________/ + na{ }co{ }· h{ }o \________________/ = cr(oh)so{ } + k{ }so{ } + co{ } + h{ }o hence, in practice, for every ten parts of chrome alum . parts of soda crystals (or . parts anhydrous soda) are used. a convenient "stock solution" is of per cent. strength. thus lbs. of chrome alum is dissolved, made basic, and made up to gallons. to dissolve the alum a mechanical stirrer is necessary, for the water must not be more than warm. the disadvantage of this liquor is the limited solubility of chrome alum and the need for its solution in the cold. liquors may be also made by dissolving chromium hydrate in hydrochloric acid, and making basic to correspond to the formula cr{ }(oh){ }cl{ }. many preparations are on the market containing both chlorides and sulphates with appropriate basicity. chrome alum liquors have been less often used in britain of recent years owing to the high price of chrome alum, caused in part by the presence in the salt of potassium, all the salts of which have been scarce and dear under war conditions. of the second type procter's "glucose liquor" is a good example. use lbs. sulphuric acid, lbs. sodium dichromate, and lbs. of glucose, or quantities in similar proportion. the dichromate is first dissolved, and the acid added gradually. the glucose is then added cautiously on account of the brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide. a glucose of good quality is necessary, and the proportion to be used is not quite definite, for sufficient only is needed to effect the reduction, and this amount is influenced by the rate of addition and temperature of the mixture. the reduction should be careful and regular, or the oxidation products will be irregular and have a varying effect upon the tanning. molasses can be substituted for glucose, in amounts varying with its strength. of the third type the most common is that in which the dichromate is reduced by sulphuric acid and sodium bisulphite. solid bisulphite may be used, but it is usually dear, and solutions are more commonly employed. into this type fall also the liquors formed by passing sulphur dioxide gas into dichromate solution. stock liquors of this type have the advantage that strong solutions may be made (up to per cent. cr{ }o{ }); they have the disadvantage that they are liable to contain excess of free sulphurous acid. the method of application of chrome liquors is usually by paddling or drumming the goods in solutions of appropriate strength--broadly speaking, paddles used for lighter goods and plain finishes, and slowly revolving drums for heavier hides and grained finishes. heavy chrome leather is often tanned in pits by suspension just as in vegetable tanning. in such instances rockers may be usefully employed. in any case, the goods are successively brought into contact with liquors of increasing strength, as in vegetable tannage, and the liquors are thus most conveniently exhausted economically. the green goods thus receive first nearly spent liquor and finish out of fresh strong liquor. the goods may be, of course, handled from drum to drum, or from pit to pit, but the modern tendency is to save labour by moving the liquors instead. thus in drum tanning the liquor is run out and pumped into the next drum. in pits air ejectors have proved suitable, not only as lift pumps, but also as agitators of the liquor in which goods are suspended. the press system is also used. =finishing operations.=--in nearly all cases the chrome leather has to be "neutralized" after tanning. this consists in removing the acid "reversibly adsorbed". this removal is necessary to the finishing processes, as well as to bring the tanning sol into condition for more permanent tannage. neutralization gets rid of soluble chrome salts as well as free mineral acid, and is the final stage in rendering the tanning sol less positive, and perhaps even negative. it is brought about by the use of weak alkalies, of which borax is the easiest and safest, but not the cheapest. sodium silicate, phosphate, carbonate, and bicarbonate have been also used, and a mixture of soda and an ammonium salt has been suggested by stiasny. whitening has also been tried, but is very slow-acting. considerable economy in alkali may be effected by a thorough washing of the leather before using the alkali. if the water be hard, so much the better, and if warm water be available the process is hastened. for most leathers it is necessary to remove excess of alkali just as much as excess of acid, so that a thorough washing in water generally follows the treatment with alkali. anything from / to per cent. borax (or its equivalent) on the pelt weight may be used, and, generally speaking, it is better to use solutions as dilute as practicable in order to avoid local over-neutralization and tender leather. fat liquoring is a process which is very largely typical of chrome leather manufacture; it consists in drumming the goods with an oil emulsion, the grease of which is entirely taken up by the leather. it thus strongly resembles drum stuffing (part i., section iv.) in method, but the "fat liquor" is such that it mixes easily with water, and usually contains soap in order to assist in this sense, and may sometimes indeed consist of soap only. mineral oil is also used frequently in fat liquors. the object of fat liquoring is to give softness, pliability, or waterproofness, and to feed the "empty" chrome tannage. it is also used as a preparation for more complete impregnation of grease, _e.g._ as in "stuffing" chrome harness, and in "dipping" chrome sole leather. fat liquors are usually made by dissolving the soap in boiling water and gradually adding the oil with constant agitation. perfect emulsification is essential, and this is assisted by the use of casein, albumen, gelatine, starch, egg yolk in addition to soap and oil. soda and borax also assist, and degras and sod oil are also useful and are admissible where the leather is to receive a dull finish. the operation of fat liquoring is greatly assisted by heat, and temperatures of about ° to ° f. are usual. chrome leather may be dyed before or after fat liquoring: if before, the fat liquor sometimes tends to alter the shade; if after, the dyeing tends to be uneven. logwood extract and iron salts are largely used for blacks. it is common to mordant chrome leather with vegetable tanning before dyeing. sumach and gambier are often used for this purpose, and the usual "fixing agents" (tartar emetic, titanium salts, etc.) may also be used. of the mechanical finishing operations staking is the most characteristic. it is now done entirely by machines, and the primary purpose is to soften the leather, which otherwise dries out in a non-pliant and stiff condition. in the staking machine, the "blade" is fixed between two rollers, which are however on the other side of the leather. the leather is held by the operator, and the machine "head" pulls a fold of the leather over the blade. seasoning and glazing are also common for many chrome leathers. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. - . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , . bennett, "types of two-bath chrome tannage," _leather_, , aug. and sept. section iii.--chrome calf the tannage of calfskins by the chrome processes for the manufacture of upper leathers is one of the most extensive branches of leather manufacture. the deservedly popular =box calf= is typical of these leathers, and the observations of this section are primarily applicable to it. a chrome-tanned calf skin, fat liquored and blacked, provides as suitable an upper leather as could be desired for ordinary boots. it is at once supple and durable. it is also sufficiently waterproof, but can be given a bright glazed finish. in regard to the wet work for chrome calf, the general principles and methods discussed in the previous section are much to the point. it is essential to avoid undue plumping and the loss of hide substance. the skins should be washed clean as soon as possible. three fresh waters are desirable, the goods remaining only a short time in each. salted skins need more time, but the liquors must be kept sweet. drumming the skins in running water is very suitable for the first and last stages of soaking. the liming should be short but not "sharp," _i.e._ mellow sulphide limes are suitable, depilation being carried out after about days. the one-pit system is usual, but two liquors may be given, the green goods being first inserted into a used liquor, and after handling reinserted into the same pit with a new lime liquor made up with lime, sulphide and a proportion of the old liquor. scudding should be carefully done, as hair on the finished leather is very objectionable. in deliming it is essential to have the grain of the skins thoroughly relaxed and pulled down. the finished box calf should have a characteristic soft and silky feel, and this is only attained by procuring the inelastic pelt. it is not surprising that a light puering is a popular method for attaining this, but there is also a tendency to use artificial bates such as are made from ammonium chloride and pancreatin, together with organic acids, or non-swelling acids like boric acid. drenching is also common after a preliminary deliming with acid. the skins may be half or two-thirds delimed with lactic acid, rinsed and drenched over night at ° f. with per cent. bran on the pelt weight. less acid may be also used, in tepid water, and the drench made up with per cent. bran and a little pea meal. it is very common to pickle the skins in per cent. alum and to per cent. salt before tanning. this is often of doubtful advantage, but sometimes prevents drawn grain when the goods are moved rapidly into strong chrome liquors. this pickling is said to give fullness to the leather. the tannage of box calf is usually by the one-bath process, though the two-bath process gives quite as good a result and is sometimes used. again, drum tannages are the most popular on account of their speed and the economy of chrome. the practical problem is to use up all the chrome, and to tan quickly without "drawing" the goods. it is, in any case, usual to commence the tannage in a used and nearly spent liquor and finish in a fresh liquor. the most appropriate way depends largely upon local convenience, the number of drums available, supply of labour, etc. in a one-drum system the goods may be started in an old liquor, which is run off when exhausted by the green goods. fresh stock solution is then added at intervals of an hour or two and the drumming continued till tannage is complete, which is usually in less than hours. the remaining liquor is used to commence the tannage of the next pack. in another system the operation is similar except that the liquors are weaker, and the goods are then removed and finished in another drum. a three-liquor system, however, is often combined with a one-drum method; the goods are thus not handled. the liquors are run off and pumped to other drums, the once-used liquor to a drum containing goods already treated with a twice-used liquor; the twice-used liquor to a drum containing green goods, and the thrice-used liquor pumped to the drain. in any of these methods the chrome alum liquor is suitable, using per cent. alum and per cent. soda on the pelt weight. the glucose liquor has also proved very suitable for chrome calf, and the liquors made with sulphurous acid or its salts have increasing popularity on account of lower costs. many tanners use bought liquors--"chrome extracts" which are supposed to be specially devised to suit the tannage of chrome calf. when thoroughly tanned through, as can be readily judged from a sectional cut of the leather, and also by the strength of the liquor remaining, the goods are horsed in pelt overnight, and are then ready for finishing. in finishing box calf the neutralization should be thorough, or the acid may cause trouble in dyeing and fat liquoring. imperfect removal of excess chrome salts may cause the formation of "chrome soaps" which are very difficult to remove; the goods should therefore be well washed. there are two general types of treatment before blacking. in one, the skins are first well washed with water at ° f., neutralized with about per cent. borax, and well washed again. striking follows and is usually very thorough, partly because it assists in producing evenly the characteristic box grain, and partly because the finished leather is sold by the square foot. machine striking is now almost universal, and may be done several times at different stages in the drying. when half dry ("sammed") the skins are shaved by machine and, at this stage usually, weighed. dyeing and fat liquoring then follows. in the other type, the goods are merely washed, and then struck out, sammed, shaved and weighed. the skins are then neutralized, washed and immediately dyed and fat liquored. the advantages of this latter course are that the goods remain in the drum for the last four processes, which is economical of labour, and also that by neutralizing immediately before dyeing and fat liquoring there is less danger of a further diffusion of acid. in dyeing logwood extract is largely used, occasionally a little fustic is used also, and by using a "striker" of iron and copper sulphates a good black is obtained. logwood is often used also in conjunction with coal-tar dyestuffs. the goods are first warmed in the drum up to ° f., and the dyestuff solution gradually run into the drum whilst it is revolving. up to / hour may be necessary to exhaust the bath, the goods being constantly drummed. the fat liquor is then run in similarly, and the drumming continued until the grease is all absorbed by the leather, which may take another hour. the skins are horsed till next day, during which time the grease penetrates more completely. the skins are now dried out, sometimes by suspending from the hind shanks and sometimes by nailing on boards or wooden frames. they are damped back for staking by leaving for - / to days in moist sawdust. after staking they are dried strained in a "stove" at about ° f. in finishing off, the grain is "cleared" by sponging with per cent. lactic acid, and seasoned with a mixture of milk, blood and black dyestuff. when dry on the surface the skins are glazed by machine, and grained two ways--neck to butt and belly to belly. they are usually reseasoned, dried out, reglazed, regrained, lightly oiled with mineral oil, and finally trimmed. these various operations are fairly typical, but there is obviously ample scope for divergence. thus one may fat liquor before dyeing, and the skins may be staked before drying out, and may be re-staked after glazing. much so-called "box calf" is not made from calf skins. a very close approximation, however, is obtained from rather older animals, and "box-kip" is largely manufactured by similar methods. light hides are also widely used, being similarly treated except that they are split and also cut into two along the spine. the finished article is sold as "box-sides." to yield the characteristic grain pattern, the goods are frequently printed and embossed. even the flesh splits are sometimes made into box calf imitations, some filling material being used and an artificial grain pattern embossed. =willow calf= typifies the chrome calf which is finished in colours. the soaking, liming and deliming processes are the same as for box calf. the tannage, however, is generally by the two-bath process on account of the lighter colour thereby obtained. this colour is largely due to the deposition of sulphur in and on the leather in the second bath. in one tanning process the skins are first pickled in per cent. hydrochloric acid and per cent. salt. they are then drummed in solution containing per cent. dichromate (strength in ) for about half an hour. a solution containing per cent. dichromate, - / per cent. hydrochloric acid, and per cent. salt is gradually added, and the skins drummed until well struck through. they are then horsed overnight and struck out and passed through a "hypo dip,"--a per cent. solution of thiosulphate,--and then into the reducing bath, which contains per cent. of thiosulphate, to which per cent. hydrochloric acid is added. another process employs paddles instead of drums. the chroming liquor is made up with - / per cent. chromic acid and per cent. salt. the bath is exhausted by commencing the tannage of a succeeding pack. the skins are reduced as in the last process. in another process the "acid" type of chroming bath is used. the skins are paddled with a solution containing per cent. dichromate, per cent. hydrochloric acid, per cent. aluminium sulphate, and per cent. salt. in the reducing bath per cent. hypo and per cent. hydrochloric acid are used. in yet another process the skins are pickled first in per cent. aluminium sulphate, - / per cent. salt, and per cent. sulphuric acid, and are then dried out and sorted. the tannage proper is in the drum, using per cent. dichromate, per cent. hydrochloric acid, and per cent. salt. in the reducing drum per cent. hypo is used and - / per cent. hydrochloric acid. whichever process of tanning has been used, the skins are neutralized and washed thoroughly, as for box calf, sammed and shaved. in dyeing, the skins are first mordanted with a filtered infusion of leaf sumach, used at ° f. for half an hour. as fixing agent, oz. tartar emetic per dozen skins is then added and the drumming continued for half an hour. the goods are washed, struck out and drum dyed at ° f. with basic colours, and immediately fat liquored. in the fat liquors olive oil and castor oil, with the corresponding soaps, have been popular, but substitutes are now used on economical grounds. the skins are next horsed a while, well struck out again and dried strained. they are now finished off as for box calf, except that it is usual to grain only one way--neck to butt--and the season should consist of milk, water and albumin only, though sometimes other mucilagenous matters are added. as with box calf, the finishing may be varied in many ways. the skins may be dyed with acid colours after fat liquoring. for pale shades direct dyes are used without a mordant. for darker shades of brown and red, the dyewoods are used both as mordants and ground colours, and titanium salts are useful as fixing agents. both the "box" and "willow" finish are largely a matter of public taste, and the fashion varies from time to time on such points as to whether the grain should be one way or two ways, and whether it should be faint or bold. there are also other common finishes besides the typical box grain. =glacé calf= is made much in the same way as box calf, but there is no graining at all. the goods are usually seasoned and glazed three times. small skins are preferred for this finish. =dull calf= is also a plain finish. the leather contains more grease, and the fat liquor is made up with greater proportions of degras. the goods are not seasoned or glazed, but ironed, "sized" with gum, oil, soap and logwood, and after brushing are dried and rolled. in both these plain finishes a one-bath paddle or pit tannage is common, in order to ensure the smooth finish. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , , - , . bennett, "theory and practice in wetwork of chrome calf," _shoe and leather reporter_, sept., . section iv.--chrome goat and sheep immense quantities of goat and sheep skins are chrome tanned for upper leathers. most of them are manufactured into the well-known and popular =glacé kid=, to the manufacture of which this section is chiefly devoted. to be quite strict, glacé kid should be made from kid skins, but actually comparatively few of such skins are used, they being reserved rather for glove leathers. the popular upper leather is made from goatskins. chrome goat is deservedly popular; it is an ideal upper leather for shoes and light boots. as compared with chrome calf (thickness and other factors being equal), it is not only softer and more pliant, but also more durable. it is usually, however, not quite so thick, and perhaps therefore not quite so warm and waterproof. the popularity of glacé is probably enhanced by the brighter and more glassy finish than is usual with box. as the supply of goatskins is unfortunately too limited, an even more widely used glacé upper leather is made from sheepskins, and often sold as glacé kid. from what has been previously said as to the quality of goat and sheepskin leathers (part ii., sections ii. and iv.), it will be readily understood that glacé sheep is by no means so good a leather as glacé goat. it is perhaps as soft, but is more spongy and loose textured, and is neither so waterproof nor so durable as chrome goat. the ubiquitous sheep, however, provides an immense supply of raw material, and the resulting leather, which should strictly be regarded as a glacé kid imitation, finds a ready sale. when well finished it is indeed a good imitation in respect of appearance, and this fact, together with its comparatively low cost, causes it to meet an undoubted public need. the production of glacé goat will first be considered. the soaking process is quite similar to that before described for the production of goatskin moroccos (_q.v._) and need not be here repeated. the liming is similar in many respects also, but from what was said in section ii. about the undesirability of excessive plumping of pelt for chrome leather, it will be clear that caustic soda should be omitted from the limes. the liming should also be shorter for glacé than for moroccos, and this is attained both by using a greater proportion of sulphide and by using mellower lime liquors, preferably the latter, as soft pelts are better ensured. calcium chloride has sometimes been added to the limes: this reacts with the soda from the sulphide, yielding salt and probably precipitating lime, and has its own lyotrope influence, thus reducing the plumping effect possibly in two ways. to obtain either effect it is necessary to use considerable amounts of calcium chloride. as goatskins are so tight fibred, a longer liming and a greater loss of collagen is permissible than with most pelts for chrome. the deliming operations should be exceedingly thorough in order to obtain the desired softness and the smooth grain. puering is largely used to the full extent, _i.e._ the goods are thoroughly pulled down at °- ° f., and are carefully delimed in the puer liquor. after puering it is common to give a low temperature drench ( °- ° f.), which of course acts slowly over a day or two. the skins must be well scudded after puering or after drenching; sometimes after both. the drenching is often substituted for purely deliming processes, of which may be mentioned the use of boric acid and also the use of warm solutions of the commercial organic acids (lactic, formic, acetic, butyric, etc.), together with calcium chloride. in place of the chloride, a salt of the acid may be employed, and the deliming bath may be regenerated by oxalic acid and used repeatedly. sometimes puering is omitted and the desired result obtained by washing in warm water, nearly deliming with warm solutions of organic acid, washing again and drenching. skins are also washed often after drenching. in tanning chrome goat for glacé the two-bath process is mostly preferred. this is partly because the sulphur deposited in the reducing bath assists materially in producing the mellowness and fullness which are so essential, and partly because a large proportion of skins are finished in colours. the two-bath process also lends itself to a paddle tannage, which is necessary for the smooth grain finish. one or two illustrative processes may be given. one process presents many points of resemblance to the first process suggested for willow calf in section iii. (_q.v._). the skins are first pickled in a paddle with per cent. hydrochloric acid and per cent. salt, and then pass into the chroming paddle, which contains at first only per cent. dichromate. subsequently per cent. dichromate, - / per cent. hydrochloric acid, and per cent. salt are added to the paddle liquor, and the skins paddled until well struck through. after being horsed overnight the skins are struck out by machine, passed through a hypo dip if desired, and reduced with per cent. of thiosulphate and about per cent. of acid. the skins may be left overnight in the hypo paddle, and the excess of thiosulphate, which is a feeble alkali, commences the neutralization. in another process the chroming bath is made up of - / per cent. chromic acid and - / per cent. of salt, and to this paddle liquor or per cent. of aluminium sulphate may be added if desired. the reduction is with per cent. hypo and per cent. hydrochloric acid. a little of the acid is added to the reducing bath; when the liquor turns milky, the skins are rapidly inserted, and the rest of the acid gradually added. in the finishing processes the mechanical operation of "striking" is very prominent, on account of the necessity of obtaining area and smooth grain. the skin of goats has rather a tendency to bold grain, and this enhances the need of striking. most manufacturers lay great stress upon thorough neutralization and washing. an important point also is that the staking should be carried out at the proper condition of dryness. if either too damp or too dry, the requisite mellow feel is not obtained. there is, of course, ample scope for variation and ingenuity, and the following processes for blacks and colours must be taken as broadly typical. the skins from the reducing bath are first machine-struck, and then immediately neutralized with one per cent. borax until this is thoroughly used up, and the skins are then paddled for many hours in running water. they are again struck out and lightly shaved, possibly after a little drying. there is a tendency to save time by using a stronger borax solution, and by using warm or tepid water, and some factories save borax by washing well first in warm water. if for blacks a common plan is to dye grain and flesh a violet-blue and then black the grain only with logwood and iron. the skins are drum dyed blue with a coal-tar dyestuff, drumming half an hour in the solution at ° f., and again struck out. they are then paired or pleated, and rapidly passed successively through three vats containing respectively cold weak ammonia, a logwood and fustic infusion at ° f., and a solution of ferrous sulphate containing a little copper sulphate. the skins must be immediately washed well to remove excess of iron. instead of this process the skins may be passed through vats containing coal-tar blacks. instead of blue backing the skins may be drum-dyed black on flesh and grain with either coal-tar blacks or with logwood and iron. in the latter case the skins must be drummed in water for an hour to remove excess of iron. however dyed, the skins are often struck out again after dyeing, and sammed slightly for fat liquoring. neatsfoot oil is a popular ingredient of the fat liquor. the skins are drummed dry for a few minutes in a hot drum, and the fat liquor added at ° f., and the drumming continued after the grease has been taken up in order that it may be thoroughly distributed. the skins are struck out again, rapidly dried out, and wet back for staking in damp sawdust. the staking should be thorough, and, if necessary, repeated when the goods are rather drier. in finishing off the skins may be fluffed if desired, and are then "cleared" by sponging with per cent. lactic or acetic acid. they are then seasoned and glazed after some drying. this is repeated until the required gloss has been obtained. they are finally oiled lightly with a mixture of linseed and mineral oils. on finishing =dull kid= a heavier fat liquor is given, in which degras is used, and the skins are not seasoned and glazed, but are ironed and oiled. in finishing for =coloured glacé=, the skins are mordanted before dyeing by the use of dyewood extracts, antimony and titanium salts being used as fixing agents. the fat liquor should contain less soap and more egg yolk, and for fancy shades even egg yolk only is sometimes used. the production of chrome glacé sheep follows the same general lines as glacé goat. there is less difficulty in obtaining smooth grain, so that "striking" is perhaps less prominent, and drum tannages are preferred, whether one bath or two bath. the skins are received after fellmongering (see part ii., section iv.) and need thorough puering to remove scud, and may be then rinsed through boric acid. pickling is very common with these goods. in the pickled state they are often sorted out before tanning. the pickling is usually a one-bath process in which vitriol and salt or else alum and salt are used, but sometimes all three substances. the skins may indeed be received in a pickled state. they may be depickled by paddling with salt and borax, bicarbonate, or basic alum solution. they may also be tanned without depickling if the composition of the pickle be allowed for in the first chroming liquor. a commonly used pickle consists of per cent. aluminium sulphate and per cent. salt. if these goods are to be dried out, flour also may be used with the pickle, which thus becomes practically a light preliminary alum tannage (see part iv., section i.). a commonly used acid pickle is of per cent. commercial sulphuric acid and per cent. salt. the delimed or depickled stock may be tanned as now described. the two-bath process may be used with drums. the chroming bath contains per cent. dichromate, per cent. hydrochloric acid, and per cent. salt. after the skins are thoroughly penetrated they are horsed overnight and reduced with per cent. thiosulphate, up to per cent. of hydrochloric acid being added after half an hour in thiosulphate only. alum pickled or tawed skins are wet back by drumming for about an hour in water, and are then tanned by the one-bath process in drums. only a few hours are needed. towards the end of the operation about / per cent. of bicarbonate of soda may be added to the chrome liquor. acid pickled skins may be wet back with per cent. salt, and depickled by adding a basic alum solution and the chrome tannage superimposed after about half an hour without handling the goods. the basic chrome alum liquor is suitable for this purpose. in finishing glacé sheep much the same methods are used as in the case of glacé goat. sheepskins are perhaps more lightly fat liquored, being naturally soft and porous. degreasing is often necessary to obtain an even finish. as sheep gives an empty pelt and chrome an empty tannage, a slight retannage is often given in gambier, especially for blacks, in which case the skins are well mordanted. this retannage makes the leather less stretchy. logwood and iron blacks are usual. for colours, fustic or sumach are the usual mordants, with tartar emetic to fix. if for glove leathers, skins pickled in alum and salt or tawed should be preferred, and flour may be used in the fat liquor. sheepskin splits are sometimes given a chrome tannage and finished as =chrome chamois=. this leather may be used for linings, but not for polishing silver on account of the sulphur originating from the reduction bath. the splits are puered heavily, and pickled in per cent. vitriol and per cent. salt. they are paddled in this pickle liquor, and per cent. dichromate added in successive portions. the fleshes are horsed overnight and reduced in per cent. thiosulphate, to which a little hydrochloric acid is added if needed. in finishing the splits are washed in warm water, neutralized in weak soda, and washed again. they are sammed by machine striking, and fat liquored, using much soap. they are then horsed, struck and dried out. they are staked several times after damping back, drying out again between stakings. they are finally fluffed. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , , , , . bennett, "theory and practice in wetwork of chrome goat," _shoe and leather reporter_, sept., section v.--heavy chrome leathers the term "heavy chrome leather" is taken to include chrome sole leather, chrome strap and harness butts, waterproof chrome upper leathers, motor butts and picking band butts. these will be discussed in turn. =chrome sole leather=, as stated in section i., has made headway in britain during the european war, the army authorities having recognized its great advantages in durability and waterproofness. at the time of writing, however, its manufacture has received a set back, and many factories are reducing their output. the primary cause of this is that the army purchases have largely ceased, whilst the general public have not yet been educated to its value. men who take chrome uppers for granted talk of chrome sole as a "leather substitute" with an implication that it is of inferior value. it must be recognized, too, that there is some interested opposition to its development. cobblers and bootmakers complain that it ruins their tools, being so hard to cut. now, it is manifestly impossible for it to be soft to cut and hard to wear out; the complaint is therefore an excellent testimonial. there is also a stupid fear that an article which lasts twice as long will reduce repairs and retail sales by per cent. even the manufacturer has sometimes a suspicion that a demand reduced in proportion to durability will not be balanced by an extended export trade. these points of view will become minor considerations when the public realize its relative economy, and when the community as a whole grasp that a durable article is a natural asset. meanwhile credit is due to those firms who persevere in their pioneering work of educating the public. the manufacture of chrome sole leather presents many analogies with the vegetable tannages. the soaking and liming should be about identical, but the hides for chrome are generally given more sulphide and the depilation is reduced to about a week. the methods used for deliming differ widely in different factories. some delime completely with mineral acids, some even pickle in acid and salt, whilst others merely delime the grain with boric acid. the last is really quite sufficient. again, in tanning one finds similar divergences of method. drum tanning is practised, but tannage in pits by suspension is more usual, though, as this last involves more dilute liquors, it involves also greater time to tan. in drum tannages a few days only are sufficient. in pit tanning at least a week is given, but sometimes up to a month, according to the strength of the final liquor and the rate of progress of the goods into stronger liquors. liquors containing over per cent. of chromium may easily be spent out so as to contain only . per cent. labour and time are saved in pit tanning by the use of rockers. the press system of avoiding handling, however, so complicates the analytical control that its advantage is doubtful, a better way being to shift the liquors by an air ejector, which may also be used as an agitator of the liquor and thus abolish the need for rockers ("forsare" patent). chrome butts are tanned out in suspension. no floats or layers are used. the neutralization need not be so thorough as for light chrome uppers, as dyeing is not practised and trouble does not arise with emulsions made from sulphonated oils. thorough washing is advisable, and the butts are usually then cut into bends and may be oiled before drying if desired. the bends are dried strained, to obtain flatness and smooth grain, for no machines, such as strikers and rollers, are usually employed. it is necessary to dry very thoroughly, for the bends are waterproofed by dipping the dry leather into molten waxes. the most commonly used wax and the cheapest is paraffin wax with a m.p. of about ° f. it is rather a brittle wax, however, and as the finished leather consists of up to one-third of the wax, it is better to use at least some proportion of hard fat, japan wax or ceresin wax, to obtain a stuffing material with less crystalline texture. the use of - per cent. rosin in the stuffing grease is also usual. this prevents the leather from being so slippery when in wear. the stuffing should take place at temperatures from °- ° f., according to the melting-point of the grease employed. the bends are taken out and laid in pile to cool and set in a flat condition, and are then finished. the chrome tannage of butts for strapping and harness backs, and for motor butts and picking bands may be similar to that for chrome sole, but drum tannages are more common and the two-bath process is often used. in the latter case the acid chroming bath is preferred, using per cent. of dichromate and of acid, with up to per cent. of salt, and reducing with per cent. thiosulphate and acid as needed. this process assists in the production of the light colour which is preferred in the case of some of these leathers. strap butts after tanning are very thoroughly washed with cold water in pits, and repeatedly struck out by machine between the washings. they are then oiled with heavy mineral oil, and stretched by powerful machines. they are dried and curried during the stretching. degras, wool fat and vaseline are greases used, and the drying and stretching finished off at ° f. they are then fluffed on the flesh, french-chalked and heavily rolled. harness backs are neutralized, machine sammed, and lightly fat liquored with - / per cent. soap. they are then struck and oiled with heavy mineral oil and dried for stuffing. hand stuffing, drum stuffing, and "burning in" are all used (see part i., section iv.). stearin, paraffin wax, ceresin wax, wool fat, sod oil and mineral oil are the greases employed. the butts are blacked after stuffing with lamp black and oil, glassed well and buck-tallowed on the grain. motor butts are fat liquored lightly, using soap only. they have to be softened, therefore, during the drying by being mechanically worked. a boarding machine is repeatedly used during the drying. they are finished off with french chalk on flesh and grain. picking band butts are neutralized by using warm water and then borax solution, and are then sammed by machine and very heavily fat liquored with cod oil and tallow and hard soap, to which degras may also be added. up to per cent. of greases (on the pelt weight) may be used. they are well drummed in this, struck out, french chalked, and dried out. they are softened finally by machine. waterproof chrome upper leathers are manufactured usually from hides tanned by the two-bath process, which is said to give a mellower leather. the neutral type of chroming bath is common. the butts are neutralized, machine sammed and struck, and then fat liquored with per cent. each of neatsfoot oil and soft soap. they are then sammed, shaved and blacked on the grain with logwood and iron, and dried further. they are stuffed then by brushing with an abundant amount of concentrated fat liquor. this gives the waterproofness. they are staked after drying further, and often grained three ways. a further waterproof finish is given consisting of a fat liquor containing beeswax. they are finally brushed and re-oiled with linseed oil, to which some mineral oil may be added. this leather is much the most durable type for a shooting boot, or where waterproof uppers are desirable. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . part iv.--miscellaneous tannages section i.--alum tannages the use of alum for making pelt into leather is several centuries old. it was the first case of what are called "mineral tannages." the tannage is closely analogous in theory to the chrome tannages discussed in part iii., and if soda be added to ordinary potash alum in solution, a basic alum liquor is obtained which is quite capable of yielding a satisfactory leather, and which is thus a strict analogy of the basic chrome alum liquor described in part iii., section ii. the range of basicity which is practicable is very limited, however, and it is much more usual to use common salt with the alum instead of soda. the alum is, of course, hydrolyzed and free sulphuric acid is quickly adsorbed, whilst the colloidal solution of alumina is adsorbed also but more slowly. the adsorbed acid tends to swell the pelt and to cause it to take up the alumina less readily. the function of the salt is to repress the swelling by a pickling action. the actual result is thus partly due to the alum tannage and partly due to the temporary tannage given by the pickle. hence such tannages are not firmly "fixed," nor is the result water-resisting, for much of the tanning material may be washed out. if, however, such leathers be stored for a time in a dry condition, the alumina becomes much more firmly fixed, owing probably to a further dehydration of the alumina gel deposited upon the fibres. the tannage is thus relatively more "irreversible," and such storage is practised in commerce for this purpose, being known as the "ageing" of the leather. it will be understood that it is possible to use too great a proportion of salt, the hygroscopic nature of which would keep the leather moist and thus interfere with a glossy finish. about one-third the weight of the alum used is usually sufficient. all that has been said in part iii. as to the empty nature of the chrome tannage is equally applicable to the alum tannages. it is as necessary therefore to employ filling agents. a fat liquor is quite satisfactory for many purposes, but is too dark coloured and greasy for glove leather. egg yolk is the favourite emulsion in these cases. it contains about per cent. of an oil very similar to olein and in very perfect emulsion. olive oil is also largely olein and is also used, being emulsified by the egg yolk and effectively reducing the proportion required of this expensive material. flour is also used as a filling agent. it acts also as a whitening agent and as an emulsifier. its use enables the tanner to obtain the required fullness without so much greasiness. thus softness and fullness may be obtained, and yet a glossy finish be possible. it will be clear that the more flour is used, the more oil may also be used. the materials mentioned, viz. alum, salt, flour, egg yolk and olive oil, are all mixed together into a paste with some amount of water. the goods are drummed in this paste and then dried out. this operation is known as "tawing." the goods are then "aged" for several weeks and finished as required. the manufacture of "glove kid" from lambskins and kid skins is the most typical example of alum tannage. lambskins are unwoolled very usually by painting the flesh with a mixture of lime and sodium sulphide. there must not be too much of the latter on account of its tendency to give harshness, a fatal defect in glove kid. the addition of calcium chloride is desirable, and the skins, which should be pulled as soon as possible, should be quickly placed in soft water or weak lime. for kidskins a set of lime liquors may be used, and in preference to sodium sulphide red arsenic is employed. about one per cent. realgar on the weight of the lime is used, but more often larger quantities are preferred, even up to per cent. the liming is thus shortened to or days. fresh lime liquors are sometimes used without any sulphides. another method is to place the skins in a paste of lime to which realgar has been added in slaking. in any method it is necessary to saponify or emulsify the grease on the grain, or difficulties occur in dyeing and finishing. skins which are to be tawed for glove kid are both puered and drenched. they are heavily puered at ° f. for hours, or even longer for the heavier skins. after scudding they are drenched with per cent. bran and some pea meal at ° f. for a few hours only. in preparing the tawing paste, the flour should be mixed with tepid water; the egg yolk should also be diluted with tepid water slightly, and strained if necessary, and then added to the flour. the oil is then carefully mixed in. the alum and salt are dissolved separately at ° f. and added to the flour and oil. the tawing paste should be used at about ° f. for every hundred medium-sized lambskins there will be required: lbs. flour in - / gallons water, quart preserved egg yolk, - / lbs. alum and - / lbs. salt. the skins are drummed in this for an hour or so and dried out on poles rapidly, but not with great heat. this is essential to get "stretch." they are next wet back, staked, dried and staked again. they are then "aged." to wet back for dyeing and finishing the skins are drawn through warm water and then drummed in water at ° f. for minutes to wet evenly and thoroughly. this liquor, which contains much of the tawing material, is run off and replaced by the dye solution, _e.g._ fustic or turmeric, with which the goods are drummed for half an hour. iron, chrome or copper salts may be used for saddening. after this "bottom" colour is obtained, a coal tar colour is added for "topping" and the drumming continued until the required shade is obtained. the excess liquor is now run off, and the materials lost in soaking are replaced by drumming further with egg yolk and salt for minutes. this is known as "re-egging." blacks are obtained with logwood and iron. after re-egging, the skins are dried out and staked. they are "seasoned" with a weak emulsion of soap and oil, dried, oiled lightly with linseed oil, ironed, re-oiled and finally brushed. whites are undyed, and lbs. french chalk per skins is used in re-egging. "calf kid" is a once popular but now obsolete upper leather made by tawing calfskins. the skins were well plumped in limes, delimed by washing and drenching, tawed much as for glove kid, split, dried out rapidly, staked and aged. they were finished dull and black with soap and wax. the various white leathers used for belts, laces, whip lashes, aprons, covers for stoppered bottles, etc., are very usually made with an alum tannage. alum, salt and flour only are used. whitening is also mixed in and acts as neutralizing agent as well as pigment dye. wool rugs are manufactured from suitable sheepskins by an alum tannage. they are first well cleaned, using soap on wool and flesh. they are next degreased by painting with fuller's earth paste and drying. they are tawed by painting the flesh with a strong solution of alum and salt, or even by rubbing on the solid salts. they are dried out, aged and sorted for suitable colours. the dyeing is rather difficult, as many artificial dyestuffs are of no use. it is usual to bleach the skins first in a weak solution of bleaching powder, and afterwards to dye with infusions of the dyewoods, _e.g._ logwood, fustic, sandalwood, terra japonica, quercitron bark, turmeric, indigo, etc. vat dyeing is usual. after dyeing, retanning with alum and salt is necessary, on account of the loss of these in bleaching and dyeing. rugs are usually finished black, white, grey, brown, walnut, crimson, blue or green. references. procter, "principles of leather manufacture," pp. , . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , . section ii.--fat tannages for the manufacture of a permanent leather the essential requirements are that the fibres of the hide or skins gel should be dried in a separate condition, and that they should be coated by some waterproof or insoluble material. many substances fulfil the first but not the second of these conditions. for example, the dehydration only may be accomplished more or less by salt (as in curing hides), still better by salt if a little mineral acid be used (as in pickling), and by other salts such as potassium carbonate and ammonium sulphate, and dehydrating agents such as alcohol. such "temporary leathers," however, are not water-resisting, as the second requirement has not been fulfilled, viz. the coating of the fibres with some more or less waterproof material. thus if pelts dehydrated with alcohol be treated with an alcoholic solution of stearic acid, the second condition is fulfilled and a permanent leather is obtained. now, many tanning agents accomplish these two requirements only imperfectly. as we have noted in the preceding section, the alum-tanned leathers are not very water resisting, and much of the tannage will wash out. leathers made by the vegetable tannages usually contain some excess of vegetable tanning matters which are soluble in and removed by water, though much tannin can no longer be thus removed, owing to the mutual precipitation of the oppositely charged tannin sol and hide gel. the necessity for fulfilling the second requirement mentioned is one reason for the practice of following these tannages by applications of oil, fat or of both. in this way the isolated fibres are not only dried separately, but are coated with a typical water-resisting material. in the fat tannages an attempt is made to fulfil this second requirement without the use of any specific "tanning agent" for producing the first requirements; _i.e._ an attempt is made to dry the fibres separately in an "untanned" condition, and to coat them simultaneously with fat so that a permanent leather is obtained. it is only possible to do this, if the pelt is constantly during drying subjected to mechanical working, _e.g._ by twisting, folding, bending, drumming, staking, etc. the resulting leather is often called "rawhide leather," and presents a real advantage over other leathers in its great tensile strength. where toughness is an essential quality, there is much to be said for the fat tannages. it is also possible, of course, to effect compromises between ordinary tannages and the straight fat tannages; thus picking band butts, which must be tough, are often very lightly tanned with oak bark or chrome, and then given what is practically a heavy fat tannage. in the most typical of fat tannages, moreover, it is often common to "colour" the goods by a brief immersion in a weak vegetable tan liquor. further, the employment of fats in the currying of dressing leather is in effect a fat tannage superimposed upon the vegetable tannage. (see combination tannages, section vi.) the fat tannage is undoubtedly one of the earliest methods for making leather. prehistoric man discovered that the skins of animals killed in hunting could, by alternately rubbing with fats and then drying slightly, be eventually converted into a useful leather, whereas without the fat it was stiff and horny. even yet similar methods are in use, thongs of raw hide being continually twisted during drying, with intermittent application of fats. in the modern fat tannages drums are used to give the necessary mechanical working to the goods. the raw hide leather produced in the u.s.a. is made by drumming the nearly delimed goods with tallow and neatsfoot oil. in this country the fat tannages have been typified by the "crown" and "helvetia" leathers. the hides are thoroughly limed in mellow limes, and after the beam work are delimed by drenching, scudded, and sometimes fleshed again, and then coloured off in tan liquor. after partial drying, they are drummed warm for some hours to ensure isolation of the fibres. after further drying they are coated with the tanning paste, which consists essentially of soft fats and flour to produce partial emulsification. equal parts of soft fats and of flour may be used, to which may be added smaller proportions of degras, cod oil, mutton tallow, salt, together with about per cent. water. the goods are coated with this mixture, drummed, and dried further, and this routine repeated as often as necessary to fill the interstices thoroughly with fat. the temperature in the drum may reach ° f. in finishing an attempt is made to stuff further with grease. the goods are thoroughly set out, dried a little, and coated again, flesh and grain, with a mixture of tallow, cod oil, glycerine and degras, and dried further. the excess grease is slicked off and the goods again set out and grained. they are then dried out. references. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , and . procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . section iii.--oil tannages there are very obvious analogies between the fat tannages discussed in section ii. and the oil tannages now to be dealt with, but there is nevertheless a distinct departure in principle involved. in the oil tannages the mechanical treatment is generally more vigorous, and the "drying" process is conducted at a much higher temperature, with the result that there is a vigorous oxidation of the oil. this results in the formation of insoluble oxidation products which coat the fibre and play an essential part in the production of a permanent leather. pungent vapours are evolved in the drying operations, amongst which is acrolein and probably also other aldehydes, and it is thought by procter that these aldehydes also are essential tanning agents and typical of the process (cf. section iv.). fahrion considers that the tanning action is due solely to unsaturated fatty acids with more than one double linkage. garelli and apostolo, however, believe that the tannage is due to a coating of fatty acid whether saturated or not. these observers made leather with stearic and palmatic acids in colloidal aqueous solution. the manufacture of chamois leather from the flesh splits of sheepskins comprises the largest and most typical branch of the oil tannages. the sheep pelts are split in the limed state, and the fleshes are given another sharp liming which may last up to a fortnight. they are next "frized," _i.e._ scraped over the beam with a sharp two-handled knife, to remove roughness and loose fat. the goods are next thoroughly washed in running water and drenched. a paddle drench is often preferred, and if not used the handling should be frequent. paddling drenching reduces the time required from about hours to about hours. an hour or more in a hydraulic press removes superfluous liquor and some more grease. the fleshes are separated, cooled and then stocked for minutes to equalize the moisture in them. after removing from the stocks they are sprinkled on both sides with cod oil and thrown back into the stocks for a few hours. they are then dried cold for a day or two. the stocks used are similar to those once popular for softening dried hides during soaking, and consist of two heavy hammers which fall alternately upon the goods which are contained in a curved box below. the result is a mechanical kneading action. the fleshes are again sprinkled with cod oil, restocked for a few hours and dried again, this time at ° f. they are then repeatedly sprinkled, stocked and dried, the last operation being conducted always at an increasing temperature until finally the final "heater" is even up to ° f. as the operation proceeds it is advantageous to hang the splits also nearer one another, and in the final "heater" they are quite close. the next stage is to pack the goods quickly into suitable boxes and allow them to "heat," _i.e._ to oxidize further. this is a rather critical stage in the process, and to prevent overheating ("burns") it is often necessary to open out and repack into another box, with possibly some little intermediate cooling. they are turned over thus repeatedly until the oxidation is complete, and then spread out to cool. the fleshes are now a dark brown colour, and are next treated to remove excess of oxidized oil products. the goods are dipped through water at ° f. and then subjected to hydraulic pressure. the grease and water which exude are allowed to separate by settling, and the thick yellow oil so obtained, known as "degras," forms a valuable material for leather dressing, as it more readily emulsifies with water than many oils, and impart this quality to other greases mixed with it. a further quantity of a similar oil is obtained by paddling the goods with a weak soda solution. the liquor obtained is treated with sulphuric acid to neutralize the alkali, and the grease recovered is known as "sod oil." the fleshes are now well washed with hot water ( ° f.), fat liquored with cod oil and soft soap, machine sammed, either by a wringer or a centrifuge, and then dried out. much chamois leather is also made in france by closely similar methods. the skins are usually oiled on tables and folded up before stocking. other marine oils (seal, whale, etc.) replace cod oil. generally speaking the oxidation is more moderate, and the grease from the hydraulic press (_moellon_) is mixed with other fish oils to form commercial degras. an inferior quality of degras is obtained by subsequent treatment with soda. the crust chamois obtained as above has only to be thoroughly staked to soften, "grounded" and "fluffed" to raise the nap, and then trimmed, and the ordinary wash-leather is obtained. if intended for glove leathers superior skins are selected. these are fluffed carefully upon emery wheels, using first a coarse surface and eventually a fine surface so that a fine velvet effect is attained. the skins are next bleached. in the "sun bleach" or "grass bleach" the goods are soaked in a - / per cent. soft soap solution and exposed to sunlight after being wrung. they are bleached in about days in summer, but nearly a fortnight may be necessary in winter. in the permanganate bleach, which is less tedious, the skins are first degreased by soaking in a warm / per cent. solution of soda crystals and then drumming for minutes in water at ° f. they are then paddled in a / per cent. solution of commercial permanganate for an hour at the same temperature, rinsed through water, and the brown manganese dioxide is then removed by paddling or drumming the goods in a per cent. solution of sodium bisulphite to which hydrochloric acid is added as required. the goods are well washed in warm water, and are then "tucked," _i.e._ placed in a vat of boiling water containing a little soft soap, just for a few seconds. the goods shrink and curl up, and they are then dried out at °- ° f. to fix the tuck. they are then staked, fluffed, and dyed. in dyeing with coal tar colours the alizarin colours may be used after mordanting with chrome alum. direct dyes, natural dyestuffs and pigment dyes are also used. the goods are struck out after dyeing, lightly fat liquored with commercial egg yolk, dried out at ° to ° f., staked and fluffed on the face side. buff leather is a similar leather made from hides. they are limed mellow for a fortnight, unhaired, fleshed, and then limed again for another week in sharp limes. the grain is then split off, and the goods rinsed and scudded, slightly delimed and hung up to dry. they are then treated in much the same way as fleshes for chamois, but lime is often added to the cod oil used in stocking. buck leather is a similar product obtained from deerskins, but much mock buck is made from cheaper raw material. references. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. - and - . procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . section iv.--formaldehyde tannage the use of formalin for hardening gelatin has long been known, but it was left for payne and pullman to devise a commercial process for tanning pelt into leather by means of formaldehyde (h·cho) solutions. their process, which was patented, specified the use of alkalies in conjunction with formaldehyde or other aldehydes. the function of the alkalies is not very obvious, for it has been shown that formaldehyde will tan also in neutral and in acid solution. the precise action of the aldehydes is also as yet somewhat obscure, but it is noteworthy that very small proportions of formalin will give a complete tannage. it is probable that the action of formaldehyde is not perfectly analogous with that of its homologues, for it is a most reactive substance, and will certainly with proteids undergo reactions which are not analogous to those with other aldehydes. the leather obtained by tanning with formalin is quite white and resembles buff leather, but has advantages over the latter in that no bleaching is necessary. according to the patent specifications the pelt should be drummed in water and the tanning liquor--a solution of formalin and sodium carbonate--added gradually at -minute intervals. up to hours for light skins, and up to hours for heavy hides, are required for complete tannage. the temperature is raised during the process from ° to ° f. the tanning liquor may be made from lbs. of commercial formalin ( per cent. formaldehyde) and lbs. soda ( per cent. na{ }co{ }) in - gallons of water. this should be added, one gallon at a time, to cwt. pelt in - gallons of water. after tannage is complete the goods should be paddled with a - / per cent. solution of ammonium sulphate to remove the soda, and "nourished" in a solution of soft soap and salt, about - / per cent. of each on the weight of pelt. the goods are then dried out, and may be finished like chamois, buff, and buck leathers (section iii.). references. payne and pullman, english patent , . bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. and . section v.--synthetic tanning materials in spite of much valuable work on the constitution of the vegetable tannins and the compounds usually associated with them, such as that of e. fischer, k. freudenberg and their collaborators on gallo-tannic acid, and that of a. g. perkin on ellagic acid and catechin, we are still in the dark with respect to the constitution of the tannins which are of commercial importance, and any synthetic production of these materials is thus out of the question as yet. attempts, however, have been made to produce artificially substances which possess similar properties to the tannins and which may be used for converting pelt into leather. into this category fall some of the earlier attempts to synthesize gallo-tannic acid by heating gallic acid with condensing reagents. the first commercial success in this direction was attained by stiasny, who produced condensation products of the phenolsulphonic acids, to which products he gave the general name of "syntans" (synthetic tannins). the badische co. placed one of these products on the market as "neradol d," and later took out subsidiary patents for the manufacture of similar products by slightly differing methods of productions. since the outbreak of the european war such patent rights have been suspended, and several british firms have been manufacturing synthetic tanning materials by similar methods, but doubtless with developments and improvements of their own discovery. these products (_e.g._ cresyntan, maxyntan, paradol, syntan, etc.) are now in use in many factories, and assist rather than substitute the vegetable tannins in producing leather of the desired colour and quality. these synthetic tanning materials resemble the vegetable tannins in the following respects. they are organic acids containing phenolic groups. they are semi-colloidal, passing slowly through semipermeable membranes. they precipitate gelatin, basic dyestuffs and lead acetate, give a violet-blue colour with ferric salts, and convert hide into an undoubted leather. they differ from the vegetable tannins in that they contain sulphur and sulphonic acid groups, but they agree in that both are aromatic derivatives. in each case the tanning effect is diminished by alkalies, but the synthetic materials are the more sensitive. =methods of manufacture.=--there are, broadly speaking, three types of method by which these condensation products are produced, viz., condensation by formaldehyde, condensation by phosphorus trichloride or similar reagents, and condensation by heat alone. illustrative methods will now be given. condensation by formaldehyde was the first method used. the procedure is given by the austrian patent , . a phenol, _e.g._ crude cresylic acid, is heated with the equivalent amount of sulphuric acid for a few hours to °- ° c., cooled, and formaldehyde added slowly whilst cooling and stirring, in the proportion of one molecule of formaldehyde to molecules of phenol. the free mineral acid is neutralized, and the resulting product is the syntan "neradol." by this procedure only water-soluble products are obtained, but an alternative process is to heat the phenols in slightly acid solution, and then to render soluble the resinous products obtained by treating with sulphuric acid. the proportion of formaldehyde to phenol used led steasny to conclude that the resulting products were diphenyl-methane derivatives which polymerize to form molecules of considerable size. the formaldehyde supplies the "carbon bridge." this view was criticized by a. g. green as too simple, and he suggested the alternative theory that polymerization does not take place at all, but that more advanced or higher condensation products are formed; he thought that o-hydroxy-benzyl alcohols were first produced, that these condensed with another molecule, and afterwards the process was repeated. the result was a "colourless dyestuff." this view receives some support from the other types of method of manufacture. with the use of other condensing reagents the procedure may be as in the process of the b.a.s.f. (fr. pat. , - ), thus: parts of o-cresol-sulphonic acid are heated to ° c. for hours with . parts of phosphorus oxychloride. the excess of oxychloride is removed by distillation under reduced pressure and the residue washed with dilute hydrochloric acid. condensation by heat alone is illustrated by the method given in the same patents, thus: phenol-p-sulphonic acid is heated to ° c. for hours under a pressure of mm. or in a current of dry air at atmospheric pressure. the product may be used direct or may be purified by dissolving in water, neutralizing with caustic soda, filtering and evaporating to dryness. a white powder is obtained which tans when its solution is acidified. an alternative is to mix phenol with sulphuric acid and heat the mixture to ° c. for hours under mm. pressure and purify as before. =methods of use.=--the synthetic tanning materials may be put to many uses. when well manufactured they make practically a white leather, and this fact makes a valuable opening for their use in connection with light leather tannages and the dressing of rugs. it is also claimed that they improve the colour usually obtained in the ordinary vegetable tannages. if used in the suspenders to the extent of - per cent. they are said to brighten the colour throughout the tannage. if used in bleaching and finishing they are said to lighten the colour of the finished leather. about per cent. on the weight of the goods may be added to the bleach or vat liquors; they may be also mixed with sumac during finishing, and in effect act as a sumac substitute; solutions are also brushed over the grain before oiling, with a view to obtaining good colour. it is also claimed that their use prevents vegetable-tanned leather from becoming red under the action of sunlight. the syntans are also used to lighten the colour of chrome leather, even of chrome sole leather after it has been dipped. it is claimed also that syntans produce a tough leather, and if used for heavy leather in the early stages they give a tough grain and assist in avoiding a cracky grain. on this account they are also recommended for retanning e.i. tanned kips. when used in heavy leather suspenders they are said to get rid of lime blast (caco{ }) and to quicken the tannage, _i.e._ to enable the same weight to be obtained in less time. procter suggests that a tannage of commercial value might be obtained by blending them with wood pulp extract. if used alone for tanning a series of pits containing liquors of ° to ° bkr. may be used, but drum tannages may be given using liquors of °- ° bkr., the goods being tanned in - hours. about per cent. of syntans are said to be necessary for complete tannage. references. e. stiasny, "a new synthetic tannin," _collegium_, , - . (see also _j.s.c.i._, abs. , .) e. stiasny, "syntans--new artificial tanning materials," _j.s.c.i._, , . patents:--austrian , . german , , sept. , . french , , dec. , ; , , dec. , ; , , dec. , . section vi.--combination tannages the formation of leather being due to the adsorption of colloidogenic substances at the interface of the tanning liquor and the hide gel, there is the obvious possibility that several such substances may be used simultaneously, and that the resulting leather may be due to the combined effect of these substances. indeed, the average vegetable tannage consists of such a combination tannage, each tanning material contributing its own individual tannin and characteristic astringent non-tannins. there is evidently also the possibility that the different _types_ of tannage discussed above might be used either simultaneously or successively, and that a leather might be obtained which combines to some extent the qualities of each of the types in combination. it is such a case that is generally called a "combination tannage." there are many conceivable combinations, and in this section will be chiefly discussed a few which have demonstrated some commercial possibilities. some of these have already received notice in the preceding sections. the manufacture of curried dressing leathers is a combination of vegetable and fat tannages. the manufacture of waterproof chrome uppers illustrates a combination of chrome and fat tannages. the use of "syntans" in conjunction with vegetable tanning materials is also a combination tannage. the case of chamois leather is possibly a combination of aldehyde tannage with fatty acid tannage. two-bath chrome leather is a combination of chrome, sulphur and fat tannage. formaldehyde and vegetable tannage is also a known possibility. it is clear that there are possibilities of endless complexity, and that what normally may appear as a simple tannage is in reality a very complex combination tannage. from this standpoint one might instructively consider the successive adsorptions involved in a goatskin tanned first with syntans, then with oak bark, "retanned" in sumac, mordanted with chrome, dyed with coal-tar dyestuffs and finally oiled with linseed oil. it will be easily seen that in a very strict sense nearly all tannages are combinations. usually, however, the term "combination tannage" is confined to those cases where the main tanning agents not only differ in type, but where none are in predominant quantity. a typical case is that of "semichrome leather," in which a vegetable tannage is succeeded by a chrome tannage. e.i. tanned sheep and goat skins are rather heavily "stripped" of their vegetable tannage and heavy oiling, by drumming with warm soda solutions, and after washing with water are chromed with the one-bath process; they are neutralized, dyed, fat liquored and finished for glacé upper leather. in a precisely similar way kips and split hides which have received vegetable tannage are stripped and retanned in chrome and finished as for box calf, of which they are a good imitation. such vegetable-chrome combination tannages possess many of the properties of chrome leather. to chrome the pelt first and afterwards to subject it to vegetable tannage is also an obvious possibility, but has not yet been made a commercial success in this country, but has been increasingly used in the u.s.a. during the war. another typical case of combination tannage is the dongola leather produced by the use of gambier and of alum and salt. this is a vegetable-alum combination, and yields a good quality leather for light uppers, gloves, etc. goatskins for "glazed dongola" are paddled tanned in gambier liquors, and alum and salt are subsequently added. they are tanned in hours, well washed, and are fat liquored without ageing. the e.i. tanned skins may also be stripped with soda, and retanned in alum and salt, using flour also if desired. dull dongola are first tawed and then retanned in gambier liquor. "suède" and "velvet calf" are also tawed and retanned with gambier. yet another case of combination tannage is that of sheepskins for glacé uppers, which are first tawed thoroughly with alum, salt and flour and dried out for sorting, and are then retanned in chrome by the one-bath process, and finished as usual. closely related to this is the method of "pickling" in alum and salt and then chrome tanning. another case is the combined one-bath, two-bath method of chrome tanning. the goods are chromed by a one-bath liquor containing dichromate (say per cent.), and then pass into a reducing bath. there is not much advantage in such procedure, however. from a strictly commercial point of view the "dongola" and "semichrome" leathers have proved the most successful combination tannages, but there seem to be possibilities in combinations of the vegetable tannins with synthetic tanning materials. many other substances are known to tan, _e.g._ iron salts, cerium salts, sulphur, quinones, fatty acids, the halogens, etc., etc.; hence there is always the possibility that new useful combination tannages may be discovered. references. bennett, "manufacture of leather," pp. , - . procter, "principles of leather manufacture," p. . section vii.--the evolution of the leather industry the leather trades are amongst the oldest of all industries, but their evolution has been much more rapid during the last two or three decades than at any other period of their history. the european war, moreover, has caused the commencement of another period of rapid development, and it is the aim of this section to point out some of the principal lines of change which have already become apparent. many of these lines of evolution in the methods of manufacture have been previously discussed in their appropriate sections. they may all be summarized as attempts at more economical production. prominent amongst them is the persistent effort to attain quicker processes. during the last twenty-five years the time necessary to produce the heavy leathers has been reduced from months to as many weeks. the tendency is to reduce the time further still, but this is of course increasingly difficult to accomplish. on the other hand, it is more urgent to strive in this direction than ever, because a needless week involves more capital lying idle than ever before. moreover, as most leather factories are now large works, a saving even of hours has become a serious item in economic production. hence in liming, bating, tanning, drying and in warehousing there are increased efforts to make a quicker turnover. a good illustration of this "speeding up" in modern tanneries is the adoption by all large factories of much more rapid methods of extracting tannin. on the old press-leach system liquors may be percolating through the material for possibly a fortnight. the extract manufacturer reduces this operation to about two days. steam generated from the spent bark is used to heat the extracting vats, and to work a vacuum pan or evaporator whereby more water can be used and a more complete as well as a more rapid extraction obtained. the evaporator also makes easy the preparation of the strong liquors used in modern tanning. hand-in-hand with quicker production and manipulation are the attempts to obtain a larger turnover. it is realized that the big business attains cheap production. even before the war the smaller factories were disappearing. a small tannery must now either extend or close down. this has been better realized in the heavy than in the light leather trades. in the sole leather tanneries very often many thousand hides per week are put into work, but in the glacé kid factories there is nothing yet to correspond to the output of american glacé factories, which sometimes reaches three or four thousand dozen a day. another very prominent feature of factory evolution is the increased use of labour-saving machinery. this practice has been in operation for a considerable time, but with marked acceleration during the last few years owing to the labour shortage occasioned by military service. this development of machine work has largely dispensed with that labour which involved any skill or training. the journeyman currier is now practically extinct. in the beam house, too, fleshing, unhairing and scudding are rapidly becoming machine instead of hand operations. many devices are now being adopted also which reduce the quantity of unskilled labour needed. instead of "handling" the goods from pit to pit, modern tanneries aim at moving the liquors. thus in the "forsare" and "tilston" systems of liming, hides are placed in a pit and lie undisturbed until ready for depilation, the soak liquors and lime liquors being supplied and run off just as required, whilst these liquors are agitated as often as desired by means of a current of compressed air. this agitation replaces the "handling" up and down once practised. in the tanyard proper the same tendency is at work, "rockers" are increasingly preferred to "handlers," and an inversion of the press leach system permits the exhaustion of tan liquors by a gravity flow, and so avoids the handling forward from pit to pit. there is also a tendency to install lifts, overhead runways, trucks on lines, motor lorries, etc., to replace carrying, barrowing, carting, etc., and so to arrange the tannery that the minimum transport is needed. all these lines of evolution involve more intensive production, and necessitate much more careful supervision. it is not surprising, therefore, that the industry now feels that scientific oversight and administration are essential. a dozen years ago the trade chemists were largely unqualified men, whose work lay solely in the laboratory, and consisted mainly in the analysis of materials bought. to-day all large tanneries have qualified chemists, and it is realized that they are the practical tanners. their function is so to control the manufacturing processes that all waste is avoided, and so to correlate and co-ordinate the manufacturing results with the analytical and experimental records of the laboratory, that constant improvements are made in the methods of production. the extended use of machinery, and the necessity for economy in coal and power, give the engineer also very large scope for useful work. modern business conditions, moreover, have made necessary more skilful clerical work and accountancy in the large offices of a modern tannery. in the creation of cordial relationships between capital and labour in the leather trades, there has been unfortunately little progress. the leather trade is not a sweated industry. its workers have always enjoyed reasonable hours of work. in most factories an approximate -hour working week (involving no night work) has long been in operation. the industry, however, is not one in which high wages obtain. the average tannery worker receives a wage which is never much above the level of subsistence. this is mostly due to the fact that he is usually a quite unskilled labourer, and is therefore on the bottom rung of the labour ladder. in addition to this the work itself is often distressingly monotonous, and makes little demand upon the intelligence of the worker. the trade consequently offers little attraction to the intelligent labourer. the old system of apprenticeship is now quite obsolete, partly owing to the rapidity of the changes in the methods of manufacture, partly to the specialization of labour which results from the development of large factories, and partly also, because to understand modern tanning involves a better general education than most workmen receive. it is indeed frequently difficult to find competent under-foremen for the different departments of the modern leather factory. until recently leather workers have been either unorganized or badly organized, and their views and complaints have been confused and sporadic, but during the war period there has been a very rapid extension of trade union movements, and consequently a more articulate expression of the demands for "democratization" as well as "a greater share in the fruits" of the industry. in the leather trades, however, the gulf between the unskilled labourers and the wealthy employers is perhaps unusually wide, and there is little disposition on the part of capital to recognize the equity of either of the above demands of labour. generally speaking, the leather trade firms are not public but private companies. there is absolutely no trace of "co-partnership" or "profit-sharing" schemes, or of co-operative production. there is little recognition that the trades' prosperity should be shared in any way by the workpeople, and still less recognition of any right to a voice in industrial conditions. this condition of affairs has an ominous reaction upon the attitude of labour, which believes that it is producing great wealth but not obtaining much more than subsistence. it is not the function of this volume to pronounce a verdict upon the wages question or upon the democratization of the leather trades, but one may be permitted earnestly to hope that if such be the future lines of development, there will be also, as an absolutely essential part of any such schemes, a much higher standard of education amongst the workers, for this is the only satisfactory guarantee that the voice of labour in council will have any practical value, or that higher wages will be at all wisely used by the recipients. in his instructive and valuable volume on "the evolution of industry," prof. macgregor points out that modern industry has evolved three outstanding types, viz. the co-operative movement, the trusts, and the methods of public trading. he also suggests that these types tend to blend. in the leather industry co-operative and municipal production are unheard of, but the industry has certainly developed along the lines of the large trusts. large businesses have replaced small, and later still have formed local federations, which in turn have combined to form the "united tanners' federation." war conditions have certainly stimulated evolution towards the trust type. the united tanners' federation has become possessed of powers which were not originally contemplated, such as the purchase and distribution to its members of hides, bark, extract, sulphide and other materials. how far some of these arrangements will be permanent is problematical, but one beneficial result is that the allied trades have certainly realized more thoroughly their unity of interests. this is shown by the much freer collaboration of the tanners, and by the encouragement now given to similar collaboration between their chemists. more evidence is found in the proposals for combined research. there is also considerable reason to believe that there is some movement in the direction of partial state control. there is little doubt that evolution along trust lines will make this less difficult and possibly more desirable. the country cannot afford the spectacle of a leather trust permanently at war with a labourers' union. the public has realized that the well-being of the leather industry is vital to the national safety. it has realized that the leather trades are great producers of national wealth, and that increased production with the development of the export trade will materially assist to restore the country's financial position. it has realized also its own right to protection from bad leather and from exorbitant prices. on all these grounds it is probable, though there may be some reaction from the present position, that the state, which has already got its fingers in the pie, will refuse to draw them out altogether. the imperial aspect of the question affords some further justification for this attitude. the leather trades operate very largely upon imported material, and it is clearly desirable that there should be close co-operation between the home industry and the colonial supplies of material. here too the war has also given a great stimulus in this direction. indian myrabolans has long been a staple tanning material. south african wattle bark has during the last few years replaced almost completely, and probably to a large extent permanently, turkish valonia. there has also been great increase in the imports of indian kips and of south african hides, and it is not at all an impossible proposition to maintain a self-contained imperial leather trade, should this be necessary. french chestnut extract, and quebracho extract, however, are much too valuable tanning materials to exclude for merely sentimental reasons. these instances indicate possible advantages in imperial co-operation, but also show the need for caution in the elaboration of such schemes. although a partial, and indeed increasing, measure of state control is probable, there has been as yet no serious proposal to nationalize the leather industry. such a proposition, indeed, is hardly ripe even for discussion. until the nationalization of transport and of mines is a proved success, and until the merely distributive undertakings of the municipalities (_e.g._ of coal and of milk and other foods) are past the experimental stage, any proposition to nationalize the leather trades seems premature. it is noteworthy, however, that in queensland, australia, the government have the right to commence and to administer state tanneries. any progress in the direction either of democratization or of nationalization, has been certainly postponed by the sudden and unprecedented trade slump which commenced in the earlier part of . this depression, in spite of heavy falls in the prices of raw materials, has made economic production a much more difficult problem. it has undoubtedly given a further stimulus to evolution towards the trust type, and created a further tendency towards the closing of the smaller factories, and the employment of labour-saving devices. when the general fall in prices has made an appreciable fall in the cost of living, some reduction in the leather workers' wages, together with more efficient work, will also contribute to the solution of the difficulty. it is chiefly to be desired, however, that the export trade should be restored. the realization of this hope depends largely upon the establishment of peace and prosperity abroad, and the consequent stabilization of the various foreign exchanges. part v.--gelatine and glue. section i.--properties of gelatine and glue many of the chemical properties of gelatine, especially those which distinguish it from other proteins, have been described in the introduction to this volume, and need no further comment. in this section its colloid nature and behaviour will chiefly be considered, for these points have greatest importance from the standpoint of industrial chemistry. it is hoped, moreover, that this section will be of interest not only to the chemist concerned in the manufacture of gelatine and glue, but that it will be of value also to those concerned in leather manufacture. the difference between the "collagen" which composes the hide fibre and the high-grade gelatines is so small that for many practical purposes it may be considered negligible. thus the description of the behaviour of a gelatine gel is very largely applicable to a hide gel also. gelatine has been crystallized by von weimarn by evaporating a dilute solution in aqueous alcohol whilst in a desiccator containing potassium carbonate, the temperature being maintained at °- ° c. the carbonate takes up water only, and the concentration of the alcohol therefore slowly increases until the gelatine is no longer soluble. gelatine is usually found and known in the colloid state, however, and its behaviour in this state only is of practical importance. the fundamental idea of modern colloid chemistry is that colloids are heterogeneous systems, usually two-phased, in which one phase is liquid and the other phase either liquid or solid. the latter phase, which is divided into small separate volumes, is known as the "disperse phase," whilst the other is the "continuous phase" or "dispersion medium." the "dispersity" is the degree to which the reduction of the dimensions of the disperse phase has been carried, and is best expressed numerically in terms of "specific surface," _i.e._ surface area divided by volume, but it is also often expressed as the thickness or diameter of a film or particle. when the dispersity is not high, we have ordinary "suspensions" and "emulsions," which with increasing dispersity merge into the typical colloids. by analogy, colloids have been divided into "suspensoids" and "emulsoids," when the disperse phase is solid and liquid respectively. the classification, however, has not been found satisfactory, for some systems in which the disperse phase is undoubtedly liquid, exhibit characteristic properties of suspensoids, and _vice versâ_. a more satisfactory division, therefore, is found in the presence or absence of affinity between the two phases, the systems being termed "lyophile" and "lyophobe" respectively. if water be the continuous phase the terms "hydrophile" and "hydrophobe" are often used. broadly speaking, the lyophile colloids correspond to the emulsoids, and the lyophobe colloids to the suspensoids. gelatine is a typical hydrophile colloid. another fundamental idea of colloid chemistry is that the great extension of surface involved in a high dispersity causes the surface energy to be no longer a negligible fraction of the total energy of the system, and that the recent advances in knowledge respecting surface phenomena may be called in to assist in the explanation of the special properties of the colloid state. particles which exhibit the brownian movement, about ^(- ) cm. diameter, down to the limit of microscopic visibility ( ^(- ) cm.) are termed _microns_. particles less than this, but just visible in the ultra-microscope ( × ^(- ) cm.) are termed _submicrons_. particles still less, approximately ^(- ) cm., have been shown to exist, and are termed _amicrons_. the dimensions of molecules such as may exist in true solutions are of the order of ^(- ) cm. a colloid sol may contain particles of various sizes. thus a gelatine sol (like other lyophile systems) contains chiefly amicrons, but submicrons are also observable. . the continuous phase owing to the contractile force of surface tension, it is concluded that the surface layer of a liquid is under very great pressure, much greater than the bulk of the liquid. any extension of the surface of the liquid naturally causes a corresponding extension of the proportion of liquid which is thus compressed. if in a beaker of water there be placed a porous substance, such as animal charcoal, there is a great extension of the surface of the water, and a corresponding increase in the amount of compressed water. if instead there be substituted a large number of very small particles of a substance, a still further increase in the amount of compressed water is involved. as the specific surface of the substance inserted is increased, and its amount, the proportion of compressed and denser water increases also, until it is a practically appreciable percentage of the total volume. it is clear also that the extent of the zone of compression will be determined also by the nature of the substance with which the water is in contact at its surface, _i.e._ by the extent to which it is hydrophile, and this indeed may be the more important factor. now in a gelatine sol we have the necessary conditions for a system in which the compressed water bears an unusually large ratio to the total, owing to the enormous surface developed by the minute particles of the disperse phase (amicrons) and to the unusually wide zone of compression surrounding each particle caused by the strongly hydrophile nature of gelatine. it should be pointed out that these zones of compression do not involve any abrupt transition from the zone of non-compression, the layer nearest the particle is under the greatest pressure, and the concentric layers under less and less pressures, the actual compression being thus an inverse function of the distance from the particle. now if there be a gradual increase in the concentration of the sol, the time will come when these zones of compression begin to come in contact, and the system will then show a considerably increased viscosity. with further increase in concentration the zones of compression will overlap throughout the system, and when the layers under considerable pressure are thus continuous, the whole system will acquire a rigidity much greater than water and approaching that of a solid body. this is a gelatine gel, or "jelly." with increasing concentration the jelly becomes increasingly rigid, and if it be eventually dried out under suitable conditions it forms what is practically solid body--gelatine--which, however, still contains from to per cent. of water. it will be clear that, in the case of gelatine jellies (_e.g._ of - per cent. strength), an increase in temperature will cause an increase in the kinetic energy of the particles and effectively reduce the zones of compression. indeed, they may be reduced to such an extent that they are no longer in contact, and the rigidity due to the continuous contact of the layers of great compression will then disappear; as we say usually, the jelly melts. on cooling, the decreased kinetic energy of the water molecules results in the return of the state of compression, with rapidly increasing viscosity and eventual gelation; as we say usually, the jelly sets. neither of these changes takes place at a definite temperature (like a melting-point), and in "melting" (solation) or in "setting" (gelation) the temperature-viscosity curve is quite continuous. by various arbitrary devices, however, approximate melting and setting points may approximately be determined. the results also vary somewhat with the concentration of the gel or sol. gels between and per cent. strong melt about °- ° c. and set at °- ° c. on this view, we must regard a gelatine gel as a continuous network of water under great compression, and in this network are zones of still greater compression, which surround the particles of the disperse phase--the gelatine itself, and zones of less compression which in a weak gel, at any rate, have a compression equal to or much the same as the normal state of compression in water. one consequence of this system is, that when a piece of gelatine swells, there is a considerable enlargement in the zones of compression; in other words, some, at least, of the imbibed water is compressed. now the compression of water means that work is done, and when gelatine swells, therefore, we expect--and actually find--that heat is liberated ( . cal per g. gel). hence also by the le chatelier theorem, we expect--and find--that gelatine swells best in _cold_ water. further, the compression of water involves a decrease in volume, and we therefore expect--and actually find--that the volume of the swollen jelly is appreciably less than the volume of gelatine plus the volume of water imbibed. another consequence of such a compressed system is that a gelatine jelly, even in water, will have a surface tension towards water just as the water itself has such a tension to the water vapour above the liquid. this interfacial tension of the jelly will of course have a contractile effect, and will tend to resist swelling and to limit it as far as it possibly can. this force, tending to contract the jelly and resist imbibition is therefore one of the main influences at work in the swelling of gelatine, and is one of the two principal factors which determine the extent of the maximum swelling when equilibrium is established. the force tending to resist swelling is, in the ultimate, just surface tension. its actual magnitude depends, of course, mainly upon the extent of compression in the dispersion medium of the gel, and will be a resultant which is a function of this compression. the magnitude will thus vary with the average compression in the continuous network of compressed water. it will be obvious that as the jelly swells the power of resisting the swelling will decrease, and the interfacial tension with the external water will tend to disappear. if the force tending to swell were great enough the swelling would continue until the zones of compression were no longer in contact and the gel would become sol. as suggested above, it is probable that the extent of the zones of compression is determined by another factor in addition to the great development of surface. that factor is connected if not identical with that power which makes the system lyophile, and is evidently connected also with the solubility of the disperse phase, and may indeed be electrochemical forces tending to form a series of hydrates, or at least to cause an orientation or definite arrangements of the water molecules in the zone of compression. this idea receives some support from the hydrate theory of solution, and the zones of compression and orientation are the colloid analogue of the hydrates supposed to exist in solutions of electrolytes. the extension of such zones on cooling are then analogous with the series of hydrates formed, for instance, by manganese chloride with , , , , or molecules of water when crystallized at temperatures of °, °, - °, - °, and - ° c. respectively, the idea being that the salts most hydrated in solution crystallize with most water. as the compression is the result of two factors, one of which depends upon the nature of the disperse phase, we expect--and find--in other lyophile systems a considerable variation in their power of gelation. some indeed, though very viscous, _e.g._ egg albumin, never quite set like gelatine, and others (_e.g._ agar-agar) set to a stiff gel from a much weaker sol than gelatine. when the zones of compression are large, as in gelatine, the magnitude of the compressing force on the outermost part of the zone is relatively small, and it is not surprising that time is necessary for the victory of this force over the kinetic energy of the water molecules. hence we find a per cent. jelly sets readily on cooling, but its elasticity increases steadily for many hours after it has set. this phenomenon, known as hysteresis, we should expect--and find--to be much more marked in a case where the zone of compression is unusually large (_e.g._ an agar gel). we should also expect--and find--that hysteresis is more marked in a high-grade gelatine than in a low-grade gelatine where both eventually form gels of equal elasticity. we should expect too--and we find--that hysteresis is more prominent in weak gels than in strong. these points are of obvious importance in testing gelatine by its elasticity, _e.g._ the well-known "finger test." there are also other facts and considerations which have an important bearing upon the point under discussion. it is necessary ultimately to regard true solutions of electrolytes and other bodies as heterogeneous, though perhaps of a rather different order. from this point of view molecules and ions existing in an aqueous solution will present a surface and have associated zones of compression analogous with those suggested for the minute particles of gelatine. now recent investigations have shown that the essential physical properties of water are affected by dissolved substances in a definite manner and to a fixed extent, and that these substances exhibit a sequence in order of their effect. this sequence is also exhibited in the essential properties of water as solvent and as dispersion medium for colloid sols. the sequence is known as the "lyotrope series." thus the numerical value of the compressibility of aqueous solutions is reduced below that of water by salts which, with the same kation, exhibit an effect in the following order:-- co{ } > so{ } > cl > br > no{ } > i this same order is observed, in the effect on the increased values for the surface tension, density and viscosity of these solutions. on the other hand, the kations have a similar sequence of effects, mg < nh{ } < li < k < na < rb < cs which appears when salts of the same anion are chosen. it is not surprising to find that this lyotrope series exhibit an analogous influence on the chemical reactions of water, _e.g._ the hydrolysis of esters. in the hydrolysis by acids so{ } retards the action, the other anions and the kations accelerate it, in the lyotrope order. in the hydrolysis by bases the series is reversed. similarly the lyotrope series exert the same order of effect upon the inversion of cane sugar and other reactions. this lyotrope influence has also been shown to exert considerable effect in the behaviour of lyophile sols. with the lyophobe sols the addition of foreign substances apparently affects the disperse phase only, but with the lyophile sols the effect on the continuous phase is also important, and may overshadow the other. now, in gelatine and in hide gels and tanning sols we are dealing with lyophile systems, and there are many points of behaviour in which lyotrope influences become prominent. similar effects are observed upon other lyophile sols (_e.g._ albumin, agar-agar, etc.) which differ widely in chemical nature. thus the salting out of albumin (reversible precipitation) is influenced by sodium salts in lyotropic sequence as follows. the anions hinder precipitation; in order of precipitating power they are: citrate > tartrate > so{ } > acetate > cl > no{ } > clo{ } > i > cns the sulphates illustrate the kation effect, which is independent and which favours precipitation: li > k > na > nh{ } > mg if the experiments be carried out in faintly acid solution this order of effect is exactly reversed, iodide and thiocyanate having the greatest effect and citrates the least. the coagulation temperature of albumin and the coagulation by other organic substances are similarly influenced by the lyotrope series. lyotrope influence also exerts a powerful effect on the behaviour of gelatine sols and gels. the gelation temperature is influenced thus:-- raised by so{ } > citrate > tartrate > acetate lowered by cl < clo{ } < no{ } < br < i the kation effect (small) is na > k > nh{ } > mg other lyotrope substances raise or lower the temperature thus:-- glucose > glycerol--(h{ }o)--alcohol < urea the effect on gelation is also illustrated by the change of viscosity of the sol with time. the same lyotrope order is found. in the salting out or precipitating of gelatine with salts, the order of anions is lyotrope: so{ } > citrate > tartrate > acetate > cl also the osmotic pressure of gelatine sols is markedly lowered by neutral electrolytes in lyotrope sequence: cl > so{ } > no{ } > br > i > cns similarly lyotrope influences are shown in the modulus of elasticity: substances which favour gelation increase elasticity, whilst substances which favour solation decrease elasticity. the order is again lyotrope. the permeability of the gel is affected by lyotrope influences; alcohol and glycerol reduce diffusion through gelatine (or agar); and urea, chloride and iodide increase it. (similarly the diffusion of sols through "semipermeable" membranes is affected by lyotrope influence.) the lyotrope series also influence the optical activity of gelatine sols and the double refraction of strained gels. the swelling of gelatine (and other gels) is very strongly influenced by the lyotrope substances and merits more attention than it has received. hence this lyotrope influence exerts a profound effect in the manufacture of gelatin, and perhaps even greater in the manufacture of leather. this is only to be expected. if a gel comprise a continuous network of compressed water, as suggested above, the presence of other substances in the gel which cause increases or decreases in the compression must modify accordingly the properties which depend upon this state of compression, such as the viscosity of the melted gel, the rate of gelation, the elasticity of the gel, and the rate and extent of its imbibition. this indeed we find to be the case. now the substances which affect the compressibility, surface tension, etc., of water _least_, _i.e._ the substances producing little or no compression of water, are just those which reduce the compression of water in a gelatine jelly, and cause a decreased viscosity, elasticity, surface tension, etc., and which therefore naturally allow the gel to swell more than in pure water. conversely, the substances which cause the greatest compression of water, the greatest increase in its surface tension and viscosity, are also the substances which increase the compression, viscosity, elasticity, and surface tension of gels, and which therefore hinder imbibition. the effect on swelling is as follows:-- sodium sulphate > tartrate > citrate > acetate; > alcohol > glucose > cane sugar; (water) chlorides-potassium < sodium < ammonium; < sodium chlorate < nitrate < bromide < iodide < thiocyanate < urea. as the amount of compression will depend upon the amount of substance, we expect--and find--that the effect is usually additive, and that suitable mixtures of substances having an effect in the opposite sense will produce no change. the interpretation of lyotrope influence is of course somewhat speculative, but considered as a surface phenomenon, the surface specific of the molecules and ions of the lyotrope substance must be one of the factors involved. one naturally also connects the effect with solubility and the tendency to form hydrates in solution, the zones of compression being zones of orientation and of electrochemical attraction. the hydrate theory of solution again affords an instructive commentary. the fact that, broadly speaking, the polyvalent anions and the monovalent anions also group themselves together, suggests that electrical forces are at work, and the order of effect of monovalent anions almost suggests that what are called "residual valencies" are in operation. it is difficult to resist the conclusion that in the lyotrope influence, in the crystallizing of salts, and in the formation of a gel, we have zones of compression and orientation which are manifestations of the same forces--surface and electrical; the chief differences in the case of gelatine being that the zones are larger and that the electrical effect is perhaps of less definite magnitude. however these things may be, the fact of water compression determines the rigidity of the gel, and the changes in this compression of the continuous phase determine the surface tension resultant which hinders swelling, and which is one of the two main factors fixing both the rate at which gelatine swells in water, and the final volume attained by the gel. before leaving this point, it is desirable to note the effect on the swelling of gelatine of the extremes of this lyotrope influence. substances like iodides, thiocyanates and urea prevent a gelatine sol from setting to a gel at all, and a piece of gelatine in such solutions swells rapidly until it solates. on the other hand, sulphates, tartrates, etc., make a stiffer gel on account of the enhanced compression. gelatine in such solutions may swell, but at a much slower rate than in water and with a decreased maximum extent. a gelatine gel may in such solutions not only fail to swell at all, but actually contract and in some cases, indeed, be practically dehydrated. if a gel be in a very concentrated solution of such a substance, it may be that the lyotrope compression in the external solution is greater than the compression in the dispersion medium of the gel; in which case the surface tension effect is reversed, and the external solution tends to increase in volume and the gel to contract. hence we find that the saturated solutions of such substances as ammonium sulphate and potassium carbonate will dehydrate a gel almost completely, and will also, by a similar action on pelt, make a kind of white leather. it is important to remember this contractile effect of strong solutions of salts, because it is very easy to confuse this effect with a similar result produced in another manner, viz., by a reduction of the force tending to swell. . the disperse phase a very important feature of the colloid state is that the particles of the disperse phase appear to possess an electric charge, and if this charge be removed a colloid sol no longer remains such, but precipitates, flocculates, coagulates, etc. as to the origin of this charge several theories have been advanced, but the most generally accepted is that it is a result of the adsorption of electrically charged ions by the particles of the disperse phase. the enormous specific surface possessed by this phase renders it particularly liable to such adsorption. this view harmonizes well also with the general behaviour, of colloid sols and gels, in endosmosis, kataphoresis, precipitation, etc. according to this point of view the particles of the disperse phase are surrounded by a surface layer in which these ions are in much greater concentration than in the volume concentration of the dispersion medium. the hydrion and hydroxyl ion are particularly liable to such adsorption. in the case of a lyophile colloid, like gelatine, the charge may be either positive or negative, according to the nature of the predominant ions in the dispersion medium, and the amount of adsorption is determined by the concentration of these ions in accordance with the adsorption law. in effect, therefore, the particles of the disperse phase each carry an electric charge of the same nature, and as similarly charged bodies repel one another, the particles of the disperse phase will tend to separate and to occupy a bigger volume. it is the author's opinion that this repulsion of similarly charged particles is the cause of the swelling of gelatine. the amount of charge and force--tending to swell--is due possibly to several ionic adsorptions, which may be considered to operate independently, and the power of repulsion is determined by the nett charge, which in the case of a "positive colloid" is positive, and in the case of a "negative colloid" is negative. as ions possess different electric charges, the charge on the disperse phase is subject to the valency rule. now the repulsive force between two similar and similarly charged bodies is proportional to the amount of charge and is inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. the amount of charge on a colloid particle will be determined by the dispersity--best signified by the specific surface (s)--and by the operation of the adsorption law y = mac^( /n) the distance between the particles varies with the degree of swelling, and is determined by the cube root of the volume of the gel (_v_). hence if f be the force tending to make the gelatine swell, we may write f = q/(d^ ) = (sy)/v^( / ) now with all electrolytes, even with water, we have both positively and negatively charged ions, and y is consequently determined by the difference in the amounts adsorbed. hence in the case of an electrolyte with an equal number of oppositely charged ions y = ma{ }c^( /n{ }) - ma{ }c^( /n{ }), where a{ }, a{ }, and n{ }, n{ }, are the appropriate constants for the particular ions concerned. hence at constant temperature, pressure, etc., we may write f = [ sm( a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }) ) ] / v^( / ) the force tending to make a piece of gelatine swell is proportional to its mass, which is perhaps fairly obvious. the swelling force is also an inverse function of the volume of the gel, and as swelling proceeds therefore the force tending to swell further decreases. the force tending to swell is proportional to the specific surface of the disperse phase, other factors being constant. to illustrate this one has only to imagine that one particle of the disperse phase be split into two particles each carrying half the original charge. it is clear that a new repulsive force becomes operative, which did not before influence the swelling, and that the distance between the particles is halved. in the swelling of gelatine, however, we may consider the dispersity constant for constant temperature, and if we consider unit mass we see that the force causing swelling depends upon the operation of the adsorption law and upon the degree to which the gel is already swollen. in the swelling of (say) one gram of gelatine to its maximum, both the contractile force of surface tension and the expanding force of electrical repulsion are in operation. at the commencement the latter is much the greater force--hence the rapid imbibition. both these forces decrease in magnitude as the swelling proceeds, but the force tending to swell decreases at a more rapid rate, and the time comes when it has decreased to the precise value of the force tending to resist swelling. at this point equilibrium is established and the maximum swelling attained. obviously this maximum will in many cases be determined largely by the value of a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }). this factor, therefore, demands particular consideration. now, unfortunately, the adsorption law constants for the different ions have not yet been numerically determined, so that we are still somewhat in the dark as to the operation of ionic adsorptions. it is possible, however, to form conclusions of a qualitative or relative order, and these are such as to throw much light upon the question at issue. in the first place, we know that in general the various ions are not usually very widely different in the extent to which they are liable to be adsorbed. if this were otherwise, the valency rule would hardly operate so well in endosmosis, kataphoresis, and precipitation. in consequence we must expect the differences between the ions to appear in small rather than in large concentrations, the amounts adsorbed being under those conditions more affected by changes in the volume concentration. at the larger concentrations, therefore, the value of a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }) is small, and the force causing swelling often tends to zero. there are, however, noticeable differences at lower concentrations. thus we know that if a substance be primarily a positive colloid, it will absorb kations more readily than anions. as gelatine falls into this class, we may therefore conclude that usually a{ } > a{ }. further, it often happens that very adsorbable substances are less affected by concentration changes, and in the case under consideration, therefore, we should expect that n{ } > n{ }. moreover, we know that the hydrion and hydroxyl ion are much more readily adsorbed than other ions, _i.e._ have a large value for _a_. hence in the case of gelatine we expect that a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }) will have a comparatively large value when one of the ions is h+ or oh-. also we know that organic anions are usually much more strongly adsorbed than inorganic anions, and hence that in such cases a{ } is more nearly approached by the value of a{ }. it should be emphasized perhaps, at this point, that these various considerations are not based upon any facts relating to the phenomena of imbibition in gels, or in gelatine in particular, but are based upon the behaviour of colloids in endosmosis, kataphoresis, electrolytic precipitation, adsorption, etc. [illustration: fig. .] now if we select a few simple figures which are in accord with the above considerations, we can examine the value of the factor a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }) in a purely illustrative and typical way, and at any rate form some idea as to the manner in which it is likely to vary. the figures might be:-- ion. | _n_. | _a_. -------------------------+---------+--------- hydrion _or_ hydroxylion | | kation of a metal | | organic anion | | inorganic anion | | for the sake of simplicity we can assume that these ions are all monovalent. the ions adsorbed by unit mass will then be c^( / ), etc. if these hypothetical adsorption isotherms be plotted as usual we get the fairly typical curves shown in fig. . now in practice there are always two of these ions, each giving its own specific effect in opposite senses, and the difference ( a{ }c^( /n{ }) - a{ }c^( /n{ }) ) represents the nett charge adsorbed. hence we have the following combinations:-- inorganic acid c^( / ) - c^( / ) organic acid c^( / ) - c^( / ) alkali c^( / ) - c^( / ) inorganic salt c^( / ) - c^( / ) if we plot these values of nett adsorption against the concentration we obtain the curves shown in fig. . [illustration: fig. .] on the assumption that the nett charge adsorbed is the dominant factor in determining the maximum swelling at equilibrium, one must therefore regard the curves of fig. as representing the changes in volume of the swollen gel as the concentration is increased. now in _type_ these curves correspond to those obtained by experiment from hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, caustic soda, and common salt. the maximum swelling with hydrochloric acid increases rapidly with the concentration at first and then rapidly decreases, though not at such a great rate. the swelling with acetic acid increases less rapidly and to a less maximum, but decreases more slowly. with common salt there is a slight swelling followed by contraction. caustic soda gives a rapid increase in volume at first, afterwards much less so, and finally yields an exceedingly slow decrease. the correspondence of these facts with the type-curves inevitably suggests that the phenomenon of swelling might be accounted for, in part at least, along these lines. of course it is not likely that the simple figures selected for the illustration of the argument are either relatively or absolutely correct. thus we know that the adsorption curve for hydrions and hydroxylions are not likely to be quite identical, as assumed above. as gelatin is primarily slightly positive, it is probable that the values of _a_ and of _n_ for hydrion adsorption will be relatively slightly greater. the relative values supposed, however, are near enough to illustrate the contention that the type of the maximum volume curve can be explained on this assumption of different adsorption isotherms for each of the ions. if the remarks on the compression of the continuous phase be recalled, it will be obvious that in the present paragraphs we have been giving the question of equilibrium-volume a rather one-sided consideration. the volume of the gel when equilibrium is established may be determined in type by the nett charge adsorbed by the disperse phase, but it will be modified also by the lyotrope influence of the particular substance on the continuous phase. when gelatine swells in solutions the influences on both phases are always in operation, and either upon occasion may become predominant. in the case of neutral organic substances, such as cane-sugar, the lyotrope influence is the determining factor. in the case of neutral salts the predominant influence is decided by the place occupied by the salts in the lyotrope series. if at either end of the series the lyotrope influence is uppermost and the effect of ionic adsorptions is practically swamped. thus sodium sulphate and sodium iodide hinder and promote imbibition respectively as could be expected from their strong lyotrope power. on the other hand, in the case of sodium chloride, which has comparatively feeble lyotrope influence, the relatively different adsorptions of its ions comes to the fore. with acids and alkalies the relatively large adsorption of the hydrion and hydroxylion causes this to be the predominant influence, but we must concede the possibility that purely lyotrope influences may be at work in some cases, and especially at the greater concentrations. indeed, it is sometimes a difficult problem to decide whether an increase or decrease in swelling is due to lyotrope or adsorptive influence, but, broadly speaking, we can expect strong lyotrope effects at either end of the series and also at large concentrations, and we can expect strong adsorptive effects in dilute solutions, in the middle of the lyotrope series and in the case of alkalies and acids. for much of the above explanation of the nature and behaviour of gelatine, the author must himself take responsibility, and in this section he has freely quoted from his own papers upon the subject (see references). he claims that his view of a gelatine gel as involving a network of compressed water, liable to modification by lyotrope influence upon the continuous phase and by ionic adsorptions of the disperse phase, is most in harmony with the recent advances in our knowledge of colloids; that much of the theory is a necessary corollary of those discoveries; and also that he has found this view to be a sound guide in practice, both in tanning and in gelatine manufacture. many other theories have been advanced, but most are generalizations over too limited a field, and from experiments with only a few substances, and show little or no correlation with the wider facts of colloid behaviour. that of procter, for example, discards altogether the idea of a two-phased structure of the gel as an "unproved and rather gratuitous assumption," dismisses surface tension considerations as "more complicated and less verified," and adsorption as "wholly empirical," whilst it ignores lyotrope influence and the analogy with agar gels completely. procter's theory applies mainly to the swelling of gelatine by acids, which swelling he considers to be due to the osmotic pressure of the anion of a highly ionizable salt formed by the chemical combination of the acid with gelatine. on this assumption, mathematical considerations show that the electric charge on the gelatine is given by the expression z = sqrt( ex + e^ ), where z = the amount of ion taken up, x the concentration of the surrounding solution, and e the excess concentration of diffusible ions in the jelly. the property of gelatine and glue which is chiefly used in classifying them into grades of different commercial value, is the strength of the jelly obtained as compared with any arbitrary standard gelatine. an enormous number of other physical tests have been devised, but none are nearly so simple or so reliable. gelatine is unfortunately very liable to hydrolysis even by water, and long before any amido-acids, etc., have appeared there is a change to a not greatly hydrolyzed product (sometimes called [beta] gelatine) which has lost the power of setting to an elastic gel. it is thus the lyophile nature which has been altered, and the fall in elasticity corresponds to the fall in power of compressing water, which is proportional to the concentration of [alpha] gelatine. now the elasticity of a gelatine gel varies as the square of the concentration. hence if one so arranges the concentrations of standard and unknown samples that gels of equal elasticity are obtained, the concentration of [alpha] gelatine is the same in both gels, and the _relative_ amounts of [alpha] gelatine in the original samples are inversely proportional to the weights used to give gels of equal elasticity. the "strength" of a gelatine or glue is therefore usually stated as the number of grams of a standard gelatine which will yield a gel with elasticity equal to that from grams of the gelatine or glue being tested. elasticity is matched by lightly pressing with the finger-tips. it is also possible to grade samples of gelatine and glue by the estimation of "peptones," whose amount indicates the degree of hydrolysis. nitrogen is estimated by kjeldahl's method in the sample and in the precipitate obtained by saturating a solution with zinc sulphate. the difference is calculated as peptones by multiplying by . . trotman and hackford say that the results are in the same sequence as those of the finger test. the method, however, is much more laborious than the "finger test." gelatine is also graded according to the results of bleaching and clarifying, but with quite arbitrary standards, largely determined by the fancy of the customer. chemical analyses, involving estimations of ash, lime, fat, acid, water, insoluble matter, and poisonous metals, _e.g._ arsenic, copper, zinc and lead, are of value for special cases according to the destiny of the goods. special physical tests, such as "breaking strain" and "foam test," are also of some little value in special cases. references. "the chemistry of colloids," w. w. taylor. . "handbook of colloid chemistry," w. ostwald. . "chemistry of colloids," zsigmondy and spear. . "introduction to the chemistry and physics of colloids," e. hatschek. "surface tension and surface energy," willows and hatschek. "chemistry of colloids," v. pöschl. "grundzüge d. dispersoid chemie," von weimarn. "the lyotrope series and the theory of tanning," bennett, j.s.l.t.c., , p. . "the swelling of gelatine," bennett, j.s.l.t.c, , p. . "the swelling of gelatine," procter, _j.c.s. trans._, , = =, ; and _koll. chem. beihefts_, , = =, . "the swelling of gelatinous tissues," procter, j.s.c.i., april , . "summary of procter's views, and bibliography," collegium (london), p. , . "lyotrope influence and adsorption in the theory of wet work," bennett, j.s.t.c., , p. . for the "finger test," see-- "glue and glue testing," rideal, nd ed., p. . "leather trades' chemistry," trotman, p. . section ii.--raw materials and preliminary treatment the raw materials for the manufacture of gelatine and glue may be classified according to their origin. the preliminary treatment, which comprises chiefly purifying and cleansing operations, is varied according to type of manufacturing process for which it is a preparation. in the case of hide or =skin gelatine=, the raw material is a bye-product of the leather industry. after the hides or skins have passed through the preparatory processes which convert them into "pelt" (see part i., section ii.), they are so trimmed that all that is left will make a useful leather. these "trimmings" or "roundings" include ears and noses, the udders of cows and heifers, and also include parts from the butt, belly and shanks which are collectively termed "pieces." the operation of fleshing (part i., section ii.), in which fat and flesh are cut from that side of the hides and skins which was next the flesh, also involves cutting into the collagen to some extent, and these "fleshings" comprise another very large class of raw material. the fleshings obtained by hand labour contain distinctly more hide substances than those obtained by machine work, and their commercial value to the gelatine manufacturer is of course proportionate to the collagen content. some hides and skins are split in the pelt (part i., section ix.; part ii., sections ii., iii. and iv.), and the "flesh split," though sometimes made into leather, is also used in making gelatine, a high quality being obtained from such material. minor sources of material are tendons and cartilages, and also hides and skins which have been too much damaged by partial putrefaction or by accidents to make sound leather. of course the material from the hides for heavy leathers form the greater bulk of raw material for skin gelatine which is thus derived principally from ox hides but sheep and goat skin pieces have also an important place. the skins of other animals, such as dogs, cats, hares and rabbits not usually made into leather can also be depilated and used for making skin gelatine and glue. horse hide fleshings and pieces are sometimes used, but are notorious for the poor quality of their product. they seem to contain less [alpha] gelatin. all these materials are of course readily putrescible and must be put "into work" without much loss of time. when it is impossible to convey them from the tannery to the gelatine factory quickly enough, _e.g._ foreign material, the "glue stock" is dried out completely and sold in that condition. in the manufacture of pickers from limed pelt there is some superfluous material, and this is cut into shavings and dried. this "picker waste" also forms a useful source of raw material. skin gelatine material is not very strong in gelatine-substance. the fleshings, pieces, etc., contain much water, even up to per cent. this, however, is very variable, and only a practical test or a hide substance determination can indicate the commercial value of any particular material. this value, moreover, is determined not only by the yield and quality of the gelatine which can be obtained, but also by the yield of grease, the valuable bye-product. the preliminary treatment of material for skin gelatine consists essentially of liming and of washing. the object of each process is to purify. liming has much the same action on hide pieces, etc., as on hides, and indeed the liming treatment is somewhat superfluous on cuttings from well-limed hides. the material is plumped up and the partially hydrolyzed products are taken into solution. lime also acts as mild antiseptic, stops any putrefaction and liberates ammonia formed by fermentation in transit to the factory. when plumping is particularly wanted (as in wetting in dry stock) caustic soda is sometimes used as an assistant (_cf._ dried hides). sodium sulphide has also been used for this purpose. the liming is in brick pits, an excess of undissolved lime being always used. it is advantageous frequently to disturb or agitate the goods in the lime pits. up to ten weeks liming has sometimes been given, but about three weeks is now generally considered sufficient, and the tendency is to shorten the time. the lime and soda have also a detergent action on soiled stock, and they probably assist in hydrolyzing the pigments of the hair roots and sheaths. they also saponify and emulsify the grease, and it is obvious, therefore, that liming can be carried too far. slaked lime, of course, must always be used. after liming the soaked, softened and plumped stock is washed as thoroughly as possible. to do this it is necessary to supply repeated batches of clean cold water. some manufacturers, however, use the warm water from the evaporators. wooden vats or brick pits with arrangements for agitation, for draining off and for inspection, are used for this purpose. the agitation may be carried out by means of revolving shafts or drums with projecting curved spokes or vanes. an american patent (hoeveler's glue stock washer) involves the use of a paddle wheel. it is combined with a settling tank to gather particles of stock. in the washing the chalk, excess lime, dirt, etc., are quickly removed and a slow deliming process is commenced. the sediment from the washers and wash waters has some value in making fertilizers. deliming cannot be carried on further than certain limits by water alone. hence acid is often added to finish off the process. hydrochloric acid has the advantage of forming soluble salts, but if they are not removed completely their lyotrope influence is to weaken the gelatine. sulphuric and sulphurous acids are even cheaper, and the lyotrope influence of their salts is in the opposite sense. the latter also has the advantage of destroying sulphides, an important advantage for food gelatines. whatever acid is used, however, it is evident that an abundance of pure cold water is the fundamental requirement of a pure product. it is a sound maxim in gelatine manufacture to avoid, if at all possible, the addition of any soluble substance, for it is always present in a more concentrated state in the finished article. thus if its solubility be even moderate, one is likely to attain supersaturation in the "cake" and consequently a dull product. further, lyotrope influences can never strengthen a gel very much, but may and often do weaken it very considerably. hence the aim of most manufacturers in the preliminary treatment is so to delime that a nearly neutral and salt-free product is obtained. an exception is the case of skin gelatine in which excess of sulphurous acid is used. this process has for its object not only deliming and purifying, but also a bleaching action. in the case of =bone gelatine=, the raw material is such that there are much longer and more elaborate preparatory processes. this arises from the fact that about half the bones of animals consists of mineral matter, chiefly calcium phosphate. bones, of course, vary in composition to some extent, and those from younger animals contain distinctly less of the mineral constituents. approximately speaking, bones have the following average composition:-- gelatinous matter - / per cent. fat - / " " calcium phosphate " " calcium carbonate " " alkali salts, silica, etc. - / " " water - / " " -------- " " it will be seen, therefore, that the manufacture of bone gelatine and of a comparatively large proportion of phosphate involves the recovery and purification of much fatty matter. the manufacturing processes are naturally subject to considerable variation. one respect in which they differ is the stage in which grease is removed. sometimes this is simply done as the need and occasion arise, and it is skimmed out in the acid or water extractions, but it is now more usual to have a special "degreasing" process. there are, moreover, two quite distinct types of manufacture. in one of these (the boiling process) the routine bears some resemblance to that for skin gelatine. in this process the bones are washed and cleansed and then immediately subjected to extraction with water. this removes the gelatinous matter and leaves the phosphate and earthy matters behind. grease may be removed before the water extraction, but is also sometimes removed by skimming off during the extraction, as is usual in the case of skin gelatine. this procedure is now not much favoured unless only a low-grade glue is required. in the other type of manufacture (the acid process) the material is first degreased, and then the mineral matter is extracted or dissolved by acids, leaving the gelatinous matter behind for subsequent refinement and solution. the acid process has long been preferred for high-class bone gelatine, and hence needs further discussion. the degreasing operation was once brought about by steaming only, but is now accomplished with the assistance of fat solvents. the object of cleansing is not only to remove dirt, but also fleshy matter which often adheres to the bones. this may contain a little gelatine, but consists mainly of other proteins and insoluble fibre, neither of which are wanted in the water extraction. the mill consists of a large cylinder of stout wire gauze. this revolves round the axis of the cylinder, and the bones are fed in at one end by a hopper and are discharged at the other. the revolution of the mill causes the friction which polishes off the fleshy matter. the dirt and flesh fall through the gauze and are sent to the fertilizer factory. the polishings are sometimes further separated by a similar machine. raw bones may thus yield nearly per cent. of degreased bones, and about per cent. cleansed bones ready for extraction, and or per cent. "bone meal." the next stage is the extraction of the mineral matters by acid, for which purpose hydrochloric acid has proved very suitable, as both phosphate and carbonate of lime are dissolved by it. the usual counter-current system of extraction is used [_cp._ leaching and extract manufacture, part i., section iii., p. ]. the process is methodical and regular, the acid liquor passing successively through a battery of six vats in such a manner that the liquor richest in lime salts comes into contact with the bones most recently charged; the fresh acid thus acts upon the nearly extracted bones. the hydrochloric acid used is of to per cent. strength ( ° to ° bé.). stronger acid is apt to hydrolyze ("rot") the gelatine, whilst weaker acid takes longer time. the process takes to days, though up to days is sometimes given, and, on the other hand, the process has been occasionally reduced to days. the gelatinous matter undissolved has the shape of the original bone, but is much swollen. when the acid liquor is saturated with lime salt, the liquor is drawn off from below the vats and sent to the phosphate precipitation tanks. the phosphate is usually precipitated by adding just sufficient milk of lime to neutralize the hydrochloric acid. the precipitated phosphate is then well washed by decantation to remove calcium chloride. it is then drained, and dried at a low temperature. as a large bulk of phosphate is obtained it is often filter-pressed and dried quickly in long revolving chambers through which a current of air is passed. the phosphate is sometimes also precipitated by ammonia. it is then more easily washed and dried, and the ammonium chloride is recovered and may be used to regenerate ammonia, or be sold as a valuable bye-product. sometimes the acid liquor is not used for making precipitated phosphate, but is evaporated with animal charcoal and silica and then distilled to make phosphorus. the next stage is the purification by washing of the gelatinous matter which remains. the vat is filled up with pure cold water and the material allowed to steep for six or seven hours. the acid and salts remaining diffuse outwards into the water. this is drained off and replaced by fresh water, and the procedure repeated half a dozen times or as often as necessary. the end is said to be determined by the absence of a precipitate on adding silver nitrate to the wash water, or by the absence of any action on blue litmus paper. it will be seen, however, that there are two actions involved, one being the removal of calcium chloride and the other the removal of excess acid. the former is the easier, and is almost necessarily brought about by the latter. hence in some factories the neutralization is brought about, therefore, by the addition of a certain quantity of soda, or more usually by lime, and the material is sometimes submitted to a veritable liming by which it remains in milk of lime for about three weeks, the lime liquor being renewed several times. the product is finally washed again to remove excess lime. this is carried out in a rotating vessel through which passes a continuous stream of water. if a slightly acid gelatine is required, however, the lime and liming are both superfluous, and the procedure is simply to wash as thoroughly as possible and then to immerse the material in a per cent. sulphurous acid solution for hours to bleach, and then to proceed with the water extraction or solution of the gelatine. the hydrochloric acid used for these processes should be as pure as possible, and the degreasing as thorough as possible, for, if not, a gelatine with a bad odour is liable to be obtained. instead of using hydrochloric acid for the solution of mineral matter, sulphurous acid is sometimes employed, and has the advantages that its bleaching effect is thereby obtained throughout the process, and that it is recoverable for subsequent use. the bergmann process, most generally favoured, is described very concisely by rideal thus: "a sulphurous acid solution is made to circulate over the bones in a series of closed tanks, the solution being continually enriched with sulphurous acid from a cylinder of the liquefied gas. the resulting liquor, containing an acid calcium phosphate and calcium bisulphite, is heated by steam in a leaden digestor, when the excess of sulphurous acid is liberated and passes back to the tanks, while neutral calcium phosphate and sulphite are precipitated. the latter is decomposed by an equivalent of hydrochloric acid, setting free the remaining sulphurous acid, which is returned to the tanks, leaving calcium chloride in solution, and neutral calcium phosphate in suspension." not more than per cent. of sulphurous acid is said to be lost in this process, and the gelatine is more thoroughly bleached. it is subsequently well washed before extraction. =recovery and purification of grease.=--the degreasing operation, which is applied usually to bones and to skin glue scutch, was once brought about by steaming only, but is now accomplished with the assistance of fat solvents, though in the latter case steaming together with mechanical centrifugal force has proved sufficiently successful. on the continent carbon disulphide was once largely used as solvent, and in this country benzene has been employed, but their low volatility and high inflammability, as well as their expense, make both these substances somewhat unsuitable, and it is now usual to make use of petroleum oils, whether scotch, american or russian. a fraction which boils about the same temperature as water is usually employed, and all of it must be volatile under ° f. before the actual grease extraction the bones should be sorted over and unsuitable substances (horns, gravel, iron, etc.) removed. they are also usually put through a mill and roughly crushed or broken. the actual grease extraction plant consists of large copper vessels which will each take tons of bones. these extractors are arranged in sets so that the degreasing is proceeding in some whilst the others are being emptied and recharged. the doors for charging and emptying must be securely fastened. when the extractor is charged the solvent is run in and heated by a steam coil which eventually causes it to distil. after some hours the remainder, which has dissolved much grease, is run off, and a fresh lot of solvent is added and heated up. after four such extractions only about / per cent. of grease remains in the bones. to remove the remainder of the solvent high-pressure steam ( lbs.) is blown through the bones. the extractor is then opened and the degreased and somewhat dried bones are mechanically conveyed to the cleansing mill. the grease solutions obtained are subjected again to steam with a view to removing the solvent and obtaining it for repeated use in this sense. the efficient distillation and recovery of the solvent is indeed an essential element in the success of the process. the greases obtained, whether by the use of fat solvents or by skimming off during extraction, or in any other way, are mixed together as is appropriate to their origin and purity, and subjected to further purification, the object of which is to remove gelatinous and albuminous matters, and to decompose lime or soda soaps. the precise methods of purification are, of course, dependent mainly upon the impurities known to be present, but the readiest method is to give the grease further steaming or boiling with water, and so effect by washing and by solvent action the elimination of non-fatty matters. in many cases it is found advantageous to employ mineral acids or oxidizing agents to assist the process. the process may be repeated as often as is desired. the recovered and purified greases are often of a high standard of purity, and the best are quite fit for edible purposes. the large extension of the margarine industry in this country has indeed caused a larger proportion than ever of this bye-product to be so used. in some cases it is found commercially advantageous to submit the grease to action of the filter press, and so to separate it into solid and liquid portions, the former containing a much larger proportion of stearin, and the latter of olein. much of the grease from the gelatine trade is also found suitable for soap manufacture, and is therefore a valuable source of glycerine. =other raw materials.=--whilst hide pieces and fleshings, and animal bones, comprise the principal raw material for the manufacture of gelatine and glue, there are also minor sources of raw material which, though often not suitable for gelatine manufacture, will yield a satisfactory glue. thus the skins, bladders and bones of fish form the source of "fish glue." sole skins, indeed, when deodorized by chlorine and decolorized by animal charcoal, are made into gelatine. the bladders of some fish (_e.g._ the sturgeon) are washed, purified and dried with rolling to make "isinglass," a form of natural gelatine in which the original fibrous structure is retained. there is a limited demand for this material for clarifying purposes by brewers, wine merchants and cooks. leather waste may sometimes be used to make a low-grade glue. vegetable-tanned leather offers much difficulty unless very lightly and recently tanned. the tannage must be stripped by drumming with weak alkalies, _e.g._ borax, sodium sulphite, or weak soda. chrome leather may be stripped easily and completely by rochelle salt and other salts of hydroxy acids (procter and wilson), and also by ammonia acetate, oxalate and similar salts (bennett), also by certain organic acids (lamb). processes are patented by which chrome leather is digested with lime to make glue, the chromium hydrate being insolubilized. viscous and tenacious substances are also obtained from some vegetable matters and are called "glue." references. "glue and glue testing," s. rideal, d.sc., nd ed.; skin gelatine and glue, pp. - ; bone gelatine and glue, pp. - . "gelatine, glue and their allied products," t. lambert, pp. - . "encyclopedie chimique," fremy, tome x. section iii.--extraction the term "extraction" is applied to that essential process by which the gelatinous matter from whatever raw material is used, is actually dissolved in water and removed from the rest of the material. extraction is often termed "boiling" or "cooking." whether one is treating hide fleshings and pieces or whether one is dealing with raw or acidulated bones, the general principles of extraction are much the same, and most of this section is equally applicable to any class of material. the chief principle of extraction is so to arrange the process that both the material and the extracted liquor are maintained at high temperatures for the shortest possible time. as we have observed, gelatine is readily hydrolyzed by hot water, and as hot water is needed for its extraction or solution, care must be taken to remove the solution as soon as possible from the source of heat. in practice this can only be done somewhat imperfectly, as it is necessary to obtain a gelatine sol of several per cent. strength before removing it from the extraction vessel. the stronger this sol is made before removal, the less the time, trouble and expense is incurred in evaporation subsequently, but the more is the exposure to heat with consequent weakening of the gelatine. hence in practice it is necessary to compromise. the matter is complicated further by the necessity of obtaining a clear sol, for which it is desirable that the sol obtained in extraction should not be too concentrated, as impurities settle and filter much more readily from weaker and less viscous sols. it will be understood, therefore, that whatever material is being extracted, the most favoured procedure is to extract in fractions. the first fraction, which is least exposed to hydrolytic decomposition, produces the highest quality products, and the subsequent fractions (nearly always two more, and sometimes several) yield products which gradually become of inferior quality owing to the number of times the raw material has been re-heated. within limits, the precise temperature of extraction does not have the importance one would expect. lambert suggests the temperature of ° f. as suitable for both skin and bone gelatine, and most manufacturers would, on the whole, endorse this. if, however, a higher temperature be preferred, the hydrolytic action is increased in intensity but decreased in its time of operation, whilst if a lower temperature be adopted the decomposition is retarded in speed, but is increased in totality because of the longer time needed to obtain a suitable strength of liquor. thus, with care, much the same result is obtained by extraction at near boiling-point for a short time as by extraction at ° f. for a long time. the higher temperatures have the definite advantage of speed, whilst the lower temperatures have the advantage that one may choose to be satisfied with a weaker extract, and so gain a little in the strength of the gel, by throwing more work on the evaporator. one other point should, however, be borne in mind in this connection, viz. that a gelatine sol kept at temperatures above ° f. begins to deteriorate in colour. whilst, therefore, much depends upon the precise class of material, it is broadly true to say that the higher temperatures are advantageous for glue, whilst the lower temperatures are preferable for the highest quality gelatine. extraction in open vats is used both for skin and bone gelatine. it is usually preferred when it is intended to extract at the lower temperatures, and it is usually adopted also when the material is such that the extraction is comparatively rapid, as for example in the case of skin gelatine and bones by the acid process. the vats themselves are often constructed of wood, in which case they are heated by a copper (or brass) steam coil. they may be constructed also of iron, cast or wrought, the former being cheaper, less liable to corrosion, but more liable to fracture. in the case of iron vessels the heating may also be done by a steam coil beneath a false bottom, but it is sometimes arranged that iron vats are heated by a steam jacket, and even by a hot-water jacket. heating in either wood or iron vessels has been brought about by direct application of raw steam, but the results are both uncertain and unsatisfactory owing to local overheating. whatever appliances are used agitation of the material or liquor is advantageous. extraction in closed vats is also used. this is generally associated with extraction at higher temperatures, and more often also with the manufacture of glue than of gelatine. it has been used on the continent for skin glue, and in this country for bone gelatine and glue by the "boiling" process. in this system of working the vessels are usually made of / -inch steel plates, and will take a charge of to tons of material. it is claimed for the system that there is a lessened steam consumption as well as lesser manipulation, that strong liquors are more easily and quickly obtained, and that the material may be more thoroughly exhausted. extraction is sometimes made by steam and water playing alternately on the material, but many manufacturers prefer the use of direct steam, keeping the pressure at lbs. for about hours. the pressure is then reduced considerably and the process finished off by spraying the material with water. from such a procedure a per cent. glue sol may be obtained. it is common to work such extractors in couples or in batteries of four to six. it will be readily understood that the process is suitable for making bone glue when the phosphate has not been dissolved. the high temperature is in this case almost necessary to ensure thorough extraction. it will be equally clear that the process is not so suitable in the manufacture of a strong gel. as alternatives to the systems of fractional extraction, several processes have been devised in which the extraction is continuous. amongst these is the tower system, in which the material is placed upon a series of perforated shelves arranged inside a steam-tight cylinder or tower. water is admitted from the top and trickles down over the material whilst steam is admitted from the bottom. superheated steam is sometimes used. the material may thus be digested with a minimum amount of water, and the sol passes out of the apparatus and from the action of heat soon after it is formed. from bones the sol obtained is of good colour, but is somewhat dull. several variants of this process have been patented. another continuous system of extraction is that involving the use of the archimedean screw. the material is fed into one end of a cylinder carried along and discharged at the other end by the screw. the cylinder is of metal gauze and is steam jacketed. (lehmann's patent, .) continuous systems, involving a battery of digestors connected by pipes, have also been devised. arrangements are made of course for admitting water and steam as required. references. "glue and glue testing," by s. rideal, d.sc., nd ed., pp. - and . "gelatine, glue and their allied products," by t. lambert, pp. - , , - , and . "encyclopedie chimique," fremy, tome x., p. . patents. edison: u.s.a. patent, , . bertram: english patent, , . dorenburg: german patent, , . lehmann: french patent, , . section iv.--clarification and decolorization after the raw material has been appropriately prepared and an aqueous extract or gelatine sol obtained therefrom, there are certain refinements necessary before the weak sol is evaporated. these purifying processes include ( ) clarification, ( ) decolorization, and ( ) bleaching. whilst most manufacturers have more or less successfully solved the problems involved in these processes, the practical methods that are in common use have been evolved and elaborated in a purely empirical way, and the underlying principles have been very imperfectly recognized, and indeed often confused and misunderstood. hence it is even yet not uncommon to find these terms rather loosely used, and it is one aim of this section to define and distinguish these various operations in principle as well as in practice. clarification consists essentially in the removal of suspended matters, with the consequent production of a sol or gel which is bright, clear, and apparently homogeneous. bleaching consists essentially in destroying the colouring matters of the sol by chemical action, such as oxidation or reduction. decolorization involves the removal rather than the destruction of colouring matters, and does not therefore imply a chemical action in the ordinary sense. clarification may be now considered more particularly. it is necessary in this connection to consider what is meant by "suspended matter." the modern view is that the difference between a true solution and a muddy liquor or an emulsion is one chiefly of degree. if the particles of matter in suspension or emulsion (the disperse phase) be reduced in size they eventually merge into colloidal sols which are sometimes analogously named "suspensoids" and "emulsoids," if further reduced in size into "suspensides" and "emulsides," and with further reduction into true solutions. on this view not only suspensions and emulsions, but also sols, solutides and solutions are all heterogeneous. now in practice the clarifying of a gelatine sol involves only the removal of the particles which are evident to sight. what is needed is that the product should make a sol or gel which to the naked eye appears to be optically clear both to reflected and to transmitted light. if desired, the limit could be expressed in terms of dispersity or specific surface. now it is a comparatively easy matter to remove the coarser substances which often pass into the sol, _e.g._ undissolved portions of raw material or the insoluble portions, such as the hair, the grain (hyaline layer), and the elastic fibres of skin gelatine material, and the fibres which even remain in extracting acidulated bones. a more difficult proposition is the removal of still finer particles which may be almost said to be in colloidal solution, but which at any rate are so large that they cause a visible opalescence or even a turbidity of the gelatine sol. a more difficult task also is the removal of minute particles of grease, which are an exceedingly common cause of turbidity and which are often very effectively emulsified in the sol. now at this stage it is necessary to point out that besides the difference in the size of the particles of the disperse phase, there is another important difference involved, viz. that the particles of a colloid sol carry an electric charge owing to the adsorption of electrically charged ions of the electrolytes (salts, acids or alkalies) present. if this charge be removed the colloid is precipitated (coagulated, flocculated) and is then filtered off with comparative ease. this precipitation can be brought about by a reduction or elimination of the potential difference between the disperse phase and the continuous phase. the electric charge given by the adsorbed ions may be reduced by dilution, for dilution causes a lessened adsorption of the charging ions. hence the well-known practical fact that it is more satisfactory to filter a dilute gelatine sol. further, the electric charge may be reduced also by causing the adsorption of an ion of opposite charge. this is the principle underlying the precipitation (of any colloid) by adding electrolytes. it is essential here to consider which ions are most likely to be adsorbed, and also to bear in mind what charge they carry. now the hydrion (h+) of acids and the hydroxyl ion (oh-) of alkalies are most strongly adsorbed, so that to precipitate a negative sol, acid is very effective, whilst with a positive sol an alkali is an appropriate precipitant. further, it is known that organic ions are usually more strongly adsorbed, hence when precipitating from an alkaline sol (negative sol), one should preferably select an inorganic or mineral acid rather than an organic acid. thus in clarifying an alkaline gelatine sol, hydrochloric or sulphuric acid is to be preferred to acetic or lactic acid. again, it is necessary to remember that a divalent ion carries twice the charge of a univalent ion, hence the precipitating power of an electrolyte depends upon the valency of the ion whose electric charge is opposite to that on the sol (hardy's valency rule). thus a negative sol is most easily precipitated by a monobasic acid. thus hydrochloric acid is better than sulphuric, on account of the stabilizing effect of the divalent so{ }-- ion on a negative sol. in such a sol, also, the valency rule indicates that the multivalent kations, _e.g._ iron, fe+++; chromium, cr+++; and aluminium, al+++, should have great precipitating and clarifying effect. this of course is known to be the case, aluminium salts having long been used. the rule indicates, also, that aluminium chloride would be better than the sulphate or than potash alum. another feature of precipitation worthy of mention is the phenomenon of "acclimatization." this describes the fact that when the precipitating reagent is added very slowly, or a little at a time, a larger amount must be used, and the slower the addition the greater the excess required. hence in precipitating matters from an alkaline gelatine sol the acid, if practicable, should be added all at once. in any case it is clear that one should aim at filtering a gelatine sol when it is near the iso-electric point, which is stable enough for gelatine itself, but a point of instability for many undesired impurities. yet another phenomenon of colloid chemistry is concerned, viz. "protection." the particles it is desired to precipitate not only adsorb ions of electrolytes, but also the gelatine sol itself, and the particles, thus covered by a layer of a stable emulsoid sol, attain much of the stability of this gelatine sol. unfortunately for gelatine manufacturers, gelatine possesses very great powers as "protective colloid," and this no doubt greatly enhances the practical difficulty of obtaining a clear and bright sol or gel. here again dilution of the sol reduces the adsorption and correspondingly reduces, to some extent, the difficulty. with regard to the turbidity or opalescence in a gelatine sol due to minute globules of grease, the case presents some analogy to the coarser colloid solutions, but the analogy has its limits, for an emulsion of grease is not an emulsoid sol. doubtless the grease globules exhibit adsorptive phenomena, in which case the valency rule comes into force; the gelatine, also, by lowering interfacial tension, assists in protecting the emulsion; but grease emulsions are certainly stabilized in alkaline media (hence the detergent effect of soap, soda, borax, etc.), and it is undoubtedly easier to separate the emulsion by making the medium acid. hence the practical fact that an acid sol is more easily clarified from grease than an alkaline or even than a neutral one. the next stage in clarification is the separation of precipitated matters and of the coalesced particles of grease. this may be attained by the two processes usual in such a problem of chemical engineering, viz. sedimentation and filtration. after precipitation, therefore, the sol should be allowed to stand for some hours, during which time the precipitate not only flocculates but also settles to the bottom, and the globules of grease coalesce further and rise to the top, from which they may be skimmed off. sedimentation alone is both too slow and too incomplete to be sufficient for proper clarification, and in these days it is always supplemented by the use of the filter-press. this well-known appliance can easily be adapted to the local requirements of the manufacturer. as speed of working is an essential requirement it is necessary to have a large filtering surface, and this may be done either by increasing the number of plates in the press or by increasing the area of the plates used. the large plates, however, are often cumbrous and inconvenient, and if of metal are very heavy. the plates may be constructed of well-seasoned wood, or in the case of alkaline gelatine and glues, even of iron. the framework is in any case usually iron. acid gelatines and glues may have wooden plates, but "acid-proof" alloys are sometimes used to make them. where it is essential to filter quickly two presses may be arranged _in parallel_, thus doubling the active filtering surface. when it is essential to obtain the highest possible clarity, two presses may be worked _in series_, which, in effect, means that the sol is filtered twice. in using the filter press for gelatine and glue it is most necessary to observe the most scrupulous cleanliness, and the plates must be frequently washed and sterilized. rideal recommends weak chlorine water or bleaching powder solution for this purpose. the process of _decolorization_, by which colouring matters are removed without being chemically altered or destroyed, usually precedes or takes place concurrently with the filtration. the underlying principle of this operation is adsorption. the colouring matters are usually in colloidal solution and most frequently are emulsoids, hence they are substances which are known to be exceedingly susceptible to positive adsorption. it is probable, also, that in a gelatine sol are particles which cause turbidity, though not coloured, and which are capable of being adsorbed. hence the adsorption of colouring matters not only makes the sol more colourless, but in all probability makes it brighter and clearer. further, decolorization by adsorption probably also involves the removal of the last traces of emulsified grease. it will be clear, therefore, that in the improvement in brightness and colour of a gelatine sol, adsorption fulfils a triple usefulness. the ordinary processes of dyeing fabrics or leather are adsorption processes, and the decolorization of gelatine sols consists essentially of the same process, except that the concentration of the dyestuff is much less, and the liquor remaining, instead of the adsorbent, is the primary consideration. decolorization of gelatine sols may be effected by any substance with a large specific surface. indeed, a great variety of adsorbents are actually used in practice, and each factory has its favourite material or mixture, and its favourite mode, place, and time of application, determined partly by the nature of the adsorbent and partly by the precise form of apparatus used. amongst the adsorbents which have received special favour are sand, kieselguhr, asbestos, animal charcoal, wood pulp fibre, albumin and alumina. sand is very effective, but a comparatively large weight is needed, and its cleansing for repeated use is troublesome. on the other hand, it may be completely renovated by ignition. kieselguhr is a very powerful adsorbent, and only a little will do much good; it is, however, hardly sufficient alone. animal charcoal has great specific surface, but its pores are very small for viscous liquors, and its use is less suitable in the case of gelatine than in the decolorization of liquors which may be boiled. wood pulp fibre is a very popular decolorizing material, not only in gelatine but also in other trades. its short, woolly fibres give a clarifying as well as a decolorizing effect. it may thus act as a mechanical filter for suspended matter and grease, as well as an adsorbent for colouring matters present as sols. its two functions, however, are often confused. it may be regenerated for repeated use by careful washing, and special pulp-washing machines are manufactured and sold for the purpose. detergents are usually employed in the wash waters. asbestos is also a good adsorbent, and its long fibres make it much less liable to non-operating "channels" and "bursts." it also has the advantage that, if desired, it may be regenerated by ignition. it forms a very useful mixture with pulp fibre. all the above decolorizing materials are insoluble and hydrophobe, and act in virtue of their finely divided conditions, which causes them to have a large specific surface; but there is another type or branch of substances, whose effect is due to surface action of rather a different type. these are the hydrophile gels. in a gelatine sol the colloid particles have largely adsorbed the colouring matters which it is desired to remove. this adsorption, which is after all only an equilibrium, is reduced by introducing another very strong adsorbent. this latter, by adsorption from the continuous phase, reduces the adsorption of colouring matters by the gelatine particles. in the case under discussion another lyophile colloid is introduced, and after bringing about such an action is removed by appropriate means. the use of albumin has long been known for such a purpose, its special advantage being that after its admixture and adsorptive action, it may easily be removed by raising the temperature above ° c., when coagulation takes place, and by subsequent mechanical filtration. the coagulated albumin takes down the adsorbed colouring matters. albumin has been used in this way not only for gelatine and glue liquors, but also for tanning extracts (part i., section iii.) and other commercial preparations. into this class of decolorizing agents fall the insoluble inorganic gels which have been advocated by w. gordon bennett, _e.g._ alumina cream. freshly precipitated alumina hydrate is a colloid gel with very considerable adsorptive powers. it has also the advantage that it is quite insoluble, easily removed in filtration, and has a powerful adsorptive action upon other objectionable impurities, especially the poisonous metals, arsenic, copper, zinc and lead. its use is an undoubted advantage when in addition to the other clarifying agents and adsorbents. it is conceivable, in some cases, that when alum is employed as clarifying agent in an alkaline gelatine liquor, some alumina may be formed, and as such contribute to the total effect. section v.--bleaching the adsorption law indicates that however much colouring matter is removed from the volume concentration (continuous phase) there must always be some left. after all that the decolorization processes can do, there still remains much colour that can only be removed by a chemical action of the ordinary sense. the amount of colouring matter of this kind is not large, but it is a deep red-brown, and when the gelatine sol has been evaporated and dried out the final product, if untreated, possesses this typical colour, and is known as glue. if, before gelation, a chemical bleaching action is applied to destroy this pigment, the product may be then dried out in a nearly colourless condition and is known as gelatine. gelatine, therefore, is simply bleached glue. many other definitions have been given, and many elaborate distinctions drawn, but the fact of bleaching is the essential difference. in these days when gelatine is so valuable, the higher-grade products are nearly always bleached, and the term "glue" is consequently more often applied to a lower-grade product, and is sometimes used in a sense implying this fact. if it be desired to manufacture gelatine, it is fairly obvious that the task is lightened by observing the axiom that prevention is better than cure. if steps are taken to prevent the presence or development of such colouring matter, a great advantage is attained, for not only is the problem of bleaching easier, but also quicker and less expensive in chemicals. the nature of the colouring matters is but imperfectly investigated, but in the case of skin gelatine the pigment of the hair roots and epidermis is doubtless one factor. a long liming is said to assist in its destruction, possibly because this completes the loosening of epithelial structures and possibly because the alkali causes some hydrolysis of the pigment. in both skin and bone gelatine sols, however, there is a considerable tendency to develop the brown colouring matter typical of glue. this tendency is enhanced by an increase in temperature and also by the presence of acid or alkali. these facts seem to indicate that its development is associated with a partial hydrolysis of the gelatine in some direction. rideal says this colouring matter is allied to caramel. in harmony with this is the experience that its development is greatest in products which have been "burnt," _i.e._ subjected to unusually high temperature. the practical maxims which arise from these considerations are fairly obvious and widely known, viz. to conduct the extraction and evaporation at as low a temperature as possible and in as neutral a condition as practicable. the temperature is particularly important during evaporation (see section vi.). fortunately for manufacturers of gelatine, the colouring matter to be attacked is very susceptible both to reduction and to oxidation, and both types of bleach are widely used in practice. it is somewhat curious that the same colouring matter should be destructible both by reduction and by oxidation, but there is no doubt that each type gives a perfectly satisfactory bleaching action and can result in a practically colourless gelatine. on the other hand, the reduction is the more unstable reaction, for the glue colour slowly develops again in the gelatine on keeping it, even in a dried condition. gelatine bleached by oxidation, however, retains its colour quite well, and even tends to improve with keeping. it is quite possible that quite different reactions are involved in the two processes, but in the light of the above facts it is somewhat surprising to observe rideal's statement that reduction followed by oxidation has been successful in practice. although there is a wide choice of reducing and of oxidizing agents, those which are suitable for application to gelatine cover a very limited field. this limitation arises not so much from the ineffectiveness of the bleach, as from the other effects of these substances upon the purity of the product and upon the elasticity of the gel which it can yield. especially important is the lyotrope influence of the bleaching agent. many reactive substances are ruled out simply because they either insolubilize the gelatine or weaken the gel it makes. others are inadmissible on account of their poisonous nature. it must never be forgotten that whatever is used in bleaching is, like the gelatine itself, much concentrated during evaporation and drying. its possible percentage in the finished product should be considered, and also the possibility that in these finishing operations what is present may not remain in solution, owing to supersaturation. =bleaching by reduction.=--of all the reducing agents suggested, sulphurous acid has proved to be much the most suitable and successful. it has been used with equal success both for bone and for skin gelatine, but on the whole has proved more suitable for the former. sulphurous acid can fulfil in this instance a double function, viz. that of acid solvent for the bone phosphate, and that of bleaching agent also. as it penetrates the bone material, dissolving the phosphate, it also exercises its bleaching influence on the gelatinous part of the material. changes of liquor tend to complete both actions, so that a counter-current system is found most convenient. the "acid process" for the manufacture of bone gelatine has been previously described (section ii.), and the use of sulphurous acid in this connection is typified in the bergmann process. in this process bleaching is in effect merely a continued treatment. in the case of skin gelatine, also, sulphurous acid may fulfil a double function, viz. that of deliming agent as well as of bleaching agent. in such instance it is necessary to use excess of bleaching acid, some acting as deliming material and the remainder as bleaching agent. as it is desirable to get rid of the lime and soda salts, several changes of liquor are given to the goods, possibly with intermediate washing. here again approximation to a counter-current system is of advantage, as the employment of used bleach liquors for deliming purposes effects considerable economy of sulphurous acid. indeed, there need be no waste acid at all. whether the material be for bone or skin gelatine, however, it will be seen that the extraction is conducted in an acid condition and the resulting sol is also acid. most usually the decolorization and filtration processes are also conducted with such an acid sol. from what has been said (section iv.) of the value of dibasic inorganic acids as clarifying agents, it will be understood that the presence of sulphurous acid at this stage is of great advantage in the production of a clear and bright gelatine. indeed, it is well known in trade circles that sulphurous acid gelatines are usually of exceptional clarity and brightness. the disadvantage of sulphurous acid processes is also found in the same fact that both sol, gel and cake are in an acid condition. to complete the bleach it is sometimes necessary to add sulphurous acid to the sol after extraction, or even after evaporation, but this is to be avoided if possible. usually the ideal attempted is that the bleaching action should be as much as possible before extraction; the excess of sulphurous acid is then washed off just before the extraction, as far as practicable, and the rest is boiled off during extraction. the ideal is practically never attained, for the acid is strongly adsorbed, and the result is that the finished article is always an acid gelatine, and sometimes indeed very decidedly such. the acid condition is objectionable in the case of some forms of filter press on account of the solvent action on the metals, and is objectionable in evaporation for similar reasons. acid gelatines are also objectionable for many purposes for which gelatine is usually sold, and this limits the commercial possibilities of the product thus obtained. sulphurous acid is itself, of course, a gas, and whilst the gas itself has been used for treating the material (_e.g._ bones), it has been found not only more convenient but also more effective to use an aqueous solution. this is mainly because it is possible to attain a greater adsorption in a liquor. unfortunately, however, sulphurous acid is not a very soluble gas, and although - per cent. solutions may be, with great care, obtained, they are really supersaturated and readily yield the gas, even with slight mechanical agitation. solutions even of to per cent. strength are also liable to this, and the general experience is that to per cent. solutions are most economical and convenient for practical purposes. as the freight on weak solutions is prohibitive, the manufacturer using sulphurous acid is faced with the necessity either of purchasing cylinders of sulphur dioxide liquefied by pressure or making the gas and solution himself. the former is the most convenient course when only small amounts are required, but the latter preferable for a gelatine factory of any size. sulphurous acid is easily manufactured by burning sulphur and leading the fumes by induced draught up a scrubber down which water slowly trickles. forced draught may also be used, as in the sachsenburg plant. of the other reducing agents which have been used, sodium hydrosulphite (na{ }so{ }) deserves mention. it is a very powerful reducing agent, and has been found most useful when employed as an assistant to sulphurous acid. this reagent is usually added to the sol, after evaporation and before gelation. it is sold as a white powder, usually under trade names. sometimes a mixture of bisulphite and powdered zinc replaces it, but this is objectionable for pure food gelatines. its use also involves an impurity in the finished article, and a greater amount of "inorganic ash." =bleaching by oxidation.=--many oxidizing agents have been suggested for bleaching gelatine, but most of them have some practical disadvantage. most of them contradict the maxim (previously noted) that it is desirable to avoid adding any soluble substance, as this involves a permanent impurity, possibly concentrated to supersaturation in the finishing processes, and possibly involving a disadvantageous lyotrope influence. there is another objection to oxidizing agents also; whilst their bleaching action on the pigments is undoubted, some of them have also a special action upon the gelatine itself which is in reality akin to tanning, and may indeed involve an insolubilization of the gelatine. thus, chlorine gas (which meunier patented for tanning) has been used for bleaching gelatine, but the conditions of success have not yet been thoroughly elucidated, and it is problematical indeed whether the process is consistent with best results. hypochlorites and bleaching powder have also a similar action, which has been utilized with some success in practice. rideal suggests that a suitable concentration for these reagents is : , and emphasizes the care necessary. an advantage of all these chlorinations is the formation of the strongly antiseptic chloramines, which preserve the gelatine from putrefaction. ozone has also been tried as an oxidation bleach for gelatine, but not successfully, partly on account of difficulties in controlling the quantity used. peroxide of soda has also been used, but it is not only alkaline, but liable to contain sodium hydrate and carbonate as impurities, and this involves neutralization either before use or in the gelatine sol, and the consequent presence of sodium salts in the finished article. peroxide of calcium is open to the same objections, except that calcium is more easily removed from the sol than sodium. rideal's suggestion for removing this lime, viz. precipitation by a current of carbonic acid, merits attention in this and in other directions also. rideal also states that in the case of an acid bone gelatine, a good peroxide of lime is almost an ideal reagent for bleaching, inasmuch as "the lime carries down phosphate, several impurities and colouring matters." it thus acts as bleach, as neutralizing agent, and as precipitant, and the precipitate itself is a strong adsorbent. on account of its freedom from bases, and because its residue is simply water, peroxide of hydrogen has been found of great service in practice, and in most factories it has shown itself superior not only to the other peroxides, but also to all other oxidizing agents. its application is simple, a concentrated solution being added to the gelatine sol before or after evaporation. it is the most "fool-proof" of all the oxidizing agents used in bleaching, and it yields the purest product. its bleaching action is perfectly satisfactory, but only in a non-acid sol. hydrogen peroxide is moderately stable in acid solution, and its bleaching action is best in slightly alkaline solution. an acid sol bleaches too slowly, or not at all; an alkaline sol induces evolution of oxygen and consequent waste. the great disadvantage of peroxide of hydrogen is its great expense, which is enhanced by an increasing demand for it in other industries. a minor disadvantage is its instability, which leads to loss in transit and storage. it is sold usually in strengths indicated by the volume of oxygen obtained from unit volume of the solution, when treated with permanganate in a nitrometer (_e.g._ " vols. peroxide"). it is a fortunate feature of both the oxidizing and reducing agents usually employed in bleaching, that they have considerable antiseptic power. this assists materially in preserving the gelatine from putrefaction during the critical period between extraction and concentration. references. "glue and glue testing," s. rideal, d.sc., nd ed., pp. - , - . "gelatine, glue, and allied products," t. lambert, pp. , , , . "chemical engineering," _j.r. san. inst._, no. , . s. rideal. on adsorption phenomena: . "chemistry of colloids," dr. w. w. taylor. . "chemistry of colloids," v. pöschl. . "chemistry of colloids," zsigmondy and spear. . "chemistry and physics of colloids," e. halschek. . "surface tension and surface energy," willows and hatschek. section vi.--evaporation the evaporation of the weak gelatine sols ( - per cent.) obtained by the processes described in previous sections into sols of such concentration ( - per cent.) that they readily set to a stiff gel on cooling, is now an essential feature of gelatine manufacture, and is one of the most important processes. in the early days of this industry, manufacturers aimed at obtaining a concentrated sol, as this saved time in drying, and so reduced the possibilities of putrefaction. the advent of evaporation has reduced these possibilities to a minimum, and has also enormously reduced the space required and the capital outlay needed in the drying sheds. it has, in addition, given the practical advantages involved in dealing up to the last minute with a much less viscous liquor. as the liquors extracted are weaker, the extraction is more complete and the decolorization more easily effected. the earliest attempts at evaporation were not very successful, partly on account of the prolonged "stewing" which ruined the setting power, and partly because of the poor economy of heat. thus in the open evaporators the sol was maintained at a high temperature for a long period, and this process only proved suitable for low-grade products. a great stride forward was made by howard's invention of the vacuum pan. this made it possible to undertake concentration at much lower temperatures, a most important improvement in the case of gelatine and other organic matters easily damaged by heat. the process, however, was still slow, and the sol exposed to heat for a long time, as must be the case when evaporation takes place in bulk. these disadvantages were still fatal to the production of the highest-grade gelatine. there were also the practical difficulties of entrainment ("blowing over"), in which parts of the sol were carried away by the escaping vapour, and also of "incrustation" which so rapidly reduces the heating efficiency and evaporative capacity of the machine. the vacuum pan, however, presented two decided advantages--evaporation at a low temperature, and, as a corollary, the possibility of utilizing exhaust steam to attain this temperature. whilst the vacuum pan was a satisfactory machine for many branches of chemical engineering, the problem of evaporation was still unsolved for gelatine liquor because of the "stewing" involved, until the advent of the "film evaporator," which dealt with the liquor not in bulk, but in a continuous stream. in this way the product was only exposed to heat for a comparatively short time. many evaporators of this type came into being, and rapid improvement was made in the constructional details. the film evaporators retained usually the advantage of evaporation _in vacuo_, so that it was now possible to evaporate gelatine sols by exposure for a short time to a comparatively low temperature. of this type of evaporator, the lillie, yaryan, schwager, claassen, greiner, blair campbell, and the kestner machines are well-known examples. a further advance in solving this problem was the application of the principle of multiple-effect evaporation. the vapour driven off during evaporation possesses of course many heat units, and is of very considerable volume. in multiple-effect evaporators this vapour is used to work a similar evaporator, and the evaporated liquor passes immediately into what is practically a second machine, and is further evaporated by the heat from the vapour just driven from it. such an arrangement would be termed a double-effect evaporator. the vapour from the second effect may of course be similarly used to operate a third effect, and the vapour from this to work a fourth effect, and so on. thus, we may have triple effect, quadruple effect, etc., even up to octuple effect. the great advantage of multiple-effect evaporation is in the saving of costly steam. reavell gives the following figures to illustrate the economy thus obtained:-- water evaporated per units steam. -----------+-----------+-----------+-------------- single. | double. | triple. | quadruple. -----------+-----------+-----------+-------------- | | | -----------+-----------+-----------+-------------- there is naturally a limit beyond which the capital cost of the machine neutralizes the advantage of steam economy, and it is seldom that octuple effects are used. there are probably more triple effects in use than any other machine. an essential and important part of the modern evaporator is the "condenser," in which the vapour from the last effect is conducted into water (jet condensers) or over cooled surfaces (surface condensers), with a view to producing and maintaining the vacuum. a lasting vacuum cannot be maintained without an air-pump, as air is often introduced ( ) with the steam, having entered the boiler dissolved in the feed water; ( ) by leakage from the atmosphere into the condenser and the connected vacuous spaces; and ( ) in jet condensers, in solution with the circulating condenser water. that from the first two sources may be reduced, but the third is beyond control: hence if high vacua are necessary, surface condensers are to be preferred. dissolved air is usually - per cent. of the water volume, and is least for sea-water. it should be noted that water leaving a surface condenser is in a very air-free state, and therefore particularly suitable for boiler supply. apart from the capital cost of a condenser the chief cost of maintaining a vacuum is in pumping the circulating water, of which up to lbs. is usual per lb. of steam condensed. if w = weight of steam condensed (lbs. per hour); q = weight of cooling water circulated (lbs. per hour) t{i} = inlet temperature (° f.) of cooling water; t{o} = outlet temperature (° f.) of cooling water; then t{o} = t{i} + (w/q) it will be understood that for high vacua, low temperature of cooling water (t{i}) is more important than copious supply (q/w). it is advantageous, however, to choose a site yielding plenty of cold water, such as a river or canal side. otherwise it is often necessary to use cooling towers or spray nozzles. the cooling is by evaporation (= to per cent. of w), cold water replacing that evaporated, and yielding water ° to ° f. if t{i} = ° f. and q/w = °, a vacuum of . " is possible, but the . " should be allowed for the partial pressure of the air, determined exactly by the air entering and by the displacement of the air-pump. another feature of the modern evaporator is the "heater" or "calorifier," by which the liquor to be evaporated is led in a continuous rapid stream through heated tubes immediately prior to its entry into the first effect. it is the aim of the heater to raise the temperature of the liquor to the temperature of evaporation, and so to avoid this being necessary in the first effect. the heater thus further avoids stewing, ensures steady running, and effectively increases the capacity of a machine. it is noteworthy that superheated steam is not desirable for working an evaporator. the principle of evaporation by steam is not merely that the temperature of the liquor is raised to boiling point; it is that in the condensation of the heating steam its latent heat is yielded to the liquor being evaporated. to evaporate quickly, therefore, the heating steam must condense rapidly. hence, as superheated steam has a rate of condensation - times slower than saturated steam, the latter is much to be preferred. a slight superheating, however, may be justifiable where the steam has any distance to travel before use. it is the fact that it is the latent heat of steam which is mainly utilized which gives steam its great practical advantage over hot non-condensable gases. steam in condensing yields an enormously greater number of heat units per lb. than hot waste gases. steam has also the advantage of more constant temperature. the capacity and efficiency of an evaporator depends upon a good many factors, some of which are worthy of discussion at this point. the transference of heat and the amount of evaporation are directly proportional to the mean temperature difference between the heating steam and the liquor being evaporated. these temperatures, however, both vary somewhat, the steam losing part of its pressure and temperature as it passes along the heating surface; the liquid generally increases in temperature. the mean difference in temperature, moreover, is not the arithmetic mean between the smallest and largest temperature differences, but is given by the following expressions, which yield results not wide apart:-- if [theta]{a} = temperature difference at commencement; [theta]{e} = " " " end; and [theta]{m} = mean temperature difference; then [theta]{m} = ([theta]{a} - [theta]{e}) / log([theta]{a} / [theta]{e}) or = ([theta]{a} - [theta]{e}) / [ n( - [nth root of]([theta]{e} / [theta]{a})) ] this mean temperature difference is in practice usually spoken of as the "temperature head" or "heat drop." it will be clear that this temperature head is increased by using steam at higher pressure (temperature), and by evaporating under reduced pressure. since most liquids have their boiling points reduced about ° c. by operating _in vacuo_, the advantage of the vacuum is apparent. it should be remembered that the temperature head has not the same value in any part of the scale: it has more value higher up the scale, because the steam is denser and more heat units come in contact with a given area in a given time. it must also be remembered that whilst the pressure gauge is a most useful indicator of steam temperature, it is not necessarily accurate. the pressure in the hot space is the _sum_ of the pressures of air and steam, and since the temperature (the important condition) of the hot space depends upon the pressure of the _steam_, and not on the sum of the pressures, the temperature in a steam space is always rather lower than would be supposed from the pressure indicated by the gauge. the transference of heat is influenced by the velocity of both the heating fluid and the fluid being heated over the heating surface. the more rapidly each fluid moves, the more rapid is the transference of heat, because a greater number of particles of both fluids are brought to the heating surface in any given time. this is popularly known as the effect of "circulation," and is illustrated by the advantage of stirring a liquid being heated in bulk. in the film evaporators the circulation is through tubes at high speed (up to miles a minute), and the maximum effect in this sense is thus obtained. the increase in heat transference is not directly proportional to the increase in velocity, but in a lower ratio, sometimes approximately the square root of the velocity. in such a case, if either velocity be quadrupled, the heat transference is doubled. other advantages of high velocity are that the heating steam more readily sweeps away condensed steam from the heating surface, and the high-speed film similarly "scours" away "incrustations" on the interior of the tubes. the transference of heat is also proportional to the conductivity of the metal forming the heating surface. for gelatine liquors, copper tubes are almost invariably employed, the advantage being great even when price is taken into consideration. the following conductivity coefficients illustrate this point (calories per hour through sq. metre of metal metre thick, with a temperature difference of ° c.):-- copper... iron..... steel.... - tin...... zinc..... lead..... the coefficient of heat transmission decreases the more with increasing thickness of wall, the worse conductor is the metal. for copper tubes, however, this decrease is usually unimportant. the transference of heat is also much influenced by the viscosity of the liquor being evaporated; the greater the viscosity, the lower the coefficient of heat transmission. unfortunately for this process of evaporation, gelatine sols are exceedingly viscous, and thus the difficulty in obtaining a concentrated sol is thus greatly enhanced. the transference of heat is often greatly hindered by incrustations of the tubes, which incrustations generally conduct heat very badly. thus the relative heat conductivities of copper and chalk are as : . the amount of heat transferred is of course determined also by the area of the heating surface. the amount of evaporation needed thus determines the number of tubes (of standard size) in the evaporator, and thus the capacity of the machine. an evaporator should have its heating surface area chosen with a view to the duty required of it. in practice the working of an evaporator is often not a very difficult matter, and large numbers of machines are operated by unskilled labour. troubles generally arise from inconstant steam pressure, incrustation, leakages of air, which reduce the vacuum, the temperature head, and hinder heat transmission. for the evaporation of gelatine liquors the yaryan, the kestner, and the blair-campbell film evaporators are the most widely used. the velocity of the liquor through some of these machines is so great that occasionally no vacuum is used. the temperature obtained is high ( ° f.), but the time is very short, if rapid cooling of the evaporated liquor is arranged. references. "evaporating, condensing and cooling apparatus," by e. hausbrand. scott, greenwood & son ( ed.). "evaporation," by e. kappeschaar. norman rodger ( ). "evaporation in the chemical industry," by j.a. reavell, m.i.mech.e., _j.s.c.i._, , april th. "glue and glue testing," s. rideal, d.sc., pp. - . "gelatine, glue, and their allied products," t. lambert, pp. - . "notes on condensing plant," j.m. newton, b.sc., _j. junior inst._ engineers, aug., . section vii.--cooling and drying the conversion of a gelatine sol into cakes of gelatine has been much simplified by the advent of the evaporator. before this machine was used much trouble was experienced with putrefaction, and in hot and thundery weather, especially on the continent, it was often necessary to suspend operations. evaporation has, however, materially contributed to the possibility of rapid and satisfactory cooling and drying. from the time the weak sol is decolorized and bleached, the finishing processes consist essentially in the removal of water. this is now usually done partly by evaporation of the sol, and partly by the desiccation of the gel. there is an obvious elasticity in method, and factory practice does actually vary considerably in the relative proportions of these two alternatives. some factories evaporate to a per cent. sol, approximately, and rely upon drying sheds and lofts to complete the desiccation: other factories evaporate up to a per cent. gelatine sol, and so can manage with less shed room. something depends upon local conditions, but the main issue is between the cost of steam in evaporation and the cost of land and buildings required for sheds. on the whole the modern tendency is to evaporate more, for this course has the additional advantage of speed, involving both a quicker turnover and less liability of putrefaction. lower-grade products need relatively greater evaporation to form a gel of equal rigidity. after evaporation and bleaching, the concentrated sol is first cooled rapidly until it has set to a stiff gel, then cut up into cakes according to the size required, these being dried out on network frames arranged in tiers, through which a draught of air is usually forced or induced. this general description is of course applicable to many factories with innumerable variations in detail, most of which variations originate in local convenience and are unessential parts of the manufacture. an essential principle is that the cooling or gelation should be done rapidly, not only to avoid putrefaction but also to avoid the action of heat on the elasticity of the gel. a hot sol or gel is liable to hydrolysis and loss of setting power, and should have its temperature quickly reduced, but a warm sol or gel (say ° f.) is most liable to putrefaction, so that the cooling should be continued quickly. on the other hand, the gel should not be frozen. for cooling purposes a copious supply of cold water is most usually employed, but some factories have installed refrigerators. these plants operate by the rapid evaporation of liquefied gases such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide, or ammonia, so arranged as to cool a solution of common salt, which forms the circulating liquor and is returned after use to the refrigerator. where such plants are used, it is natural that their use should be extended to the drying sheds to cool the air entering in the height of summer. in some factories the cooling is attained neither by cold water nor cooled brine, but merely by cold air. the kind of vessel in which gelation is induced varies widely in different factories. for lower-grade products metal boxes are used, heavily galvanized iron being the most common material. if the liquor be muddy, deep boxes are preferred, but if clear, rapid cooling is best attained by having them long and shallow, and so exposing a relatively greater area to the cooling action. in either case the boxes may contain up to / cwt. of jelly. lambert mentions boxes " × ", which are " deep; cavalier suggests rectangular moulds holding litres. in place of galvanized sheet iron, boxes of sheet zinc or of wood lined with zinc are sometimes used. in any case the most scrupulous cleanliness should be observed in all cooling-house work, and in some factories the most elaborate precautions are taken for cleansing vessels, tools, floors, etc., and even for their disinfection and sterilization. iron, tinned iron, and copper cooling vessels are ruled out on account of their tendency to rust and tarnish, and the last is unjustifiably expensive. many of these vessels are unsuitable for pure food gelatines in which traces of copper, zinc and arsenic are held to be very objectionable. for the best gelatines, therefore, a very shallow vessel ( / " to / " deep) with a sheet glass bottom is preferred, and the concentrated sol is run on to this for gelation. glue (or gelatine) which has set in this way is sometimes called "cast glue." that which sets in metal boxes in blocks is termed "cut glue," because the blocks of jelly need subsequently to be cut into slabs of the desired size and shape. jelly blocks may be cut by hand with the "wire knife" which yields a characteristic wavy appearance to the finished product. this may also be done by machinery, the block of gel being placed on a series of correctly spaced wires and forced through the network by hydraulic pressure. a cutting machine (schneible) has also been used to cut up blocks of jelly into slices of the required thickness, but these machines have not made great headway in this country. it will be clear that cast glue is cooled more rapidly than glue in blocks; it is therefore not surprising to note lambert's statement that the former comprises the larger proportion on the market. the cut or cast cakes are next placed upon network frames, and a series of such frames are placed on a bogey. the bogey is run along tram lines into the drying tunnel, through which air is forced or induced by a fan. many such bogeys are, of course, passed into each tunnel, and as many tunnels as required may be constructed. care is necessary to expose the cakes evenly to the action of the air. it is mostly necessary to warm the air at the inlet by means of steam pipes and so increase its drying power. this is especially necessary in winter or wet weather. in summer, however, it is often arranged that the air is cooled before entering the sheds. this is accomplished by passing the air through pipes from a refrigerator. when heated air is used, it is stated by lambert that the maximum temperature should be . ° c. ( ° f.); rideal considers ° c. ( ° f.) should be the maximum. in all cases the drying power of the air is easily ascertained from a wet-and-dry bulb thermometer, and the amount of air passing along the shed from a wind gauge. lambert states that drying normally occupies four to five days. the final product is still a gel, of course, and contains from to per cent. of water. it appears, however, very hard and solid. the dried cakes are removed from the frames and transferred to the warehouse, where they are sorted according to quality and packed in bags or tin-lined boxes. some material is ground to powder. the network of the drying frames has been made from many materials. cotton or string netting is very common, but is liable to sag and to get dirty. it also has a short life. ordinary galvanized iron soon loses its galvanizing cover, and the iron then is liable to rust. attempts have been made to use sheet zinc and other alloys, which are cut or punched into nets with square or diamond-shaped holes. these were found to warp and break. rideal's conclusion, which is confirmed by the general experience, is that the best material is a heavily galvanized iron wire netting. he suggests that it should have to per cent. of its weight of zinc, and that it should be strengthened by stiffer ribs arranged both longitudinally and transversely. many attempts have been made, and many patents taken out, with the object of making the cooling, cutting, and drying processes as continuous and as quick as possible, and with a view to saving labour, which is rather costly at this stage. these attempts, however, have only met with indifferent success. a common idea is that a continuous supply should fall upon a revolving appliance, and be instantly congealed in a thin state, which last lends itself to more rapid desiccation. vacuum drying has also been attempted. references. "glue and glue testing," s. rideal, d.sc., pp. - . "glue, gelatine, and allied products," t. lambert, pp. - . _chem. zeit._, , , (cavalier). patents. eng. patent ( ) , (hewitt). eng. patent ( ) , (brauer). fr. patent ( ) , (lehmann), _j.s.c.i._, , . u.s. patent ( ) , , (american glue co.). section viii.--uses of gelatine and glue gelatine and glue have both been put to an immense variety of uses, and the list is constantly extending. indeed, no one who considers the following account of their applications can doubt that gelatine and glue have become a necessary part of our civilization. gelatine for edible purposes certainly forms a very considerable part of the total used, and great pains are now taken to obtain a pure product. thus, a gelatine with more than . parts per million of arsenic, or more than parts per million of copper, is not considered good enough for "pure food." the food value of gelatine, compared with other proteids, is exceedingly low; its use in this connection has no connection with the "calories" of heat energy it will yield. it is used almost entirely because of its property of forming a gel. table jellies form, of course, one popular use of gelatin, but the manufacture of sweets makes also a great demand upon the gelatine trade. culinary operations often require a little gelatine, especially is it used in pies and soups. an extension of the same idea is found in its employment for many manufactured foods, _e.g._ tinned meats, meat extracts, and the concentrated foods. the use of gelatine in connection with the first of these received a big impetus during the war period. in gelatine for any of these purposes, the presence of excess of sulphurous acid is objectionable, as its taste is easily noticed. gelatine for medicinal purposes finds an ever-growing number of applications. gelatine capsules for holding greasy liquids and solutions of nauseous drugs are increasingly popular, for the dose may be swallowed without unpleasantness. in making these capsules some sugar is also used, and the finished article is often protected from atmospheric moisture by treatment with a weak solution of alum. in a similar way pills are often coated with a per cent. gelatine sol. such pills are not only pleasanter to swallow, but are less liable, after being dried, to stick together in the box. alcohol solutions of drugs (or essences, perfumes, etc.) may be suitably stored in gelatine instead of metal tubes. medicated wines are detannated by gelatine before the addition of drugs which would have been precipitated by the tannin. the british pharmacopoeia specifies four kinds of "lamellæ," which are small discs of gelatin and glycerin, each containing a minute but definite dose of some powerful alkaloid. glycerin jelly is a mixture of gelatin glycerin with some water. it is used for chapped and rough hands; the mixture is also used for glycerin suppositories, and for mounting microscopic sections. the mixture also forms the basis of gelato-glycerin, used in nasal bougies, and of glyco-gelatin for medicated lozenges. gelatine insolubilised by formalin (formo-gelatin) has been used for making tabloids, wound dressings, and artificial silk. gelatine is in constant demand for bacteriological work, for which purpose a high-grade product is desired. nutrient media for the culture of bacteria are solidified by - per cent. of gelatin, and the growth of colonies of bacteria often show typical formations. by inoculating into a melted and sterile quantity and setting quickly in a flat dish after mixing, the number of bacteria in the volume introduced can be judged from the number of colonies which develop. bacteria are also distinguished often as "liquefying" or "non-liquefying" according to their type of culture on nutrient gelatine media. gelatine for such work should be neutral and of high clarity. the gelatine required for photographic purposes is also a high-class product. it should be neutral, colourless, and free from chlorides and other mineral salts. grease also is objectionable. gelatine is used in the numerous carbon processes, in which the principle is that gelatine is made insoluble in water by the action of potassium dichromate under the action of light. it is used also in poiteoin process for copying engineering drawings, which is based upon the power of a ferric salt to render gelatine insoluble so long as it is not exposed to the actinic rays. gelatine is used in the manufacture of the "crystalline glass" used for decorative purposes. advantage is taken of the immense contractile force it exerts on drying. when ground glass is coated with gelatine, and the latter dried, it tears away the surface of the glass itself, and leaves peculiar fern-like patterns. inorganic salts dissolved in the sol influence the nature of the pattern obtained. gelatine is used also very largely in the textile trades, for finishing coloured yarns and threads, for sizing woollen and worsted warps, and for thickening the dyestuffs used in printing fabrics. it is also used for finishing white straw hats; as a size in the manufacture of high-class papers, and as a wax substitute for covering corks and bottle necks. glue is used instead of gelatine in all cases where colour is not a matter of much moment. the fact that it has not been bleached makes no difference to its suitability in such a case, and the cost is substantially reduced. thus, for dark-coloured straw hats, textiles, sweets, papers, and in all suitable woolwork, glue is used in place of the more expensive article. a very large quantity of glue is used in the manufacture of matches, where it functions as the material binding the "head" to the stem. a - per cent. sol is used, containing nitrate or chlorate of potash as oxidizing agent. the mixture is kept at ° c. and the phosphorus cautiously added, and when this is emulsified, the friction ingredients (sand, glass, etc.) are also added. the glue acts also in preventing premature oxidation. glue is also used in making the match-boxes, and similarly in making sand, emery, and glass papers and cloths. there is a large consumption of glue by joiners, carpenters, cabinet-makers, and all kinds of woodwork and fancy work. it is used in the manufacture of furniture of all kinds, of pianos, organs, billiard tables, panels, picture frames, and of toys and brushes. mixed with white lead, chalk, and sawdust, it forms a composition used for mirror frames, rosettes, etc. glue is used for veneering, for mosaics, plaques, trays, fingerplates, leather wall coverings, and for staining floors. there is also a considerable sale for glue in bookbinding, for which a sweet, light-coloured, and strong product is required. it has been found particularly suitable for leather bindings where the grain has been artificially printed or embossed, and in finishing and gilding. the compositions used for printing rollers all contain gelatine or glue together with sugar or glycerin and possibly oil and soap. they are often hardened with formalin. similar mixtures are used for the beds of hectographs. glue (together with waste leather) is used in the manufacture of imitation leather and leather substitutes. cotton and wool fibres are often incorporated, and sometimes textile fabrics. much glue is converted into "size," which is a weak gel used as a filling rather than as an adhesive agent. a low-grade glue is often therefore preferred for such purposes, as having "body" rather than "strength." size is often sold in cake, but sometimes in the form of the gel itself, in which case it may never have been evaporated. indeed, size is often overboiled glue, made by crude and out-of-date methods. it is largely used in the paper trade, and for wallpapers, millboards, papier-mache, paper and cardboard boxes, etc. mixed with logwood and iron, and possibly alum, it formed the "blue size" once largely used by bootmakers as a foundation for blacking, and is similarly used in currying. size is also used in making oil paints and varnishes. distemper is a size with which is incorporated whiting or gypsum and coloured pigments. in all applications of size, it is common to use antiseptics. salicylic acid has been widely used in this sense. low-grade glue is used for the manufacture of cheap brushes and for fly-papers. innumerable patents have been taken out and mixtures invented for the production of plastic materials, which frequently involve gelatine or glue. thus, gelatine and glue are used in making plaster casts, and for imitation ivory, wood, stone, and rubber. many of these inventions have been investigated by rideal, who points out the features common to most of them. usually a viscous sol is thickened by the addition of inert fibres and powders, and with the object of making the preparation more waterproof it is customary to incorporate oils, fats, waxes, tars, and resins before the gel is set. the surface is hardened by "tanning" with formalin or tannin solution, finally painted or varnished. equally innumerable are the inventions, recipes, and patents for making glues that shall remain liquid. the convenience of this ideal is obvious, but many of the suggestions are useless. it is quite easy to incorporate into a gel substances which keep it liquid--any soluble substances with a lyotrope influence of the iodide type will do this--but these also prevent the glue setting when used. even in small quantity they will influence the tenacity of the joint. other methods depend upon a partial hydrolysis of the protein. amongst the most successful of these attempts are to dissolve parts of glue either in - parts saccharate of lime, or in parts of per cent. acetic acid. many special glues and cements are made from commercial glue, according to the purpose required. "marine glue" contains no glue; it is made from shellac and rubber mixed with benzene or naphtha. its advantage is waterproofness. references. "glue and glue testing," s. rideal, d.sc., nd ed. "uses of glue," chap. iii. p. . "uses of gelatine," chap. iv. p. . "special glues," p. . "liquid glues," p. . "gelatine, glue, and their allied products," t. lambert. "uses of glue and gelatine," chap. ix. p. . "liquid glues and cements," chap. viii. p. . section ix.--the evolution of the gelatine and glue industry the manufacture of gelatine and allied products has received a great stimulus in this country from the circumstances arising from the european war. the large restriction of continental--especially french and belgian--supplies of gelatine, led to greater demands for the british-made product, and resulted not merely in a period of greater prosperity, but in a period in which much greater efforts were made to supply a high-grade article in larger quantities. most manufacturers strove to make high-class gelatine rather than low-grade glue, great extensions were made, and many new businesses were established. the development of the leather trades, more particularly in respect of greater production, caused a bigger supply of raw material for skin gelatine, and the slaughter of home animals for food caused a more plentiful supply of bones. at the same time it was realized that greater production not only reduced working costs, but also that a bigger turnover in any one factory involved a proportionately less capital outlay. these facts tend to counterbalance the heavy freight on the raw materials. production is thus not only on a larger scale but more intensive. one of the greatest difficulties of this industry is to produce a regular or standard article, for the raw material is so exceedingly variable in quality; that for skin gelatine tends also to become less valuable. in such a case, as rideal has truly remarked, to ensure that supplies to customers shall be always "up to sample," which is often a matter of contract--"exact and regular working, strict cleanliness, observance of temperatures and other physical data, and scientific supervision", are clearly necessary. "rule of thumb" is never quite certain to produce the same article twice. in past years british methods of manufacture have been far too empirical. as in other industries, "rule of thumb" must inevitably be replaced by scientific principle. the advances in colloid chemistry of this last decade or so have, in the author's opinion, supplied the clue to this line of development. in the preceding pages emphasis has been laid upon the importance of the adsorption law, the lyotrope series, and the valency rule. the manufacturer or supervisor who understands and can apply these generalizations will find his task vastly easier and his factory more efficient. much remains to be learnt, however, and the industry would certainly benefit by research work, for which there is a fertile field. there is also considerable room for improvement in the methods of chemical engineering usually employed. whilst the heat engineers have certainly done much to solve the question of evaporation and drying, there is still great scope in the more economical application of heat in extraction, and the last word can hardly have been said on the problem of clarification and decolorization. there is indeed almost as much scope for research by the chemical engineer as by the colloid chemist. the industry also exhibits, in common with the leather and many other trades, the same tendency to save labour, both by careful arrangement of the factory and by the installing of mechanical labour-saving devices. thus, lifts, runways, hoists, and trucks are increasingly used to move the solids, and pipes and pumps to move the liquors. as ever, there is scope for the mechanical engineer. if some of these problems are vigorously tackled during the present reconstruction period, there is little doubt that the gelatine and glue industry will be in a much better position to cope with all possible competition in the future. from what has been said in section viii. as to the wide uses of gelatine and glue, it will be seen that general prosperity in trade is conducive to better trade conditions in the gelatine and glue industry. it is similarly true that a general trade slump affects the glue trade adversely. the severe trade depression which commenced in has had this effect, and has made economic production much more difficult as well as more essential. as often is the case, the larger factories and firms can better face the difficulties, and there can be little doubt that if the depression be long continued there will be a tendency for the smaller factories to be closed down and for the larger firms to unite. as in the leather trade, both the war boom and the peace slump have caused the gelatine and glue trade to develop along the lines of the great trusts. it may be reasonably expected, moreover, that these will be intimately connected with the leather trusts. this fact, together with the heavy freight charges on the raw material, tends also to make the skin glue factories gravitate towards the leather centres. part vi.--miscellaneous proteins and bye-products section i.--bye-products of the leather trades in the leather trades by far the most important and valuable bye-products are obtained from the hides and skins themselves, and all these are obtained before the tannage proper is commenced. the leather trades use only the dermis (corium) or true skin for the manufacture of leather, and as we have noted (part i., section ii.) this prepared and purified dermis is called "pelt." the cuttings and trimmings from the pelt form the most valuable bye-product of the leather trades, and are the raw material of the gelatine and glue industries (part v., section ii.). many portions of the pelt, indeed, such as ears, noses, and cows' udders, are quite useless for any other purposes. other portions, such as cheeks, faces, and even bellies, may be made either into glue or leather according to the state of trade. hardly less important to the same industry are the cuttings of adipose tissue removed in "fleshing" the hides and skins. these, though yielding less protein, yield also, however, the valuable animal greases (part v., section ii.). to obtain both these products in a purer condition the removal of "flesh" after "soaking," but before "liming" (part i., section ii.), has been favoured by some, especially in america. amongst the epithelial structures of the hides and skins, we have several protein bye-products which have some commercial value. the horns of cattle are now almost invariably removed before reaching the leather manufacturer, but have some little value. this part of the epidermis is not solid keratin. a "pith" is easily removed after boiling in water. the outer parts, too, are often coarse and somewhat damaged, but if removed by scraping reveal often a rather beautiful structure of varying colour. there is some opening for this product in the manufacture of small articles of horn, but much of it, together with hoofs, is roasted and crushed for making fertilizers. the hair of cattle, goat, etc., has also a commercial value. this is removed after liming, and needs subsequent purification (part i., section ii.). the hair is well washed with water, using either repeated changes or a continuous supply, the operation being carried out in paddles or similar machines which stir up the hair in the water. when clean, the hair is transferred to a centrifugal machine or "spinner," in which much adhering water is removed. this is a great assistance in drying out, which is the next and final operation. in drying, the hair is laid upon steam-heated boxes or pipes, and a current of warmed air passed over or through it by means of a fan. it is better to have the hair "turned" occasionally. this ensures quicker as well as more even drying. the product is made up into large bales and sold for the manufacture of felts, mattresses, etc. white hair is usually kept separate and commands a larger price. the power consumed in driving the washing machinery, the centrifuges and the drying fan, together with the fuel required for the drying steam, and the labour involved throughout, make it doubtful whether this bye-product is worth either the capital outlay or the working costs necessitated. many manufacturers avoid this treatment altogether, therefore, and the wet limed hair is sold direct to the fertilizer factory. a less price is obtained, but much expense is saved. especially when the animals have only their short summer coats, this course is preferred. in the case of the wool from sheepskins the product is much more valuable. the wool, indeed, is often the primary consideration. unfortunately this sometimes results in the neglect of the pelt. the removal of wool from sheepskins forms a special industry known as "fellmongering," which has been previously described (part ii., section iv.). pains are taken to clean the wool even before removal from the pelt, by the liberal use of water and the "burring machine." there is much variation in quality, and care is taken to keep the various grades separate, even during the "pulling" operation. from the fellmonger the wool passes to the "wool stapler," and forms the basis of one of our most important mechanical industries, the manufacture of woollen cloths. wool is also removed from sheep by the periodic shearing, and in this case does not reach the fellmonger at all. apart from the raw material itself, there are few bye-products of the leather trades which are of commercial importance. the sludge from the pits of the limeyard contains, in addition to much lime and chalk, a certain proportion of protein matter. this is derived partly from the blood and dung associated with the hide, partly from the solution of the corium hide substance, partly from the solution of the softer keratins, and partly also undissolved and loose hair. this bye-product is rather difficult to deal with, as it will not easily dry. it is indeed sometimes a problem to dispose of it, except in rural districts, where the farmers appreciate its manurial value and will usually cart it away for a nominal fee. where possible, it is better to let it drain and settle on land, and pile it up in heaps to dry further. soak-pit sludge has a distinctly greater value as manure, on account of the greater proportion of dung proteins. as some lime is often used in these pits, the product is a really useful fertilizer. the only other bye-product of the leather trades is waste leather itself. for small pieces of leather there is always some little opening in producing small articles, such as washers for taps, etc., and there is also the possibility of shredding or pulping and making an artificial leather. the best leather substitutes, indeed, are made from waste leather. nevertheless, there is always a certain amount of waste leather which only finds an outlet in the fertilizer factory. such material is usually steamed or roasted to make it brittle, and then crushed in a disintegrator. it is then mixed in with other materials, but is sometimes solubilized by the action of sulphuric acid. leather seldom contains less than per cent. protein. references. "chemical fertilizers and parasiticides," s.h. collins, m.s., f.i.c. (companion volume in this series on industrial chemistry.) "wool wastes," part ii., section v., p. . "hoofs, horns, leather," part iii., section ii., p. . "gelatine, glue, and allied products," t. lambert. section ii.--bye-products of the gelatine and glue trades from the skin gelatine and glue trades the most valuable bye-product is the grease, which is obtained from the "fleshings" of the adipose tissue. these fleshings are themselves a bye-product of the leather trades. the recovery and purification of this grease has been dealt with previously (part v., section ii.). in the skin glue trade the only other bye-product is the residue from the extraction process (part v., section iii.). this residue is known usually as glue "scutch," and is composed of the proteins of the skin which are insoluble in hot water. these insoluble portions are obtained from all layers of the skin. there is much hair often in scutch, the hyaline or glassy layer (grain), and the elastic fibres of the corium are also insoluble, and a proportion is derived from the fibres of the adipose tissue on the flesh side. all these portions are fairly rich in nitrogen, and the scutch has, therefore, considerable value to makers of fertilizers. it is liable to contain also a percentage of grease, which is usually removed by steaming under hydraulic pressure. this process recovers a valuable bye-product and increases the manurial value of the scutch. there is always left in scutch some of the gelatinous skin substance which, strictly speaking, should have been removed during extraction. there is, however, a practical limit beyond which it does not pay to do this. when this limit is reached the cost of steam in extracting, and also in evaporating and drying, together with the loss of time and labour involved by occupation of the plant, is greater than the value of the possible product. from the bone-glue industry, the grease is similarly a valuable bye-product, but there is also another of equal importance, viz. the phosphate of lime, which comprises about half the raw material. as previously described in part iv., section ii., this is usually extracted after the grease, by solution in weak hydrochloric acid. the solution is neutralized in lead-lined vats with milk of lime, a precipitate of di- and tri-calcium phosphates being obtained. calcium chloride is left in solution, and the precipitate should be, therefore, well washed if it be desired to have dry phosphate. the bone-glue industry is, generally speaking, much more intimately connected with the fertilizer trades than the skin-glue trades, indeed the extraction of the bones for glue is not always advisable, in which case the protein matter as well as the phosphatic matter of the bones are employed for making "bone manures." for details of this industry the reader is referred to a companion volume in this series on "chemical fertilizers." references. "chemical fertilizers and parasiticides," s.h. collins, m.sc. "bones," part ii., section v., p. . "precipitated bone phosphate," part iii., section iii., p. . "bone manures," part iii., section v., p. . "gelatine, glue, and allied products," t. lambert. section iii.--food proteins although there are those who consider that animal proteins are both undesirable and unnecessary as foods, it is nevertheless true that man is almost universally a carnivorous animal. the animal world provides mankind with one of its chief sources of food, and especially of protein foods. protein foods are unquestionably essential, and animal protein foods differ chiefly from those of vegetable origin in the fact that they contain generally much more protein. of the proteins noted in our introduction, the keratins have no value as foods; the gelatins have some value as culinary material, but little actual food value; whilst the albumins comprise practically all the useful animal food proteins. whilst the actual flesh of animals is the principal source of food proteins--both as to quantity and food value--other parts of animals, _e.g._ kidneys, liver, blood, brains, tongue, are used and relished. the most important sources of animal food proteins are from fish, fowl, sheep, cattle, and pigs, the meat from these being roughly in the same sequence as to digestibility. there are, however, many other animals of which the flesh is quite edible, but most of the above are specially farmed and propagated primarily for their food value. as the animal food proteins are exceedingly putrescible, they are usually consumed within a short time of the animal being killed. it is perhaps natural, therefore, that many efforts have been made to discover means of preserving such foods. these efforts form the basis of some important industries, and though they can hardly be included as chemical industries, it will not be out of place in this volume to point out that these efforts present analogies with, as well as differences from the methods used for preserving hides and skins (part i., section i.). the curing of hides and skins is a temporary preservation from putrefaction until the opportunity is convenient for the permanent preservation (_i.e._ tannage). the preservation of meats is analogous to curing inasmuch as more drastic treatment might indeed make them non-putrescible, but would also render them indigestible and unsuitable for food. thus drying, salting, drying and salting, pickling and freezing, are just as suitable for preserving food proteins as for hide and skin proteins. hence we have dried meats, salt bacon, pickled beef, frozen mutton, etc. to a limited extent smoking (fish, bacon, etc.) has been employed as a cure. when it has been applied to skins it is usually combined with a fat tannage. there is, however, one method of preservation of proteins, inapplicable to skins, which has been eminently successful and useful for food proteins, viz. sterilization by boiling. the food has been placed in tins, hermetically sealed, and thoroughly sterilized. hence have appeared corned beef, tinned tongue, sardines, etc., which merely illustrate the immense possibilities involved. a noteworthy advantage of this method of preserving animal food proteins, is that the food is already cooked and prepared for immediate consumption. another line of effort is the preparation of concentrated foods. just as animal foods are on the whole more concentrated in protein than vegetable foods, so these prepared animal foods are more concentrated than animal flesh, and generally also more soluble. such preparations of animal protein are obviously useful when there is difficulty in swallowing and when journeys are necessary into regions of poor food supply. it is a little doubtful, one must say, whether the concentration is as great in some cases as is claimed. yet another industry based upon the animal proteins is the manufacture of meat-extracts. these are not merely concentrated extracts of animal flesh, but contain especially the stimulative properties of animal food proteins. there is now little doubt of the value of these preparations as stimulants, and it is claimed for them that they not only have food value, but also that they increase the food value of other foods used with them. together with these products may be classed all the miscellaneous tonic foods, in which proteins are blended with carbohydrates and often also with drugs. these aim at the cure of specific disorders, such as nervous debility, sleeplessness, etc. their claims are often extravagant. amongst all the multitude of prepared foods, there deserve particular mention the partly predigested foods. in cases where the digestive functions are weak or disordered these products have been of real service. one of the most useful and valuable of animal food proteins is obtained from hen eggs. the "white" of eggs is almost pure albumin, and there is much protein in the yolk also. eggs are now produced and imported by the million, and form a most important item in the country's dietary, the protein being in a very easily digestible form. it is also necessary to refer to the importance of cows' milk as a source of animal food protein. the amount of protein in milk ( - per cent.) is not large, but it is united with fats, carbohydrates, salts, and vitamines in such proportions, that milk is about the only article which may reasonably present a claim of being a complete food. milk, moreover, forms the staple diet of infants and young children, so that its protein is certainly of great importance. as an infant food, cows' milk is not altogether ideal. even when the proportions of fat, carbohydrate, and protein have been adjusted to resemble human milk, there remains the difficulty that some of the proteins of milk (especially the casein) are too indigestible for young infants. this difficulty has been only partly surmounted by those industries engaged in manufacturing infant foods. some claim to remove the bulk of the casein; others to have rendered it digestible by treatment with enzymes; others, again, simply claim to supply concentrated cows' milk. tinned milk, generally concentrated to some extent, now forms a useful addition to animal food products. the casein of milk also finds some outlet for industrial purposes. when treated with formaldehyde it yields an artificial horn much used for the preparation of imitation tortoiseshell. skim milk is treated with caustic soda or carbonate of soda, the casein precipitated by acid, pressed, impregnated with formaldehyde, and dried. the product is termed "galalith." it can be distinguished from real tortoiseshell by the action of fuming nitric acid (see _j.c.s.i._, , ). the utilization of the blood of animals, which is very rich in protein, as a foodstuff has long been known, but has met with a good deal of prejudice in this country. this prejudice has arisen not merely from the objection to blood as food, but also from the fact that such foods have been particularly liable to putrefaction and hence to cause poisoning. the shortage of all foodstuffs occasioned by the european war did much to overcome this prejudice, and there were considerable developments in the manufacture of black pudding and similar preparations of animal blood. the same circumstances made it necessary to consider more seriously the possibilities of other butchers' offal as human food, and resulted in new preparations of tinned animal proteins being placed on the food market. the author would like to record his opinion that by no means the last word has been said on the question of drying as a method for preserving animal food proteins. there is much to be said for this method on every ground in theory, and it is evidently an increasing success in practice. dried milk has been followed by dried eggs, and in view of the success of the method when applied to fruits and vegetables, there seems a prospect of better success in respect of dried meats. after all, animal food proteins are chiefly lyophile colloids, and though desiccation presents some practical difficulties, the subsequent imbibition (assisted perhaps by lyotrope influences) seems to be the ideal method for restoring preserved protein to its original condition. in conclusion, it will be interesting to note in the subjoined table, the relative importance of the different sources of supply of both animal and vegetable food protein. the figures are taken from the report of a committee of the royal society. they show the average quantities of food materials (imported and home produced) available for the united kingdom during the five years - inclusive, together with the amounts of protein, fat, and carbohydrate present and the energy value. this information formed the basis of the committee's recommendations as to economy of protein during the war shortage. these recommendations included the more economical production of meat by slaughtering cattle younger and the saving of , metric tons of protein annually by adopting cheese-making as a general practice in place of butter-making. | metric tons. | energy +--------------------------------| value, | protein. | fat. | carbo- |millions of | | | hydrate | calories. ---------------------------+----------+---------+-----------+----------- cereals | , | , | , , | , , meat | , | , | -- | , , poultry, eggs, game, | , | , | -- | , and rabbits | | | | fish | , | , | -- | , dairy produce, including | , | , | , | , , lard and margarine | | | | fruit | , | , | , | , , vegetables | , | , | , , | , , sugars (including cocoa, | , | , | , , | , , etc.) | | | | other cottage and farm | | | | produce | , | , | , | , , section iv.--miscellaneous animal proteins the excreta of animals include animal proteins of great importance to agriculture and horticulture, forming the staple supplies of manure. the manure of animals should contain not only the solid waste material and undigested food, but also the urine, which contains much nitrogen, and hence makes considerable difference to the value of the product as a fertilizer. if the animals are fed on rich foods, the manure obtained is correspondingly richer, especially in its protein content. the value of dung manures depends not merely upon the protein content, but also upon its content of phosphate and potash, as well as other organic matter. the protein breaks down into simpler nitrogenous compounds, and eventually, through ammonium carbonate, it becomes nitrate. nitrogenous manures darken leaves and increase growth considerably. dung manures are deficient in phosphates and potash and are of value partly as nitrogenous manures producing growth, and partly as dressings of organic matter for soil. from both points of view it is desirable that the manure should be well decayed. fresh dung manures are both wasteful and injurious to soil, except perhaps to very stiff clays. they are wasteful inasmuch as much ammonia escapes, and injurious inasmuch as they cause the "denitrification" of the valuable nitrates already in the soil. when possible dung manures should be kept under cover. free exposure to air and rain will sometimes reduce its value by one half. it should be stored until "sweet," and until the straw has rotted and become "short." this takes usually several months. a ton of well-rotted farmyard manure contains very approximately - lbs. nitrogen, about the same amount of potash, and about half that quantity of phosphates. it is, however, very variable. horse manure is rather richer than cow manure, but more liable to loss on storage. pig manure is intermediate between them. sheep manure is distinctly richer in protein, and has therefore greater value as nitrogenous fertilizers. poultry droppings are richer still, perhaps partly because they include the urinary products. when fresh they contain - lbs. nitrogen, - lbs. phosphate, and - lbs. potash per ton. when dried they have about double the value. pigeon manure is even richer, and the pigeon loft scrapings have a manurial value about double that of dry hen manure, and eight times that of farmyard manure. guano is much decayed droppings of sea birds on the tropical coasts of africa and america. the supplies are now quite exhausted, and the market guanos are chiefly artificial fertilizers. * * * * * there is one other animal protein which must be referred to before this volume is concluded, viz. silk. this is obtained from the cocoon of the "silkworm," which is the general name given to the larvæ of certain bombycid moths. these larvæ feed on the leaves of the mulberry, and when ready to pupate produce a considerable supply of a soft and delicate thread which is wound round about the larva itself. this is the raw silk, and it is unwound from the cocoon in a machine called the "silk-reel," and may then be wound into a thread. two or more threads twisted together form "thrown-silk." silk threads are also woven into cloth of characteristic texture and appearance. this protein thus forms the raw material of one of the most important textile industries. * * * * * from the fish trade there is much animal protein, which is useless for food purposes and which, to avoid nuisance, it is necessary to convert promptly in fertilizers. during the herring season there is the disposal in this way of the heads, tails, and the guts. many fish are incidentally caught which, being valueless as food, are yet useful as manure. after the extraction of oil from fish livers the residue is suitable for a similar purpose. these residues are steamed, dried, and ground up, forming fish manure, rich in nitrogen and often also in phosphate. references. "chemical fertilizers and parisiticides," s. h. collins, m.sc. "organic nitrogen fertilizers," part iii., section ii., p. . "fish manure," p. . index acclimatization in colloid systems, acid, ellagic, gallic, sulphurous, , acid process for bone gelatine, acids, for deliming, for pickling, in sour liquors, , adsorption, law of, methods of clarification, nature of, of ions by gelatine, african hides, albumins, , , , algarobilla, alum, , american hides, animal excreta, arsenic sulphide, asiatic hides, astringency of liquors, bacteria in soaks, limes, bates, tan liquors, bag leather, band-knife splitting, bark, hemlock, , mallet, mangrove, , mimosa, oak, pine, , willow, basic dyestuffs, basils, bating, , belting leather, blair-campbell evaporator, bleaching leather, glue, block gambier, bloom, boiling process for glue, bone gelatine, manure, meal, bones, bookbinding leather, , , , boric acid, bottle tannage, box calf, bridle leather, british hides, brushing leather, buck leather, buff leather, buffing, burning in, butt, bye-products of the gelatine trade, of the leather trades, calcium sulphydrate, calf skins, , , casein, cast glue, catechin, catechol tans, caustic soda, , centrifugal fan, chamois leather, cheeks, chemistry of colloids, chestnut extract, chlorine bleach for glue, chrome calf, goat, hide, sheep, chrome tannage, - finishing operations, general methods, history of, one bath, special qualities of, theory of, two-bath process, clarification of gelatine, coefficient of conductivity, colloid chemistry, combination tannages, concentrated foods, condenser water, conductivity coefficient, continental hides, crown leather, cube gambier, curing hides, drying, dry-salting, freezing, salting, sterilizing, currying, cut glue, decolorization of glue, deerskins, , degreasing bones, , leather, deliming, depilation, divi-divi, dongola leather, drenching, , dressing leather, , - drum stuffing, tanning, drying gelatine and glue, hides, leather, dung bates, manures, puers, dyeing leather, ears, , eggs, elastic fibres, , ellagic acid, enamelled leather, enzymes, , , , erodin, evaporation, , evaporators, blair campbell, kestner, yaryan, evolution of gelatine industry, of leather industry, extraction of gelatine and glue, - of grease, , , of phosphate, of tannin, extracts of meat, of tanning material, - faces, , fan drying gelatine, leather, fat liquoring, tannages, federation of tanners, fellmongering, fermentation in bates and puers, , in drenches, in limes, , fertilizers, , filter press, finger test, finishing chrome leather, heavy leather, light leather, fish glue, manure, fleshing, flocculation, food proteins, foods, concentrated, dried, formaldehyde tannage, fractional extraction of glue, galalith, gallic acid, galls, gambier, gelatine, bleaching, clarification of, decolorization, drying of, evaporation of, extraction of, properties of, raw material for, uses of, glacé calf, goat and sheep, glazing, , glove leather, glue (_see_ gelatine) difference from gelatine, goatskins, , graining, grease in bones and scutch, , in skins, guano, hair, removal of, handlers, hard-grain morocco, harness leather, , heavy leather, - chrome leather, helvetia leather, hemlock bark, hides, american, african, asiatic, british, continental, dried, dry-salted, fresh, frozen, salted, hoofs, horns, hyaline layer, hydrophile colloids, hydrophobe colloids, hydrosulphite of soda, hypo bath, , imitation box calf, glacé kid, imperial aspect of leather trade, increase in strength of tan liquor, incrustation, influence of lyotrope series, - intensive production, , interfibrillar substance, iron and logwood, , , jacking leather, japanned leather, jelly, , keratins, of epidermis, kestner evaporator, kid skins, , kips, , , lactic acid, lambskins, , , larch bark extract, layaways, layer, hyaline or glassy, layers, leaching, leather, definition of, legging leather, levant grain, lime, function of, in depilation, liming for chrome leather, glue pieces, hides, leather, skins, liquor, chrome , , - lime, - tan, logwood, , , lyophile colloids, lyophobe colloids, lyotrope series colloids, - machine fleshing, scudding, shaving, , mallet bark, mangrove bark extract, mean temperature difference, meat extracts, mellow lime liquors, - tan liquors, memel butts, milk, mimosa bark, miscellaneous proteins, , tannages, mixed tannage of sole leather, mordants, morocco leather, calf, goat, seal, sheep, motor butts, multiple-effect evaporation, myrabolans, nature of chrome leather, of leather, nett adsorption, neutralization, nitrogen in proteins, value of manures, noses, oak bark, oakwood extract, offal for sole leather, oil tannage, one-bath chrome tannage, one-pit system of liming, open-vat system of extraction, oxidation method of bleaching, paddles for washing, puering, dyeing, and tanning, , , , parker, on valonia, pelt, preparation of, , , peroxides for bleaching, phlobaphenes, phosphate of lime, , , picking band butts, pickling foods, skins, pigskins, pine bark, plumping, , precipitation, predigested foods, preparation of pelt, , , press leach, principles of chrome tannage, clarification of gelatine, liming, vegetable tannage, procter, definition of leather, glucose chrome liquor, on gelatine swelling, on pickling, properties of chrome leather, gelatine and glue, protective colloid, proteins, classification, composition of, - food, miscellaneous, , of dermis, of epidermis, puering, purification of grease, putrid soaks, pyrogallol tans, qualities of chrome leather, gelatine and glue, quebracho extract, _quercus ægilops_, _robur_, quick processes of evaporating, of tanning, etc., rabbit skins, raw material for gelatine, heavy leather, light leather, reds, reduction bleaching of glue, refrigerator, roans, rockers, roller leather, rolling leather, round of pits, , rounding pelt, salted food proteins, hides, samming, satin leather, schultz chrome tannage, scouring, scudding, scutch, sealskins, seasoning, semi-chrome, sharp limes, shaving, shearlings, shedwork on gelatine, on leather, sheepskins, , , , short processes, , silk, skins, skivers, sludge from lime pits, smoked foods, soaking hides, soda, , sodium sulphide, , sole leather, sour tan liquors, split fleshes, , hides, splitting, staking, stocks, stoning, stove drying, , , strap butts, striking leather, stuffing leather, , substance, interfibrillar, sulphide of arsenic, soda, , sulphurous acid, , sumach, use in dyeing, , use in finishing, , use in tanning, suspenders, sweating, swelling of gelatine, - of pelt, syntans, synthetic tanning materials, tannage, alum, bag, bottle, chrome, , combination, drum, fat, formalin, oil, with synthetic materials, of bag leather, of bridle leather, of belting leather, of harness leather, of bookbinding leather, , , of morocco leather, , , , of picking band leather, of sole leather, of upper leather, of roller leather, tannage, chrome, of calf, of goat and sheep, of hides, tannage, vegetable, heavy hides, - skins, - tanning, theory of, chrome, theory of, tannins, catechol, classification of, properties of, pyrogallol, three-paddle system of tanning skins, three-pit system of liming, tissue, adipose, two-bath chrome tannage, udders, unhairing, , upper leather, , , , vacuum on condenser, pan, valency rule, , valonia, vatting sole leather, vegetable tannage, of hides, - skins, - tanning materials, velocity effect on heat transference, war, effect on methods, , on supplies, - , , warble fly, waste leather, wattle or mimosa bark, waxed leathers, - weather drying, willow bark, calf, wood, j. t., action of puer, wool, , yaryan evaporator, zones of compressed water, - bamboo, considered as a paper-making material. with remarks upon its cultivation and treatment. supplemented by a consideration of the present position of the paper trade in relation to the supply of raw material. by thomas routledge. [illustration: logo] london: e. & f. n. spon, , charing cross, new york: , broome street. . this pamphlet is printed on paper made by the author from bamboo. bamboo, considered as a material for paper remarks upon its cultivation and treatment. of all the fibre-yielding plants known to botanical science there is not one so well calculated to meet the pressing requirements of the paper-trade as "bamboo," both as regards facility and economy of production, as well as the quality of the "_paper-stock_" which can be manufactured therefrom: grown under favourable conditions of climate and soil, there is no plant which will give so heavy a crop of available fibre to the acre, no plant which requires so little care for its cultivation and continuous production. the rapidity of the growth of "bamboo" is unequalled. at gehzireh, the gardens of the khedive of egypt at cairo, it has been known to grow nine inches in a single night. at syon house, the duke of northumberland's, stems of "_bambusa gigantea_" have attained the height of feet in weeks; and i have made "_paper-stock_" from a stem of "_bambusa vulgaris_," sent me by dr. hooker, from the royal botanical gardens at kew, which, as measured by the gardener in the palm-house, grew at the rate of three feet in a single week; at chatsworth, the duke of devonshire's, this same variety (the "_bambusa vulgaris_") has attained the height of feet in days. throughout the east indies the "bamboo" flourishes, forming indeed in many districts impenetrable jungles. it grows abundantly also in the west indies, in central and south america, the brazils, in africa and asia; in china especially, and in japan, the plant is indigenous, and the natives cultivate it carefully, employing it for almost every article of convenience and luxury; in fact, wherever heat and moisture exist, some species of the "bamboo" will be found, or may be readily cultivated. attempts have from time to time been made in england, and elsewhere, to obtain from the "bamboo" "_half-stuff_" or "_pulp_" suitable for the manufacture of paper, and paper indeed has been made therefrom, but hitherto these attempts have neither industrially nor commercially attained successful results, and for the following reasons. hitherto the "bamboo" has been collected and treated in a condition more or less of maturity, or without regard to its age; and when the plant has attained its full growth the woody fibre is extremely dense and indurated; when old, indeed, the exterior portion of the stem of many varieties of the plant becomes so hard and silicious that it will, like flint, strike fire with steel. owing to the presence of this large quantity of silica, and the extreme hardness of the stem when developed and matured, it has been found by all those who have hitherto experimentally treated "bamboo" that the only possible means of converting it into _pulp_ for paper-making, has been to subject it to long-continued boiling, or digesting, in very strong solutions of caustic alkali, at an elevated temperature--in other words, at or under a pressure of ten to eleven atmospheres ( to lb. pressure per square inch)--by which means a _pulp_ has certainly been produced, but at a great cost, and the danger and practical difficulties of working under such high pressure, have deterred further progress in this direction. i have found that when the stems of "bamboo," are cut down at an early stage of their growth, when the plant is full of sap, and before the cellulose or cellular tissue, and the lignine have become indurated, and silica deposited; while, in fact, so to speak, the plant may be termed a succulent vegetable, and before it has become converted into wood, that a very mild system of treatment in successive weak alkaline baths, at atmospheric pressure only, suffices to decompose and render soluble the mucilaginous and other extractive compounds combined naturally with the fibrous tissue of the plant, so that they may be readily eliminated, or separated therefrom, by subsequent washing, leaving the residuary fibres pure and free. a comparative illustration of the transitional stage of growth above referred to, showing the conversion of succulent vegetable fibrous tissue, into harsh woody fibre, may be remarked with "asparagus," the young and green stems of which, are used as a delicacy for the table, a few weeks further growth converting them into hard woody fibre, which no amount of boiling would, or could, render palatable; the "asparagus," indeed, has its parallel in the "_bambusa edulis_," a variety of "bamboo," the young stems of which are eaten and considered very nourishing. the "bamboo," being an _endogenous_ plant, (that is to say, growing from inside) composed mainly of fibrous tissue, combined with the ordinary sappy and other extractive matter common to all vegetable growth, the stems do not require the elaborate preparatory manipulation which is necessary to separate the fibrous, from the extraneous and woody matter, which in _exogenous_ plants (i. e. growing from, or on the outside) must be removed, as it is only the true fibre which is useable for textile manufactures. such plants known to commerce as "flax," "hemp," "jute," "rhea," &c. &c., after having become mature, and being dried, have to undergo a process of retting, or steeping, followed by scutching and heckling, in order to separate the ultimate fibres from the woody stem and bark to which, while in their normal condition, they are attached. the cost therefore, of producing merchantable fibre from this class of plants is very considerable, and the produce or yield of fibre, to the plant cultivated, very small, that of "flax" being computed at from to cwt., "hemp" cwt., and "jute" to cwt. per acre, "cotton" being much less; "bamboo," as i will presently show, producing tons as compared with cwts. of the foregoing, and, be it noted, with far less cost for cultivation, and the subsequent preparation of the fibre. the stems of the "bamboo," cut young, as i propose to use them, contain from to per cent. of moisture; it will be obvious, therefore, that to ensure a regular and continuous supply, under economical conditions, to a central factory for the manufacture of "_paper-stock_," plantations would have to be formed contiguous thereto, as practised with "sugar cane," or in a similar manner to osier beds, in england. i have mentioned the latter, as in order to stimulate a rapid, aqueous, and sappy growth, as also to provide for the dry seasons common to hot countries, a system of irrigation would be necessary, such a system indeed being at present practised with the sugar cane, in egypt, spain, and elsewhere. with plantations of "sugar cane," to which plant the "bamboo" somewhat assimilates in character and growth, it is necessary, in order to ripen the canes and develop saccharine, to allow free ventilation to the growing plant, and thus the ground is not fully occupied; this would not be the case with "bamboo," which should be planted and grown closely together to favour the stems shooting upwards, as practised with "hemp" and "flax," where fine staple of fibre is desired. by following such a system, the stools or roots once established, a systematical and regular cropping, or cutting, would ensue, the stems being all cut down simultaneously, by sections or beds, in regular succession, numerous croppings annually would thus be obtained, and when necessary, fresh beds would be formed, the older growth being available for fuel for the manufactory. the sugar cane from the time of planting, to cutting, takes from nine to twelve months to grow and mature; but even thus grown, the produce of canes (ready dressed for the mill) generally ranges from to tons to the acre, it sometimes exceeds tons; allowing several crops or cuttings annually for the "bamboo," it may fairly be assumed that at least this latter quantity would be obtained per acre. allowing feet square to represent one acre; divided into twelve beds, each × feet, with twelve paths ´ × ´ ´´ wide, and one intersecting road × feet wide, leaves a space for planting equal to feet, or , feet in the twelve beds; allowing the stems to be feet apart, and say only feet high, we have stems, which at lb. each = tons per acre. the stem of the "_bambusa vulgaris_" before mentioned, grown in the palm-house at kew, was of an average size, to inches circumference, and weighed green - / lb. per foot run; and although no doubt by denser growth, induced by frequent cropping, the stems even of the larger varieties of "bamboo" would decrease in size, still an equal tonnage to the acre would be produced, with longer joints or internodes, and a finer staple of fibre. the stems of the "bamboo" (_taken as dry_) treated by my process, will yield per cent. of unbleached _fibrous_ "_paper-stock_," baled up in merchantable condition; assuming therefore an annual cropping of tons, green stems, which will lose per cent. moisture in drying, we have tons dry stems per acre; these at per cent. yield, will give tons per acre of "_paper-stock_," an enormous product as compared with any other fibrous material with which i am acquainted. allowing the plantation to be credited at the rate of _s._ per ton, for the green stems, delivered to the central factory, and tons to be produced per acre, we have the sum of _l._ per acre to cover all charges; once, however, the plantation formed, but little cost in the way of cultivation need be incurred. the main outlay would be for rent, irrigation, and cutting, and carrying to the manufactory. i may here remark that i propose where possible, to return to the _plantation_, mixed with the water employed for irrigation, the mucilaginous and other extractive constituents, or matters, (amounting to per cent.) abstracted from the stems during the process of manufacturing the "_paper-stock_," as manure, thus maintaining fertilization to the growing plant. details of my system of treating "bamboo" for the manufacture of fibrous "_paper-stock_." an essential point in my system for treating "bamboo" to produce therefrom fibrous "_paper-stock_," consists in operating upon the stems of the plant when young, and preferably when fresh, as, and when, cut and collected. brought therefore to a central factory in this condition, the stems are passed through heavy crushing rolls, in order to split and flatten them, and at the same time crush, or smash, the knots, or nodes. the stems thus flattened, are then passed through a second series of rolls, which are channelled, or grooved, in order further to split, or partially divide them longitudinally into strips, or ribbons; these being cut transversely, into convenient lengths by a guillotine knife or shears, are delivered by a carrier, or automatic feeder, direct to the boiling pans, or elsewhere, as desired. as the stems when fresh and green, contain from to per cent. of sappy and mucilaginous matter, much of this is expressed by the crushing, while at the same time the fibrous mass, being partially disintegrated, is thus more readily acted upon in the succeeding processes. if desired, the crushed stems may be dried and stored; such drying, however, must be very carefully conducted and watched to avoid destructive fermentation. i have in the preceding "remarks" referred to "flax," "hemp," "jute," and similar fibres known to commerce, such fibres being imported into this country in their prepared condition, suitable for textile purposes. they have, in fact, passed through a process of semi-manufacture, such process, as i have explained, being required to separate the ultimate fibres from the interior woody stem to which when growing they are attached; and it is obvious that it would not be (economically) possible to import any of these fibrous plants as grown or produced, owing to their enormous bulk in that condition. now although the stems of the "bamboo," after cutting and crushing, may, as i have shown, be dried (and will when dried give a yield of per cent. of fibre), still their bulk and extreme lightness would preclude importing them to this country in their _raw_ condition, not merely from their heavy cost for carriage, but from their liability to damage from fermentation. for these economical considerations, therefore, i propose to reduce the "bamboo" into "_fibrous-stock_" where grown or produced. it may be well, before entering into details of the process, briefly to explain the ordinary system employed for preparing fibres, or fibrous materials, as also rags, for paper-making. this consists in sorting, cutting, cleaning, and, if need be, roughly opening them, followed by boiling in alkaline leys, after which they are well washed until cleansed from impurities in what is technically termed the rag or breaker engine, during which operation they are disintegrated or reduced into "_half-stuff_," or _semi-pulp_, this being subsequently bleached and converted into pulp and paper. as the object of my process is to produce a fibrous or tow-like _stock_, retaining as far as possible the normal or natural condition of the fibre, and not "_half-stuff_" or "_pulp_," my system of treatment differs materially from the foregoing, more especially in the boiling and washing processes. both of these processes i conduct in a battery, or series of vessels ( , , or more in number), such vessels being connected together by pipes, or channels, furnished with valves, or cocks, so that communication between the individual vessels may be maintained, disconnected, and regulated as desired, in such manner that the vessels, being methodically charged in succession with the material to be operated upon, the heated leys (composed of caustic alkali) can be progressively conducted from vessel to vessel of the series, passing over and through the material placed therein. the leys are thus used again and again, (each successive change, or charge of ley, carrying forward the extractive matters it has dissolved from the fibre with which it has been in contact) until exhausted or neutralized, (when they are discharged), fresh leys being methodically, and successively, supplied, until by degrees, the extractive matters combined with the fibre or fibrous material have been rendered sufficiently soluble, when hot water for washing, or rinsing, is in the same continuous manner run successively from vessel to vessel, over, and through, the material contained therein, until the extractive matters rendered soluble by the previous alkaline baths have been carried forward and discharged, leaving the residuary fibre sufficiently cleansed. by this system of boiling in continuity, until all the effective alkali in the leys is exhausted or neutralized, i realize an economy of from per cent. to per cent. of soda over the ordinary process of boiling, and by the subsequent washing, or rinsing, in the same continuous manner, without removing the material from the vessels, the normal structure of the fibre is in a great measure retained, waste is minimized, and thus, while being thoroughly cleansed and freed from extraneous matter, the strength and staple of the fibre are preserved; a considerable saving of fuel results from the heated liquors being used again and again, less steam being required, as also less water, while at the same time economy of both labour and power is effected over the ordinary system. assuming the boiling and succeeding washing processes to be concluded, and the material ("bamboo") in one of the vessels of the series in its regular succession, to be found sufficiently treated and cleansed, a final cooling water is run on and through the fibre, which is then drained, and the contents of the vessel (disconnected for the time being from the series) emptied into a waggon running on a railway, by which it is conducted to a press or otherwise to abstract all the remaining moisture possible. the dry, or semi-dry fibre, is then submitted to the action of a willow, or devil, by means of which it is opened or teazed out, and converted readily into a tow-like condition, when it is dried by a current of heated air, induced by a fan-blast, and finally baled up for storage or transport, in a similar manner to cotton or jute. in this condition of "_paper-stock_," it may be kept an indefinite length of time without injury, and when received by the paper-manufacturer requires merely soaking down and bleaching, to fit it for making into paper, either by itself, or used as a blend with other materials, as desired. the minuter details of my process for treating raw fibres, or fibrous material, for the manufacture therefrom of _fibrous_ "_paper-stock_," are fully described in my several patents, the only variation so far as relates to "bamboo" being the preliminary preparation of the young stems, the other portions of the process being substantially the same as in daily operation at the ford works, sunderland, for the treatment of "esparto," and other "_raw fibres_." i have only now further to remark that the "plant" required to manufacture "_paper-stock_" from "bamboo" on an economical and practical working scale, would consist of a battery of boiling pans, with the other necessary adjuncts and machinery, steam engines and steam boilers, such "plant" being on a scale adequate to the manufacture of tons "bamboo" weekly, producing therefrom say tons merchantable "_paper-stock_." as the above scale of operations, viz. the manufacture of tons ("bamboo") weekly into "_paper-stock_," may appear somewhat large, it is necessary i should explain that owing to the nature of the process, the desired effect being produced by the reiterated and continuous action of repeated _weak_ alkaline baths or leys, in a series of vessels, such an operation involves the treatment of a large quantity of "_raw material_," at one time, and cannot either conveniently or economically be conducted upon a much smaller scale. the cost of the "plant" and machinery required for such a factory would amount to about ***, packed ready for shipment in england, to which would have to be added the carriage and cost of erection, with the necessary buildings, which, however, would be of a very simple and inexpensive character. i do not feel myself competent to determine what quantity of land would be required for a plantation to supply such a factory, which would absorb tons dry, say tons green, "bamboo" stems weekly, but assuming tons produce to the acre, with only once annual cropping, acres should be ample. this calculation doubtless would be influenced by the varying conditions of climate and soil, as also by the variety of "bamboo" cultivated. it may be expected that i should in these "remarks" include some reference to the "_variety_" of "bamboo" which could be most economically and profitably cultivated for the supply of such a factory, on the scale i propose. in respect to this portion of my subject i experience some difficulty, inasmuch as the _varieties_ of "bamboo" are so numerous, and so widely distributed. a monograph by colonel (now general) munro, c.b., published in the 'transactions of the linnean society,' affords the most elaborate and comprehensive description of the "bamboo:" in this paper upwards of species are described. the "_bambusa vulgaris_," as its name indeed denotes, appears to be the most generally distributed, as it is found in both hemispheres, general munro being in considerable doubt as to which it is a native of. i quote from his monograph: "i have seen it collected by wallich, in silhet, by hooker, in chittagong (both north-east india), from ceylon wild, in the mauritius cultivated abundantly, in the west indies naturalized, and cultivated in several parts of south america, this is the only thoroughly cosmopolitan species." bambusa "_gigantea_," growing to the height of feet and from to inches circumference; b. "_edulis_," or edible bamboo; b. "_arundinacea_;" b. "_balcooa_;" b. "_brandisii_," &c., all varying in growth to from to , to feet high, abound throughout india, and all our asiatic dependencies. in the west indies also, where not now indigenous, doubtless any variety selected could readily be introduced and cultivated. to conclude, it would appear that with the "_raw material_" "bamboo," we have under our control "an embarrassment of riches," and i have only further to add that i know of no other that can at all approach it in economy of production, and i believe very few if any in the quality of the "_stock_" produced therefrom suitable for paper-making purposes. bamboo, considered as a paper-making material. the present position of the paper trade in relation to the supply of raw material. "the deficient supply of, and the increasing price for, the materials for making paper and the prospect of a still greater consumption has for some time excited the attention of manufacturers and the public." the above remarks prefacing a memorandum drawn up by dr. forbes royle, reporting for "the commissioners for the affairs of india," at the desire of "the lords of her majesty's treasury," and of "the lords of the committee of the privy council for trade," in , and subsequently published in his valuable work, "the fibrous plants of india," in --twenty years ago--truly represent the position of the paper-trade at the present time. the extension of education and literature, the necessity for cheap newspapers and serial publications, the increased demand for paper for writing, as also for manufacturing and commercial purposes generally, have greatly stimulated consumption, and it is believed that since the abolition of the excise duty in , the annual production of paper has more than doubled. previous to , raw fibrous material, with the exception perhaps of straw, was but little used in paper-making, the waste of cotton, flax, hemp, and jute mills, having undergone a process of semi-manufacture, being comprised under the generic term of--rags. the american war, immediately following the repeal of the paper duty, threatening a cotton famine, the paper-makers gladly availed themselves of a new material, "esparto," which i had for some time previously been ineffectually endeavouring to introduce, and adopting my process for its treatment, this material entered speedily into consumption, and has tended more than anything else to promote the development of the paper-trade by enabling the manufacturers to keep pace with the rapidly increasing demand. the importations of "esparto," which did not amount to tons in the year (indeed up to that date i was the only manufacturer using it[a]), rose to upwards of , tons in the year , and by --ten years only from its introduction--the annual imports had attained the large total of , tons. "esparto" being a wild grass (or, botanically speaking, a sedge) growing on waste lands, in spain and africa, owing to the greed of the native collectors--who, while gathering the plant, pluck it up recklessly, roots and all--is being gradually but surely exterminated. the complete exhaustion of the plant is proceeding very rapidly in spain; and as it is estimated by the best informed authorities that it will take, even with the greatest care and under the most favourable conditions, at least fifteen years to reproduce it from seed (a system not very likely to be pursued in that country,) at no very remote period this valuable paper-making material appears doomed to extinction. during the last few years a large and increasing supply of "esparto," or as it is there called "_alfa_," has been received from africa; and although the quality of african esparto is not valued by the paper-trade as high as the spanish, still it meets with a ready sale, being used to mix with, or in substitution of the latter. as much as , tons were imported last year ( ) from algeria, and great inducements by concessions and otherwise, are offered by the french government to induce railway communication with the interior districts of that country, where the plant is said to abound on some of the mountainous plateaux, and thus for some little time the market may be supplied, but the difficulty of procuring labour, and the cost of railway carriage for such long distances, will add considerably to the present charges of transit to this country. within the last two or three years, the belgian and american paper-makers have commenced using "esparto," and so latterly have the french, and as our main sources of supply will now be algeria, (a french colony,) any material reduction in prices can hardly be looked for. "esparto," like other commercial products, is amenable to the law of supply and demand; and thus, as the demand is, and is likely to continue in excess of the supply, its cost has enormously increased, the price it now commands in the market being nearly double that, at which i sold many thousand tons during the early years of its introduction. the paper-manufacturers are thus again experiencing the same difficulty recognized by the lords of the treasury, and by the board of trade in , and which more recently was considered of sufficient importance to induce the appointment of a select committee ordered by the house of commons in : "to inquire into the duties or prohibitions in foreign countries on the export of rags used in the manufacture of paper in the united kingdom, and their effect upon that manufacture." the committee reported: "that the production of paper in this country is in excess of the supply of the material of which it is made, and the paper manufacture is in consequence dependent for a large portion of its supplies on foreign rags, amounting to about , tons per annum, which is by estimation a fifth of the whole quantity of rags used for the manufacture of white paper in this country, on nearly the whole of which heavy export duties are paid." another paragraph of the committee's "report" states: "that the committee have directed their especial attention to inquiring as to the possibility of applying any _new fibre_ as a substitute for the refuse material now in use for paper-making purposes, and find that great efforts have been made to discover some material of this nature, but as yet with little success; and although they see no reason to doubt that straw and other fibrous substances may form a supplementary part of the material for paper-making, the great comparative expense of chemically reducing these _raw fibres_ presents difficulties to their becoming a substitute for the refuse material now used." since the above "report" was published, the position of the trade has materially altered. the export duties in some countries have been abolished, in others reduced; rag material has increased in quantity and diminished in price; "the difficulties of chemically reducing _raw fibres_" no longer exist; and the " , _tons_ of rags" estimated by the "committee" as the requirements of the trade have been more than "substituted" by the , _tons of_ "esparto" _and other raw material_, now annually imported, while the development of the chemical trade keeping pace with the introduction of "raw fibres" has materially facilitated their employment. caustic soda, but little known in , is now extensively manufactured, and weldon's new process has greatly increased the power of production and diminished the cost of manufacturing bleaching powder; thus "the comparative expense of chemically reducing _raw fibres_" is no longer an obstacle to progress. the manufacturer of the present day will, in fact, undertake to make paper from any raw fibre, or fibrous substance that may be submitted to him. he has, however, several questions to consider before he will commit himself to purchase or contract for any new fibrous material, these being: its cost, not merely as a raw material, but in the details of manufacture, and the quality of the paper that can economically be made from such fibre, either alone, or introducing it as a blend with the material he at present employs; then, assuming these points satisfactorily determined, he would desire to know the quantity of such material annually available, with some guarantee for continuous and reliable supply at a price not liable to erratic fluctuations. the value of "esparto" as a paper-making material having been recognized, and its employment almost universally adopted in the trade, naturally led to various attempts to introduce other "_new material_," which hitherto, however, have met with only partial success: the "dwarf palm," _chamoerops humilis_, and "diss," as well as some other materials from north africa, have been tried and abandoned as unsuitable: "jute" also has latterly attracted considerable attention; "butts" or "cuttings," as they are termed, the refuse from the preparation of the long clean fibre now so largely used as a textile, have entered extensively into consumption, being imported from india specially for paper-makers' use, packed in hydraulic-pressed bales; but this fibre is difficult and costly to bleach perfectly, and is only employed for the lower class of "news" and "common printing," or unbleached, for "brown" and "wrapping" papers; but as it has long been familiar to the trade in the form of waste, gunny-bagging, and rope, it can hardly be termed a "_new material_." two or three other excellent fibrous materials may be mentioned, small parcels of which are occasionally to be met with, that are, or more correctly speaking would be, much prized by paper-manufacturers if obtainable at reasonable rates, such as "adansonia bark," "new zealand flax," "manilla hemp," "sunn," and other indian, hemp-like fibres, all of which will bleach well and make paper of superior quality; but unfortunately the quantity available is so small, and the supply so irregular and uncertain, that they can hardly be relied upon as "_raw material_." "wood," both chemically and mechanically prepared, has been, and indeed is now, used to a very considerable extent; but the latter, produced by grinding down "billets" from the tree as cut down, on a grindstone to a pulp, with water, or without water, to the condition of flour, contains but little fibre, and that fibre with very little "felting" property (an essential for a good sheet of paper); thus it can only be used as a "filler-up" for "cheap news" and common papers, like "clay" (facetiously called in the trade devonshire linen), or any other adulterant which the necessities of the paper-maker, to meet the market, (_or in other words deficient supply of good and cheap suitable material_) compel him to use. "wood," chemically prepared, is costly in production, as it is only possible to reduce it into _pulp_, by boiling under very high pressure, with strong caustic alkali; several mills established both in england and scotland, to carry out this manufacture, have abandoned it, and such _pulp_ as is now used in the trade is derived exclusively from the countries where the wood is grown. the _pulp_ thus produced, although somewhat hard and harsh, if the wood is carefully selected, and properly prepared, will, blended with other material, produce a fair quality of paper. the use of "straw," from the "_cereals_," wheat, oats, and rye, has of late years greatly extended, both in this country and throughout the continent of europe, as well as in the united states of america, either alone or as an admixture with rags and other material, for all classes of paper, as these countries equally with england suffer from a deficient supply of _raw material_; but in england, owing to the increased consumption for agricultural and feeding purposes, and influenced also by the scarcity and high prices lately ruling for "esparto" in many districts, "straw" has become very difficult to obtain, and considerable quantities have in consequence been imported from holland and belgium, both raw, and as bleached _pulp_. i may here mention two other fibrous substances, which have from time to time attracted considerable attention, viz. "maize leaves" and "rice straw," both of them _raw materials_, from which a fair quality of paper is produced in the countries where these plants are cultivated; but, as in their natural condition after being harvested they are far too bulky to permit of transport to this country, they would have to be reduced to a portable form where they grow, and even then, owing to the small yield of "_true fibre_," their economical conversion is somewhat doubtful, unless under favourable conditions. the daily increasing demand for paper being recognized, and the impending if not immediate scarcity of _raw material_ available for its manufacture, up to the present time, having been shown, to what quarter must the trade look for an extended supply? this it must be admitted has become an important question for consideration, it being evident that unless some "_new material_" suitable for the purpose is speedily introduced, the "paper trade," one of the most important in the united kingdom, will be seriously crippled; meanwhile of necessity high prices are maintained, and as a natural consequence the consumer suffers. fibre-producing plants--sources of supply. the high value of land precludes the cultivation of any fibrous material exclusively for paper-making in england, even if this climate was suitable for its growth; with the exception indeed of "flax" and "hemp," it would appear that northern latitudes are not favourable for the production of fibre-producing plants, and therefore it is to warm or _tropical countries_ alone any reliable supply of "new material" can be looked for. in the _east_, and _west indies_, in her _colonies_ and _dependencies_, england possesses an inexhaustible supply of fibre-producing plants; in india especially, almost every plant abounds more or less in fibre. in china and japan, as also in india, from the earliest times, paper has been made exclusively from _raw indigenous virgin fibres_, and the paper produced in these countries is in consequence generally extremely strong and tough, and although unbleached, and not made in a fashion adapted to european requirements, affords ample and conclusive evidence of the valuable supply of material at our disposal. vegetable fibrous, or fibre-producing plants, are divided by botanists into two distinct classes or divisions: endogens, or inside growers; exogens, or outside growers. from the former are obtained the fibres known as "manilla hemp" or "abaca" (from the _musa textilis_ or _plantain_), the "aloe," "agavÉ" (or "_pita_ _fibre_"), the "yucca," "bromelia penguin," "sisal hemp" (or _hannequin_); "pina fibre" from the "pine apple" (_ananassa sativa_), "marool or moorva" (_sanseveira zeylanica_), "new zealand flax" (_phormium tenax_), &c.; "maize" (or _indian corn_), "rice," and other "cereal straws," "esparto," "diss," and various "sedges," "reeds," and "grasses," the latter including "bamboo," and "sugar cane," are also comprised in this class. the fibres, or fibrous tissue enveloping the _stems_ of _herbaceous plants_, known as "hemp," "flax," "jute," "hibiscus," (_gombo_ or _okhro_), "rhea," or "china-grass" (_urtica nivea_), "sunn hemp" (_cratolaria juncea_), &c., as also the lace barks (so called), such as the "adansonia digitatas" (from the _baobab_ tree), the "nepal paper plant" (_daphne cannabina_), the "paper mulberry" (_broussonetia papyrifera_), &c., constitute the latter class. i have confined myself to recapitulating _a few only_ of the _fibres_ in either class, best known to commerce; this list, indeed, might be extended almost indefinitely, as may be seen by reference to the work before alluded to, 'the fibrous plants of india,' by dr. forbes royle, as also to the elaborate paper on the same subject, read at the meeting of the society of arts, may , , by dr. j. forbes watson, reporter on the products of india, dr. royle's able successor. with some few exceptions (notably "esparto" and some of the cereal straws and grasses), the resulting or ultimate fibres from vegetable fibrous plants, before they can be utilized either for textile purposes, or for the manufacture of paper, must be freed from the extraneous substances with which during their growth they are more or less combined. in the case of _endogens_, the fibres are imbedded or enveloped in succulent, fleshy, or pulpy stems, or leaves; and in the case of _exogens_, the fibre is combined with, and attaching to, wood, or woody matter, such extraneous substances or matters constituting, more or less, a considerable portion both of the weight and bulk of the plant even when matured. treatment of fibre-producing plants. from all, or nearly all, _endogenous_ plants the fibres are extracted by hand labour, no machinery having been hitherto invented by which this operation can be performed in an economical and satisfactory manner. the fleshy stems, or leaves, of this class of plants are crushed and beaten, macerated in water, scraped and roughly combed, to separate the fibrous from the vascular, or pulpy portion of the plant; sometimes the plants are buried in wet sand, or mud, leaving them to soak, or rot, for many days, then beaten on a stone, scraped, and combed; but by this system the fibres generally lose colour and strength. the yield of fibre from this class of _endogens_ ranges from to per cent., and it is only where native labour is exceedingly cheap and abundant that such a laborious and tedious process could be carried on. the majority of the fibres from _exogenous_ plants are also, in somewhat a similar manner obtained solely by manual labour; the herbaceous, or woody stems of such plants, being first steeped, or retted, to induce partial fermentation, and facilitate the separation of the corticular fibres, from the woody stem. when produced in europe, flax and hemp form an exception, being generally dried before steeping, which process is also more systematically and regularly conducted, and the subsequent separation of the ultimate fibres effected by breaking, scutching, and heckling; these operations being as far as possible carried out mechanically. when the cost of cultivation, of carriage, freight to this country, charges and merchants' profit, are added to the outlay involved in producing clean fibres by the laborious and tedious processes described, even with the exceedingly cheap labour of _tropical countries_, it will readily be understood that they cannot be sold at a cheap rate. when the above outlay has been incurred, and clean merchantable fibre results, such fibre will generally secure a high price in the market for spinning, roping, and other textile purposes, far beyond the paper-maker's limits, who therefore can only avail himself of damaged parcels, or such as, being of low or inferior quality, have been rejected by the "spinner," and, even then, has to come into competition with the maker of low-class goods, the common "sacking and mat-maker," as any fibre of fair strength, long enough to spin into a coarse yarn, commands good value in the market. it will be obvious from the preceding remarks that the paper-manufacturer, for an extended supply of _material_, must look to a _fibre_ or fibrous substance which, either like "esparto," can be utilized direct, without having to pass through this process of semi-manufacture, or to some other "_new material_," which, from the peculiarity either of its production or growth, and to the simplicity and economy of its treatment, can be imported into this country, in a condition suitable for his requirements. knowing from personal observation the peculiarities of the growth, production, and collection of the "esparto" plant, and believing the time would come when the supply would be unequal to the demand (although i must admit, owing to the rapid extension of the paper-trade, that time has arrived sooner than i anticipated), i have long and continuously kept my attention directed to any "_new material_" which appeared likely to become available for paper-making purposes. for many years past, i have devoted much time to the investigation of _fibres_, during which period i have, i believe, tested both chemically and practically as a paper-maker, nearly every _fibrous material_ introduced into the market, with, as may naturally be supposed, extremely variable results. before any "_new material_" will be favourably received by the paper-manufacturer, it is clear that certain conditions must be fulfilled; these being that such "_material_" shall favourably compare, so far as regards quality and cost, with those he now employs, and that he shall feel satisfied he may rely upon a continuity of supply, not subject to violent fluctuations in price. once assured on these points, there can be no doubt that, especially under existing circumstances (viz. deficient supply and high prices), the paper-trade would gladly welcome the advent of any "_new material_" calculated to relieve the present, or apprehended scarcity. new materials. fortunately for the paper-trade, and its supply of materials in the future, two _raw fibrous substances_ exist, to which i now desire to direct special attention, as i believe it would be difficult, if not impossible, to meet with any others to compare with them in the essential points, of reliable supply at extremely low cost combined with quality. with this conviction i have devoted much attention to perfecting a simple and economical system of treating them, in order to produce a fibrous "_paper-stock_," considering _that_ to be the most practicable and best form in which they can be introduced into the market. one of these materials, "megasse," or "begasse," fulfils the main conditions which would be looked for by the paper-manufacturer, inasmuch as vast quantities are available at a low cost, and owing to the peculiarity of its production being the necessary by-product of a large and widely spread staple industry--sugar--not subject to the ordinary irregularity of supply. "megasse," the fibrous residue of the sugar-cane (after it has been crushed to extract the juice), properly prepared, affords a strong, nervous fibre, or "_fibrous stock_," which bleaches well, and possesses all the characteristics of a first-class paper-making material. "megasse" however, as it comes from the crushing rolls, and even when dried after crushing, is so exceedingly bulky, that (being produced almost exclusively in tropical countries) the cost of carriage added to its great liability to damage from fermentation, precludes the possibility of its being imported to england in its crude state; moreover, the true fibrous portion of "megasse" does not amount to more than per cent., the remainder being constituted of cellulose, combined with glutenous and other compounds, which of themselves are useless for paper-making, and which consequently must be separated from the residuary or ultimate fibre. it follows, therefore, that "megasse" must be converted into a _fibrous stock_ at, or near, the sugar factory where it is produced, then dried, and put up in hydraulic-pressed bales for economical transport. the present value of "megasse" (in its crude condition as produced) is relatively to that of fuel, as, unless it is returned to the soil as manure (which is the practice in some countries), it is employed in the sugar factories, for raising steam, for motive power, and for evaporating the cane juice. as the value of "megasse" thus considered is very low, factories established in connection with existing sugar mills for the manufacture of "_paper-stock_," where sufficient quantities of so bulky a material could be concentrated, and where other favourable conditions exist (of which an abundant supply of water is an essential), would yield a large profit to the planter or sugar manufacturer, as the "_paper-stock_" he would produce would meet with a ready sale at prices at least equivalent to "esparto," reduced to the same condition. having made "_paper-stock_," and "_paper_" of good quality from "megasse," and determined the profitable result of such a manufacture beyond dispute, i look forward at no very distant date to see the paper-trade of this country receiving, at least, a portion of its _raw material_ from some of our own _colonies_ and _dependencies_ (in most of which sugar is produced), instead of, as now, being entirely dependent on foreign countries for supply. it is estimated that the consumption of sugar in england amounts annually to upwards of , tons, or about lb. per head of the population; and as it may be assumed that for each ton of sugar ton of "megasse" at least is produced, it will be seen that a large reserve of _fibrous material_ is available, awaiting the enterprise of either the sugar or the paper-manufacturer or a combination of both. it is now my object to show to the _two parties_ mainly interested, the producer and the consumer, how closely their interests are coincident, and how both would be benefited by the creation and development of a new industry. the producer, the sugar-manufacturer, is, in point of fact suffering from a similar competition to that experienced by the paper-manufacturer in --handicapped by the _drawback_ allowed on the export of french, and belgian, beet-root sugar, with which he is unable to compete, in the same manner as the paper-maker suffered from the introduction of french, and belgian, paper--_free_, while the raw material--rags, paid a heavy _export duty_. the consumer, the paper-manufacturer, is suffering from a lack of suitable material, which the producer is able to supply, and by so supplying and utilizing a by-product, hitherto of little value to him, places himself in a position to meet his competitors on equal, if not better terms in the market. it is true, that this (to him) new system of utilizing what may now be termed a waste, or by-product, would involve the outlay of additional capital, by the sugar-planter or manufacturer, which he may deem foreign to his present business, but manufacturers now-a-days make their profits mainly by utilizing by-products. a familiar instance of this may be cited in the chemical trade; the muriatic acid produced in the manufacture of soda, formerly run to waste, being now employed for making bleaching powder; and, still more recently, the by-products annaline, anthracene, ammonia, &c., which formerly created a nuisance wherever gas-works existed, now constitute a large portion of their profits. "bamboo," the other _raw material_ to which i have alluded, can hardly be called "_new_," it being well known that both the chinese and japanese have from time immemorial employed "bamboo" for paper-making purposes; and i have shown in the preceding "remarks" that attempts have more recently been made, not hitherto affording successful commercial results. it therefore would have been more correct had i, in directing attention to "bamboo," described it as an "_old material_" under "_new treatment_." such indeed was the case with "esparto," an "_old material_," well known, and tried ineffectually by many, previous to my process for converting it into paper being adopted, which, however, did not take place until it had been fully tested and approved, leading then to its speedy employment. i believe with my new system of treatment "bamboo" will prove to be as superior to "esparto," in every respect as "esparto" was found to be superior to "straw," the only other "_raw material_" used when it was introduced. "bamboo" differs from "megasse," inasmuch as the latter is produced, as it were, involuntarily, its maximum value as a "_raw product_" being determined by its comparison with fuel; whereas "bamboo" would have to be cultivated; but, as this plant will not only grow, but flourish, in localities unsuitable for other cultivation, and is produced with such extraordinary rapidity and abundance, it would appear that, as a _raw product_, it would not cost much, if any, more than "megasse." it is hardly my province to discuss here to which of the two materials, "megasse" or "bamboo," the preference should be given. suffice it to say that, with "_the admitted fact_" of the increasing scarcity of _raw material_ for paper-making, there is ample scope for both. i have only to add that i shall be happy to advise with parties who may desire to interest themselves in either question. conclusion. as i have broadly stated that "_paper-stock_" can be produced from both "bamboo" and "megasse," to show a good _profit_, it may be well to mention the present cost of "esparto" reduced to the same condition (of "_paper-stock_"), as it is with this _material_ these _fibres_ would mainly have to compete, seeing that with its large consumption and widely extended use for most classes of paper it now rules the market. the cost of good _spanish_ "esparto" at current rates, is, delivered into a mill (say), _l._ per ton; it is generally assumed in the paper-trade that about tons of "esparto" are required to make ton paper, the yield being from to per cent. at per cent. yield therefore we have _l._ per ton for "_raw material_." add to this, for chemicals, boiling, fuel, and labour, _s._ × tons, we arrive at _l._ for the cost of "esparto" in the same condition of _unbleached_ "_stock_," sufficient for ton paper. "alfa" or "_african_" esparto does not afford so good a yield, neither will it bleach to so high a colour, nor make so good a quality of paper as "_spanish_"; its value therefore is proportionately lower in the market, say _l._ per ton as compared with _l._: the cost therefore of "alfa" reduced to a similar condition of "_stock_" may be taken at _l._ "alfa" (if carefully selected) so closely resembles "_spanish_" "esparto," in its _raw condition_, that it is very difficult to distinguish one from the other, and when the two are skilfully blended, it is impossible to do so, until the bleaching process of manufacture is reached; thus, it has happened, that during the past two or three years many thousands of tons of "alfa," having taken a "tour" through "_spain_," and being there naturalized, have found their way to england and been sold to the unsophisticated english paper-maker as "_spanish_" "esparto," thus supplementing the rapid exhaustion of the indigenous grass of that country. "wood" "_pulp_" as i have mentioned, is imported, both mechanically and chemically prepared, the latter (unbleached) finding a ready sale, at _l._ to _l._ per ton; "straw" "_pulp_" also (bleached) realizes _l._ to _l._ per ton, but neither of these materials are likely to be introduced to any considerable extent. "_paper-stock_," resulting from either "bamboo" or "megasse," will show a very large margin of profit from the figures i have quoted, thus allowing for any necessary reduction should prices fall from increased supplies. in concluding my "_remarks_," having in the preceding pages suggested the conversion of "_raw fibrous substances_," notably, "bamboo" and "megasse," into fibrous "_paper-stock_," i ought perhaps distinctly to explain the difference between "_half-stuff_," or "_pulp_," and "_paper-stock_," and my reasons for expressing a preference for the latter form of preparation,--a preference warranted, i believe, both by practical, and economical considerations. whatever "_material_" the paper-maker employs, be it rags (of any denomination) or any other "_fibre_," or "_fibrous_," substance, after boiling, he disintegrates, or comminutes it into "_half-stuff_," before, or while bleaching. this process, carried a stage farther, converts the "_half-stuff_" into "_pulp_." herein, not less than in the proper selection of his "_raw material_," lies the skill of the paper-maker, as, however good his "_material_" may be, in its _raw_ or normal condition, it may be very easily spoilt in either of the processes of boiling,--bleaching,--or pulping. for example, when bread is once toasted, thereby becoming brown (and the purer and whiter the greater the change), whereby its chemical and mechanical character has become altered, no power can reconvert it into its original condition; in like manner, however good a "_raw fibrous material_" may be, if that "_material_" be either over-boiled, or over-pulped, no power will restore its normal character. moreover, a "_fibrous_" substance once reduced to the condition of "_pulp_," it is difficult, if not impossible, even for a microscopist, to distinguish accurately the character or quality of the original "_fibre_,"--its strength,--or whether it has been properly or improperly treated, and reduced to that condition--until, perhaps too late, when he has bleached it, and converted it, or attempted to convert it, into a sheet of paper. with a fibrous "_paper-stock_," however, these objections do not apply, or certainly not to the same degree, as the paper-maker could readily examine and judge of the character and strength of the "_fibre_" whether it was clean and free from imperfections or adulterations--in fact, could see what he was buying, or proposing to buy, which he could not do with "_half-stuff_" or "_pulp_." so far as the producer is concerned, his outlay for the primary "plant" and the mechanical appliances, the cost of the subsequent treatment, the drying, packing, and economical carriage and freight from a foreign country, would in all respects be less for "_paper-stock_" than for "_half-stuff_" or "_pulp_." speaking from the experience of some years, during which i have conducted the manufacture and sale of many thousand tons of "_half-stuff_" prepared from "esparto" and other "_raw fibres_," i feel satisfied that in introducing a _new semi-prepared material_, from a foreign country, the preference would be given by the practical paper-maker to a "_fibrous paper-stock_." thomas routledge. claxheugh, sunderland, . footnotes: [a] the journal of the society of arts, th nov., , was printed on paper made from esparto, at eynsham mills, near oxford, then in my occupation. transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _underscore_. fractions are displayed as follows: / correlates with half, - / correlates with and a half.... on page some text is missing it is marked as ***. other than the corrections listed below, printer's inconsistencies in spelling, punctuation, hyphenation, and ligature usage have been retained. the following misprints have been corrected: changed "with "hemp' and "flax," where" into "with "hemp" and "flax," where" (page ) changed "the " , _tons_ of rags estimated by" into "the " , _tons_ of rags" estimated by" (page ) transcriber's note italic text is denoted by _underscores_. bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. large-size letters used to describe shapes or trade marks are denoted by @at-signs@. obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. more detail can be found at the end of the book. piece goods manual. piece goods manual. fabrics described; textile, knit goods, weaving terms, etc., explained; with notes on the classification of samples. _compiled and illustrated, as an aid to members of the chinese maritime customs service_, by a. e. blanco, _second assistant, a, chinese maritime customs_. shanghai: statistical department of the inspectorate general of customs. . preface. the following pages represent an attempt to compile, primarily for the benefit of members of the chinese maritime customs service, descriptions of cotton, woollen, and other fabrics, their weaves and finishes, etc., together with other information concerning terms currently used in the piece goods trade which are likely to be met with in invoices, applications, or contracts. this manual does not embrace all textiles known to the trade, but it does cover all those enumerated in the "revised import tariff for the trade of china," as well as many others. as far as possible the commonly accepted trade name has been used. it should, however, be borne in mind that many fabrics are known in the trade by a variety of names, so that one branch of the trade may not recognise a name applied to the same fabric by another branch. the descriptions have been built up from information obtained first hand from practical weavers, manufacturers, wholesale and retail merchants, buyers, etc., as well as from personal visits to mills in the manchester and huddersfield districts, and from standard works on weaving. to mr. g. w. shaw, of botham hall, huddersfield, i am indebted for introductions to the principal manufacturers in that district, enabling me to go through such mills as those of mr. a. whitwam and messrs. godfrey sykes, where every phase of manufacture from raw material to finished goods was shown and explained with characteristic yorkshire thoroughness. i am indebted for either information or actual samples, or both, to:-- mr. a. f. h. baldwin, american commercial attaché, london. john bright & bros., limited, rochdale. mr. a. j. brook, huddersfield. mr. c. w. bunn, deputy appraiser, new york. mr. f. chitham, director, selfridge & co., limited, london. mr. w. e. dale-shaw, huddersfield. drey, simpson, & co., limited, stockport. "dry goods economist," new york. w. & c. dunlop, bradford. fisher & co., huddersfield. mr. w. r. gandell, board of trade, london. horrockses, crewdson, & co., limited, preston. w. g. humphreys & co., london. mr. a. f. kendrick, board of education, london. the london chamber of commerce. mccaw allan & co., lurgan. selfridge & co., limited, london. mr. a. sutton, piece goods expert, board of trade, london. tanner bros., greenfield. mr. f. walker, huddersfield. william watson & co., london. alfred young & co., limited, london. the board of trade (through their piece goods expert, mr. a. sutton), john bright & bros., limited, and selfridge & co., limited, realising the value of classified information concerning descriptions of piece goods, have very kindly supplied me with ranges of samples. the following works have been consulted, and their contents have materially assisted me. i take the opportunity of acknowledging my indebtedness to their authors, as well as to those of any other works consulted but which may have been omitted from this list:-- "analysis of woven fabrics," by a. f. barker and e. midgley. bennett's "glossary of fabrics." "cotton," by r. j. peake. "cotton goods in china," by ralph m. odell, u.s. commercial agent. "how to buy and judge materials," by h. b. heylin. house of representatives document no. (report of tariff board on schedule of the tariff law). "silk," by l. hooper. "textiles," by william h. dooley. "textiles," by paul h. nystrom, ph.d. "the cotton weaver's handbook," by h. b. heylin. the cotton year book. "the draper's dictionary," by s. william beck. the wool year book. "wool," by j. a. hunter. i wish specially to acknowledge my indebtedness to mr. a. sutton, piece goods expert to the board of trade, london, for having perused the manuscript of the "piece goods manual" and for the painstaking manner in which he pointed out where modifications were advisable. his suggestions have enabled me to revise definitions so as to make them agree with accepted trade interpretations. a. e. blanco. london, - . list of illustrations. plain weave figure . three-end twill weave " . four-end twill weave " . four-end weft twill weave " . two-and-two twill weave " . irregular twill weave " . five-end warp sateen weave " . five-end weft sateen weave " . simple plain gauze weave " . weft-pile weave " . [illustration: figure . plain weave. a. weft threads. b. warp threads. figure shows the simplest manner of interlacing warp and weft threads. this style of weave is called plain, calico, or "one-over and one-under" weave.] [illustration: figure . three-end twill weave. this figure illustrates the interlacing of warp (shaded) and weft (white) threads, so as to produce a regular "three-end twill" weave. it also shows the direction of twill. in this figure the warp threads are shown interlaced with the weft threads in three distinct positions. there is a distinct predominance of warp threads thrown to the surface by this style of interlacing, and a fabric woven on this system would be "warp-faced." this weave is called a two-warp and one-weft regular twill, also regatta and galatea weave.] [illustration: figure . four-end twill weave. this figure illustrates a four-end, three-warp and one-weft, regular twill, also known as a florentine twill, or a "three-up and one-down twill." the twill produced by this style of interlacing is well marked. the warp (shaded) predominates, and for this reason a cloth woven on this system of interlacing would be termed "warp-faced," or warp twill.] [illustration: figure . four-end weft twill weave. this figure, in which the weft threads predominate on the surface, illustrates a four-end, one-warp and three-weft, regular weft twill, in which three-quarters of the weft threads are thrown to the surface and the remaining quarter is warp. it is the reverse of figure .] [illustration: figure . two-and-two twill weave. this figure illustrates a four-end, two-warp and two-weft, regular twill. neither warp nor weft predominates on the surface. this style of twill is known as harvard twill.] [illustration: figure . irregular twill weave. this figure illustrates a broken or irregular twill, also known as a broken harvard or stockinette weave.] [illustration: figure . five-end warp sateen weave. this figure illustrates the method of interlacing warp (shaded) and weft threads so as to produce a five-end warp sateen, or satin twill. this weave, in which the warp predominates on the surface, is reversed in figure .] [illustration: figure . five-end weft sateen weave. this figure illustrates a five-end weft sateen. sateen weaves are virtually a form of broken or rearranged twill. the weft sateen weave, represented by this figure, shows weft predominating on the face: it is practically the reverse of the weave shown by figure .] [illustration: figure . simple plain gauze weave. in this figure a are threads known as crossing threads and are typical of gauze weave; they are binding threads holding b (weft threads) and c (warp threads) firmly together. it will be noticed that b and c do not interlace to form a plain weave. if crossing threads a were removed, no fabric would remain. these crossing threads in this figure are shown as always passing over the weft threads b and always under the warp threads c. this style of weave, when combined with a few "plain-weave" picks, produces leno.] [illustration: figure . weft-pile weave. in this figure a is a weft-pile pick or flushing thread; b is a backing or ground cloth pick; the dots show cross section of warp threads. it will be seen that the ground picks b, together with the warp threads (shown cut through), form the foundation fabric. pile thread a is shown bound into the fabric by the second, eighth, and fourteenth warp thread. pile threads are cut after leaving the loom at a point indicated by the arrows; the pile produced is then sheared level and suitably finished.] piece goods manual. =actual.=--the terms "actual" and "nominal" are used in the trade to indicate ( ) that the width should be taken as stated or ( ) that a certain amount of allowance should be made. "actual" implies that the width is not less than stated. "nominal" means that the width of the cloth may vary as much as half an inch below width given on contract. =agaric.=--a cotton fabric of loop yarn construction, having a surface somewhat similar to a fine turkish towelling. =albatross.=--a dress fabric of worsted warp and worsted filling of open texture and fancy weaves. when the name is applied to a cotton fabric it is used to designate a plain-woven all-cotton fabric, soft, fine, and free from ornamentations, made in imitation of the worsted fabric of the same name. it has a fleecy surface, is generally sold in white, black, or solid colours, being used instead of bunting for flags. not often used for printing, for which purpose it is not well adapted. =alhambra quilt.=--an all-cotton counterpane woven with a coarse waste weft known as candlewick. a loosely woven coloured warp yarn is used for the figuring and a grey "sticking" warp for securing the weft in position. =alpaca.=--this name is given to a fabric woven with a cotton warp and an alpaca wool weft. the fabric is classed as a lustre fabric, this being due to the predominance of the lustrous weft. generally plain woven with a simple one-over and one-under weave, alpaca is, when solid coloured, a cross-dyed fabric, i.e., one in which the cotton warp yarns were dyed prior to weaving and the piece of fabric piece-dyed after leaving the loom. similar to lustre orleans, mohair brilliantine, and mohair sicilian, which are typical lustre fabrics. =alpaca wool= is the fleece of the peruvian sheep, which is a species of llama. the staple is of good length and soft, but is not quite as lustrous as mohair. the natural colours are white, black, brown, and fawn. =alpacianos.=--nothing seems to be recorded in any modern book dealing with textiles or in any technical dictionary concerning any fabric known by the name of alpacianos. the name, however, appears in the revised import tariff for the trade of china, from which it would appear to be an all-cotton fabric, piece-dyed after leaving the loom, probably averaging between and inches in width and about yards in length. the name is probably of south american origin. =american sheetings.=--a rather coarse make of plain-woven grey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 's counts), threads of warp and the same number of weft picks to the inch, and generally woven with "twist way" weft. another name for this material is cabot. average width, inches; length, yards per piece. weight varies. the use of the name sheeting, as applied to this class of material, is now firmly established but incorrect, sheetings originally being a two-and-two twill fabric having a width of as much as inches. =angola.=--this name is used to designate a plain or twill weave fabric having a cotton warp and a weft made from cotton and wool scribbled together prior to being spun. the proportion of wool to cotton varies. this scribbled wool and cotton yarn, or angola wool as it is called, generally contains about per cent. of cotton and per cent. of wool. =angola yarn or wool.=--a yarn spun from a mixture of per cent. wool and per cent. cotton. =angora.=--angora is the name of a species of goat which yields a wool commercially known as mohair. this kind of wool enters largely into the classes of goods known as astrakhan, crépon, plushes, brilliantine, zibelines, fine cashmeres, and other fabrics usually sold as all wool. it enters into the manufacture of very high-grade fabrics in combination with silk. more lustrous than wool, it has not, however, the warmth-retaining properties of the latter. =angora goat.=--a species of goat originally bred in asia minor, producing mohair fibre. from the long silky hair of this goat was made turkish yarn or camel yarn. the name camel yarn has led to mistakes; it has no reference to the camel, but is derived from the arabic word _chamal_, fine. =animalised cotton.=--to increase the affinity of cotton for dye-stuffs and at the same time increase its lustre, cotton is sometimes treated with solutions of wool, silk, or gelatine in such a manner that when the solvent has evaporated the coated surface remains sufficiently pliable not to crack under normal conditions. =armure.=--a weave which produces a fine pebbled surface. =artificial silk.=--in the making of artificial silk, cellulose prepared from wood or cotton is turned into a nitro-cellulose by treatment with nitric acid. this nitro-cellulose is made liquid by dissolving it in ether and alcohol, then forced under pressure through very fine tubes, or forced through holes of about / th of an inch pierced in a platinum plate, in the form of very fine threads, from which the ether and alcohol evaporate readily, leaving the nitro-cellulose as a fine lustrous fibre. artificial silk is often used in the ornamentation of figured fabrics. it bears a very deceptive resemblance to true silk, but the individual fibres are coarser and burn very quickly, without the typical smell of true silk and without the hard bubble of ash. its value is about a third of that of the best silk, but as an offset to this must be taken its higher specific gravity. if of equal thickness, the length of thread, weight for weight, is only from half to two-thirds that of real silk. =astrakhan.=--a fabric having a curly, wavy surface resembling astrakhan fleece. there are three varieties of this kind of fabric, each produced on a different principle: ( ) on the weft principle, in which, owing to shrinkage of the ground texture, the pile weft is thrown up and forms a curly loop; ( ) on the warp texture principle, in which a thick curly warp yarn is brought over wires to form the necessary loops; and ( ) the cheapest form, as a knitted fabric. astrakhan varies as regards the size of the loop which goes to make the curl. the lustre yarn that is used is curled before use, the curl being fixed by heat. the ground texture is cotton. width varies from to inches; weight from to ounces per yard of the -inch wide material. the heavier grades run to yards per piece, the lighter grades from to yards. generally met with in solid black or a grey produced by blending black and white fibres, also in solid white. astrakhans have generally an uncut pile, but are sometimes finished with part of the loop curls cut, say, per cent., which gives the fabric the appearance of woolly fur with complete curls at intervals. =back cloth.=--an unbleached, reinforcing, all-cotton cloth, plain woven, used in printing fabrics to support the fabric which is being printed. =backed cloth.=--to add weight to certain single texture fabrics, extra threads running either in the direction of the warp, i.e., lengthways of the piece, or weftways across the piece, are stitched on to the back of the fabric. fabrics having such extra threads stitched on to them are called backed cloths. =baffetas.=--plain-woven cloth, bleached or dyed blue. =baize.=--a coarse, harsh, loosely woven woollen fabric of plain weave, having a long nap on both sides like flannel. baize is generally dyed in bright colours and is known under the name bayetas. average width to inches, length to yards per piece. =balbriggan.=--named after the town of balbriggan, ireland. first applied, in , to full-fashioned hosiery made from unbleached cotton. about the term was applied to knit underwear of the same material. it was originally used only on high-class goods, but now covers everything in light-weight flat underwear made of yarn stained to the shade of egyptian cotton. =bale of cotton.=--the standard bale of cotton, according to the usage of the trade in england and america and generally accepted elsewhere, weighs pounds. the following is the average weight and density of cotton bales:-- density weight. per cubic foot. ---- ---- egyptian about lb. lb. american " " " east indian " " " brazilian " " " =baline.=--a coarse canvas, mostly made of better grades of jute, flax, and hemp, used for upholstery purposes, interlinings, tailoring purposes, etc. =balzarine brocades, dyed.=--the cotton variety of this class of fabric would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weave and net-like appearance which had been embellished by the addition of certain figures or designs woven into the fabric either by means of combination of the warp and weft threads or by means of an additional thread or threads. but lappet or swivel figured balzarines would not be considered brocades in the true sense, as such style of figuring is not brocaded. dyed balzarine brocades are piece-dyed after leaving the loom. =balzarines.=--very few books of reference make mention of this kind of fabric. of "uncertain origin," this name is said to have been given to "a light-weight mixed fabric of cotton and wool for women's dresses commonly used for summer gowns before the introduction of barége (or barrège)." barége was, for the name seems to have fallen into disuse, "an open fabric resembling gauze, but more open in texture and stouter in thread. it was made of various materials but is best known as made of silk warp and worsted weft. it was first employed as ornament for the head, especially for sacred ceremonies, as baptism and marriage." it would appear, therefore, from the above that balzarines--of the cotton variety--would be a gauze weave or net-like fabric woven from cotton warp and cotton weft. they may have been either bleached, dyed, printed, or brocaded. the exact difference between balzarines and other gauze fabrics does not appear in any modern works dealing with textiles. the fabric probably approximates inches in width and from to yards in length per piece. unless specially designated as such, balzarines are free from brocaded ornamentation; but from the fact that they are found associated with lenos, they may, like these, have some plain weave combined with the main gauze structure--probably running in stripes lengthways of the piece. =bandanna= is a term applied to materials that have been dyed in a somewhat unusual manner, the cloth being tied in knots prior to being dipped into the dye-stuff. a peculiar clouded effect is produced, as the dye-stuff does not reach the knotted parts equally with the rest of the surface. this term is met with most frequently in connexion with a large handkerchief, of which great quantities were imported into india for sale to the natives. =barré.=--a striped or barred design, woven or printed, running from selvedge to selvedge. =basket cloth.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven with two or more warp threads grouped together without twisting and woven as a unit of matt weave. =batiste.=--a fabric of french origin; the term has come to mean commercially a light, sheer cloth, made of fine quality of yarns and woven with a plain weave. a light fabric, with a swiss finish, in distinction from a nainsook, and usually wider and heavier than the latter fabric. in -inch widths and up a line of batistes runs to square yards to the pound. there are bleached and unbleached cotton batistes, also linen and coloured batistes. the cotton are largely ecru, and the linen are most commonly in the grey. there is a gradual variation in qualities ranging from a comparatively coarse to a very fine batiste. there are also wool batistes. =bayadère.=--applied to fabrics in which the stripe, whether woven or printed, runs crosswise, that is, from selvedge to selvedge. =bayetas.=--the spanish for baize, which is a coarse, harsh, loosely woven woollen fabric having a long nap on both sides like flannel. bayetas are generally dyed in bright colours and have an average width of to inches and a length of to yards per piece. =beavers.=--a heavy cloth manufactured of fine wool with a finish on face made to imitate the appearance of the beaver's fur. when the surface is made with a long and dense nap this fabric becomes known as fur beaver. =beaverteen.=--a heavy, twill-weave, all-cotton fabric of the fustian or uncut pile variety, usually dyed in shades of grey or tan and generally used for garments having to withstand rough wear. =bedford cords.=--fabrics having cords or ribs running in the direction of the length of the cloth, produced by interweaving the weft, in plain or twill order, with alternate groups of warp threads. the ribs may be emphasised by the addition of wadding or stuffing warp threads. bedford cords may be woven as either an all-cotton, all-wool, or wool and cotton fabric. the ribs of bedford cords are but slightly separated from each other. cotton bedford cords closely resemble a wide-welt piqué. _see_ welt. =beige.=--a dress fabric, generally twilled weave, made of yarns spun from wool which has been dyed in the stock prior to being spun, mostly met with in greys, browns, and mottled or mixed effects. in america the term is used to designate a dress fabric of fine texture woven from yarns in which two threads of different colours are twisted together or wherein printed yarns are employed. =bengal stripes.=--an all-cotton plain-woven fabric of the striped gingham variety. warp yarns partially white, balance dyed indigo blue. =bengaline.=--a silk fabric having thick threads or cords at intervals, from selvedge to selvedge. frequently the cord is of wool, covered with silk in the process of weaving, or cotton and silk are combined together to produce this kind of material. when made of all cotton and known as a cotton bengaline, it is generally mercerised. the warp yarn is often of two-ply. bengaline has much the appearance of poplin. silk or part-silk bengalines are often treated to an embossing process, which method presses a figure upon the fabric very similar in appearance to a jacquard woven effect. a common name for reps, also similar to poplin, but generally of a heavier corded appearance with the cord running transversely across the face of the fabric. =binding cloth.=--a muslin dyed and stamped or embossed, used to cover books by bookbinders. =bleached.=--this term is used to designate either raw cotton, cotton yarn, or more often cotton fabrics which have been rendered white. the most generally used agent for bleaching is chloride of lime. the process of bleaching varies according to whether the fibres being bleached are in the loose, the yarn, or the woven state. prior to being bleached fabrics are said to be in the "grey"; after bleaching they are said to be "white." =bleached domestics.=--a term commonly used referring to the cheaper grades of bleached cotton cloths, either plain or twilled. =bombazine.=--bombazine is the name given to a twilled fabric of which the warp is of silk and the filling is worsted. =book-fold muslin.=--a trade designation meaning muslin put up in -yard lengths, folded in such a way as to open book-wise from the centre, the various folds resembling the leaves of a book. =botany.=--a term applied to worsted yarns made from botany wool. it is considered the finest of all worsted yarns and is used for making fine fabrics of close texture. the name botany is commonly used to designate a fine grade of australian wool. =bouclé.=--having knots, loops, or curls on the surface; usually employed for cloakings. imitation astrakhan is a type of the kind of fabric coming under the heading bouclé. =bourette.=--a rough-surfaced effect produced by introducing lumpy, knotted yarns at intervals in the weaving. =broadcloth.=--broadcloth is a soft, closely woven material made with an all-wool warp and filling having a satin finish. the beauty of broadcloth depends on its even, nappy, lustrous surface. the three main points that go towards fixing its value are the quality of the wool used, the uniformity of the nap, and the perfection of finish. it is most often twill woven, double plain, but it is also met with in a plain weave. =brocade.=--the ordinary cotton brocade is a figured fabric of single texture. more elaborate brocades, used for dress and upholstery purposes, may have several wefts, in which case the cloth is one-sided, the warp forming the ground on the face, and the wefts appearing only where required to produce figure. soft-spun wefts are often used in brocades and similar kinds of cloths, the better to fill and throw up the figure used in their ornamentation. it is a term commonly applied to fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weaves in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy figured or floral effect, usually of elaborate design; also used as an adjective to denote "woven figured." =brocatelle.=--the real brocatelle is a rich upholstery fabric, which has a raised figure of silk warp and weft interwoven in satin order, on a ground formed by a linen weft and a special binder warp. the name is also applied to quilts having a coarse white weft and two colours of warp, which latter change places for figuring purposes. =broché.=--the french term for brocade. elaborate figures woven on the surface of the fabric. =brown sheeting.=--this term is the equivalent of "plain grey cloths" and covers all weights of cotton goods in the grey or unfinished condition. =brown shirting.=--the term is restricted usually to mean such grey cotton cloths as have a width of inches or less from selvedge to selvedge. =bugis.=--this name is given to a fine make of cotton sarong having only one side decorated with a border design. it is used by sewing two pieces together plain edge to plain edge, thus converting it into a sarong with both edges ornamented. ="bump" yarns.=--cotton yarns of coarse numbers below 's, used for weft purposes in counterpanes and other coarse fabrics, are termed "bump" yarns. sometimes the term candlewick is used for very coarse counts. the counts in the case of "bump" yarns are denoted by the number of yards weighing ounce. this kind of weft is extensively used for coarse and heavy goods, such as bagging, alhambra quilts, etc. _example._--a yarn weighing yards to the ounce would be termed 's "bump." =bunting.=--a plain, loose, even-thread weave of mohair wool or worsted, used mostly for making flags. bunting, which is a material having to be dyed, is made of wool and not cotton or other vegetable fibre for the reason that wool has a greater affinity for dye-stuffs than cotton and retains them better. there is, however, a cotton fabric woven from low-count yarns, generally known as either butter muslin or cheese cloth, which is sometimes called bunting. =burlaps.=--a plain-woven, coarse, and heavy fabric made from jute, flax, or hemp, used for wrappings, upholstery, etc. =butcher's linen.=--a coarse, heavy, plain-weave linen. =cabled yarns.=--cabled yarns are produced by folding together "two-fold" threads. under the heading "folded yarn" it will be seen that when two single threads of 's count yarn are twisted together they produce a two-fold 's, written thus: / . when three such two-fold yarns are twisted together they produce a six-fold 's thread. sewing cottons, known in the trade as spool cotton, are good examples of cabled yarns. =cabot.=--a levant term for a rather coarse make of plain grey cloth, woven from coarse yarns (about 's counts); warp threads and the same number of picks to the inch. lancashire-made cabots are usually heavily sized. considerable quantities of this cloth are made in south carolina mills in -inch width and shipped to china under the name of american sheetings. =calico.=--this name is used to designate most plain-woven cotton fabrics which have simple designs printed on their face in either one or more colours. calicoes are usually in two colours, that is, one colour for the ground and the other for the figure or design. the ground colour is generally effected by piece-dyeing the fabric in some solid colour. after the cloth is dyed the design is printed on the cloth. being cheap fabrics, calicoes are generally given a "cheap common dye"--by this is meant that the colours are not fast and will run or fade when washed. the printing of calicoes is done by the aid of a machine whose main feature is a revolving cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out. such machines are capable of printing several colours in one design. calico is woven with a plain one-over and one-under weave. as a textile term it is applied to cheaper grades of plain cotton cloth, and the name is rightly applied when such cloths are printed. in the manchester district and in great britain generally the term calico is used only to designate a plain grey or white shirting or sheeting free from any ornamentation. =camel's hair.=--a loosely woven fabric of long-fibre wool. the term in its original sense is used to describe the soft downy fibre from the haunches and under parts of the camel. =camlets (woollen).=--an all-wool plain-woven fabric free from any ornamentation of weave produced either by combination of weave or extra warp or weft threads. it is invariably woven with the plain one-over and one-under weave from worsted yarns, which make the fabric somewhat lustrous. in width averaging to inches and in length to yards. camlets are only divisible into two kinds, dutch and english. the former variety appears to be no longer made, and one manufacturer states that practically per cent. of the camlets imported into china are of the english variety. not unlike an alpaca in feel, though somewhat less lustrous, camlets may be compared to a very fine wool bunting. =camlets, dutch (woollen).=--this heading apparently covers a type of material which has almost disappeared from the market. originally a rough cloth made from camel's hair, it was known as either camlet or camelot. a somewhat ancient description is "a rough fabric composed of wool and cotton, or hair and silk with a wavy or variegated surface." a firm of manufacturers in bradford, written to for information under this heading, writes as follows: "this is a very ancient heading, and camlets now are only made in this country, and although there are about three qualities shipped to china, practically speaking, per cent. are in the quality of the sample shown." the sample in question shows the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairly loosely plain-woven fabric dyed a bright vermilion. both warp and weft are of worsted yarn and hence it is a somewhat lustrous fabric; in width it averages between and inches, in length from to yards, and its average value during the years - was _s._ _d._ per piece. camlet somewhat resembles a fine bunting and has a harsh handle; somewhat stiff, it has the feel of an alpaca fabric. =camlets, english (woollen).=--this fabric is described under camlets, dutch. a typical sample of english-made woollen camlets showed the fabric to be a plain, all-wool, fairly loosely plain-woven fabric dyed a bright vermilion. both warp and weft are of worsted yarn, and hence it is a somewhat lustrous fabric, averaging to inches in width and to yards in length. average value of the quality generally imported into china was for the years - _s._ _d._ per piece. somewhat harsh of handle, it resembles a fine bunting with the stiff feel of an alpaca. the earliest mention of english camlets is to be found in camden's "brittania," , where, speaking of coventry, it is said: "its wealth, arising in the last age from the woollen and camblet manufacture, made it the only mart of this part." in the next century those of brussels are said to exceed all other camlets for beauty and quality, those of england being reputed second. =caniche.=--name given to a curled wool fabric showing the effect of the coat of the _caniche_, or french poodle. =canton flannel.=--this term is used to designate an all-cotton flannel, first made for and exported to canton. canton flannel will be found more fully described under "cotton flannel." it is a narrow heavy fabric, twill woven, showing twill on one side and having a long, soft, raised nap on the other. woven as a four-shaft twill for winter weights and as a three-shaft twill for the summer weight. width from to inches. canton flannel is taken direct from the loom, measured, napped, and folded, and packed for shipment. the yarn used to make this class of cloth is spun from low-grade cotton of from three-fourths to inch in length of staple, generally dyed in bright colours. =canvas.=--canvas is a coarse plain-weave fabric woven from yarn which is hard twisted. it is often woven from folded yarn, and this may readily be seen in what is known as embroidery canvas. canvas used for sails is generally a stout strong-built cloth woven with "double warp coarse flax yarns." a term applied to heavy, plain, unbleached, dyed or yarn-dyed fabric, of different grades or weights properly made of ply yarns, although the term more frequently applies to fabrics of such similar appearance made without or partially of ply yarn. various sorts of canvases are known in different trades, such as embroidery canvas, duck, dress canvas, mercerised canvas, etc. dress fabrics, the principal part of which are of such a construction, are still termed canvas in the distributing trade when they contain stripes or fancy effects of other weaves. =carbonising.=--all-wool cloths and even raw wool very often contain a certain amount of vegetable matter, such as burrs, the chemical composition of which is similar to that of cotton, and as it is at times very desirable to extract this vegetable matter, the cloth or fibre is for this purpose subjected to a process known as carbonising. the material is passed through a bath containing sulphuric acid of a suitable strength and temperature. upon drying, the acid concentrates upon the vegetable matter, converting it into hydrocellulose, which, being in the form of a powder, is easily removed, while the wool, not being acted upon by the acid to any considerable extent, remains intact. this system would be employed to test the percentage of cotton in any union fabric: by carefully weighing the sample prior to treatment and again after all the vegetable matter had been carbonised the proportion of cotton to wool can readily be ascertained. =casement cloth.=--a plain-woven fabric used for casement window curtains and usually white or cream-coloured. casement cloth is made from either mohair, alpaca, or cotton. the cotton variety is made from high-class yarns, well woven, and is mercerised before bleaching or dyeing. =cashmere.=--a cloth made from the hair of the cashmere goat. the face of the fabric is twilled, the twills or diagonal lines being uneven and irregular owing to the unevenness of the yarn. cashmere was originally made from hand-spun yarn. in the knitted goods trade the word cashmere, when applied to hosiery or underwear, means goods made of fine worsted yarns spun from saxony or other soft wools. cashmere has been described as being a lightly woven woollen fabric of twilled construction and soft finish, having the twill on the "right" side, _i.e._, on the face of the fabric. it is sometimes woven with a cotton warp and fine botany wool weft. an all-cotton variety, woven in the same way as the true cashmere, is also met with: it is known as cotton cashmere. =cashmere double.=--a cashmere cloth having as a distinctive feature a twill face and a poplin-corded effect on the reverse. =cashmere wool= is the fine, extremely soft, grey or white fur of the cashmere goat, which is bred in tibet. there are two kinds of fibre obtained: one, which is really the outer covering, consisting of long tufts of hair, beneath which is found the other, the true cashmere wool of commerce, a soft downy wool of brownish grey tint having a fine silky fibre. =castor.=--a heavy cloth, manufactured of fine wool with a finish on the face made to imitate the fur of the beaver. this cloth differs from beaver cloth only in its weight, castor cloth being lighter than beaver. =cellular cloth.=--a plain leno fabric having an open cellular structure, which is specially suited for shirtings and underwear. cellular cloth is also found with stripes of different weave, though still a form of leno weave to the rest of the fabric. =ceylon or ceylon flannel.=--a coloured striped cloth woven with a cotton and wool mixture weft. the warp threads which form the stripes are dyed in the yarn prior to weaving. =challis.=--the name is given to a light-weight plain or figured material made either of cotton or wool or a mixture of both. an all-wool challis has, when plain woven, the appearance of a muslin delaine. usually printed. =chambray.=--chambray is a staple fabric of many years standing, being next in line of the cotton goods after the better grades of gingham. it is a light-weight single cloth fabric, always woven with a plain weave and a white selvedge. it is woven from warp and weft which may be either all cotton, cotton and silk, or all silk: it has an average width of or inches and weighs to ½ ounces per finished yard. when made as an all-cotton fabric it is finished in the same way as a gingham. =charmeuse.=--a light-weight satin having a high natural lustre. =checks.=--fabrics having rectangular patterns formed by crossing the threads of a striped warp with weft threads of the same order. "mock" checks are produced by combining weave effects. when checks are woven without a highly variegated colouring they are known as ginghams. =cheese cloth.=--a very open and lightly constructed thin cotton fabric of light weight and low-count yarns, woven with a plain weave, weighing from to yards to the pound. cheese cloth is often used for bunting, by which name it is sometimes known. the cheese cloth used for wrapping round cheese and butter after they have been pressed is a bleached cloth. =cheviot.=--most stout woollen fabrics which have a rough or shaggy face are described as cheviots, which has become a term denoting more a class of goods than a particular fabric. it has a slightly felted, short, even nap on the face, and is often made of "pulled wool," which is the wool taken from the pelts of dead sheep. mungo, shoddy, and a fair percentage of cotton enter into the composition of the yarn from which it is made. irrespective of the quality of the yarn used, however, cheviots are finished either with a "rough" or a close finish. the weave may either be plain or twill. =chiffon.=--a sheer silk tissue of plain weave and soft finish. the word is often used to indicate light weight and soft finish, as chiffon velvet. =chinchilla.=--a fabric made of fine wool, having a surface composed of small tufts closely united. the name is spanish for a fur-bearing animal of the mink species, and the fabric is an imitation of the fur. =chiné.=--warp-printed: a fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps, appears somewhat faintly and in indefinite outline. the weft is not printed, but is generally in the white. some varieties, occasionally met with, have a coloured weft. this class of fabric is also known as a shadow cretonne, when the designs are of the variety generally used in cretonne fabrics. =chintz.=--when this name is applied to a fabric other than a printed chintz it is used to designate a woven chintz, which is a fabric on the warp threads of which, before being woven into cloth, various coloured designs have been printed. many silk ribbons are chintz woven. where the colours seem to have run in the pattern the name chene is sometimes used. warp-printed chintz is also known as shadow cretonne, from the softness of the design due to the white weft blurring the sharpness of the design printed on the warp. =clip spots.=--figured muslins ornamented by small detached figures of extra warp or weft, the floating material between the spots being afterwards clipped or sheared off. =coated cotton cloths.=--this name is given to a cloth having one or both surfaces coated with paint, varnish, pigments, or other substances. examples of coated cloths are tracing cloth, bookbinder's cloth, imitation vellum, oilcloths, and oilskins. =collarette.=--a wide knitted neckband used on men's undershirts in lieu of binding. =coloured.=--this term, when applied to textile fabrics, is used to show that the fabric which is designated as "coloured" has been dyed in the yarn and not dyed subsequently to having been woven, _i.e._, it has been woven from coloured yarns. =coloured crimp cloth.=--like all other fabrics that are designated as "coloured," coloured crimp cloth is dyed in the yarn and not piece-dyed. coloured crimp cloth is essentially a crimp cloth which has been woven from previously dyed yarn; apart from this difference it answers the description given under crimp cloth, plain or crimps. =coloured lists.=--all serges, etc., that are dyed in the wool or yarn, as against those dyed in the piece, have coloured lists or edging. the word "list" is another name for selvedge. =coloured woollen and worsted yarns.=--the most important coloured woollen and worsted yarns are: (_a._) mixtures, (_b._) mélanges, (_c._) marls, and (_d._) twists. (_a._) _mixtures._--a mixture yarn is one composed of fibres of two or more colours which have been thoroughly blended. in woollens the wool is dyed after scouring and the mixing accomplished during the carding process. (_b._) _mélange._--this is a fine mixture yarn produced from a top-printed sliver. the result is obtained by printing at regular intervals the required colours on the top of the sliver. the mixing of the fibres and colours is brought about during the drawing and spinning processes. as a rule only long fibres such as mohair are subjected to this method of treatment. in these yarns, on many fibres two or more colours may be clearly seen under the microscope. (_c._) _marls._--a term sometimes applied to three-fold twist yarns, but more correctly applied to a yarn which is between a twist and the mixture yarn. it is produced by combing two or more slivers of different colour in the later drawing operations, and in consequence the colours are not so thoroughly blended as in the case of mixture yarns. (_d._) _twists._--this class of yarn is produced by simply twisting or folding together two or more yarns of different colours. =corduroy.=--corduroy, like many other low-grade cotton fabrics woven with a pile weave, such as cotton velvets, velveteens, moleskins, is really a fustian. the pile surface of corduroys does not cover the surface of the fabric uniformly, as in the case of velveteens, for instance, but runs in straight lines or ribs, which may be of different sizes and have round or flat tops. when a corduroy has a twill back it is known as a "genoa" backed corduroy; when, as in the lighter makes, the back shows a plain weave it is known as "tabby" backed. corduroy is a cotton fabric with the ribs running lengthways of the piece. the pile is a weft pile. corduroys are made in many varieties--known as fine reed, eight shafts, thicksets, constitution, cables, etc. constitution and cables have broad floats or races which are some distance apart. the term corduroy, when applied to hosiery, is used to designate stockings which are commonly known as two-and-two rib, or two ribs alternating on face and back of children's stockings. =côtelé.=--a ribbed weave in flat, rather wide effect. =cotton.=--cotton is the most used of all vegetable fibres for the manufacture of textiles. length and fineness of individual fibres go towards making quality; shortness and coarseness of fibre make for low qualities. the chief classes of cotton are known as sea island, egyptian, american, brazilian, peruvian, east indian, the first mentioned being the highest and the last the lowest quality. qualities are designated in each class as follows:-- . fair. . middling fair. . good middling. . middling. . low middling. . good ordinary. . ordinary. east indian type of cotton fibres measure on an average but half an inch, as compared with inches in sea island type. =cotton duck.=--duck being a fabric which is sometimes woven in linen, to refer to it simply as duck might be misleading; hence, although when used by itself the term duck is generally recognised to mean a cotton fabric, to differentiate between the two the word cotton or linen is used. this fabric is described under "duck." =cotton flannel.=--as the name implies, cotton flannel is a material woven in cotton in imitation of the real all-wool flannel. it is either a plain or a twill woven fabric which has had the weft on one or both sides of the fabric "raised" or "napped." this is done by passing the fabric, whilst it is tightly stretched, over a revolving cylinder, the surface of which is covered with small steel hooks or teasels; these, scratching as they do the surface of the fabric, tear up very slightly the short fibres and cover the fabric with a "nap," which is afterwards cut down uniformly. cotton flannel was first made for the canton market. cotton flannels may be either "single raised" or "double raised"; in the first only one side of the fabric is raised, in the second both sides are raised. whilst cotton flannel clearly shows that the fabric is a cotton one, the term flannelette does not necessarily mean that it is a purely cotton fabric identical with cotton flannel. flannelette may contain wool, even if only in very small percentage, but by trade usage the name is used to designate only an all-cotton fabric. =cotton plush.=--the term plush being a generic term applied to cut-pile fabrics having the pile deeper than ordinary velvet, velveteen, etc., it follows that cotton plush is essentially a cotton-pile fabric with a somewhat deeper pile than velveteen. cotton plushes may be woven with either plain or twill back, the plain-backed variety being known as a "genoa" plush and the twill-backed variety as a "tabby" plush. =cotton yarn measures.=-- inches = thread (or circumference of wrap reel). , " = threads = lea. , " = " = lea = hank. hank = yards. bundle is usually lb. in weight. the french system of numbering cotton yarns is as follows:-- , metres weighing grammes = no. 's. , " " " = no. 's. , " " " = no. 's. , " " " = no. 's. the count is therefore arrived at by dividing the number of metres reeled by twice the number of grammes they weigh. =counts.=--the size of yarn is technically called the "count," and it is based upon the number of hanks, "cuts," or "runs" of a given length which are required to weigh pound. the standard length of the hank varies according to the nature of the yarn. cotton yarn measures yards per hank; worsted yarn measures yards per hank; woollen yarn measures or yards per "cut," "run," or hank, according to district; linen measures yards per lea; and spun silk, yards per hank. the number of such "cuts," "runs," hanks, or leas required to weigh pound avoirdupois equal the number of the count. when woollen yarn is in gala cuts of yards the number of such cuts required to weigh ounces equal the count: this becomes equivalent to the number of yards required to weigh pound. =coutil.=--french for drill. a strong three-thread twill cloth with herring-bone stripes dyed drab or french grey and used for corset-making. =covert.=--a wool or worsted cloth, usually in fine twill weave, in small mixture effect. there are various grades of coverts and they all have as a distinctive feature neutral tones of colour. the real covert cloth is always made from double and twist warp yarns and single fillings. the weave is such that the filling yarn does not show on the face of the cloth, therefore almost any shade similar in general tone to the warp may be used as filling. cheap grades are made as a piece-dyed union mixture containing up to per cent. cotton. they are also known as venetian coverts when they have a pronounced whipcord effect. the weave is a sateen weave of the warp-face variety. =crabbing.=--one of the many processes through which cloth goes from the time it leaves the loom on its way to being turned out as a finished fabric. the object of crabbing is to fix or set the cloth at the width it has to be as a finished fabric. the actual operation of crabbing consists of running the cloth at a tension on to a steaming or boiling roller. the axle or core of the roller is hollow and perforated; the cloth having been tightly wound round, steam is forced through the perforations and right through the mass of tightly wound cloth. the superheated steam sets the cloth. =crape cloth, plain.=--plain crape cloth is an all-cotton fabric, plain woven from hard-twisted cotton yarns and is free from any woven or printed ornamentation. the nature of the hard-twisted yarn is such that it readily shrinks or curls in length when not kept at a high tension; this, together with subsequent finishing operations, causes a considerable contraction to take place, resulting in an uneven crinkled surface, which is the chief characteristic of crape. the crinkled surface in true crape is obtained in several ways: ( ) by combination of materials; ( ) by weave combination; ( ) by combination of ( ) and ( ); ( ) by mechanical arrangements during weaving; ( ) by subjecting fabrics specially constructed to a special chemical process during finishing. the cheaper grades of crape have the crinkled effect produced by suitably prepared rollers through which the cloth is passed, and the crinkled effect in cotton crapes is not always the result of true crape weaving, which relies on the irregularity of the interweaving of threads to produce the crape effect. in width crape seldom exceeds inches, but is made up in pieces of varying length. the name is also applied to a thin, transparent, "crisp" or crumpled silk material, usually black, which is used in mourning, as well as to a sort of thin worsted material of which the dress of the clergy is sometimes made. =crash.=--a coarse plain-weave linen material in which the unevenness of the weft yarns gives a rough surface to the cloth. there are various grades of crash, of which the coarser and more irregular kinds are used for towelling, whilst the finer are dress materials. some crash fabrics are woven from waste cotton. =cravenette.=--a waterproofing process applied to fabrics made of silk, wool, or cotton. not a fabric. =crêpe de chine.=--a sheer silk having a minute crape effect in the weave. the name in its correct acceptance applies to an all-silk fabric, but there are also cotton and silk mixed fabrics which bear this name, and at times even all-cotton fabrics have been so designated--by the retailer, at least. all the materials which are known by this name are of comparatively light weight. in practically all these fabrics the lustre is imparted by the warp yarns, which are likely to be of better silk than the filling. the filling yarns are twisted harder than for ordinary cloth. the hard twisting of any yarn will so curl up the fibres that they will not lie parallel and so will not reflect light and give lustre. all-silk crêpe de chine fabrics have a width of about inches, whilst all-cotton and cotton and silk mixtures average inches in width. the all-cotton variety is most often simply designated as crêpe. =crêpe meteor.=--a lustrous silk crêpe. =crepoline.=--a fabric of a warp rib character in which the regular order of the weave is so broken as to give a "rib crape" effect. =crépon.=--a dress fabric of silk or wool in which the design is produced by using yarns having a different degree of stretch, so that portions of the fabric are crisped, crinkled, or apparently blistered, either irregularly or in set designs. =cretonne.=--this fabric is essentially a printed cotton fabric woven either with a plain twill satin or oatmeal weave. the weft is generally made from waste and is not very regular. cretonnes, being used mainly for curtains, hangings, or furniture coverings, are generally printed with large, bold, and highly coloured designs. it is woven with a bleached or grey cotton warp and filling in widths ranging from to inches, and for curtains in widths up to inches. their main feature is their large bright-coloured floral designs, and their value depends to a great extent upon the artistic merits of these designs. sometimes a fancy weave or small brocaded effect may occur in this class of fabric, but it is seldom met with, and it is not representative of the true cretonne fabric. flax also is said to be used in the manufacture of certain grades of cretonnes, without, however, taking them out of the class to which cretonne fabrics belong. =crimp cloth, plain, or crimps.=--crimps are plain-woven all-cotton fabrics which have as their distinctive feature "cockled" striped effects. these "crimped" or "cockled" stripes are produced by dividing the warp threads into two separate "beams," one of which is under greater tension than the other; that is to say, the warp threads from one of the beams will be tight and the others slack. these slack threads in the process of weaving are "taken up" more rapidly and form the "crimped" stripes. crimps may also be produced by subjecting fabrics specially constructed to a special chemical process during finishing, or by passing the material through suitable rollers which will stretch the material in some places more than in others and thus artificially produce the "cockled" stripe. crimps are made up in widths seldom exceeding inches; the length of pieces, however, may vary considerably. it is also known as seersucker or crinkle. =crinkle, or seersucker.=--names given to striped fabrics of the crimp type. seersucker originally meant a silk fabric. =cross-dyed.=--cross-dyed goods may be described as fabrics woven with black or coloured cotton warps and wool or worsted fillings and afterwards dyed in the piece. this process is resorted to because the warp and filling of a fabric woven with a cotton warp and a wool filling, and then piece-dyed, would not become identical in colour, as cotton and wool have not the same attraction for dye. cross-dyeing is generally used in mohair, alpaca, and lustre fabrics, and the principal cloths in this classification are cotton warp figured melroses, florentines, glacés, brilliantines, lustres, alpacas, and mohairs. _see_ union cloth. =crossover.=--this name is given to fabrics having stripes, of either colour or weave effect, extending across the width of the cloth from selvedge to selvedge. =cut goods.=--underwear made of either ribbed or flat webbing knitted into long rolls and cut to the proper lengths and sections for garments, after which the various parts are sewed together. =cuttling.=--plaiting cloth in folds; used in the same sense as lapping and folding, as opposed to rolling into bolts. =damask.=--the name damask is technically applied to certain classes of fabrics richly decorated with figures of foliage, fruits, scrolls, and other ornamental patterns, usually of a large and elaborate character. the weaves usually employed are twills (mostly satin twills), and the figures in the fabric are made by alternately exchanging warp for weft surface or _vice versa_. the materials employed vary according to the purpose to which the fabrics are to be applied. in the manufacture of upholstery cloth for hangings and furniture covering, silk or worsted is used; while for table covers, towels, napkins, etc., linen is generally employed, except in the cheapest grades, when cotton is the material used. damask was originally applied only to silken fabrics whose designs were very elaborately woven in colours and often with either gold or silver threads. although in the majority of damask fabrics nothing but satin twill weaves are employed (principally five and eight shaft), very good effects are obtained by combining other weaves with satin twills. where damasks are made all of one colour, as in white linen table covers, the effect is given by the threads lying at right angles to each other; the light falling upon them brings the pattern in bold relief and makes it easily visible. =damassé.=--applied to fabrics having a rich woven design. similar to damask. =delaine.=--a term applied to plain-woven materials made "of wool." the term probably originated in france and was applied there to all plain-woven fabrics of light weight made of wool. as used at present, the term may be combined with another name, and then purely designates the nature of the material used in the manufacture of the fabric, such as in muslin delaine. =denim.=--a stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth, generally woven as a four-end twill. the warp is dyed either blue or brown before weaving, whilst the weft is grey; they are both of coarse counts. denim, being a warp-faced material, has the warp on the surface; and as the warp is made of coloured yarns, the cloth when woven shows a solid coloured surface. the back of the fabric shows the bulk of the weft threads, and these, being in the grey, give the back of the cloth a distinctive lighter colour than the face of the cloth. like all warp-faced twill weave, the back of the cloth shows a plain-weave effect. denims have generally a white edging forming the selvedge; they range from medium to heavy weight and are largely used in the manufacture of workmen's overalls. =derby rib.=--applied to hosiery having six ribs on the face alternating with three on the back. =diagonal.=--this name is applied to plain or figured twills of bold character and originates in the twill effect, which, in relation to the length of the fabric, runs in a diagonal direction. this twill effect is produced by raising warp threads in groups in a progressive order, the filling thus making them stand out in ridges or heavy twill. =diaper.=--this term as applied to fabrics is used to describe two distinct styles, the first of which consists of a small diamond weave, while the second and true diaper has rectangular figures or dice interwoven on the damask principle. in cotton fabrics it is confined to diced or diamond reversible patterns on a small scale. the weave is produced by the interchanging of warp and weft. in linen fabrics, also, it is used to produce diced, diamond, and bird's-eye patterns, and also small reversible damask patterns. in some districts the names dorneck and diced are used instead of diaper. =dimity.=--a fine cotton fabric, plain or printed, having a cord design running lengthways of the piece. the figures are often arranged in alternate stripes and appear as if embossed, this effect being due to the coarse weft "flushes." a cheaper kind is sometimes made by arranging a reversed woven stripe of warp-face and weft-face twill on a plain ground texture. =discharge printing.=--in what is known as the "discharge" style of printing, the cloth is first impregnated throughout its whole substance by being either vat-dyed or pad-dyed; then the cloth is dried, but the colour is not fixed. it is next passed through the printing machine, and chemicals having the property of preventing the development are printed on it, either alone or in combination with other colouring matters. the ground colour is then developed by steaming, and the printed pattern, white or coloured, is obtained upon a coloured ground. =dobbie, or dobby.=--this name is used to describe a type of loom used for the production of certain classes of figured fabrics which have a great many points of similarity with fabrics produced by means of a jacquard loom. the distinctive feature of a dobby loom is the series of lattices into which pegs are inserted, which control the lifting of heald shafts in their proper order, so as to form the shed, the heald shafts being pulled down again by means of springs after having been lifted up to form a shed. =domestics.=--this term is used in the textile producing districts of great britain to denote a class of medium and heavy weight grey cloths, plain or twill woven, the better qualities of which are not exported but used for home or domestic consumption. =domet.=--a strong, heavy, twill-woven cotton fabric resembling canton or cotton flannel, having a raised or napped surface on both sides of the fabric. domet may be either in the grey or white and is a plain fabric. =double cloth weave.=--where two single cloths are so woven that they are combined together and make but one, it becomes known as a double cloth and is the result of double-cloth weaving. double cloth is woven either to obtain two well-defined and finished faces or to allow of a heavy material being made with a good quality face and with the back made up of a cloth composed of inferior material. this style of weaving is resorted to when the object is to produce certain kinds of bulky or heavy overcoating. =double sole, heel, and toe= means an extra thread added to hosiery at points mentioned. strictly speaking, "double" applies only to single-thread goods. =double warps.=--the name double warp is used to designate various kinds of fabrics of good quality in which the warp threads consist of two-fold yarn. not to be mistaken as designating two-ply or double-weave fabrics. =drap d'Été.=--allied to cashmere in weave, but heavier. =dresden.=--a small unobtrusive design in pastel colourings. =drills.=--drills are strong, heavy, warp-faced fabrics woven from yarns of good quality with a three (two warp and one weft), four (three warp and one weft), or five (four warp and one weft) end twill weave. when so woven they are known as florentine drills, of which the khaki drill so often met with in the colonies is a good example. drills are also woven with a warp sateen weave which have--as the twill effect is done away with--a smooth surface. drills may be either linen or cotton fabrics, grey or white, bleached or dyed, printed or striped. they average yards in length per piece and vary in weight from under to ¾ pounds or over per piece and inches in width. the name is from the latin _trilex_, of three threads, and is applied to a "three-thread twilled cloth." cotton drill is a medium weight single cloth weighing from to ounces and composed of all-cotton yarns, warp, and filling, and is generally woven as a three-end twill-weave fabric. =drillette.=--this is a cotton fabric, finer and lighter in make than the ordinary cotton drill. drillette of -inch width is imported into colonial markets, where it is largely used for linings and pocketing. =duchesse.=--a satin fabric having the back woven in flat twills, with a smooth surface. =duck.=--duck is a heavy single-cloth cotton fabric made of coarse two-ply yarn of plain weave. lighter than canvas, duck is woven on the same principle as canvas. duck on leaving the loom is finished by washing and sizing, drying and pressing; this gives the finished material a peculiar, hard, stiff feel. there are linen ducks, but they are specially designated as linen ducks, the term duck being used to denote the cotton variety. better qualities of duck, such as are used for tropical suitings, are woven with a two-and-two matt dice or hopsack weave. the term "two-and-two" means that two weft threads pass alternately under and over two warp threads, exactly as if a plain weave had been doubled and the weave worked with two threads instead of one; the plain weave is often termed a one-and-one weave. _see_ cotton duck. =dungaree.=--a stout cotton warp-faced twill cloth woven as a four-end twill from coarse-count warp and weft. the only difference between this fabric and a denim is that in the latter the weft is grey, whereas in a dungaree both the warp and the weft have been dyed prior to weaving. dungaree, being a warp-faced material, has the warp on the surface, and as both warp and weft are dyed yarns, the cloth, when woven, shows a solid coloured surface. =duplex prints.=--fabrics which have one set of patterns printed on the face of the cloth and another different pattern or design printed on the reverse side are generally styled duplex prints. they differ from fabrics which have been printed in colour on one face, but in such a manner that the printed pattern has soaked through and shows--though less sharply--on the back of the fabric. the duplex print is the result of two distinct printing operations, first on one side, then on the other side, of a fabric. this being the essential condition for a duplex print, it follows that the two patterns need not be different. fabrics printed on one side only, but in such a way that the design shows equally or nearly so on both sides, are not duplex prints. =dyeing.=--this term is used to describe the colouring of materials to enhance their value and appearance. there are five methods of producing colour in the fabric:-- . raw material dyeing. . yarn dyeing. . cross dyeing. . mixed dyeing. . piece dyeing. unless the process is specially mentioned when a fabric is spoken of as "dyed," it can be taken that what is meant is that the fabric was "piece-dyed," _i.e._, dyed in the piece after being taken off the loom. a dyed fabric is one which has been impregnated with some colouring matter and this irrespective of the means adopted to so impregnate it. whether the fabric once woven has been allowed to-- º. remain in a dye vat soaking up dye, or º. whether it has been drawn through a series of troughs containing dye (continuous or pad-dyeing process) with a view to its absorbing the dye-- is immaterial. where both sides of a fabric are equally coloured, and where a fabric shows that there has been thorough saturation, that fabric is said to be dyed. =dyed and printed.=--this term is used to designate any fabric which has been first impregnated with colouring matter either by being vat-dyed or pad-dyed, and which in addition has been ornamented by having certain designs impressed on the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. this is known as direct printing. fabrics may be dyed and printed by various styles of printing, such as "discharge," which consists of printing chemicals upon dyed fabrics in designs, the chemicals causing the dye to come out wherever applied, leaving the printed design either white or in a different colour from that of the dyed ground. "resist" or "reserve" style of printing is a process used to obtain white figures on a coloured ground. in this process the designs are printed in substances that are impervious to the dye into which the cloth is subsequently placed. the cloth is dyed, but all parts covered by the resist agent remain white. =dyed alpacianos.=--this fabric is found grouped in the revised import tariff for the trade of china under "dyed cottons." alpacianos, as the name of a fabric, seems to have fallen into disuse and is probably a very old name. dyed alpacianos would appear to be an all-cotton fabric piece-dyed after leaving the loom, probably averaging between and inches in width and about yards in length per piece. the particular weave of alpacianos is not described in any modern book of reference dealing with textiles. names of fabrics vary, come into fashion, and die out. few connected with modern textile industries could describe, say, fabrics such as "durant," "tammy," or "everlasting webster," yet not so very long ago there were fabrics currently sold under these names. =dyed balzarines.=--the cotton variety of this somewhat ancient fabric was an all-cotton light-weight open fabric resembling gauze, approximating inches in width and yards in length per piece, piece-dyed in solid colours after leaving the loom. _see_ balzarines. =dyed cambrics.=--real cambric is essentially a plain-woven linen fabric of light weight and soft finish, but the kind of cambric most often met with is a cotton fabric of similar weave. dyed cotton cambrics are piece-dyed after leaving the loom and, like white cambrics, are generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. the differentiation between cotton cambrics and muslins is somewhat difficult, as the term cambric is often applied to what are in reality muslins. =dyed corduroys (cotton).=--the term is used to describe a pile-weave ribbed cotton fabric which has been coloured in the piece with a view to enhance its value and appearance. =dyed cotton lastings.=--this fabric is a plain all-cotton twill or kindred weave material firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns and piece-dyed after weaving. lastings enter largely into the manufacture of uppers for boots and shoes. =dyed cotton spanish stripes.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven with a plain weave, having both surfaces raised, giving the fabric the general appearance of flannelette; being a dyed fabric, it is piece-dyed after leaving the loom. as a distinctive feature, spanish stripes have a list or edge of different colour to the main body of the fabric. the warp threads are finer and harder twisted than the filling threads, which are soft and full to facilitate the raising during the process of finishing. in width this fabric may vary between and inches, and in length it averages yards. a similar fabric woven from dyed yarns would be a coloured woven fabric and would not belong to the dyed cotton variety. =dyed crimp cloth.=--an all-cotton fabric having the distinctive "cockled" striped effect of crimp cloth. this cockled effect is produced by greater tension in some of the warp threads than in others. dyed crimp cloth is piece-dyed after leaving the loom and is distinguishable from coloured woven crimp cloth, which is woven from coloured yarns. this material seldom exceeds inches in width, the length per piece varies. =dyed drills.=--a heavy twill-woven all-cotton fabric, the weave of which is described under "drills," which has been dyed in the piece, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface. =dyed figured cottons.=--under this heading may be grouped all such fabrics which (_a_) are made of all cotton, (_b_) are figured by having any design, large or small, woven or embossed, on their surface, (_c_) are dyed in any colour, and (_d_) are not otherwise enumerated. the fabrics coming under this heading include both fabrics which have not been subjected to any special process of finishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective of the style of finish. the ribs or reps of such fabrics, which are known as "reps" or "ribs," do not in themselves constitute figures. printing produces a style of ornamentation which does not rightly belong to this class of goods, in which it must only be the result of weaving or embossing. =dyed figured cotton italians.=--this name is used to designate an all-cotton fabric having the characteristic even, close, smooth surface of the plain italian cloth, but which, in addition, has had its surface ornamented with any figures, floral or geometrical effects, etc., this figuring having been produced either by means of extra threads, or by combining the warp and weft threads, or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as it is a "dyed" fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. =dyed figured cotton lastings.=--this fabric is essentially an all-cotton twill or kindred weave material firmly woven from hard-twisted yarn, which has been figured or ornamented in the weaving by the introduction of a small floral or geometrical design. the fabric, being a "dyed fabric," is piece-dyed. like plain lastings, this material enters largely into the manufacture of uppers for boots and shoes. =dyed figured cotton reps.=--this name is used to designate an all-cotton material which is primarily a rep fabric. it combines the prominent reps or ribs running transversely across the face of the cloth, which is the distinctive feature of a plain rep fabric, with certain small figures, floral or geometrical effects, etc., which are introduced for the purpose of ornamentation. this figuring may be produced either by means of extra threads on the surface of the cloth, by the mode of interlacing the warp and the weft threads on the surface of the cloth, or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed or stamped in the fabric, which, as it is a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. this kind of material averages inches in width and yards in length per piece. =dyed figured ribs.=--this name is used to designate a fabric which is primarily a rib material having the characteristic rep or rib running from selvedge to selvedge, or, in some cases, lengthways of the fabric, but which, in addition, has had its surface ornamented with any figures, floral or geometrical designs. this ornamentation constitutes the figuring and is produced either by means of extra threads or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed, stamped, or embossed in the fabric, which, as it is a dyed fabric, has been coloured after leaving the loom. a dyed figured cotton rib would be an all-cotton material with an average width of inches and averaging yards to the piece. =dyed fustians.=--fustians embrace two classes of finished goods, some of which are characterised in finishes by a nap raised on the fabric, such as moleskins, beaverteens, etc. the other class comprises cut pile fabrics, variously known in the trade by distinctive names, such as velveteen and corduroy. fustians are essentially all-cotton fabrics. dyed fustians are piece-dyed fabrics and not woven from coloured yarns. =dyed imitation turkey reds.=--the fabric of which this class of goods is an imitation is generally a twill-faced all-cotton cloth piece-dyed with a cochineal dye, which is fast to light and washing. the dyed imitation turkey red is similar in construction of fabric, but depends for its colouring upon a chemical or synthetic dye which, while it resembles cochineal, has not the same qualities of fastness. dyed imitation turkey reds are piece-dyed fabrics averaging in width inches and in length yards per piece. fabrics coming under this heading are invariably plain, _i.e._, unornamented either through weave combination, printing, or embossing. =dyed in the piece or piece-dyed.=--these terms virtually explain themselves. when a fabric is impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface it is said to be dyed in the piece or piece-dyed. piece-dyeing is open to produce cloud spots, stains, etc., which would not appear if the yarn had been dyed previously to being woven, for in that case even if the yarn had in parts got stained it would not show as a clearly defined stain in the fabric once woven. piece-dyed fabrics may sometimes be distinguished from yarn-dyed fabrics by unravelling threads of each kind. in the case of yarn-dyed fabrics, the dyestuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff has not the same chance of penetrating yarn as completely. the term "dyed in the grey" (_see under_ union cloth) has a similar meaning to "dyed in the piece" or "piece-dyed." =dyed lawns= are plain-woven light-weight cotton fabrics of soft finish which have been piece-dyed, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over their whole surface after leaving the loom. they vary in weight from ¼ to ¼ ounces per square yard and in width from to inches. they answer to descriptions of white lawns (which see), and differ from them only in regard to the fact that they are piece-dyed. =dyed lenos.=--this fabric or class of fabric is an all-cotton material woven with a gauze and leno weave and subsequently piece-dyed. the description of leno fabrics given in a united states government publication reads: "a term frequently used where various weaves or combination of weaves also have warp threads crossing over one or more warp threads instead of lying parallel to one another throughout the fabric. the warp threads which thus appear in a zig-zag way either on the surface or closely interwoven in the fabric, are, in addition to interlacing with the filling threads, also crossing their neighbouring warp threads that continue in a parallel line with the selvedges." leno fabrics generally show stripe effects, the exception to this being the all-over leno, which resembles in weave the ordinary cellular cloth. =dyed leno brocade.=--this term is used to designate a fabric woven in the leno style, that is to say, in a combination of "gauze weaving" and any other style of weave, and the term brocade shows that it is a figured fabric having a figure chiefly constructed by weft threads floating on the surface of the material. as in this class of fabric the threads are not dyed prior to weaving, the term "dyed" shows that the material has been dyed after it has left the loom. _see also_ lenos. =dyed muslins.=--dyed muslin is an all-cotton fabric of light weight, plain woven, which has been piece-dyed, _i.e._, impregnated with a uniform colour over its whole surface. there is a difficulty in describing muslins, for the term muslin, according to one government publication, is "a generic term for thin plain-woven cotton cloth. the name, however, is frequently used in conjunction with such names as dotted, fancy, figured, spot, check, swiss, etc., which in each case would denote some combination weave, or as containing stripes or checks, but the fabric still preserving a light weight." from this, however, it seems clear that a muslin is a plain non-figured fabric of light weight. =dyed plain cottons.=--under this heading may be grouped all such fabrics which (_a_) are made of all cotton, (_b_) have a surface which has not been ornamented by the introduction of any small figures, floral or geometrical designs, whether produced by means of extra threads or by the mode of interlacing the warp and weft threads on the surface of the cloth or by having the pattern or outline of the design impressed or stamped in the fabric, (_c_) are dyed in any colour, and (_d_) are not otherwise enumerated. the fabrics coming under this heading include both fabrics which have not been subjected to any special process of finishing and those which have been so treated, irrespective of the style of finish. =dyed plain cotton italians.=--the fabric answering to this description is primarily an all-cotton italian cloth whose surface does not show any ornamentation produced either by weaving, printing, embossing, or any other process. the fact that the fabric has been specially finished, to improve its appearance, by being mercerised, schreinered, gassed, silk or electric finished, does not alter its nature of a "plain" cloth. the fabric, being a "dyed" fabric, is one which has been coloured after leaving the loom. as italian cloths are generally woven from a black warp and grey weft and, after weaving, dyed in the piece, they are really "cross-dyed." =dyed real turkey reds.=--turkey reds are a class of staples whose salient distinctive feature is the fact that the dye used in their manufacture is cochineal dye. real turkey reds are absolutely fast dyed, the colour will not run when washed, and it will not appreciably fade when exposed to the action of the sun. turkey reds are piece-dyed, that is to say, the cotton fabric is woven, generally a twill-faced cloth, and the piece is dyed. it is not woven of yarn previously dyed. there does exist a yarn dyed with turkey red; this, however, is principally used for weaving in to the ends of pieces of white shirting or sheeting certain distinguishing red weft threads, markings that are placed there by the manufacturer of the grey goods ( ) to facilitate recognition of his goods when they come back from the bleacher, ( ) to denominate quality of goods by acting as a distinctive mark, ( ) to prevent the piece being cut at either end and the part cut off stolen whilst at the bleachers. this yarn is also used for markings which are to withstand washing without running. the cost of dyeing the grey or white fabric into a turkey red is often greater than the original value of the fabric. =dyed reps= are fabrics which have as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth from selvedge to selvedge and which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom. even without the term "dyed" being used the term rep by itself would generally be used to designate a dyed plain cotton fabric of the rep variety. for particulars of weave, _see under_ rep. =dyed ribs.=--fabrics which are either warp or weft ribbed, _i.e._, having ribs running either from selvedge to selvedge as in warp ribs, or lengthways of the material as in weft ribs, and which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom. for particulars of distinctive weave, _see under_ warp ribs and weft ribs. =dyed sheetings.=--it would appear that when a true cotton sheeting fabric has been dyed it is no longer known as a "sheeting," and this is supported by the remark under the heading sheetings which appears in a united states government publication to the effect that "should a sheeting be dyed or printed, it is never sold as sheeting, but under some other name." a dyed sheeting would, of course, be a stout all-cotton fabric answering to the description of a bolton sheeting, woven from coarse yarns, as a four-shaft two-and-two twill, and measuring in width up to inches; but the fabric most likely to be described as a dyed sheeting is the narrower variety, which is most often plain woven, measuring inches by to yards, and slightly heavier than shirtings of the same measurements which, subsequent to weaving, has been piece-dyed. =dyed shirtings.=--the term in its narrower sense is used to designate what is virtually an all-cotton cloth, woven with a plain weave and having the warp and weft approximately equal in number of threads and counts, which has been coloured by being piece-dyed after weaving. the actual fabric, apart from the dyeing, is that of a grey shirting or grey sheeting, which are more fully described under their respective headings. =dyed t-cloths.=--piece-dyed all-cotton plain-woven fabric, woven from low-quality yarns, generally put up in -yard lengths. =dyed velvet cords (cotton).=--this fabric differs from dyed velveteen cords only as regards the length of the pile, which is longer or deeper in dyed velvet cords than in dyed velveteen cords. the difference between this fabric and corduroys is that corduroys have perfect half-round regular pile ribs, separated by a dividing line between each stripe or pile rib, showing both warp and filling threads, whilst velvet cords have no such dividing line. =dyed velveteen cords (cotton).=--like the plain velveteen, this fabric is essentially an all-cotton pile fabric in which the distinguishing effect is formed by the points of the fibres in the filling yarns, termed the pile, being presented to the vision, and not the sides of the yarns as in the majority of cases. the cords are produced by a process of cutting away the pile so as to form raised cord-like corrugations running lengthways of the piece. being a dyed fabric, it is coloured uniformly all over the piece in some solid colour. it differs from dyed velvet cords only as regards the length of pile, which in the velveteen variety is shorter. the difference between this class of material and a corduroy is that corduroy has a dividing line between each stripe or cord of pile, showing both warp and filling threads, whilst velveteen cords have no such dividing line. =embossed velvet (cotton).=--the term cotton velvet is generally recognised in the manufacturing and distributing trade to be a misnomer, and the material or fabric which would appear to come under this classification is in reality an embossed velveteen, which see. =embossed velveteen (cotton).=--this term is used to designate an all-cotton pile-weave fabric generally woven as a weft-pile weave, the pile surface, consisting of threads or fibres in the filling yarn which forms the pile, standing up at right angles to the back of the fabric. the distinctive feature of this class of fabric is the embossed design or pattern, which is essentially an indented ornamentation produced by pressure and heat. the embossing machine for giving an indented ornamentation to velvet or velveteen and other fabrics has engraved copper rollers, which are heated by enclosed red-hot irons or series of gas jets when operating on dampened goods. the engraved rollers have designs in intaglio, which confer a cameo ornamentation upon the fabric being embossed. =embroideries.=--when applied to woven fabrics this name is used to designate a fine plain-woven cloth made from fine yarns and used for embroidery purposes. generally a linen fabric. =end.=--when the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving it signifies the warp threads, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick." when used to designate a class of twill-weaving such as "a five-end twill," it refers to the total number of warp and weft threads in the twill pattern; thus, "a five-end twill" designates the interlacing of four warp and one weft. under "twill weave" will be found the generally recognised ways of arranging the order of interweaving. =english foot.=--a stocking having two seams in the foot, one on each side of the sole. =eolienne.=--a sheer silk and wool material. also in silk and cotton. =Éponge.=--a french term for sponge cloth. =equestrienne tights.=--tight-fitting knitted drawers for women's use, made of ribbed cloth, either with or without feet. =Étamine.=--french name for bolting or sifting cloth, generally made of silk yarn and used for the purpose of sifting flour. the term is used in america to designate mesh or net weaves. Étamine, though often made of silk, is found also in wool, cotton, linen, etc. plain weave and open-work structure are its salient features. it is equally used for sifting powdered solids and filtering liquids. =extract= is a comprehensive term used to indicate a special class of fibres which have been obtained by "pulling" or beating to pieces material which may have been milled or unmilled, but which was partly composed of cotton, this cotton being got rid of or destroyed by the treatment which is known as carbonising. =extracted.=--goods in which the pattern has been printed, first applying the design with a material which, after dyeing, permits the colour, as it affects the design, to be washed out or "extracted." =façonné.=--having a figure or design raised on the surface. =faille.=--a soft flat-ribbed silk. =fancies.=--fancy is a term used to designate those fabrics which are not woven in the same way year after year, but which show variations in weave, colour, or both colour and weave. the principal fancies of the dress goods variety are brocades, cuspettes, meliores, hopsacking, stripes, checks, plaids, mélanges, and mixtures. =fents.=--when a full-sized piece of cloth is found to be imperfectly woven in parts or damaged through stains, etc., and unsaleable as a whole piece, it is cut up into short lengths; these short lengths are called "fents." the name also is applied to short lengths cut from piece ends and is equivalent to the term "remnant." the value of fents is much less per yard than for similar cloth in the full piece. =figured.=--when used with reference to textiles the term "figured" means that for the purpose of ornamentation certain extra threads--known as figuring threads--have been introduced on the surface of a plain ground structure or on other ground structural weaves, and afterwards allowed to lie loosely or "float" underneath the ground cloth structure. when the extra threads introduced run lengthways in the piece the figured fabric produced is known as an "extra warp" figured cloth. when, similarly, the figured effect is obtained by the introduction of extra threads running across the face of the material, the figured fabric produced is known as an "extra weft" figured cloth. the most elaborate effects, however, are produced by means of the extra warp effects. a cloth may be figured without the addition of any extra warp or weft thread but by combination of weave. =figured muslin.=--when an ordinary plain-weave fabric of the muslin variety has been ornamented by means of combination of weave or an extra thread, whilst still retaining the characteristic light weight, etc., of the true muslin fabric, it is known as a figured muslin. unless specially designated, a figured muslin would be an all-cotton fabric. =figure weaving.=--when complicated and elaborate designs are required the cloth must be woven with the aid of a jacquard, which is an apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads and manipulating them to facilitate the passage of the filling. this style of weave produces figured effects on the face of the fabric and is generally used to produce patterns of great width. such figured and elaborate designs are classed under the name of jacquards. =filled cotton cloth.=--this form of cloth has the interstices between the threads filled with glue, china clay, white lead, chalk, plaster of paris, glauber salts, glucose, or other filling substances. =filling.=--this term is given to the process of adding weight to a fabric by subjecting it to an operation, whereby it will have been made to absorb certain chemicals or substances. the principal filling agents are zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, dextrine, starch, and water glass (alkali silicate). the term "filling" is also used to designate the material used in weighting the fabric and has the same value as "loading" or "weighting." when the word "filling" is used in connexion with weaving it always signifies the weft threads, each of which is also called a "pick." =flannel (woollen).=--the true woollen flannel should be an all-wool fabric, into the making of which no fibres other than wool enter. woven with either a plain or twill weave, flannel is a soft-finished material, which, in the better grades, should be of a non-shrinking character. when a very small percentage of cotton is found in so-called all-wool flannel, it is sometimes due to cotton having remained in the machines used for the carding of the wool prior to making it into yarn. in some countries as much as per cent. of cotton is allowed in an all-wool flannel. when a higher percentage is found the fabric is no longer considered an all-wool flannel. when cotton is made to form part of flannel it is scribbled or carded with the wool to increase the strength of the thread and improve its spinning properties. such yarns are known as carded unions and when woven will produce a woollen flannel, which is distinct from an all-wool flannel. inasmuch as the term "woollen" is commonly used in opposition to "all-wool," and that it is recognised in england that wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," the term woollen flannel is applicable to a fabric that is not an all-wool material. =flannelette.=--like cotton flannel, this fabric is woven from soft mule-spun yarn, which is more suitable for a raised material than a ring-spun yarn. flannelette may be either plain or twill woven and may be either piece-dyed or woven with coloured warp and weft yarns to form either stripes or checks. flannelette is a cloth produced to imitate flannel and has, owing to its raised surface, a "woolly" feel. by being subjected to a special treatment, flannelette can be rendered "fireproof"; if untreated, it is a highly inflammable material. the better qualities of flannelette are distinguished from the lower grades by the former being more closely woven in the warp, and the raised nap is shorter in the better grades. flannelettes are sometimes printed, in which case they would be more correctly described as "printed flannelettes," the ordinary flannelette of commerce not being as a rule "printed." whereas in certain countries it is not legal to sell as "pure wool flannel" a material containing cotton, there is nothing to prevent a manufacturer from selling as flannelette a material in whose composition a certain amount of wool may enter. unlike cotton flannel, which from its very name shows that the material is of cotton, and by inference cotton only, the term flannelette may not always designate an all-cotton material, although by general acceptance in the trade flannelette should be an all-cotton fabric. =flat underwear.=--goods knitted in plain stitch. =fleece-lined.=--applied to a variety of heavy-weight undergarments knitted with three threads--namely, face yarn, backing yarn, and a third thread of yarn tying the face and back together. the heavy nap or fleece is produced by running the cloth through wire rolls, called brushers. the term "fleece-lined" is often misapplied to ordinary single-thread underwear which has been run through the brushing machine for the purpose of raising a light nap on the inner surface. =floconné.=--having small flakes, in white or colour. =florentine drills.=--when a drill is woven with a twill weave it is known as a florentine drill, to distinguish it from satin drill, which is woven with a warp-faced sateen weave. =folded yarn.=--folded yarn is produced by twisting together two or more single yarns. when two single threads are twisted together the folded yarn produced would be called a "two-fold." if the single yarn used in producing the "two-fold" yarn was of 's count (that is to say, of yarn of which it took hanks of yards to weigh pound), the "two-fold" yarn produced would really become equivalent to 's count (that is to say, it would take hanks to weigh pound); however, it would not be referred to as being a 's count, but as a two-fold forties and designated / 's. all folded yarns are designated by two sets of figures separated by a line, which shows on one side the number of threads folded together and on the other the "count" of the single threads thus folded together. by dividing the number of the single threads into the counts the actual number of hanks of the folded yarn per pound is ascertained thus:-- two-fold 's, written / = folded hanks per pound. three-fold 's, " / = " " " " three-fold 's, " / = " " " " four-fold 's, " / = " " " " four-fold 's, " / = " " " " all folded yarn is not composed of single threads of the same count. where such folded yarns are met with, and when it is desired to ascertain the number of hanks of such folded yarn per pound, the simplest way to proceed is to take the highest count and divide it first by itself and the other counts in succession, then divide the sum of the various quotients into the highest count, and the answer will be hanks per pound:-- ÷ = ÷ = ½ -- ½ ) -- answer. -- in folding yarn part of the length of the original threads folded is taken up in the twist; hence, when folded, they will no longer measure the regulation yards per hank, but slightly under. =foulard.=--a soft twilled silk, usually printed. =french foot.=--a hosiery term meaning having only one seam, and that in the centre of the sole. =full regular= (sometimes called looped).--a term applied to hosiery or underwear in which the seams have been connected by hand knitting. =full-fashioned.=--a term used to designate hosiery knitted in a flat web, which is shaped by the machine so as to fit the foot, leg, or body. the webs, or sections, are sewn together to form hosiery, underwear, etc. =fustian.=--this name is given to designate low grades of cotton fabrics woven with a pile weave, such as cotton velvets, velveteens, corduroys, moleskins, cordings, etc. fustian is also applied to such fabrics when they are made in a combination of cotton and flax or other vegetable fibre. it is more used as a generic term designating a class of fabrics than to designate one particular kind of fabric. one class of fustians has a raised "nap" on one or both sides, and includes cantoons or diagonals, which have a pronounced weft twill on the face side and are used for riding breeches. =galatea.=--a cotton fabric having coloured stripes; the weave is usually a three-shaft, but sometimes a four-shaft, warp twill weave. the stripes may be either simply coloured, whilst retaining the twill weave, or they may be plain woven as well as coloured. this material is often used for washing uniforms for nurses and hospital attendants. the weave of galatea is similar to that of jean, nankeen, or regatta twill. =gauge.=--applied to the number of meshes or wales to the inch in underwear or hosiery. for example, a -gauge fabric will have wales or ribs to the inch. =gauze weave.=--in gauze weaving all the warp threads are not parallel to each other, but are made to intertwist more or less amongst themselves. this style of weaving produces light, open fabrics allowing the introduction of many lace-like combinations. the warp is double, one set being the usual or ground warp and the other the "douping," or warp that intertwines itself on the ground warp. gauze weaving produces fabrics which are peculiar for their openness, lightness, and strength. when gauze is combined with plain weaving it is styled "leno." =gingham.=--gingham is an all-cotton fabric, always woven with a plain weave--a yarn-dyed cotton cloth in stripes or checks. it is woven in various grades, having from to ends per inch in the reed and of / 's to / 's cotton yarn in both warp and weft. it is a washing fabric made in both checks and plaid patterns, into which a great variety of colour combinations are introduced. ginghams are made with from two colour warp and filling to eight colour in warp and six in filling. during the finishing process the loom-state fabric is sewed end on piece to piece until a continuous length of cloth of several hundred yards is obtained (this is done to facilitate handling). it is damped by a sprinkler to make it more readily take up the starch size with which it is liberally treated. one variety of gingham known as madras gingham is distinctly a shirting fabric. ginghams, when having a highly variegated colouring, are described as checks. =glacé.=--originally applied to a fabric having a glossy, lustrous surface. now often applied to "shot" silks, that is, plain weaves wherein the warp and filling are of different colours. =granité.=--a weave in which the yarns are so twisted as to create a pebbled surface. =grenadine.=--a somewhat elastic term used to describe an openwork, diaphanous material of silk, wool, or cotton. =grey, in the grey, or grey cloth.=--these terms are used to designate fabrics that are in the loom state and that have been woven from yarn that was neither bleached nor dyed. a grey shirting would no longer be called a grey shirting after it had been bleached. in the woollen industry the term "grey" is applied to the web in its loom state previous to its being put through the various necessary processes to make it into a finished cloth. =grey drills.=--grey cotton drills are all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven from unbleached yarns as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft) which have not been bleached, dyed, or printed from the time they left the loom. varying in weight according to quality, they are, however, generally put up in pieces measuring inches in width by yards in length. they are more fully described under drills. the pepperell drill is a grey drill of superior quality made from high-class yarns and exceedingly well woven. =grey jeans.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-shaft twill having either (_a_) each weft thread passing over one and under two warp threads, or (_b_) each weft thread passing over two and under one warp thread, the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted. when woven as a warp-faced twill fabric from strong yarns, the cloth is often called a drill, and is used for suitings, boot linings, corseting, etc; when woven from lighter yarns as a medium-weight weft-faced twill fabric, the cloth is largely used for linings. in width it varies from and under to or more inches and in length from to yards per piece. a "grey" jean is a jean in the loom state, _i.e._, which has not been bleached by being treated with bleaching powders, etc. =grey sheeting.=--there are two distinct varieties of grey sheeting. the first kind is used for bed sheeting and is a stout cotton cloth woven from coarse yarns, usually in a four-shaft two-and-two twill weave, and having a width of as much as inches. the weave of this material being a twill weave having an equal number of warp and weft threads to the inch, the twill lines or diagonal produced will be at an angle of degrees to a line drawn across the width of the material. this diagonal effect is produced by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick or weft is inserted. this kind of sheeting is known as bolton sheeting, which is a grey material, _i.e._, unbleached. in length the piece may measure up to yards. the second kind of sheeting is waste sheeting, made from waste and condenser wefts, _i.e._, wefts made from certain waste cotton which accumulates during the process of spinning yarn. this waste is treated by special machinery, which prepares it and spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in the weaving of sheetings. waste sheetings are woven like bolton sheeting, with the exception of the lower qualities, which are often plain or calico woven. the lower grades of grey sheeting are often simply grey calico cloths of about inches in width and resembling very closely grey shirtings, the only difference being that they are slightly heavier in the yarn than the ordinary grey shirting. grey sheeting is generally made up into pieces of from to yards in length and varying in weight according to count of yarn used. =grey shirting.=--a grey shirting is an unbleached cotton cloth woven with a plain weave and having the warp and weft approximately equal in number of threads and counts; the fabric has a plain, even surface, which, when the threads are evenly spaced, is said to be well "covered." grey shirting, a staple import into the eastern markets, is made up in pieces measuring from to yards in length, a width of from to inches, and weighing from to pounds and over per piece, according to the count of the yarn and the amount of size used. this class of fabric has the warp threads heavily sized. the exact difference between grey shirtings and certain grades of grey sheetings is at times non-apparent. again, a grey shirting may be termed a calico, which in the trade has become a general term used to designate practically any cotton cloth coarser than muslin. =grey t-cloths.=--all-cotton plain-woven unbleached fabric of low quality and heavily sized yarns nearly always put up in -yard lengths. the name is said to be derived from the mark @t@ of the original exporters. =grosgrain.=--a silk fabric having a small ribbed effect from selvedge to selvedge. when the rib runs lengthways the fabric is known as a millerayes. =habit cloth (woollen).=--an all-wool cloth similar to medium, broad, and russian cloth. average width, to inches. in the better grades it is a high-priced fabric generally used for riding habits. met with in dark shades of green or else in black. =habutai.=--a plain-weave silk, of smooth and even texture, originally made in japan on hand looms. =hair-cord muslin.=--a plain-weave fabric having stripes or checks formed by coarse threads, which stand out in a clearly defined manner. =hand looms and power looms.=--the difference between these two kinds of looms lies in the fact that in the former (hand loom) the weaving is the result of the loom being worked and controlled by hand and foot, whereas in the power loom, whether belt driven or driven by electric motor, the power transmitted to the loom works all the essential parts, which are:-- . warp beam. . heddles. . shuttle. . reed or beater-in. . cloth roll. when a power loom has been suitably tuned up, _i.e._, timed so that the various movements necessary for the forming of the "shed" and the passing of the shuttle and the beating-in occur in the right sequence and at a correct interval of time, the weaver (who, in the case of power looms, is oftener called the overlooker) only has to attend to the broken warp threads or replenishing of the weft shuttle. with a hand loom the weaver controls the heddles which form the shed, throws the shuttle carrying the weft thread through the shed, and as fast as each filling thread is interlaced with the warp beats it in close to the previous one by means of a reed which is pulled by hand towards, and recedes from, the cloth after each passage of the shuttle. this is done to make the cloth firm. the movement of the reed in the hand-power loom (or, more correctly, in the hand and foot power loom) being controlled by the weaver and not mechanically, accounts for irregularity in firmness of weave not found in fabrics woven on a power loom. =handle.=--this term is used either as a "wool term" in connexion with wool or as a general textile term in connexion with fabrics. as a wool term it refers or designates all the attributes which determine quality, _i.e._, softness, fineness, length, and elasticity--noticeable when wool is judged by the feel. easier to define than to acquire, "handle" also enters into the judging of woven fabrics. it is then used to denote the hardness, harshness, softness, smoothness, etc., which similarly are factors of quality and which are often best appreciated by the sense of touch. =harvard shirting.=--this style of shirting is generally recognised by its broken twill effect, which may be combined with plain stripes, small diamond patterns, etc., woven from dyed yarns. the salient feature of harvard shirtings is the above effect in different colours. the ground weave is generally a two-and-two twill. =henrietta.=--a soft, lustrous, twilled fabric of wool; similar to a cashmere, but finer and lighter. =herring-bone.=--a binding often used in facing the neck and front opening of undershirts. also applied to the stitching which is made to cover the edge of the split sole in hosiery. used in connexion with textiles, it is applied to striped effects produced by alternating a left-hand and a right-hand twill-weave stripe. =hessian.=--a strong, coarse, plain-woven packing or wrapping cloth made from jute or hemp yarns. a standard make of this material weighs ½ ounces to the yard, is inches wide, and averages shots per inch. =hog, or hoggett wool=, is another name for lambs' wool; it is the product of the first clipping of the young sheep and can be distinguished by the fact that its ends are pointed, whereas subsequent clippings yield wether wool with blunt and thickened ends. =honeycomb.=--this designates a style of weave and not an actual fabric. marked ridges and hollows, which cause the surface of the fabric to resemble that of a honeycomb, are the salient characteristics of this style of weave. the term is also applied to leno weaves when consecutive crossing ends cross in opposite directions. =huckaback.=--this name designates a class of weave mainly used in the weaving of towels or towelling, which combines a small design with a plain ground. the short floats of warp and weft and the plain ground of these weaves give a rough surface combined with a firm structure. the small design entering into this class of weave varies, but is always a geometrical design and not floral. =imitation rabbit skin.=--generally an all-cotton pile-weave fabric having a long pile, which has not the same amount of lustre as either a silk or mohair pile, being duller in appearance. this kind of fabric may be distinguished from a silk or mohair pile material by the fact that its pile will crush more readily than either. its pile will not spring back into place readily, more especially when the pile is long. generally to inches wide and yards long, it is shipped on frames, on which it is fastened by a series of hooks. these hooks hold the material by the selvedges, which are made specially strong. two -yard frames are generally packed in one box or case. =ingrain.=--a term for knitted goods applied to raw material or yarn dyed before knitting. =irishes.=--this generic name is applied to linen fabrics, which are a speciality of ireland. irishes have been imitated in cotton, and when such a fabric is met with it should be designated as a cotton irish. the term irishes would cover such fabrics as irish cambric, irish duck, and irish linen. =irish cambric.=--this fabric, like all true cambrics, is an all-linen fabric, plain woven, without a selvedge. it has been imitated in cotton, and the name is now currently used to designate an all-cotton plain-woven fabric finer than lawn, in which the warp yarn is often of a different thickness from that used for the filling and is finished with a smooth glazed surface. =italian cloth.=--a plain cloth generally made of standard materials, _i.e._, fine botany weft and a cotton warp. italian cloth is usually a weft-faced fabric. like all fabrics woven with a weft-faced satin weave, the weft or filling threads are practically all on the surface of the cloth, producing an even, close, smooth surface capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. italian cloth is generally cross-dyed, that is to say, woven from a black warp and grey weft, afterwards dyed in the piece. it may be woven either as an all-cotton, a cotton and worsted, a cotton and wool, or a cotton and mohair fabric. its chief characteristic is its smooth, glossy, silky appearance obtained by various processes of finishing given to the cloth after it is woven. all finishes have the same tendency and purpose, which is to improve the appearance and enhance the value of the cloth. whilst italian cloth may be either plain, figured, embossed, printed, etc., or a combination of these varieties, the name is applied to a "plain dyed cotton fabric." =italian cloth, figured, cotton warp and wool weft.=--this fabric, in addition to the characteristics of the plain italian cloth woven from cotton warp and wool weft, has had its surface ornamented by the introduction of figures or floral or geometrical designs produced either by combination of weave or by means of certain extra threads known as "figuring threads." these figures may be produced by means of either extra warp or extra weft threads. in this class of material, where the weft is wool, the extra figuring thread is generally a weft thread. the figuring thread, after having served the purpose of ornamenting the face of the cloth, is allowed to lie loosely or "float" underneath the ground cloth structure. where the figuring is produced by combination of weave no such floating threads appear. =italian cloth, plain, cotton warp and wool weft.=--under the heading "italian cloth" it will be seen that such a fabric is essentially a weft-faced satin-weave material having practically the whole of the weft or filling threads on the surface. when it is woven from a wool weft and a cotton warp the material shows the face of the cloth as a wool face, the main bulk of the cotton warp showing on the back of the fabric. when woven with cotton warp and wool weft, italian cloth still retains the characteristic smooth surface of all weft-faced satin-weave fabrics. very simple tests by burning will show the nature of both warp and weft, and this class of fabric illustrates clearly, by contrast between the two sets of threads, the nature of weft-faced satin or kindred weave fabrics. such italians are generally cross-dyed, _i.e._, woven with dyed warp and grey weft, and then piece-dyed. =jaconet.=--there are two varieties of jaconets, both of which, however, are all-cotton fabrics. one is a hard-finished fabric similar in weight to victoria lawn, having a smooth, lustrous, cambric finish. the other is a soft-finished material which can hardly be distinguished from a heavy soft-finished nainsook. jaconet is a plain-woven fabric which has been variously described as a "thin, soft muslin," or as a "plain-woven cotton fabric lightly constructed, composed of light yarns." bleached, dyed, or printed in the grey piece length, similar to mulls, nainsooks, cambrics, etc. it is also spelt jaconettes. =jacquards= is a loose term applied to elaborate designed fabrics produced by means of a machine called a jacquard, the distinctive feature of which is an apparatus for automatically selecting warp threads and moving them independently of each other. jacquards are the produce of what is termed figure weaving, in which complicated figures are woven into the fabric. =jaeger.=--this name is used to designate the products of a certain manufacturer whose material is described as being an "all-wool" material. generally applied to underwear and fabrics into whose composition camel wool is said to enter largely. =jean.=--a jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-shaft twill similar to a dungaree. good-quality jeans, woven from coloured warp, are often used as sailors' collars and for children's clothing. woven in the grey as a weft-faced twill and subsequently dyed, they are used for lining cloths. the weave of a jean fabric, which is its salient characteristic, is described under "grey jeans," which is the kind of jean most often met with. =jeanette.=--a three-shaft weft twill fabric having warp and weft threads about equally proportioned in number and thickness. the name "jeanette backed" is applied to certain pile fabrics that have a three-end twill back. applied to a cotton material, it would correspond to a jean type fabric not as stoutly woven as a jean. one authority, however, claims that it is "a similar fabric to the jean in which the warp predominates." =jouy.=--printings in small floral effects on silk or cotton, similar to pompadour designs. named after a frenchman who established a plant for such work during the reign of louis xv. =kerseymere.=--seldom met with under this name. kerseymere is a fine woollen cloth of a serge-like character, woven with a three-shaft weft-faced twill weave. =khaiki.=--a japanese silk of plain weave, not so fine as habutai. =khaki.=--a colour resembling that of the ground. this word is derived from the hindustani word for "earth." a term applied to a special shade of brown or greenish brown largely employed in soldiers' uniforms. ladies' cloth.--a dress fabric of plain weave, similar to a flannel in construction, but with a high-finished surface, which gives the fabric a broadcloth effect. =lappet weave.=--lappet weaving is used to produce on a light fabric small designs which have the appearance of having been embroidered upon the fabric, such as the detached spots in dotted swiss, or narrow and continuous figures running more or less in stripes. this form of weaving is used mainly on plain and gauze fabrics, and the figures are practically stitched into the fabric by means of needles in a special sliding frame. the yarn which produces the figured design is an extra warp thread known as a "whip yarn." lappet weaving produces the design on one side only of the fabric, and this feature will enable this style of weave to be recognised from other processes, such as swiss embroidery. the loose threads existing between the figures when the goods leave the loom are usually cut away, leaving a somewhat imperfect figure or spot with a bit of the figuring thread protruding at either extreme edge of the figure or spot. lappet-figured fabrics are not brocades. =lastings.=--a plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted wool or cotton yarns. smooth in appearance but having a somewhat hard handle, lasting is a fine, durable, generally piece-dyed, material, of which there are several varieties, such as the printed and the figured. it is sometimes employed in the making of uppers for boots and shoes. =leas.=--a term used to denote the count of linen yarn, each lea being a measure of length equal to yards. when used with reference to cotton yarn, it is a measure of length equal to , inches, or yards. _see under_ cotton yarn measures. =leather cloth.=--this name is given to a cloth which is known in the bradford district as a melton. it is a union cloth woven from cotton warp and woollen weft having the warp threads running in pairs or, as it is called, in "sisters." generally measuring from to inches in width and weighing from to ounces per yard, it is finished with a bright, smooth face. the system of interlacing of warp and weft is not apparent either on the face or back of the cloth. by pulling away one or two weft threads it is easy to see that the warp threads are of cotton and that they are in pairs. leather cloth is free from any figuring and is generally dyed in dark colours. =leno.=--where a fabric is woven with a combination of gauze weaving and a few plain picks it is said to be a leno. it is a term now currently used to designate all classes of light fabrics into which the gauze weave (in which kind of weaving all the warp threads do not run parallel or at right angles to the weft but are more or less twisted round each other) is introduced in combination with any other kind of weave. lenos may have either an "all-over effect" or "stripes." the introduction in lenos of the gauze weave tends to strengthen a material which from its very nature can only be but light. lenos may show, in addition to the "all-over effect," an extra weft figure or spot. whilst all these would be known as lenos, their more correct designation would be figured lenos, or extra weft spot figured lenos. the term is now loosely used, and sometimes a "lace" stripe muslin will be called a leno. the crossing threads used in the true or "net" lenos are often of two or three fold yarn. the common so-called lace curtains are lenos. the common varieties of lenos are extensively used for the purpose of mosquito nets. =liberty.=--a light-weight silk having a satin finish. a trade name applied to a satin-finish silk of light weight now generally applied to such silks, although not the original "liberty." =linen yarn.=--when the count of linen yarn is given, it is denoted by "leas." each lea is a measure of yards, and leas = hank and hanks = bundle. it will be seen that as the "counts" increase, the weight per bundle decreases. =lingerie.=--this comprehensive term embraces ladies' and children's undergarments, such as skirts, undershirts, etc., infant's long and short dresses, stockings, chemises, night-robes, drawers, corset covers, etc. =lining.=--a cloth usually made from cotton warp and cotton, alpaca, or botany weft, according to the type of cloth required, generally woven with a sateen weave. italian cloth is a typical example of lining cloth. the name denotes a class of fabrics rather than a given fabric. =lisle thread.=--yarns made of long-staple cotton, somewhat tightly twisted and having a smooth surface produced by passing the yarn over gas jets. =loading worsted and woollens.=--when the natural weight of any fabric is artificially increased, it is subjected to a treatment called "filling," "loading," or "weighting." wool fabrics, by reason of their great hygroscopic properties, are usually weighted by being impregnated with hygroscopic substances, such as magnesium chloride. other agents employed for filling worsted and woollen goods are zinc chloride, dextrine, starch, and water glass (alkali silicate). zinc chloride is a most useful loading agent on account of it possessing great hygroscopic properties. when a wool fabric has passed through solutions containing this agent the chloride is absorbed and permanently retained in the form of moisture, and a slippery handle or feel is imparted. =longcloth.=--this name is used to designate a fine cotton fabric, either plain or twill woven, of superior quality, made from a fine grade of cotton yarn of medium twist. the fabric is used for infants' long dresses, from which it derives its name, also for lingerie. longcloth to some extent resembles batiste, fine muslin, india linen, and cambric. it is, however, distinguished from these fabrics by the closeness of its weave. it has, when finished, a very good white appearance, due to the closeness of the weave and the soft twist of the yarn. the surface is rendered smooth by undergoing a "gassing" process. =long ells (woollen).=--this name is given to an all-wool twill-weave fabric woven with a worsted warp and a woollen weft, averaging in width from to inches and having a length of yards to the piece. calendered, finished, and often dyed a bright vermilion. long ells averaged in value during the years - about _s._ per piece. they are not met with in a large range of qualities, the most usual type answering to the above description. =long stick.=--this term is used to describe a yard of ½ inches in length. the abbreviated manner of writing this term on documents referring to textiles is ls. it is only used in connexion with textile fabrics and in opposition to "short stick," a yard of inches. one authority states that "the yard is generously reckoned at inches by manufacturers in the united kingdom." this statement, however, should be taken with reserve, although in the woollen trade it seems to be a common practice. in addition to this extra inch per yard, a quarter of a yard in every is generally allowed, so that a nominal -yard piece would actually measure yards + inches + yard = yards inches. the long stick measure is only used in the woollen trade. =louisine.=--a silk fabric having an uneven surface like that of an armure, but finer in effect. =lustre dress fabrics.=--this class of union fabric, when woven with a fast black dyed cotton warp and a worsted mohair weft, is representative of union fabrics in general, and the treatment of this material when in its grey state applies to the majority of union fabrics. the warp is generally a / 's, _i.e._, a strong yarn, and the weft, say, a / 's. the warp being dyed prior to weaving, there only remains the weft to be dyed after the unfinished cloth leaves the loom. this is called cross-dyeing. the grey cloth, in its loom state, possesses a visible appearance of non-lustrous cotton. this appearance is changed and replaced by the lustre effect through the process of "crabbing," or drawing out the material in the direction of the cotton warp. the warp threads when drawn straight virtually throw the lustrous weft to the surface, whilst they themselves become embedded out of sight in the cloth. orleans, mohair brilliantine, and mohair sicilian are fabrics which come under this heading. =maco.=--applied to hosiery or underwear made from pure egyptian undyed cotton. =madapolams= are all-cotton plain-weave bleached shirtings or calico cloths. =madras.=--a light-weight cotton fabric or a cotton and silk mixture sold in widths varying from to inches, usually made from dyed yarns. extensively used to designate light-weight shirting materials as used for men's shirts, the term is equally applied to similar weight fabrics printed in simple designs frequently elaborated in weaving by stripes or figures woven on a dobby loom. in the distributing trade, comprising various subdivisions of the trade, the names madras, gingham, madras gingham, zephyr, etc., are so closely allied as to be impossible of separation. the original intent of these several designations has apparently been completely lost. madras may either be woven as a plain or twill or kindred weave fabric. whilst this name is primarily applied to an all-cotton fabric, it is also used to designate a cotton and silk mixture, when it is sometimes described as a silk gingham. the salient characteristic of madras is the plain white and fancy coloured narrow stripes running in the direction of the warp. =madras gingham.=--this name is applied to all-cotton fabrics made in part or to a considerable extent of dyed yarns of various colours, woven into stripes or checks woven either plain or fancy or with a combination of two or more weaves, and of a weight distinctly suitable for a shirting material in countries lying in the temperate zone. in the united states the introduction of a leno or satin stripe for the purpose of elaboration or ornamentation does not change the trade designation of such gingham. madras gingham may be woven either plain, diamond, gauze and leno weave, or a combination of these weaves. _see_ madras. =madras handkerchiefs.=--plain-woven coloured cloths, with large bold checks. the yarns are dyed with a loose top, and the cloth is treated with acids, which cause the colours to bleed or run and give an imitation of block printing. =maline.=--a fine silk net of gauze-like texture. practically the same as tulle. =market descriptions of standard cloth.=--certain standard cloths are known on the market by an expression such as " -- , x , / ". this stated at length means that the cloth is inches wide, yards long, and contains "ends" (or warp threads) and "picks" (or weft threads) per quarter inch, whilst the twist (or warp) is 's and the weft 's--all being actual, not nominal, particulars. =marl.=--a term applied to a particular kind of coloured two-fold or single yarn. in the former (the two-fold) one or both threads making the two-fold yarn are spun from two rovings of different colours, causing the single thread to have a twist-like appearance; or the process may be begun earlier, by the two colours being run together in the thick roving, thus producing a twist-like effect in the smaller roving immediately preceding the spinning. these single twist-looking threads are usually folded with a solid colour, frequently black. if folded with each other they are called double marls; a single-yarn marl is this yarn without the folding. =marquisette.=--a sheer plain-weave fabric of silk or cotton, having a mesh more open than that of voile. =matelassé.=--a heavy compound-weave figured cloth, having a raised pattern, as if quilted or wadded. =matt weave.=--similar to a plain or one-over-one weave, with this difference, that instead of lifting one thread at a time two are lifted over two. it might be described as a double plain weave. this style of weave is noticeable in some varieties of embroidery canvas. =medium cloth (woollen).=--this is an all-wool fabric, plain woven from a wool weft and wool warp. in width it varies from to inches and in length from to yards per piece. the average value of this fabric per yard for the period to was _s._ _d._ this fabric approximates to, and by some is said to be identical with, broad, habit, and russian cloth. =mélange.=--the french word for "mixture." name given to a yarn produced from printed tops. this class of yarn can be distinguished from mixture yarn in that many fibres have more than one colour upon them. in mixture yarn each fibre would only have one colour. =melton.=--stout, smooth woollen cloth, similar to broadcloth, but heavier. a heavily milled woollen in which the fibres have been raised, then the piece cut bare to obtain the typical melton. both light and heavy meltons are made with cotton warp and woollen weft. =mercerised cotton.=--cotton fibre roughly resembles a tube which, being hollow and collapsed on itself, presents an uneven, twisted, tape-like appearance with a good many surface markings. by chemical treatment (mercerising) with caustic soda, and the application of tension at the right period of the treatment, remarkable changes in the structure and appearance of the cotton fibre are produced. it is made to swell, to become more transparent, to lose its twisted tube-like appearance, and to become more lustrous, translucent, and elastic. mercerised cotton gives an impression of silk to the naked eye, its microscopic appearance being changed, the fibre having swelled out and assumed a rounded rod-like appearance which, whilst resembling silk, still differs from silk by the absence of the characteristic swellings so distinctive to silk. the mercerising process improves the dyeing properties of cotton. the most effective mercerisation is obtained with egyptian cotton. =mercerising.=--the object of this very important operation in the manufacture of cotton goods, yarn, or cloth is to give them lustre, making them resemble silk, the use of which they have replaced in many instances. the process, which takes its name from the inventor (mercer), consists of passing the yarn or cloth, preferably bleached or partially bleached, through a concentrated solution of caustic soda, which causes the straightening of the cotton fibres, and would also cause it to shrink considerably were it not for the fact that the material being treated is kept under tension, which prevents the shrinking. to this tension more than anything else is the lustre imparted due. mercerising is only applicable to vegetable fibres. animal fibres dissolve in caustic soda. the caustic soda solution is only allowed to react on the fibre for about two minutes, when it is washed out by abundant application of fresh water. _see_ mercerised cotton. =merino.=--applied to hosiery or underwear made of part cotton and part wool mixed together. (_note._--the word "merino" on a box label is often misleading, as it frequently happens that goods so called are composed wholly of cotton.) =mesh underwear.=--all knit underwear cloth is mesh in varying degree, but the common application of the term means a woven or knitted fabric having a net-like appearance. =messaline.=--a light-weight satin of fine quality. =mixture yarn.=--this class of yarn is spun from fibres which have previously, and separately, been dyed various colours. the fibres are then mixed together to produce the desired mixture tone and spun in the usual way. this class of yarn differs from mélange yarn, which is composed of fibres upon which more than one colour has been printed. =mock leno.=--mock or imitation lenos are ordinary woven cloths, that is, the warp threads do not cross each other, the open effect being less pronounced than in the real leno, resulting in a fabric which is not as strong as the real or true leno. =mock seam.=--applied to stockings made with cut leg and fashioned foot. =mohair= is a lustrous wool obtained from the angora goat. the hair is often pure white, fine, wavy, and of good length, being the most lustrous of the wool or hair class fibres. it is extensively used in the manufacture of plushes and lustrous dress fabrics. the name mohair is used to designate a lustrous fabric made from this class of material. =mohair beaver plush.=--this fabric is a pile-weave material having a long lustrous mohair pile and a cotton back. the mohair pile is generally a "fast" pile in the sense that it is firmly held to the back. the pile is not as lustrous as a silk pile or even a good mercerised cotton pile, but it will not crush as readily as the latter. generally measures from to inches in width and yards in length. to prevent crushing of the pile, this material is shipped on an iron frame, on which it is fastened by a series of hooks which hold the material by the selvedges. generally packed two frames to the box or case. the backs of mohair pile fabrics show a certain amount of loose pile fibres which have worked through during the process of weaving. this is not found in either silk or cotton pile fabrics. =mohair brilliantine.=--a typical lustre dress fabric, plain woven, free from ornamentation, cotton warp and mohair weft; width, to inches; length, to yards per piece. finer in weave appearance than lustre orleans, with a fairly extensive range of qualities. like most lustre fabrics, it is cross-dyed. =mohair coney seal.=--a long mohair-pile fabric, dyed black, in widths of from to inches. the pile of this fabric is mohair, the foundation cloth all cotton. harsher to the touch than a silk-pile fabric, mohair coney seal has, as a distinctive feature, a fuzzy appearance at the back due to the fact that certain of the pile fibres appear to have worked through. if a similar fabric were dyed brown instead of black, it would be known as a mohair beaver plush. if a similar fabric were dyed black and the surface chemically bleached till the dye was all out, producing a pile dyed two-thirds black and the surface third white, it would be known as a silver seal or chinchilla plush. =mohair sicilian.=--similar in construction of weave and components to a mohair brilliantine and differing from this only by the relative coarseness of threads. sicilian is three times as coarse as brilliantine, presenting a surface in which the warp and weft intersections are clearly shown, whereas the brilliantine, being so much finer woven, does not show these so clearly, presenting as it does a smoother surface. the weft threads in sicilian are comparatively much coarser than the warp, whereas in brilliantine this difference is not so apparent. in width sicilian measures up to inches and in length from to yards per piece. =moiré.=--a watered design applied to silks by pressure between engraved rollers, or by the more common process of pressing two fabrics together. _see_ watering. =moleskin.=--an all-cotton fustian, made extra strong by crowding the number of picks to the inch, napped before dyeing and put to the same uses as a strong corduroy. =mottles.=--a variety of velveteen or velveteen cord woven with a pile surface showing a distinct combination of yarn-dyed pile threads. generally found with a pile combining black and white weft-pile threads; mottles are yarn-dyed fabrics. =mousseline de soie.=--a sheer soft fabric of silk, similar to chiffon, but of more open weave. =mule-twist yarn.=--mule-twist yarn can be spun up to the finest counts; it is softer and more elastic than ring-twist yarn; it will take up more "size" than ring-twist and, generally speaking, is more regular in construction. =mull.=--a thin plain fabric usually bleached or dyed, characterised by a soft finish, used for dress wear. various prefixes, such as swiss, india, and silk, are used in conjunction with mull. silk mull is made of cotton warp and silk filling, and generally of higher count, finished either dyed or printed. the swiss and india mulls are fine, soft, bleached cotton fabrics; silk mull is in point of texture twice as fine as some grades of cotton mull. cotton mull is a plain fabric free from any ornamental features or fancy weaves, depending for its beauty or attractiveness entirely on the finish. when coarse-grade mull, intended not for dress wear but for decorative purposes, is made, it is woven coarser than the dress fabric, stiffened in the finishing, and commonly known as starched mull. it is inches wide, and has picks and ends per inch. cotton mull is generally woven from bleached yarns and not bleached in the piece. =mungo and shoddy= are wool products or wool fibres which have previously passed through the process of manufacture. before either mungo or shoddy is produced, the rags, tailors' clippings, pattern-room clippings, or samples from which they are made have to be dusted, sorted, and ground. the last process tears thread from thread and fibre from fibre, leaving the mungo or shoddy ready to be once more made up into a yarn. the name is applied to textiles made up wholly or in great part from mungo or shoddy. there actually exists a technical difference between mungo and shoddy, due to the class of fabric from which they are made. mungo is the product of all types of cloths which have been subjected to the milling process. shoddy is the product of unmilled fabrics, such as flannels, stockings, wraps, etc. mungo is usually shorter and finer in fibre than shoddy, because, in the first place, milled cloths are nearly always made from the shorter kinds of wool; secondly, because the fibres of a milled cloth are very difficult to separate from one another and break in the process of pulling. both mungo and shoddy are rather more comprehensive terms than names for any special type of material; both classes have a number of special divisions with different names. =nainsook.=--nainsook is a light cotton fabric of plain weave which has a very soft finish. it may be distinguished from fine lawns, fine batiste, and fine cambric from the fact that it has not as firm a construction nor as much body, and for that reason is not capable of retaining as much finishing material, the result being that when finished it has a very soft feel when handled. in width it ranges from to inches and in length from to yards per piece. =nankeen.=--the original nankeen fabric was produced in china and was a plain-weave cotton fabric woven on a hand loom from a cotton yarn which had a natural yellow-coloured tinge. the name is now given to a cotton cloth produced in lancashire, woven as a three-shaft twill and dyed a yellowish drab and other colours, often used for corset-making. there is a mass of evidence to show that true nankeen is a class of cloth having as a salient characteristic an inherent peculiar colour which is natural and due to its being woven from cotton of a yellow-brownish tint. the following extracts bear on this point. "the statement that this stuff was made from a cotton of brownish yellow tint was for a long time discredited, but it is now certain that the yellow preserves the colour of the cotton composing it rather than acquires it by any process of dyeing" (s. william beck: "textile fabrics: their history and applications"). sir george staunton, who travelled with lord macartney's embassy through the province of kiangnan, to which province the nankeen cotton is peculiar, distinctly states that the cotton is naturally "of the same yellow tinge which it preserves when spun and woven into cloth" ("embassy to china," by sir george staunton). sir george thomas staunton (son of the above) has translated an extract from a chinese herbal on the character, culture, and uses of the annual herbaceous cotton plant, in which the plant producing "dusky yellow cotton" of a very fine quality is mentioned as one of the varieties ("narratives of the chinese embassy to the khan of the tartars"). van braam, who travelled in china with a dutch embassy and who had been commissioned by european merchants to request that the nankeens for their markets might be dyed a deeper colour than those last received, says: "la toile de nanking, qu'on fabrique fort loin du lieu du même nom, est faite d'un coton _roussâtre_: la couleur de la toile de nanking est donc naturelle, et point sujette à pâlir" ("voyage de l'ambassade de la compagnie des indes orientales hollandaises vers l'empereur de la chine"). "each family (at woosung) appears to cultivate a small portion of ground with cotton, which i here saw of a light yellow colour. the nankeen cloth made from that requires no dye" ("voyage of the ship _amherst_ to the north-east coast of china, ," published by order of the house of commons). other authors refer to a nankeen-coloured cotton grown in india and state that the original nankeen fabric was produced in nanking, in china, and was woven from a natural-coloured yellow cotton. as produced in lancashire the cloth is a closely woven three-shaft twill, dyed yellowish drab and other colours and used for stay and corset making and for pocketing. an american government publication (house of representatives document no. : report of the tariff board on schedule of the tariff law) gives the general description of nankeens as known in the distributing trade as: "distinguished by their peculiar yellowish brown colour, natural to the colour of the cotton of which made." from the above it would seem clear that true nankeen is a plain native cotton cloth woven on a native hand loom from unbleached and undyed yarn spun from cotton of a yellowish or yellow-brownish natural colour. the weave of nankeen is a plain one-over and one-under shirting weave, such being the type of weave most readily produced on a native hand loom. the finished fabric is marketed in its loom state. true nankeen is therefore devoid of any ornamentation or figuring produced by weave or subsequent printing, embossing, dyeing, or stencilling. the width of nankeen has apparently been always recognised as not exceeding inches. the name nankeen in china was originally used to describe native hand-loom cloths of the above variety only, but as new and slightly different makes of native cloth appeared on the market the practice grew of including them under this heading, until gradually the term was used to describe not only the true nankeen but a whole group of native cloths answering to the following description: all-cotton cloths not exceeding inches in width, woven on a hand loom with a one-over and one-under shirting weave from cotton yarn which has not been previously dyed or mercerised, and including cloths of the above variety which have either been bleached, piece-dyed in solid greyish or blue colour, or woven from yarn previously dyed in greyish or blue colour, and including hand-loom-woven grey or bleached cotton cloths not exceeding inches wide which have been ornamented by the introduction in the weave of a yarn-dyed blue stripe or yarn-dyed blue checkered design. this loose application of the term continued until the nd may , when the chinese maritime customs, in their notification no. (shanghai, nd may ) laid down an authoritative definition of this class of piece goods reading as follows:-- . the cloth must be of plain shirting weave, woven on a hand loom of the old style; it must not exceed inches (english) in width. . the "count" of the yarn (whether chinese or foreign) from which the cloth is made must not exceed 's. the yarn must be single in both warp and weft; it must not be "gassed." . the cloth may be of the natural colour, _i.e._, undyed, or it may be bleached or dyed in the yarn. it must not be dyed in the piece. chinese cotton cloth that does not fulfil the above conditions will not be treated as nankeen. =noils= are the rejected fibres from the process of combing the different wools and hairs prior to making them up into yarn. the primary object of combing is to sort or separate the long from the short fibres. =ombré.=--having graduated stripes in colour effect which shade from light to dark. =opera hose.=--women's stockings of extra length ordinarily measuring inches. =organzine.=--this name is given to a hard and strong finished silk thread which has been given a great deal of twist in the throwing. organzine is used for warps, as strength and regularity are needed in warp threads so that they may bear the strain and friction of weaving. when silk is thrown with less twist, and is therefore softer and more or less flossy, it is known as tram and is used for the weft in weaving. =orleans.=--this fabric, also known as a lustre orleans, is one of the many varieties of lustre dress fabrics met with and described elsewhere. woven with cotton warp and lustre weft, free from ornamentation, it is a simple one-over and one-under plain-weave fabric. average width, to inches; length, yards; price in normal times averaging, for the usual type, as low as ½_d._ per yard. in fineness of appearance it lies midway between a mohair brilliantine, which is of finer weave, and a mohair sicilian, which is of similar weave, coarser, but more lustrous in appearance. =ottoman.=--a silk or cotton weave having thick ribs at various intervals. originally, the thick cord ran crossways. when the cord runs lengthways the fabric is often known as an ottoman cord. this material is also called a persian cord, which is a cloth made from worsted or cotton warp and worsted weft employing the plain weave, but with the warp threads working in twos, thus giving a rib effect. =outsize.=--when used as a knitted goods term it is applied to women's stockings made in extra widths. =oxford.=--originally a wool fabric in dark grey and white mixtures. of late years heavy cotton and linen fabrics have been known by this name. =oxford shirting.=--this fabric is an all-cotton fabric woven with a plain-weave ground and ornamented by the introduction of broken twill or fancy twill weave. it is woven with white and coloured yarns, which go to make the pattern or design--which in the main takes the form of stripes--of broken twill weave running lengthways of the material. where the design is produced by printing, the material would not be an oxford shirting, but would more correctly be classed as an "imitation" or "printed" oxford. oxford shirting has been described as "a matt weave of coloured yarns, forming small checked effects or basket effects." as the name shows, it is extensively used in the making of shirts and ranges in quality from a low-grade to a high-quality fabric. =padded back linings.=--when a fabric is printed black on one side, or backed, to prevent the printed pattern on the face of the cloth from showing through, it is known as a padded back lining. a natural back lining is a solid-coloured lining printed on one side only. this class of fabric is generally woven from all-cotton yarns, but may include fabrics which contain wool, silk, or other fibres. =pad-dyeing.=--fabrics are generally piece-dyed after leaving the loom by being immersed in a bath of dye or colouring material. with a view to quickening more than actually cheapening the process of dyeing, "pad-dyeing" was evolved. this roughly consists in threading the cloth to be dyed into a machine the main features of which are dye baths and rubber rollers. the cloth is made to pass over rollers, dip into a dye bath and pass through rollers which squeeze out the superfluous dye, allowing same to fall back into the dye bowl or bath. in "pad-dyeing" the cloth may pass as often as six times through the dye liquor before it enters the first set of squeezers, and it may be given as many as four more passes through the liquor before the second set of squeezers are gone through; this, according to experts, gives "thorough saturation to any and all goods difficult to penetrate." it is generally recognised that any degree of saturation can be attained by the process of pad-dyeing, and cloth may be run through a machine at the rate of some yards per minute and yet be well saturated. in a description of a pad-dyeing machine the nature of the operation performed by this machine is called "dyeing" and not "printing." the only difference therefore between piece-dyeing in a vat and in a pad-dyeing machine is that in the one instance the cloth is made to circulate in a dye bath or through a series of dye baths instead of being allowed to remain still in a dye vat until impregnated. the object aimed at and attained, _i.e._, the saturation of the cloth with a dye or colouring liquor, is identical. all fabrics showing thorough saturation of ground colour (_i.e._, where both sides of the fabric are equally dyed) are considered as dyed whether they have been dyed by vat-dyeing or pad-dyeing. =panne.=--a light-weight velvet with "laid" or flattened pile. applied to a range of satin-faced velvets or silk fabrics which show a high lustre, which is produced by pressure. the word _panne_ is french for plush. =panung.=--the nether garment of the siamese. made from cloth of the papoon style or from woven or printed checks. papoon is a plain-woven cloth having warp and weft of different colours. it is also woven in two-and-two checking. =panama canvas.=--an all-cotton plain matt weave fabric, similar to basket cloth, but woven from dyed yarns. =papoon.=--an all-cotton fabric woven from coloured yarns, the warp being of a different colour to the weft or filling threads. exported to siam, where it is extensively used for panungs. =paramatta.=--a thin union fabric woven as a three-shaft weft-faced twill from cotton warp and botany worsted weft, used extensively for the manufacture of waterproof articles. =pastel.=--applied to tones of any colour when exceptionally pale. =pastille.=--a round or oval spot. =peau de cygne.=--a closely woven silk having a lustrous but uneven surface. =peau de soie.=--a closely woven silk having a somewhat uneven satin-like surface. literally, "skin of silk." a variety of heavy, soft-finished, plain-coloured dress silk woven with a pattern of fine close ribs extending weftways of the fabric. the best grades are reversible, being similarly finished on both sides; lower grades are finished on one side only. the weave is an eight-shaft satin with one point added on the right or left, imparting to the fabric a somewhat grainy appearance. =pekiné, or pekin stripes.=--a colour design in stripes of equal width and with equal space between. =pepperell drill.=--the very superior qualities of drills, woven from the highest quality yarns, are distinguishable by their carefully woven appearance and known as pepperell drills. =percale.=--a plain-weave cotton fabric of fine or medium count, used for shirtings, dresses, linings, etc. percale is usually printed on one side with geometrical figures, generally black, although other colours are sometimes used. the fabric is bleached before printing and has an entire lack of gloss, differing from percaline, which has a very glossy finish. it is often printed in stripes and, when so printed, is known as percale stripes. =percaline.=--a highly finished and dressed light-weight percale, piece-dyed in solid colours and not printed. percaline is an all-cotton, plain, closely woven fabric, generally met with in shades of blue, green, black, brown, and tan. highly calendered and glossed. =persian cord.=--a worsted or cotton warp and worsted weft fabric woven with a plain weave, but with the warp threads working in twos, thus giving a rib effect. also called ottoman. =pick.=--when the word "pick" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the filling or weft threads, while each warp thread is called an "end" or a "thread." picks run across the width of the fabric. =piece goods.=--a usual trade reference for fabrics which are woven in lengths suitable for retail sale by linear measure. =pile fabrics.=--materials of silk or cotton wherein the surface is woven with raised loops, which are afterwards cut, forming a raised "pile." they include plushes, velvets, velveteens, and corduroys. the threads that go towards making the pile are special threads independent of the warp and weft threads necessary to make a fabric that will hold together. if the raised loops are left uncut, as more frequently is the case with warp piles, the fabric is spoken of as "terry." if cut, as is sometimes the case with warp piles, and usually the case with weft piles, the fabric is spoken of as "cut-pile." a generic name, used more in the elementary distributing trade, covering the classes of goods known amongst retailers and consumers as velveteen, corduroy, turkish towelling, plush, etc. =pile weave.=--numerous varieties of cloth woven with a pile surface, such as plush, velvet, velveteen, silk seals, pony skin, beaver, chinchilla plush, and carpeting of various kinds, are produced by this style of weave. the distinctive feature of this weave is that the surface consists of threads standing closely together like bristles in a brush. these threads appear either as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface, as in the case of velvet, or may appear in the form of loops, as in the case of towelling. the threads forming the pile are fixed to the back in a more or less firm manner and are known as "loose" or "fast" pile: the former takes the form of the letter @u@ and the latter of the letter @w@. the loose pile may be driven out of the material by pressure, as there are not the same binding threads holding it as in the fast pile, or, again, they may be drawn out through the back of the material by relatively little scratching with, say, the edge of a paper-knife. the fast pile cannot be so withdrawn, as one of the warp threads passes in each of the two surface depressions as well as under the centre bend of the @w@, thus firmly binding it to the cloth. all other conditions being equal, a fast-pile material would be the better and more expensive of the two, and for upholstery or where there is much wear the "fast" pile is essential. pile-weave materials are shipped on iron frames of about yards, the material being hooked on to the frame by the selvedge so as to prevent the crushing of the pile. for export two frames are boxed together, separated by a wood partition. =piqué.=--a stout cotton fabric having as a distinguishing feature wide or fine welts, running "lengthways in the piece" and extending side by side from selvedge to selvedge. it is woven in the unbleached state and bleached before being placed on the market. it is also made in part of dyed yarns, forming ornamental stripes. it is sometimes referred to as welts or bedford cords. this fabric is described in the english market as a fabric having "transverse ribs or welts, produced by stitching tightly weighted warp threads through a fine plain-woven cloth which has its warp lightly tensioned." the ribs or welts are sometimes emphasised by the introduction of wadding weft. in america this material is sometimes described as "p.k." =p.k.=--an american way of writing piqué. this abbreviated designation of the word is limited to america and seldom met with on english invoices. =plain.=--as a weaving term the word "plain" is used to designate the simplest weave, in which the weft thread passes under one and over one warp thread. this system of interlacing produces a "plain" or "one-over and one-under" or "shirting" weave. the term is also used to denote that a fabric is not figured, _i.e._, that it is free of ornamentation produced by either extra threads or combination of weaves. =plain velvet (cotton).=--an all-cotton pile fabric, which is more often known under the name of velveteen. there would appear, however, to be a difference between the two fabrics, which lies only in the length of the pile, the pile of velvet being if anything a little longer than that of velveteen and shorter than that of plush. this fabric may, like velveteen, be either of a weft or warp pile weave, which is more fully described under "velveteen." being plain, it is free from any ornamentation produced by printing, embossing, or combination of weave, and of uniform colour throughout the width and length of the material. =plain velveteen (cotton).=--this fabric, like all true velveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has not been ornamented or figured in any way, either by being printed or embossed or by combination of weave, and would be of uniform colour throughout the width and length of the material. =plain (or homespun) weave.=--plain cloth is the simplest cloth that can be woven. in this weave one series of threads (filling or weft) crosses another series (warp) at right angles, passing over one and under one in regular order, thus forming a simple interlacement of the threads. this weave is used in the production of muslin, gingham, broadcloth, taffetas, etc. checks are produced in plain weaving by the use of bands of coloured warp and coloured filling. this weave produces a strong and firm cloth. it is also called calico or tabby weave, and referred to as a "one-over and one-under" weave. =plated.=--an american term used in connexion with goods having the face of one material and the back of another; for instance, a garment having a wool face and cotton back is "plated." the face may also be of one colour and the back of another, both of the same material. =plissé.=--french for pleated; applied to fabrics which have as a distinctive feature a narrow lengthways fold like the pleats of a closed fan. also known as tucks. =plumetis.=--a sheer cotton fabric ornamented with tufts at intervals. a figured muslin or lawn of high quality and price which shows on its face dots or small sprigs of flowers which closely imitate real hand embroidery. these designs are the result of swivel figuring. this fabric is also known as plumety. =plush.=--as a distinctive fabric plush would appear to be a pile fabric having a fairly long pile woven on the same principle as velvet, but composed of wool, mohair, or mixed fibres, and sometimes from a silk pile and cotton back. used as an adjective, the word "plush" would mean woven with a pile somewhat longer than velvet. it is generally used in conjunction with a prefix showing the nature of the materials from which the pile is made. it is generally recognised that plushes and velvets are so generally part cotton that a silk plush should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." this practice is recognised by manufacturing, wholesale, and retail branches of the trade and is accepted by such authorities as paul h. nystrom and recorded in his book, "textiles." =plush of silk mixed with other fibres.=--this class of material includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of plush, _i.e._, have their pile longer than that of velvet, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres such as wool or mohair and which may contain even vegetable fibres such as cotton. in plushes belonging to the above class the nature of the back or foundation cloth may vary, but in the great majority of cases they would be found to be of cotton. where it is clearly stipulated that they are "plushes of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton. =plush velveteen.=--a plain all-cotton pile fabric, either weft or warp pile, but generally the former, which differs from velveteen only in the length of the pile. as the name velveteen stands for "an all-cotton fabric," it would be as correct to describe a plush velveteen as "an all-cotton plush" or as a "long-piled velveteen." the terms plush and velveteen are explained elsewhere. =pointillé.=--having a design in small dots. =pompadour.=--a term used to describe small floral designs in silk fabrics. =poncho cloth.=--this name is apparently more used to describe a class of fabric than a particular and distinctive material. used presumably in the manufacture of ponchos, which are blanket-shaped garments having a slit in the centre through which the head is passed, and extensively used in mexico. poncho cloth was originally a fine all-wool fabric. poncho cloth is now described as a union cloth, _i.e._, composed of two materials, such as wool and cotton, otherwise than by blending. it is also similar to what is known as leather cloth, produced in the morley district, which is heavier than the boiled and teazled goods known in that district as "unions." true poncho cloth is a union cloth woven with cotton warp and woollen weft, measuring from to inches wide and having a distinctive -inch hair list at each selvedge. it resembles but is lighter in weight than a union or leather cloth, averages from to ounces per yard, and is given a high finish on the face. in the bradford district such a cloth would be known and sold as a "melton" unless shipped as a poncho cloth at the request of the buyer. =pongee.=--a fine plain-woven cotton fabric, mercerised, dyed, and schreinered, having a soft handle or feel like the real silk pongee of which it is an imitation. pongees are met with having stripes produced by coloured warp threads. the fabric has a lustrous silky appearance. average width, inches. the ground colour of pongees is most often of a shade similar to real silk pongee. =pony skin.=--as a textile term, it is used to describe a pile fabric which is made to imitate the true russian pony skin fur. always dyed a solid black, this fabric has a mohair pile which has been laid and fixed by heat. the density of the pile and the lustre are the best guides to value. like many imitation fur fabrics, it came into the market owing to the vogue of the real fur it imitates. average width, to inches; length, to yards per piece. =poplin.=--a fabric having a silk warp and a wool weft, with a corded surface. goods in which a similar effect is produced, but made in all silk, all wool, or cotton, are also called poplins. it is a warp-ribbed fabric with a plain weave and was originally made with a fine silk warp and a comparatively thick gassed worsted weft which gave the ribbed effect, with the silk warp threads thrown to the surface and completely hiding the worsted weft. it is similar to, but generally softer finished than, repp or rep. =printed.=--this term, when used with reference to textiles, indicates that the fabric has been submitted to a process whereby certain designs, either simple or complex, have been impressed on the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. calico is perhaps the most typical of printed fabrics. the printing of fabrics is generally done by the aid of a machine, its main feature being a revolving cylinder on which the design has been stamped or cut out. the cloth in passing through the machine comes in contact with the impression cylinder. the cylinder revolving in a colour trough takes up the colour and leaves the impression of the design on the cloth. when fabrics are printed by hand from blocks, the design never joins so perfectly that it cannot be detected, and, if looked for, certain marks will be found that are used as "guides" to show the operator where the next impression with the block is to be made. roller-printed designs, being continuous, show no such marks or irregularities. a recent process known as the "lithographic" or transfer process has been introduced, and it is a modified form of block printing, an engraved stone being used as for lithographic work. a fabric that is printed will not show continuous coloured threads, but threads coloured in places and not in others; whereas in fabrics having the pattern woven the coloured threads are continuous. an "indigo print" is distinguished from a regular print by having a printed figure on a solid indigo blue ground, whereas the ground of an ordinary print-cloth pattern is white or of a light colour. an indigo-print pattern is obtained either by indigo block printing, indigo discharge printing, or indigo resist printing. =printed balzarines.=--the general structure and appearance of balzarines is given under that heading. the cotton variety would be an all-cotton fabric having a gauze weave and net-like appearance. the printed variety would consist of similar fabrics which had been subjected to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs had been impressed upon the surface of the fabric in either one or more colours. the fabric would approximate inches in width and probably from to yards in length per piece. =printed calico.=--this fabric is described under "calico." =printed cambrics.=--as the name shows, printed cambrics are cambrics which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. cambric being a light-weight, soft-finish, plain-weave fabric of linen or cotton, the term printed cambric is therefore applicable to either a linen or cotton fabric. the more correct designation would be either printed linen cambric or printed cotton cambric. the majority of cambrics met with are cotton cambrics, and, unless specially designated, a printed cambric would be a cotton fabric. whereas in the plain white a cambric is finer than a lawn, printed cambrics, on the other hand, are coarser than lawns. =printed chintzes.=--this fabric is essentially a multicoloured printed cotton fabric. it is the style of printing and the large bright and gay coloured patterns of flowers and other subjects used for ornamentation of the fabric that are the distinctive features of this material, which is mainly used for curtains and furniture coverings. chintz is but a plain-woven fabric elaborately ornamented with designs by means of the printing machine. after printing, the fabric is passed through a calender press, the rolls of which are well heated and tightly set, which gives the glazed finish which the fabric in most cases possesses. =printed cotton drill.=--a strong all-cotton warp-faced or warp sateen faced fabric which, after leaving the loom, has been suitably prepared for and subjected to a process whereby certain ornamentation in the form of simple or complex designs in either one or more colours has been impressed on its surface. for particulars of weave, _see_ drills; florentine drills; satin drill. =printed cotton italians.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven generally with a weft-faced satin weave having an even, close, smooth surface, upon which--for the purpose of ornamentation and to enhance the value of the fabric--certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed. whilst the name of this fabric does not indicate whether it is a grey, white, or dyed one, nevertheless, as an italian cloth itself is a dyed cotton fabric, so a printed cotton italian is a dyed and printed cotton fabric. =printed cotton lastings.=--this fabric is essentially a plain all-cotton twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns, piece-dyed after leaving the loom, and subsequently subjected to a printing process whereby certain designs, whether simple or complex, are impressed upon the surface of the cloth in either one or more colours. =printed crapes.=--any all-cotton crape cloth, which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed upon its surface in one or more colours, is termed a printed crape. the crinkled appearance--which is the distinctive feature of crape cloth--remains unchanged in the printed crape. the various methods of obtaining this crinkled effect is given under "crape cloth, plain." =printed crimp cloth.=--any all-cotton crimp cloth which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed upon its surface in one or more colours is known as a printed crimp. the "cockled" stripes--which are the distinctive feature of crimp cloth--remain unchanged in the printed crimps. the method of obtaining these "cockled" stripes is given under "crimp cloth, plain." =printed furnitures.=--this name, like many others used with reference to textiles, denotes more a class of goods than any given fabric. chintz, cretonne, and any other printed cotton fabrics which enter into the manufacture of chair or sofa coverings, curtains, hassocks, screens, etc., may be termed printed furnitures. this name, however, seems to be unknown to both manufacturer and distributor, and it is not in use in any of the many branches of commerce concerned with textile fabrics. as a generic term it has its value; but if it was ever used as the name of any given fabric, it is so used no longer. =printed lawns.=--as the name shows, printed lawns are lawns which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. lawn being a light-weight, soft-finished, plain-weave fabric woven from cotton yarns varying from / 's to / 's or from a linen yarn, the term printed lawn is therefore applicable to either a cotton or linen fabric. the more correct designation would be either printed cotton lawn or printed linen lawn. the majority of lawns met with are cotton lawns, and unless specially designated, a printed lawn would be a cotton fabric. whereas a plain white lawn is coarser than a white cambric, a printed lawn, on the other hand, is finer than a printed cambric. it varies in width from to inches. =printed leno.=--when a leno has been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on its face, it is then known as a printed leno. =printed muslin.=--as the name shows, printed muslins are muslins which have been submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed on their surface. muslin, like lawn and cambric, is an open, plain-weave, light-weight, soft-finished cotton fabric. the better qualities of muslin may be recognised by their evenness of weave and fineness of yarn, whilst in the lower grades occasional warp or weft threads will be irregular, having the appearance of being thicker in some parts than in others. =printed reps.=--as the name indicates, this class of fabric is essentially of rep construction, _i.e._, having as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth, which is described in detail under "rep." when a cloth or fabric of rep construction has had its face ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed on it in either one or more colours, it is known as a printed rep. this class of fabric is generally met with as an all-cotton fabric, and unless specially designated, the material so described would be a printed plain (in the sense of not figured) cotton fabric. =printed sateens.=--these are essentially light-weight cotton fabrics finished to imitate silk satin, and the common italian cloth is a sateen fabric. the ornamentation of printed sateens is the result of a printing process whereby certain designs are impressed on the surface in contradistinction to coloured sateens, in which the ornamentation is produced by combination of coloured warp and filling threads. _see also_ sateens; satin. =printed satinets.=--an imitation of the true satin in mercerised cotton or other yarns which has been printed after leaving the loom. the four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil the conditions of the real satin as regards order of intersections, is known as a satinet weave and is the basis of this class of fabric. similar to sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight. =printed sheetings.=--this name is given to an all-cotton fabric woven either as a four-shaft two-and-two twill or with a plain weave, as in the case of low-grade sheetings, in which waste and condenser wefts are used. the actual fabric is woven as described under "grey sheeting," then "singed," "bleached," and "calendered" to prepare it for the process of printing, which consists of impressing on the face of the material certain designs in either one or more colours. this term is very seldom met with in the trade and is considered a misnomer. =printed shirtings.=--printed shirtings are essentially an all-cotton fabric woven with a plain weave, having the warp and weft approximately of the same count, which have had their surface ornamented by being submitted to a process whereby certain simple or complex designs in either one or more colours have been impressed upon them. printed shirtings, like all other cotton fabrics, undergo a process of "singeing," "bleaching," and "calendering" prior to being printed. the first process removes the surface hairs, which form a sort of nap to the surface of the cloth, which if allowed to remain would interfere with the uniform application of the colours, and the other two processes further prepare the fabric for printing. =printed t-cloth.=--this fabric is an all-cotton plain-woven fabric, generally woven from poor-quality yarn, which, after leaving the loom, has been bleached and printed. this fabric answers the description of a printed calico and would by many be known under that name. beyond the actual manufacturer, the jobber or exporter, and those merchants in such markets as manchester and china where the term is currently used, few even in the textile business would know the value of the term _t_-cloth. =printed turkey reds.=--fabrics designated as printed turkey reds are essentially all-cotton fabrics of good quality dyed turkey red (_see_ dyed real turkey reds) and subsequently ornamented by having certain designs impressed on their surface in either one or more colours. they are usually plain woven or of small twill weave. =printed twills.=--this term is applied to all cotton fabrics of twill weave, having the diagonal effect or twill running across the face of the fabric, which subsequent to being woven have been ornamented by having certain designs, either simple or complex, impressed on their surface in either one or more colours. =printed velvet (cotton).=--like a plain cotton velvet, this fabric is virtually a velveteen, _i.e._, an all-cotton pile fabric, which has been ornamented by having certain designs or patterns impressed on its face in either one or more colours. =printed velveteen (cotton).=--this fabric, like all true velveteens, is an all-cotton pile fabric which has been ornamented by having certain designs, whether simple or complex, impressed on its surface in either one or more colours. =printers.=--plain-woven cotton cloths either exported plain or more often used for printing. burnley printers, or "lumps," are usually inches wide by yards in length and square, _i.e._, ends and picks to the quarter inch. glossop or cheshire printers are about inches by yards and average ends and picks to the quarter inch. printers are generally well woven from pure yarns of good quality. a variety woven from low-grade yarns is also manufactured. =pure silk plush.=--a pile fabric, not often met with woven entirely from silk, _i.e._, having both pile face and back warp threads of silk. woven as a velvet but with a somewhat longer pile. most branches of the trade consider a pure silk plush to be a fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespective of whether the foundation fabric is silk or not. paul h. nystrom, in his book, "textiles," states that velvets and plushes are so generally part cotton that a silk velvet or a silk plush should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." the term "pure silk" when applied to a plush qualifies the pile of the fabric and not the fabric as a whole; it does not mean that the fabric is composed entirely of silk. =pure silk velvet.=--an all-silk pile fabric, not often met with woven entirely from silk, similar to an all-silk plush, from which it differs only in length of pile. the pile of velvet is shorter than that of plush. a pure silk velvet is generally understood to be a pile fabric having an all-silk pile, irrespective of the nature of the foundation fabric. velvets are so generally part cotton that a silk velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless it is definitely stated that it is "silk backed." "silk," or "pure silk," refers to the pile and the pile only, in the general acceptance of the trade, and not to the fabric as a whole; it does not mean a fabric composed entirely of silk. =raised back cloths.=--fabrics requiring a "raised back" are usually warp faced and weft backed. by constructing the cloth in this manner, the raising machine, in the subsequent processes, partially disintegrates the weft fibres and gives that soft and woolly feel which one is accustomed to in such cloths as swansdown, cotton trouserings, and some classes of fabrics used for dressing-gowns, pyjamas, etc. =raised cotton cloth.=--any material woven in all cotton and having either one or both sides "raised" or "napped" would be a raised cotton cloth. the "raising" or "napping" of the cloth is a process which the fabric is put through with the view of giving it a soft "woolly" feel. by passing the fabric, whilst it is tightly stretched, over a revolving cylinder which has its surface covered with small steel hooks or teasels, the surface of the fabric is scratched and the short fibres of the yarn used in the weaving are opened up and raised, resulting in a nap covering the whole of the surface. raised cotton cloths allow of the use of coarse inferior yarns and are better looking than had they not been raised. the raising hides defects of weave and produces a warmer, better-looking cloth than could be produced by any other process at the price. raised cloths, like certain flannelettes, are sometimes chemically rendered "fireproof." =ramie, rhea, china grass.=--a fibre obtained from a plant of the nettle family which grows in india and china. the fibre is strong and lustrous and lends itself to the weaving of various materials, especially underclothing, and it is used also in the manufacture of incandescent gas mantles. the diameter of ramie and china grass fibres is from two to three times that of flax. ramie and china grass are not absolutely identical, the latter containing per cent. of cellulose as compared with per cent. in ramie. when spun into threads they produce a lustrous effect. effects resembling silk-woven textures are produced with the finest yarns, and when dyed in delicate shades they give a brilliancy comparable with silk. =ratine.=--a wool material similar to a chinchilla, but having smaller tufts with wider spacings between. this material is always plain woven and is of comparatively recent creation; it can be described as a very rough surface dress fabric, properly in part of wool, but now also made entirely of cotton. the characteristic rough surface is caused by the use of special fancy weft threads which are composed of two or more different size yarns so twisted together as to produce knob effects at intervals in the thread. a more expensive fabric is made of filling threads composed of braided yarns. the trade now applies the name to imitation effects produced by terry weaves, turkish towelling fabrics, bouclé and bourette effects. =rayé.=--this is the french term for "striped" and is applied to patterns running longitudinally with the warp in textile fabrics, produced by employing a special weave or two or more colours of warp specially arranged. =reed and pick= are terms applied in the cotton industry to the number of threads in a given space--usually ¼ inch or inch--in the warp and weft respectively. these terms are not generally employed, however, in all textile districts; the term "make" or "ends and picks per inch" is applied to worsted cloths, whilst "sett" and "shots" are used with the same meaning in the linen industry. the word "counts," which refers to the number or thickness of yarn, is sometimes erroneously used in this connexion, probably owing to the fact that the expression "counts to the -inch glass" is also used in reference to reed and pick. =rembrandt rib.=--applied to women's stockings having groups of five drop-stitches, separated by inch of plain knitting running the full length. =rep.=--the name rep is used to designate certain fabrics that have as a predominant feature a rep or rib running transversely across the face of the cloth. the term may also be applied to the actual weft rib which appears in the material. reps are what is known as warp-ribbed fabrics, _i.e._, fabrics with the rib or rep running weftways, and for that reason may be considered the opposite of cords. the term "warp-ribbed" might at first sight appear to designate a rib running warpways, that is to say, in the longitudinal direction of the cloth, whereas a warp rib is a warp surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft picks or to the grouping of a number of weft picks together, the warp threads are made to bend round them, and being thus thrown to the surface produce a ribbed appearance across the piece. reps, unless specially designated, are dyed plain cotton fabrics with an average width of inches and a length of yards per piece. =resist or reserve printing.=--this style of printing is a process used to obtain white figures on a coloured ground by means of printing the designs in substances that are impervious to the dye into which the cloth so printed is subsequently placed. the cloth is dyed, but all parts of it which were covered by the resist agent remain white. =reversible cretonnes.=--the salient features of cretonnes are the bold type of highly coloured designs with which the fabric is ornamented through printing. the weave employed for this style of fabric is either plain, twill, satin, or oatmeal weave; the width of the material varies from to inches. sometimes, though rarely, a small brocaded effect of fancy weave is introduced. reversible cretonnes differ from ordinary cretonnes in that they are printed on both sides of the fabric. a recent variety of reversible cretonne, called a shadow cretonne, is purely a warp-printed fabric, sometimes containing yarn-dyed threads. a cretonne printed with the same design on face and back would be known as a reversible cretonne, whilst the same fabric printed with one pattern on the face and a different pattern on the back would be known as a duplex printed cretonne. =rib.=--the name given to any kind of cord effect or to a weave in which either, owing to the interlacing or to the yarns used, warp or weft is the stronger and remains comparatively straight while the weaker does all the bending. thus, in warp ribs the weft is the stronger and causes the warp to bend and form a warp surface rib running from selvedge to selvedge, while in weft ribs the warp is the stronger and develops a weft surface rib running lengthways of the piece. =rib crape effect.=--this term is used to designate the effect produced by breaking up the regular order of weave so as to produce a warp-rib effect on a fabric which is of the crape variety, the crape weave being distinguishable by the interlacing of warp and weft in a more or less mixed or indiscriminate order, so as to produce an appearance of a finely broken character. rib crape effect is found in fabrics known as crepoline. =richelieu rib.=--applied to women's plain stockings having a single drop-stitch at intervals of three-quarters of an inch running the full length of the stocking. =right and wrong side of fabrics.=--in certain goods it is difficult to tell the right from the wrong side. in plain worsteds the diagonal ought always to run from right to left, that being the right side. in all textiles which are not reversible, but are similar on both sides, the right side can be detected by the quantity of down, which is less on the right side than the wrong side. to determine this it is often necessary to hold the cloth under examination to the light. when both sides are well finished, but with different patterns, it is the neater of the two which is generally the right side. in a comprehensive way, shaving and neatness indicate the right side. =ring-spun yarn.=--ring-spun cotton yarn is generally a harder spun thread than mule-twist, which is more fibrous and more elastic. ring-spun yarn will not take up as much "size" as the more fibrous and softer spun thread of the mule. ring-spun yarn is rounder than a mule-spun thread. ring-spinning differs from mule-spinning in this essential: the former is spun on the "continuous system" upon spindles that are fixed, whereas in mule-spinning the spindles are mounted on a carriage which moves backwards and forwards for a distance of some feet. when the spindles reach their greatest distance the rolls producing the yarn are automatically stopped, and the thread that has been spun during the outward move of the carriage is wound on the spindles while the carriage is being moved back toward the rolls. =robes.=--a name given to printed twill cotton fabrics made from -square printing cloth. originally made for use as wraps, they were made in cashmere effects. now, although made in large bright-coloured furniture coverings, curtains, etc., they still retain the name robes when made from -square printing cloth. =russian cloth (woollen).=--an all-wool fabric, plain woven from a wool weft and wool warp, the weave being a plain one-over and one-under weave. owing to the finish of the cloth, the weave is non-apparent. it varies in width from to inches and in length from to yards. it does not differ materially from broad, medium, and habit cloth. average value for period to , _s._ _d._ per yard. =russian prints.=--this class of fabric does not differ materially from any other print. they originate in odessa, whence they come by steamer to chinese ports or to vladivostock, from which points the majority are brought overland into manchuria. many of the designs on russian prints are similar to those on american prints. measuring / or inches wide, by or by ends and picks, and yards per piece, they are generally packed , , and sometimes pieces to a bale. on the whole, russian prints are not a high-grade material. =samples and their classification.=--unless some definite system, which provides means for ready reference to any of the individual samples forming part of the collection, is adopted from the very start, sample collections are of comparatively small value. the successive pasting into a book of samples which represent fabrics of different materials, different weaves, and different finishes--and under the heading "finishes" would be included dyeing, printing, embossing, etc.--is of no great value, for it becomes impossible after a time to readily turn up any given sample. even with an index to the collection so formed it is only possible to turn up a sample of material the name of which is known. a person wishing to turn up in such a collection a sample of a certain type of fabric the name of which he did not know at the time could not do so, and the more specimens or samples were added to the collection the more difficult it would become to turn up a given sample, and the value of the collection would lessen instead of increase. if fabrics are divided into headings representing the main divisions into which they may be classed, and each division or section is subdivided into numbered sub-sections, the task becomes simpler, and there results therefrom a series of key-numbered collections each containing samples of fabrics of a similar type but of varying quality and value. each collection (or sub-section) becomes known by a combination of two numbers, one of which is the main division or section number and the other the number of that particular sub-section. these numbers precede the name of the division and the name of the subdivision. the main divisions or groups, together with their respective subdivisions, which will in practice be found to be ample are as follow:-- section number. sub-section number. ---- ---- { . shirtings and sheetings. { . drills and jeans. . grey cottons { . shirtings and sheetings, native. { . drills and jeans, native. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . plain (with finish). { . brocades. { . brocades (with finish). { . striped or spotted shirting. . white cottons. { . striped or spotted shirting { (with finish). { . crimps and crapes. { . crimps and crapes (with { finish). { . lenos. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . plain (with finish). { . furnitures. { . crapes. { . crimps. . printed cottons. { . muslins, lawns, and cambrics. { . lenos and balzarines. { . duplex or reversible. { . blue and white _t_-cloth. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . plain (with finish). { . crimps. { . crimps (with finish). { . drills, twills, and jeans. . dyed plain cottons. { . lawns, muslins, and cambrics. { . hongkong-dyed. { . lenos and balzarines. { . native. { . native (with finish). { . not specially enumerated. { . figured. { . figured (with finish). . dyed figured cottons { . native. { . native (with finish). { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . dyed. { . printed. { . duplex printed. . raised cottons. { . dyed and printed. { . dyed and duplex printed. { . yarn-dyed. { . figured white. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . plain (with finish). { . figured. { . figured (with finish). . coloured woven { . crimps. (_i.e._, yarn-dyed) { . crimps (with finish). cottons { . plain native. { . plain native (with finish). { . figured native. { . figured native (with finish). { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . plain (with finish). { . crimps. { . crimps (with finish). . dyed and printed cottons { . figured. { . figured (with finish). { . native. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . printed or embossed. . velvets and velveteens { . embroidered. (cotton). { . dyed cords and corduroys. { . undyed moleskins. { . not specially enumerated. { . plain pure silk. { . figured or embossed. { . silk seal (with cotton back). { . silk with cotton back. . plushes and velvets { . silk mixed with other fibrous { materials (with cotton { back). { . all-cotton plush (including { with finish). { . not specially enumerated. { . plain. { . figured. { . plain native. . silk piece goods { . figured native. { . ribbons (all silk and mixtures). { . not specially enumerated. . silk and cotton fabrics { . plain. { . figured. { . plain. { . figured. { . poncho cloth. . woollen and cotton { . spanish stripes. mixtures { . union cloth. { . plain lustres. { . figured lustres. { . not specially enumerated. { . habit, medium, russian, and { broad cloth. { . bunting. { . camlets, dutch. . woollen fabrics { . camlets, english. { . flannel. { . lastings (all kinds). { . spanish stripes. { . long ells. { . not specially enumerated. . linen and linen unions { . plain. { . figured. . hemp and hemp mixtures { . plain and figured. { . yarn-dyed. . miscellaneous. whether the loose-leaf system with folders to contain the samples is used or whether they are entered into special books is a matter for the individual, but the loose-leaf or card-index system with folder is infinitely preferable, admitting of the removal of any given sample for reference or comparison. the index to such a collection of samples would be alphabetical (even though not absolutely so), and if a sample of italian (of the plain variety) were added to the collection, it would be added under section , dyed plain cottons. if the sample of italian thus added to the collection was the fifth sample of dyed plain cottons (with finish), it would appear in the index to the sample collection under and would be entered as follows:-- name of fabric. section sub-section sample number. number. number. ---- ---- ---- ---- italian a sample of bunting, on the other hand, would be filed under section , sub-section ; and if it were the thirty-first sample filed under that sub-section, it would be indexed under the letter b as bunting, : : . this decimal system of numbering and classifying samples lends itself to a refinement of subdivision unattainable in any other. generally speaking, samples, unless accompanied by certain descriptive information, are of little value, and care should be taken to describe briefly any salient feature connected with the fabric. this information may concern either the trade-mark, the importer, the value, or the date when the sample was entered into the collection, and brief particulars of the shipment of which it is a sample. this kind of information is of material value where the sample concerns a class, style, or quality of fabric not hitherto met with. with a comparatively small amount of trouble it would be possible to get together very valuable collections of samples. and if the individual would but give a little time and thought to the question of textile samples, and but a tithe of the time devoted to any hobby he may have, he will be amply repaid by the added knowledge he will acquire. all samples should be of uniform size ( inches by inches will be found a very useful size) and should invariably be in duplicate--one to use in obtaining all particulars necessary for classification and the other for the actual sample collection. weave structure, nature of yarns, etc., may be studied and tests for components made and recorded. nothing will give a better idea of relative values of fabrics than knowledge of components, style of weave, etc. this, of course, does not apply to extrinsic values, _i.e._, values due to fashion, exclusive designs, or proprietary articles. there is nothing to go by in such cases better than market values; but in the plainer staples knowledge of construction, finish, etc., means ability to classify fabrics and estimate their approximate relative values. provisions for an index to sample collection have been made at the end of this book, enabling the ready adoption of the system now advocated. =sateens.=--this material is a light-weight cotton fabric finished to imitate silk satin. in weaving cotton sateens the same style of weave is adopted as in weaving silk satin, the object aimed at being an even, close, smooth surface and one capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. in a "warp sateen" weave the warp only appears on the surface, the filling or weft threads being effectually and completely hidden by the warp threads. in passing over the filling the warps do not interweave at regular, but at irregular, intervals--thus they may pass over five, eight, ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more, and so on. sateens average inches wide and from to yards in length per piece. sateens are woven on the same principle as italians. the common sateen cloth is produced on a "five threads and picks" system. sateens are woven either as "warp sateen" or "weft sateen"; the peculiarities of these weaves are given under those headings. =satin.=--a term applied to silk goods woven on the same principle as sateens, either warp sateens or weft sateens. in weaving most silk fabrics the warp and weft, or filling, are made to intersect each other every alternate time (as in plain weaving) or every third or fourth time in regular order (as in ordinary or plain twill weaving). in weaving satin the same style of weave is adopted as in weaving cotton sateens, the object aimed at being an even, close, smooth surface and one capable of reflecting light to the best advantage. in a warp-weave satin the warp only appears on the surface, the filling or weft threads being effectually and completely hidden. in passing over the filling the warps do not interweave at regular intervals; thus, they may pass over five, eight, ten, twelve, or sixteen, then under one and over eight more, and so on. common satin is what is technically known as an eight-leaf twill, the order in which the filling thread rises being once in eight times. the filling in the better qualities of satin is of silk, whilst in the lower grades of this fabric cotton is generally used for the filling. rich satins may be woven on almost any number from five to twenty leaf twills. satin at the time of leaving the loom has a somewhat flossy and rough surface--this is removed by passing the fabric over heated metal cylinders, which destroy the minute fibrous ends and increase the brilliance of the silk. black satins are often woven with a selvedge which is of a different colour to the piece. =satin drill.=--when a drill is woven with a warp-faced sateen weave it is known as a satin drill, to distinguish it from a drill woven with a twill weave, which is known as a florentine drill. =satin weave.=--in weaving a satin design the filling thread is made to pass under one and over eight, ten, twelve, or a greater or lesser number of warp threads, and the order in which this is done is irregular. the filling by this process is thus placed practically all on the face of the cloth, and this style of weave is sometimes called a filling-face satin weave. by reversing the process and bringing practically all the warp to the surface or face of the cloth a warp-face satin is produced. cloth produced by this system of weave has a close, smooth surface reflecting light to a high degree and giving it the appearance of satin cloth, a fabric which is best described as a cloth made of silk woven with a satin weave. =satinet or satinette.=--an imitation of the true or silk satin woven from mercerised cotton or other yarns. it is similar to sateen, but somewhat lighter in weight. the term is used to describe the four-shaft satin weave, which does not fulfil the conditions of the real satin as regards the order of intersection of warp and weft. =schreiner finish.=--this, like all other special finishes, is the result of a process through which a fabric is passed with the view of rendering its face more lustrous, _i.e._, capable of better reflecting light and hence having a more silky appearance. a schreiner finish is given to a woven cloth by means of a specially engraved steel roller. this roller is engraved with minute lines running parallel to each other. when this roller has been suitably heated and set with the right amount of pressure the cloth is run between it and a plain backing roller. the engraved roller which comes in contact with the cloth impresses on it minute lines, which can readily be distinguished by means of a counting-glass. in america a schreiner finish is often known as a "milled" finish. =scribbled.=--when any two or more kinds of fibres have been thoroughly mixed together prior to being spun into a thread they are said to be "scribbled." =seamless.=--applied to hosiery knitted in one piece on a circular machine, leaving an opening at the toe to be looped together. the shaping of the leg, heel, and toe is done by steaming and then drying on boards of proper form. =seamless bags.=--all-cotton bags woven on looms which automatically measure the length of what is practically a tubular cloth required for each bag. what are virtually two cloths are "condensed" and woven together to form the bag bottom. in forming the body of the bag the loom weaves two fabrics, one over the other, and in weaving the bottom these are combined into one. =selvedge.=--the edge of any piece of woven fabric. the term is synonymous with "list." the warp threads which go towards the weaving of selvedges are in some cases made of a stronger material than that used for the bulk of the fabric. folded yarns are often used for this purpose, because during the process of weaving single selvedge yarns are liable to break out oftener than any other, generally on account of the pulling action of the weft thread in the shuttle as it is "picked" across. this is more particularly the case with cottons. selvedges are that part of the fabric by which it is held out in a stretched position in many of the stages of finishing. in the textile trade generally it is often stated that "a good selvedge shows a good cloth." velvets and velveteens that are mounted on iron frames, to which they are attached by means of series of hooks penetrating the selvedges, have these selvedges reinforced by stronger warp threads. selvedges, or lists, of a colour different but of a material similar to that of the bulk of the fabric denote that the fabric has been woven of dyed yarns and that it has not been piece-dyed. obviously, if piece-dyed, the selvedge would be of the same colour as the bulk of the fabric. distinctive styles of selvedges have given rise to special names of fabrics, such as spanish stripes. the actual quality of a fabric cannot be always told by the selvedge, but other conditions being equal, it then becomes a good guide to quality. a silk selvedge thread or threads, or the initials of the manufacturer in silk, appearing on the selvedge of an all-wool fabric generally denotes a superior quality of fabric. the following, from a work dealing with cotton fabrics, shows the generally accepted value of selvedges as an indication of quality: "advertising has educated the retail dealers and consumers to the fact that cotton warp goods with a white selvedge, the ground being of colour, are more to be depended upon not to crock than similar cloths of solid colour." =serge (cotton).=--all all-cotton fabric woven with a decided twill and having a special finish imitating wool; usually printed with hair-line stripes to imitate woven effects. =shadow cretonne.=--a fabric of comparatively recent creation having as a distinctive feature the design printed on the warp threads. the filling is generally white, but is sometimes yarn-dyed to a shade approximating the general tone of the large floral decorations which are generally used in this class of fabric. the warp threads take the colouring matter in such a way that when woven the design or pattern appears equally on both sides of the fabric in somewhat blurred and softened tones. from the fact that the fabric is reversible, _i.e._, shows a design on both sides, it has sometimes been called a reversible cretonne, but the true reversible cretonne is the result of printing on a woven fabric and not on the warp threads only prior to weaving. the blurred effect, resembling that of a fabric which might have run in the washing, is at times intensified by the introduction here and there of yarn-dyed warp threads of solid colour. they are not always an all-cotton fabric; flax enters sometimes into their composition. =shantung.=--the real shantung is a chinese silk fabric of the pongee class. this fabric has now been imitated in cotton yarns suitably finished. the yarns used in imitation shantung are spun with thick soft places at irregular intervals in the yarn; this irregularity is more noticeable in the filling yarns. =sheeting.=--a light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric woven from coarse or medium yarns. the name applies to both bleached and unbleached cloth. under the heading "grey sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as sheeting. in the trade it would appear that, should a sheeting be dyed or printed, it is never sold as a sheeting, but under some other name. =shirtings.=--a generic term applied to any material originally and usually employed for the making of shirts and covering such varieties as grey, harvard, oxford, zephyr, sateen, grandelle, etc. the term shirting, if used by itself, would in most instances be used with reference to the grey shirting so largely exported from england and america. this grey shirting is a plain-woven cloth of low-quality and heavily sized yarns which has not been bleached. =short stick.=--this term implies a yard of precisely inches, in opposition to the term "long stick," which is by trade custom a yard of ½ inches in length. =shot.=--a weaving term having the same value as "pick." when a fabric is described as having so many "shots" to the inch it means that there are so many weft threads to the inch. when used to describe a colour effect in fabrics, it applies to fabrics which are woven with different coloured warp and weft, and which, according to the way they are held when looked at, appear to change in colour. =sicilienne.=--a mohair of heavy weight. =silence cloth.=--a heavy all-cotton backed fabric, used to cover the table under the linen cloth, to withstand heat or to prevent damage to the finish of the table. made in widths from to inches. the fabric is a double fabric, reversible, and made from coarse yarns; it is also known as table felting. =silesia.=--a cotton fabric woven with a twill or sateen weave, usually printed in stripes and highly finished. the high finish found in this class of fabric is often a "beetle" finish imparted to the fabric after weaving by subjecting it to a rapid succession of elastic blows from a series of hammers whilst the fabric is wound upon a cast-iron beam. generally woven as a three-shaft twill from single 's to 's in warp and filling so as to produce a -degree right-hand twill. silesia is essentially a tailoring fabric used for linings. a variety of yarn-dyed striped silesia is also on the market. =silk beaver.=--silk beaver is a pile fabric woven so as to imitate the prepared fur of the beaver. like many other fabrics of this style the pile is all silk and the foundation cloth or back is all cotton. this fabric appears to be dyed invariably a rich brown, and this differentiates it from such similar fabrics as silk seal, which are dyed black. the quality of silk beaver depends upon the depth and closeness of pile. if looked at from behind, the pile threads will distinctly show as small shiny spots where they are bound into the back. the closer these little silk dots are to each other the heavier the pile and the better the quality. the value prior to ranged from _s._ to _s._ per yard but has since increased. the pile may have a length of as much as half an inch in the best grades. generally framed in lengths of from to yards. as this is bulky material when framed, the landed cost in the east is greatly increased. average width, to inches. =silk gingham.=--this class of fabric is similar to gingham, madras, madras gingham, zephyr, etc., except that the fabric contains more or less silk in the filling. it sometimes happens that through inadvertence such material is found described simply as a gingham, hence the presence of silk should be looked for in goods so described. =silk mull.=--like mull, this fabric is a plain-woven, soft-finished material, but is made from cotton warp and silk filling and is generally finished undyed. silk mull is finer in texture than cotton mull. the silk filling used in this fabric is raw silk, viz., tram silk. =silk pongee.=--a light-weight fabric made of the silk produced by wild silkworms that feed on oak leaves. pongee is a soft, unbleached, washable silk, shipped from china to europe in large quantities, where it is bleached, dyed, and ornamented in various styles of designs. the name is also applied to a variety of dress goods made in europe woven with a wild-silk warp and a fine worsted weft. this material is of comparatively recent make and is made mostly with narrow stripes, produced by the insertion of certain yarn-dyed threads. =silk seal (cotton back).=--this is an imitation fur fabric made in a range of quality, length, and closeness of pile. in this fabric the pile only is of silk, the foundation cloth being all cotton. silk seal might be mistaken for silk beaver if not judged from the point of view of colour. silk seal is black, silk beaver is brown. there is a variety of this fabric known as a fancy silk seal, similar in construction and components but having stamped in outline by means of rollers a design resembling the irregular scales on a crocodile's skin. along the lines demarcating these scales the pile has been crushed and fixed down by heat. this fabric is not a true silk seal. quality in this, as in other pile fabrics, depends on the closeness and depth of the pile. there is a possibility of mistaking silk seal with cotton back for a silk plush with cotton back, but generally the pile of plush is shorter than that of silk seal. average width, to inches. =silk yarns.=--there are two distinct classes of silk yarns, _i.e._, (_a._) pure, or net, silk and (_b._) spun silk. (_a._) _net silk yarns._--these are constructed from fibres reeled straight from the cocoon, and in the case of organzine (or warp) yarns three to eight fibres are lightly twisted together; subsequently, two or more of these compound threads ("singles" as they are termed) are folded together to form the silk yarn employed as warp. weft yarns, known as tram silk, are made from two or more strands, each made from three to twelve cocoon fibres, which have not undergone any preliminary twisting, so that tram silk is much straighter, softer, and more lustrous than organzine. (_b._) _waste and spun silk yarns._--the fibre is obtained from "pierced" cocoons, _i.e._, cocoons through which the silk moth has forced a way at the time of emerging from same, also from "wild" cocoons. the low qualities are short-fibred and are only suitable for weft yarns, while the longer drafts produce higher quality yarns well suited for warp. counts of spun silk are based upon two distinct systems of numbering. in the french system the number is based on the singles, by metres per kilogramme; two and three cord yarns have one-half, one-third, etc., the length the numbers indicate thus:-- no. singles has , metres per kilogramme. " / " , " " " / " , " " the other and more general system is the english. the hank is yards and the number of the hanks in pound avoirdupois is the count of the yarn. it is based on the finished yarn, and singles and two and three cord yarns of the same number have all the same number of yards per pound. thus:-- no. singles has , yards per pound. " / " , " " " / " , " " =sliver.=--a continuous strand of cotton or other fibre in a loose, untwisted condition, ready for the further process of slubbing or roving, preparatory to being spun. =spanish stripes, cotton.=--a plain-woven all-cotton fabric, sometimes woven from dyed yarns, but oftenest met with as a piece-dyed material woven with a simple one-over and one-under weave. the selvedge is often woven with black warp threads to the width of about inch. the filling weft threads are soft and full, the warp threads are much finer and hard-twisted. the surface is raised and the general appearance of the fabric is similar to flannelette. often met with in bright vermilion. average width, inches; length, yards per piece; and value (nominal), _d._ per yard. =spanish stripes, woollen.=--essentially an all-wool fabric, free from any ornamentation of weave, printing, or embossing, this class of fabric is woven with a plain one-over and one-under weave. soft of handle, spanish stripes are generally dyed bright red and have as a distinguishing feature a selvedge of coarser warp threads from ½ to inches in width, some of which are dyed, prior to weaving, a different colour (generally black) to the rest of the warp threads or weft filling threads. these coloured warp threads go towards making generally three separate coloured stripes in the selvedge and have given rise to the name of this particular fabric. in width measuring up to inches and with a length of to yards per piece, woollen spanish stripes are met with in a limited range of quality and the average price of same taken over the period to was _s._ ½_d._ per yard. =spanish stripes, wool and cotton.=--this class of fabric, being a mixture and not a union fabric, answers to the description of a woollen spanish stripe but differs from it in that it is woven from yarns which are composed of a mixture of wool and cotton. the "handle" is very nearly that of an all-wool fabric, the average width some inches, and the length per piece to yards. the distinctive selvedge of this class of fabric is maintained in the wool and cotton variety. =split foot.=--refers to black or coloured hosiery having a white or unbleached sole. =sponge cloth.=--a fine cotton or wool fabric having a surface resembling that of a small sponge. =spun silk.=--applied to a low grade of silk used in the cheaper lines of silk hosiery. it is made from floss, injured cocoons, husks, and waste from reeling, and bears the same relation to silk as cotton waste to cotton or shoddy to wool. =staples.=--staples is a term used to designate those fabrics which are woven in the same way year after year, varying only in the colouring given to them, which may change in accordance with the demands of fashion and of the buyer. the principal dress goods staples are brilliantines, sicilians, mohairs, imperial serges, storm serges, cheviots, panamas, batistes, taffetas, voile, muslins, nun's veiling, cashmere, and shepherd's checks. =surah.=--a light, soft, twilled silk. =swansdown.=--like cotton flannel and flannelette, swansdown is a fabric made of cotton with a "raised" or "napped" surface. being raised but on the back of the cloth, it is "single raised": heavy and closely woven swansdown is a typical raised cotton cloth. the weave is on the satin-weave principle. =swiss embroidery.=--this process of ornamentation closely resembles lappet spots, but, unlike lappet spots, they are in reality the result of a subsequent process of weaving. the essential difference in the manner of attaching the thread which is used for the figuring to the cloth can readily be seen. in swiss embroidery there is an equal amount of floating thread used to form the spot on the face of the cloth and on the back, thus producing what may be termed a solid spot on both sides and therefore reversible. =swivel figures.=--high-class fabrics are often ornamented with swivel spots and figures, which are easily distinguished from the lappet or extra warp figures. in this style the figure is interwoven with extra weft by small shuttles into the ground cloth structure. each figure is produced by an independent weft thread quite distinct from the weft pick forming the ground structure or body of the fabric. the figure threads are well bound into the cloth, the bulk of the material being on the surface. where no figure is required in the space between, the shuttles remain idle in the loom, and the single thread from each shuttle joining the swivel figures is often cut away. often used where a silk figure or a mercerised cotton figure is required on a cotton or worsted ground. =tapestry.=--a yarn-dyed figured fabric composed of two sets of warp and weft threads, woven on a jacquard loom. =t-cloth.=--an all-cotton plain-woven fabric, usually woven from low-quality yarns, generally sold in the grey or unbleached state. most of the _t_-cloth imported into china is a heavily sized cheap grey cloth, usually to inches wide, yards per piece, with a woven coloured heading somewhat similar to the heading in grey shirtings. some _t_-cloth is imported measuring inches wide by or yards per piece. these grey _t_-cloths are generally packed to pieces per bale. bleached _t_-cloths, and inches wide, are also imported in small quantities. these are generally packed in cases of pieces. the fabric derives its name from the mark @t@ under which it was first exported. _t_-cloth is also known as "mexican." =teasels, or teazels.=--thistleheads with curved bracts, used in cloth raising. =terry cloth.=--a weave in looped effect. a velvet in which the loops have not been cut. frequently applied to cotton fabrics of the order of agaric and sponge cloth. _see_ turkish towelling. =tests by burning.=--yarns or fibres of different origin burn in different manner. cotton, linen, ramie, rhea, china grass, etc., ignite and burn readily with a bright smokeless and odourless flame, leaving but a small amount of ash, this being the characteristic of vegetable fibres. animal fibres, on the other hand, are slower to ignite, the appearance of the flame is lifeless, and the fibres burn more slowly than vegetable fibres. wool, when burnt, emits a disagreeable odour, and the residue or ash takes the form of a bead or knob. silk burns in the same way as wool when it is free of "weighting." when artificially weighted, silk may have its weight increased to almost any desired extent--from to per cent. increase in weight can be obtained without creating suspicion. when such weighted silk is burnt, instead of forming itself into small black beads or knobs, it burns leaving a distinct ash, which retains somewhat the shape of the original material. artificial or cellulose silk burns readily and in burning does not give off any odour. =test for artificial silk.=--the burning test should in most cases be sufficient to distinguish artificial from true silk, but if a chemical test is necessary, by immersing the suspect sample in a caustic potash solution it will be seen that artificial silk turns yellow, whereas true silk does not change colour. artificial silk, which is a nitro-cellulose, burns very rapidly, leaving practically no ash whatever. a simple way of recognising artificial silk is by testing the threads under moisture. unravel a few threads of the suspected fabric and place them in the mouth and masticate them thoroughly. artificial silk readily softens under this operation and breaks up into minute particles, and when pulled between the fingers shows no thread, but merely a mass of cellulose or pulp. natural silk, no matter how thoroughly masticated, will retain its fibrous strength. =tests for linen.=--linen, like cotton, burns when a light is applied, leaving a white ash. linen yarns are more irregular in their thickness longitudinally than cotton thread taken from similar woven fabrics. this difference makes the detection of linen in a woven cloth comparatively easy. the fibres are straighter, longer, and stronger when separated in the thread than cotton. the threads often snap sharp and clear when breaking them in the fingers. the oil test for linen is based upon the property which linen has of more readily absorbing oil than cotton does. when a linen and cotton mixture fabric which has been freed from dressing by washing and boiling is dipped in oil and then held up to the light it will be seen that the linen fibres look transparent, whereas the cotton remains more nearly opaque. this is due to the linen having absorbed the oil more readily than the cotton. all the cotton contained in a linen and cotton fabric can be readily dissolved by dipping the fabric in a concentrated sulphuric acid bath for one or two minutes. the sample is first freed of dressing. after washing and drying a sample so tested the linen fibre only will remain. =test for mercerised cotton.=--prepare a solution made by dissolving ¼ ounces of iodide of potassium in ounces of water, then add to this solution ½ ounce of iodine, and mix with another solution made by dissolving ½ ounces of zinc chloride in ounces of water. the test is applied as follows: take the suspect sample and free it from any dressing or sizing by soaking it in water; then, after freeing the sample from any superfluous water, place it in some of the prepared solution for three minutes, and then rinse the sample in water. should the cotton tested have been mercerised it will appear of a deep blue colour. on washing with water the blue colour fades very slowly and needs long washing, whereas ordinary cotton rapidly becomes white on washing. even dyed piece goods will show the deep blue reaction, which is the result of the testing solution acting upon the caustic soda used in the process of mercerisation. when making this test it is best to treat a "known" unmercerised cotton at the same time as the suspect sample so as to have a basis for comparison. =tests for silk.=--if a silk and wool mixture or union fabric is boiled in strong hydrochloric acid for minutes, it will be found that the wool merely swells, whilst the silk acted upon by the acid completely dissolves. by careful weighing before and after the test it becomes a matter of simple calculation to arrive at the percentage of silk present in the fabric. =test for wool.=--if a fabric suspected of containing wool and cotton or other vegetable fibre is boiled for minutes in a solution made by dissolving either ounce of caustic soda or caustic potash in a pint of water it will be found that all the wool will be destroyed and only the vegetable fibres remain. this test, which is based upon the well-known fact that caustic soda dissolves wool, may be used to ascertain the percentage of wool in a cloth if the sample tested is thoroughly washed, dried, and weighed before the test is applied. after testing and drying, the loss in weight represents the amount of wool which was present and destroyed during the test. this test may be reversed and the cotton destroyed by treating the sample with an per cent. sulphuric acid solution. this, however, is a longer test, necessitating the sample being kept in the sulphuric acid solution for about or hours. prior to drying and weighing the sample should be well washed in alcohol. =textile fibres.=--the principal fibres which enter into the construction of textiles can be divided into the following six classes:-- _vegetable._--cotton, flax, ramie, rhea, china grass, jute, hemp, kapok, and marine fibre. _modification of vegetable._--mercerised cotton, artificial silk, animalised cotton, artificial wool, paper yarn. _animal._--sheep's wool, mohair, cashmere, camel hair, alpaca, vicuna, llama, guanaco, rabbit hair, horsehair, cow and calf hair. _animal secretions._--silk and wild silk. _mineral._--asbestos. _metallic._--gold, silver, and other wires, metal-coated fibres. =thickset.=--one of the many varieties of fustian, which comprise corduroys, velveteens, moleskins, thickset, etc. =thread.=--in general, a twisted strand of cotton, flax, wool, silk, etc., spun out to considerable length is called thread. in a specific sense, thread is a compound cord consisting of two or more yarns firmly united together by twisting. thread made of silk is technically known as sewing thread; that made of flax is known as linen thread; while cotton thread intended for sewing is commonly called spool cotton. these distinctions are generally observed by the trade. =three-quarter hose.=--a variety of ribbed-top stockings made for children and reaching nearly to the knees. =ticks, or ticking.=--ticking is a single cloth of either medium or heavy weight woven from cotton yarns of from 's to 's in warp and filling or from yarns which would give the same weight material, such as 's warp and 's filling. usually woven with two-over-one or three-over-one twill weave. ticking belongs to the class of stiff, hard-faced cotton fabrics. this feature is due to the warp-faced twill weave. these goods are made usually in two coloured warp patterns, dark blue and white and red and white. one feature which is worthy of mention in regard to ticking and other similar lines is that they are to-day being stock-dyed in increasing quantities. this method consists of dyeing the cotton or bleaching it, as the case may be, in the raw state and then carding, drawing, and spinning just as if a grey fabric were to be made. stock-dyeing results in the dye affecting the fibres which form the very centre of a yarn, and for this reason is a better process than dyeing the finished yarn. brushed, sheared, sized, and calendered ticking is either packed lapped or rolled into bolts. =tire cloth.=--a fabric made from strong slackly folded yarns of good-quality cotton used in the lining of tires. the warp threads are very closely set, so as best to withstand strain. the weft threads are very openly set, so as to prevent undue pressure on the warp threads, which should lie straight and so avoid friction or cutting which might arise from the action of the inflated inner tube and the tire whilst in use. the yarn used in this type of cloth is usually made from 's to 's count, doubled or fold, necessitating great care in the subsequent twisting to ensure evenness of strength and elasticity, which in this class of cloth is essential. tire fabrics, as used in the manufacture of automobile and bicycle tires, are made from long-staple sea island cotton, the yarn being combed and of a comparatively coarse number, usually 's to 's, and from single yarn to -ply. a wide range of weights is found in these fabrics, varying from to ounces per square yard. this fabric forms the base of the finished rubber tire. =tram.=--a thrown silk thread taking its name from the french _trame_, meaning weft, softer and more flossy and having less twist than organzine. it is generally used for weft, which, as it bears little strain in weaving, need not be as strong as the warp, but should be soft and bulky, so that when beaten in successive threads will lie close together and fill up the interstices of the web. tram and organzine are, with the exception of spun waste silk, the only kinds of silk thread used for weaving--varying, however, in quality of silk, amount of twist, and in size. =trunk length.=--applied to women's hosiery midway between ordinary and opera length, usually widened gradually above the knee. =tubular cloth.=--the most commonly met with examples of tubular cloths are the ordinary pillow slip, tubular lampwick, tapes, etc., which are in common use. =tulle.=--a plain, fine silk net. practically the same as maline. =turkish towelling.=--essentially terry cloth woven as an all-cotton fabric having as a salient feature an uncut loop-pile surface. sold by the linear yard for the making of bath robes, etc. woven unbleached or with some coloured yarns for bordering effect and subsequently bleached, the coloured yarns used resisting bleaching. otherwise woven in sizes suitable for cutting into lengths, which are then sold as turkish towels. =tussore, or tussah.=--the wild silk from which shantung and pongee are made. applied to these fabrics when heavily and coarsely woven. =tweed.=--rough, unfinished fabric of soft, open, and flexible texture, woven on a plain weave from wool or cotton and wool, usually of yarn of two or more shades. originally the product of the weavers on the banks of the river tweed. the face of the cloth presents an unfinished appearance rather than a sharp and clearly defined pattern. =twill weave.=--a twill weave is a weave that produces diagonal lines across the cloth. in this class of weave the filling threads pass over one and under two, or over one and under three, four, five, or six, or over two or three and under one, two, three, or four, or over four and under four, three, six, etc. where there are the same number of warp and filling threads to the inch, twill lines will form an angle of degrees; if the warp threads are closer together than the filling threads, the twilled lines produced will approach more the horizontal. twill weaving permits the introduction of more material into the cloth than a plain weave and produces, therefore, a closer and heavier fabric. a twill effect in a material is also called a diagonal, from the direction it has in relation to the length of the cloth. this diagonal effect is continually produced by the warp and weft intersections traversing one thread and one pick further from their respective positions each time a pick of weft is inserted. twill weaves may be divided into four common classes: ( ) regular, ( ) broken, ( ) fancy, ( ) figured. _regular twills._--a regular twill is referred to as a twill of so many "ends" or "shafts"; by this is meant a twill which contains a number of warp and weft threads which, added together, equal the number of "ends." thus a five-end twill can either have (_a_) four warps and one weft, (_b_) three warps and two wefts, or (_c_) two warps and three wefts--this form of twill will be seen to be a reverse weave to (_b_). _broken twills._--a twill effect produces a twill line which, when the number of warp and weft threads are equal, is at an angle of degrees. in a broken twill effect this line, which may be compared to the left-hand stroke of a letter @v@, is combined with another twill line running in an opposite direction and which is simply a turning or "reversing" of the threads in the regular twill weave. broken twill effect enters largely into the weave design of harvard shirting. _fancy twills._--as the term indicates, fancy twills is a style of weave which, whilst always retaining the main features and essentials of a "regular" twill, has been made fancy by alternating the arrangements of the thread and thus producing "elongated twills," "corkscrew twills," or "combination twills." the description of fancy twills could only be attempted by the use of illustrations and pages of explanations. _figured twills._--figured twills are regular twills with a small figure introduced between the diagonal lines. the designs introduced are generally small figures produced by plain weave or a small diamond-shaped spot made by either the warp or the weft threads being brought to the surface and made to form the design. the designs are never very elaborate. =twin needle.=--a double row of interlocked machine stitching used for covering raw edges and seams of knit underwear. =unclassed native cotton cloth (china).=--all native cotton cloths, whether woven on a hand or power loom, which are not-- (_a._) nankeen as defined in customs notification no. (_see_ nankeen); (_b._) specially enumerated in the general tariff of for the trade of china; or (_c._) the produce of a privileged factory and at the same time enumerated in either the general tariff of or the revised import tariff-- are grouped under the heading "unclassed native cotton cloth." this group comprises:-- º. all cotton fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a combination of these weaves, in part or whole, from yarns, whether single or folded, which have been either mercerised, gassed, dyed and mercerised, or dyed and gassed prior to weaving, whether woven in a cloth having a solid colour effect or whether woven so as to produce a striped or woven figured effect. º. all fabrics woven with a plain, satin, or twill weave or a combination of these weaves from grey, white, or dyed yarns which subsequent to weaving have been mercerised or dyed in the piece. º. generally all cotton fabrics woven so as to imitate foreign yarn-dyed fabrics, whether same are devoid of a raised finish or have been raised on either back or face of the cloth, irrespective of whether the yarn has or has not been mercerised prior to weaving and irrespective of whether the cloth has or has not been mercerised after leaving the loom. the term "=native cotton cloth=" (china) is applied to hand-loom fabrics other than nankeen, unclassed native cotton cloths or fabrics that are specifically enumerated in the general tariff of for the trade of china. the name is given to a group of cloths which answer to the following description:-- º. all hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton yarn which have been piece-dyed after leaving the loom, but which have not been either mercerised or gassed. º. all hand-loom plain-weave fabrics which do not exceed inches in width woven from ordinary grey or white single cotton yarn which have been either resist, discharge, or direct printed but which have not been either mercerised or gassed after leaving the loom. =union broadcloth.=--this fabric, also known under the name of poncho cloth, is a plain-woven cotton warp and woollen weft fabric, woven in the unusual width of inches and averaging in length of piece from to yards. the selvedge of this class of fabric is distinctive, showing a long unshorn hairy surface. the face of the cloth does not show the weave or yarn intersection points, as it has a typical broadcloth finish, but these are distinctly to be seen on the back of the fabric. a union broadcloth of the above description, typical of that generally exported to china, averaged in value during the years to about _s._ _d._ per yard. =union cloth.=--as the name implies, union cloths are woven with warp and weft of different fibres. they are also called "mixed cloths," and the union of the two different kinds of fibres may be arrived at by intermingling the wool and cotton fibres to form the warp or weft of a fabric or, as in most cases, each kind of fibre may be confined to separate threads, forming part or the whole of the warp or weft. union cloths are generally "cross-dyed," although they may also be "dyed in the grey." in the case of "cross-dyeing," the cotton warp is dyed the desired colour and interlaced with a wool weft, which is in a grey or undyed condition, and subsequently the weft only is dyed, this being possible as the affinity of cotton and wool are different. when light colours are desired in the fabric the cotton warp and wool weft are woven in a grey or undyed condition, and then both are dyed in the fabric: this method is styled "dyeing in the grey." in some cases the wool and cotton are treated separately, in others union dyes are employed. the principal union cloths met with are: brilliantines, glacés, and sicilians, plain-weave materials with cotton warp and mohair weft; alpacas, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and alpaca weft; lustres, plain or twill weave, cotton warp and lustre or demi-lustre weft; italians, five-shaft weft, sateen weave, cotton warp, fine botany weft; cashmeres, / weft twill weave, cotton warp, fine botany weft; beatrice twill, five-end (four weft and one warp) twill, cotton warp, demi-lustre weft. all authorities do not agree as to what constitutes a union, the following definition having been met with: "fabrics are union when composed of two materials otherwise than by blending." in the morley (yorkshire) trade a "union" is a cotton warp cloth of boiled and teazled finish superficially resembling broadcloth. =union yarns.=--these yarns, as the name indicates, are the product of combining two or more different materials into a yarn, generally wool and cotton or wool, and any of the many vegetable fibres capable of being spun. union yarns may be produced by the mixing together of the two or more different fibres when they are still in the state of loose fibres; in such a case the cotton fibres act as binders upon the rest of the fibres. when the various fibres are thoroughly mixed together, the mixture obtained is spun: this produces the variety known as carded union yarns. another form of union yarn is obtained by twisting together two threads of different material. some union yarns have the appearance of pure wool threads, and only careful scrutiny will reveal the presence of cotton fibre; this type of yarn is known by the name of angola yarn. union yarns, being composed of materials that are not affected by dyes in the same way, can be recognised when found in a so-called wool fabric from the fact that the wool in the yarn will have taken up the dye, whereas the cotton will not have done so to the same extent, but will have retained more or less its original colour. =velour.=--this name is given to a soft, thick, nappy flannel used in the making of dressing-gowns, etc., made from either wool or cotton or a combination of both. as a cotton fabric, it is of the coarse, stiff, pile variety. the name is french for velvet, hence its use in connexion with a pile-surface fabric. as a woollen and worsted term, there is a considerable diversity of opinion as to the precise cloth designated by the term velour. some manufacturers would class as velours any cloth having a soft velvety nap, others make finer distinctions, classing one as a "face-finished cashmere," a second as a "saxony," with velour slightly different from either of these. =velvet.=--this name is given to a pure all-silk pile fabric with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of silk threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. these threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. "all-silk" in this definition of velvet applies to the pile only, for velvets are so generally woven with a cotton back that a silk velvet should be considered as having a cotton back unless specially designated as "silk backed." =velvet finish.=--a finish produced upon woollen fabrics by wet-raising in various directions and subsequently cropping the pile thus raised level, which leaves the velvet-finished material with a fairly dense pile of a velvety appearance. =velvet of silk mixed with other fibres.=--this class of fabric includes all pile fabrics which, in the first instance, answer to the description of velvet, _i.e._, have their pile shorter than that of plush, and the pile of which, whilst being partly of silk, contains other animal fibres, such as wool or mohair, or even vegetable fibres, such as cotton. where it is clearly stipulated that they are "velvets of silk mixed with other fibres and having cotton backs," the foundation cloth must not contain warp or weft threads wholly or in part composed of any material other than cotton. =velveteen.=--this name is given to the class of fabrics that in reality are but cotton velvets. like true velvets, they are woven with a pile weave, the distinctive feature of which is that the surface consists of threads or fibres standing closely together like the bristles in a brush. these threads appear as threads sheared off smooth, so as to form a uniform or even surface. velveteens are generally woven on the weft-pile basis, that is to say, that the "pile floats" or "flushings" are produced with the weft threads--which are afterwards cut--additional to and on a firmly constructed woven ground texture. weft pile can be recognised by removing from the fabric a weft thread, when, upon withdrawing this thread, it will be seen that the bits of "cut pile" are not looped round it or attached to it but remain entangled among the warp threads. common velveteen, which is "all cotton," will be identified as a weft pile in this manner. velveteens are also known as velverets or fustians. standard widths for velveteens are inches, ½ inches, ½ inches, and ½ or inches. =venetians.=--a wool fabric, closely woven in a fine twill. as applied to a cotton fabric, it is used to designate a heavy, warp-face, dress satin (or sateen) of strong texture and closely woven, dyed in the piece, silky and lustrous in appearance. light weights would be sold as sateen or dress sateen. woven with about to threads to the square inch, the style of weave in itself tends to produce lustre; this is intensified by calendering and sometimes by mercerising the fabric. the weave is of an upright warp twill character, and the name was first applied to a dress face woollen cloth; later, worsted dress venetians were made, and later still the name was applied to an all-cotton fabric of similar weave. =vesting (vestings).=--a generic term embracing a wide range of fabrics more or less ornamented, used in most countries for men's vests, but used in china for either men's or women's outer or inner garments. fabrics of several combination of weaves showing fancy stripes or small checkings, and often coloured to the extent of some coloured warp threads appearing here and there on the surface and left floating (where not used) on the back of the fabric are common in this class of goods. this heading covers welts, piqué, fancy piqué, etc. =vigogne.=--the french form of the word "vicuña"; applied to a soft woollen dress material. =vigoreux.=--a worsted material, printed in the yarn so as to produce a mélange, or mixture, effect in colouring. this differs from beige in that the yarns are printed before being spun, giving the finished goods the appearance of having been woven from mixed yarns. =viyella.=--a light cloth, largely made from cotton and wool scribbled together. it is similar to ceylon flannel and differs from it only in name. this fabric is one of many known under "trade-marks 'patented' or 'registered' names," which are sometimes sufficiently popular to embrace many different weaves under one head. =voile.=--this name is used to designate a more or less transparent light fabric made generally of cotton. woven with a square mesh produced by plain one-over and one-under weaving, voile averages meshes per inch, with an average width of inches, and generally in pieces of yards. voile when dyed is piece-dyed and not woven from yarn which was dyed previously to being woven. the yarn used in the weaving of voiles is a hard-twisted yarn. woollen voiles are also woven, the characteristics being similar to cotton voile, but in weaving voiles with worsted yarns, if the yarn is not very free from loose fibres, the fabric is finished by having its face singed or sheared very close, so as to ensure a clear-faced material. =wadding pick.=--a thick weft thread of low quality inserted often without interlacing between the two fabrics in a double cloth and between the two warps in a warp-backed structure. this gives weight and solidity to the fabric. the wadding pick remains out of sight, and the appearance of the fabric is not affected thereby. =wale.=--this term has the same meaning as "warp welt," or "welt," and is used to describe a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals. =warp.=--warp is the name given to that set of threads that runs lengthways of a piece of cloth. when the word "end" is used in connexion with weaving, it always signifies the warp thread, while each filling or weft thread is called a "pick." =warp pile.=--warp pile can be recognised by simply withdrawing from the fabric being examined a few "picks," or weft threads. if the material is a warp-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" remain entangled or looped and adhering to some of the drawn weft threads. this can be easily seen if a common velvet ribbon is experimented with, when, upon drawing out the weft threads separately from selvedge to selvedge, it will invariably be seen that each alternate weft thread will have the loose bits of "cut warp pile" attached. where the material is extra closely woven it is possible for every weft thread that is withdrawn to have the loose bits attached in the manner described. warp-pile fabrics include two varieties, the "uncut pile," such as turkish or terry towels and towelling, brussels carpets, patent tapestry carpets, etc., and "cut pile," like warp-pile plushes, velvets, ribbons, etc. =warp print.=--a fabric wherein the design, being printed on the warps prior to weaving, appears somewhat faintly and in an indefinite outline. _see_ chiné. =warp ribs.=--the term "warp ribs" is used to designate a warp-surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the weft threads (or picks) or to the grouping together of a number of weft picks, the warp threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance running from selvedge to selvedge in which the warp threads are on the face of the fabric. poplin is a typical warp-ribbed fabric. =warp sateen.=--a common form of cotton sateen cloth is that woven with a "warp sateen" weave on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the warp threads appearing on the face of the fabric and therefore four-fifths of the weft threads appear on the back of the fabric. the object of weaving on this principle is to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. a warp sateen will be much closer in the warp threads than in the weft threads, and therefore stronger in that direction. =warp welt.=--a fabric having thick raised cords at close intervals, as in the case of bedford cords and piqués. in cotton goods, when the cords run lengthways of the piece, the fabric is known as a "warp welt." sometimes called "wale." =warp-faced cloth.=--a fabric which shows on its face a greater number of warp threads than "picks," or weft threads. =waste and condenser wefts.=--these are made from certain waste cotton which accumulates in certain parts of the machinery during the process of spinning yarn. this waste is treated by special machinery, which spins it into a full, level, and soft yarn, which is used for weft in weaving sheetings. =waste and flocks.=--cotton mill waste is the by-product derived from the cotton in its various processes through the mill. each pound of cotton before it becomes cloth loses on an average per cent. visible and invisible waste. the visible waste is of two kinds, hard and soft; hard waste, which has been made on spinning and subsequent machines, and which bears a slight twist; soft waste, which includes that part of the fibre rejected by all machines up to the spinning frame. the invisible waste is equal to the amount of evaporation of moisture in the cotton during the process of manufacture. flocks are short fibres removed from cloth during the process of napping. =waste cloths.=--cotton fabrics woven from waste yarns, generally plain woven and of low grade. the weft thread is coarse and is spun from waste or short-fibre cotton. =watering.=--as a textile term, it is used to designate the process whereby certain distinctive effects are produced on the face of plain-woven fabrics--especially silks. the process of giving a wavy or wave-like appearance in fabrics by either passing them through suitably engraved metal rollers which, bearing unequally upon the fabric, render the surface unequal, making it reflect light differently. the same result is obtained by pressing two plain-woven fabrics together, when the coarser weft threads of the fabric produce the wave-like indentations on the face of the fabric it is pressed against. a fabric is said to be "watered" when ornamented by either of the above processes. the principle of this operation is that two fabrics of precisely similar build, when pressed together, naturally "water" each other, owing to the coincidence or non-coincidence of the threads or picks causing flatness or ribbedness of a sufficiently marked character under conditions of heat and pressure. "to tabby" is another expression for "to water," and the adjective "tabby," usually referring to a brindled cat, signifies streaked with wavy lines. =weaving.=--every woven piece of cloth is made up of two distinct systems of threads, known as the warp and the filling (this latter is also known as weft), which are interlaced with each other to form a fabric. the warp threads run lengthways of the piece of cloth, and the filling, or weft, threads run across from side to side. the manner in which the warp and filling interlace with each other constitutes the weave. the term "end" in weaving is used to designate the warp thread, while each weft or filling thread is called a "pick." the fineness of a cloth is expressed by saying that it has so many "ends" and "picks" to the inch. the character of the weave offers the best basis for classification of woven goods, and nearly all varieties of cloth may be classified under the following weaves:-- plain weave. twill weave. satin weave. figure weave. double-cloth weave. pile weave. gauze weave. lappet weave. =web.=--web is the name given to a piece of cloth at the moment it is taken from the loom and previous to its having been treated to produce the special feature of the class of cloth the web belongs to. =weft.=--when the word "weft" is used in connexion with weaving or woven fabrics, it always signifies the filling threads, each of which is also called a "pick." weft threads run across the width of the fabric. =weft pile.=--weft pile can be recognised by withdrawing from the fabric under examination a few "picks," or weft threads. if the material is a weft-pile weave, then it will be seen that the loose bits of "cut pile" are not entangled or looped round or adhering to the weft thread that has been drawn out, but that they remain entangled among the warp threads. if, however, a few warp threads are withdrawn separately, it will be found that every alternate warp thread, as a rule, will have the loose bits of "cut weft pile" attached or looped round. =weft ribs.=--the only difference between these and warp ribs is that the weft bends and the warp lies straight. the term "weft rib" is used to designate a weft surface weave in which, owing to the thickness of the warp threads or to the grouping together of a number of warp threads, the weft threads are made to bend round them and, being thus thrown to the surface of the fabric, produce a ribbed appearance with the ribs running lengthways, in which the weft threads are on the face of the fabric. =weft sateen.=--a weft sateen is woven on the five threads and picks system, which results in four-fifths of the weft threads appearing on the surface of the fabric, and therefore four-fifths of the warp threads appear on the back of the fabric. the object of weaving on this principle is similar to that aimed at when weaving a warp sateen, that is to say, it is done to obtain a smooth cloth surface by distributing the interlacing points and so destroying the common "twilled" effect. a weft sateen will be closer in the weft threads (or picks) than in the warp threads, and therefore stronger in that direction. =weft-faced cloth.=--a fabric which shows on its face a greater number of "picks," or weft threads, than warp threads. =weight and thickness of woollen cloths.=--the accepted standard of weight and thickness of woollen cloth is-- _for ladies' wear_:-- ounces per yard represents a "very thin" cloth. " " " "thin" cloth. _for men's wear_:-- ounces per yard represents a "thin, or "tropical," cloth. " " " "thin medium" cloth. " " " "medium" cloth. " " " "thick" cloth. " " " "very thick" cloth. naturally, also, the relation of weight to thickness varies with the composition of the cloth and the style of make, some "woolly" makes of ounces being very thick. =weighting.=--the process of adding to the natural weight of a fabric by making it take up certain chemical or other substances. cotton fabrics are generally weighted by subjecting them to a process which causes them to absorb either zinc chloride, magnesium sulphate, magnesium chloride, glue, gelatine, starch, or alkali silicate. woollens and worsteds are generally weighted with zinc chloride. silk is generally weighted with muriate of tin, and few of the silks on the market are free from weighting. modern methods make it possible to increase the weight of pure boiled silk to five or six times its original weight. hooper, in his book on "silk," states: "it was early found that silk would absorb about one-third its own weight of water without feeling wet to the touch. the dyer found that it would absorb other things besides water, muriate of tin amongst them. as a matter of fact, it may be, and indeed it is, made by the dyer to take up, with the dye, so much of that metal that ounces of boiled silk can be increased in weight to ounces, and yet look like very bright silk." the term "weighting" has the same value as "filling" or "loading." =welt.=--the double thick portion or wide hem at top of plain hose. =whip thread.=--the crossing thread in a gauze fabric. =whipcord.=--this name is given to hard-twisted worsted twills in either solid or mixed colours. the twill or diagonal in this class of fabric is well marked and slightly raised, somewhat resembling the hard-twisted fibre lash of a whip. =white.=--as a textile term, this word is applied to fabrics which are not in their loom state, _i.e._, in the grey, but which have been bleached and rendered white. =white brocades.=--under this name would be classed bleached fabrics of different weaves or combinations of weave in which the design appearing on the surface of the fabric is of a fancy, figured, or floral effect, usually of elaborate design. soft spun wefts are generally used in the weaving of brocades and other figured cloths, as they fill and throw up better the figure produced than a hard-twist yarn would do. white brocades are all-cotton goods unless otherwise stated. lappet and swivel figured fabrics would not come under the heading "brocades"; such style of figuring is not brocaded. =white cambric.=--cambric is a plain-weave fine linen fabric of light weight and soft finish. cotton cambric, in which the yarn used is of fine cotton, is mostly met with. it is woven without a selvedge and generally leaves the loom in pieces of yards, which are cut to shorter lengths. in plain white, a cambric is finer than a lawn. cambric of french origin is generally finer in texture than the manchester cambric. cambric varies in width from to inches and in length from to yards per piece. the finer qualities are made from hard-twisted cotton. the warp yarn is often of a different thickness to that used for the filling, and it is generally finished with a smooth glazed surface. the term cambric is also commonly applied to muslins. white cambric is a bleached material. =white drills, or drilling.=--white drills are, when not otherwise specified, all-cotton medium and heavy weight single cloths woven as a three-shaft twill (two warp and one weft), which have been bleached but not dyed or printed. the better qualities of warp-faced sateen-weave drills are known as satin drill, and these are extensively exported to the far east; their distinctive features lie in the closeness of weave, smoothness of surface, and finish. =white goods.=--a generic term covering a great variety of bleached fabrics, plain or fancy, covering various weaves or combination of weaves. =white irishes.=--the term irishes originally was applied to linen fabrics which were mainly produced in and around belfast. it is now used to describe certain cotton fabrics of plain weave similar to white cotton calico. generally in pieces inches wide and yards long, finished with a heavy starch finish. =white italian.=--the name white italian is not generally applied to a white cotton fabric woven and finished as an italian. such a fabric is a white mercerised sateen; however, occasionally an invoice covering coloured italians will be found to include so-called white italians. in such cases the colour assortment list (which generally accompanies, if it does not form part of, the invoice) will show the number of white pieces included in the shipment. the ordinary italian is essentially a coloured or piece-dyed material, and, as white is not, in the piece goods trade, considered to be a colour, a white italian cannot be considered as coming under the classification of dyed plain cottons. =white jean.=--a white jean is an all-cotton fabric woven as a three-end twill, similar in weave to a grey jean, but which has been subjected to a process of bleaching to turn it into what is known as a "market white" fabric. the process of bleaching proper is always preceded by a series of operations that have for their object the improving of the surface of the cloth by removing loose fibres, motes, and ends of yarn, and by cleaning and singeing the surface so as to free it from all "nap." the distinctive weave of this fabric is given under "grey jeans," which is the class of jean most often met with. =white lawn.=--lawn is a plain-weave light-weight cotton fabric of soft finish made from yarns varying from / 's to / 's. lawn has a soft, smooth feel, which is due to the absence of sizing or starching and to the process of brushing and calendering, _i.e._, passing the fabric through heavily weighted steam-heated rollers. lawns vary in quality and weight similarly to other fabrics, their weight varying between ¼ and ¼ ounces per yard; in width they vary from to inches and in length from to yards per piece. lawn in plain white is coarser than a cambric. the yarn used in the weaving of lawn is generally of fine egyptian cotton. white lawns are also made of linen yarn, and when so made would be called linen lawn. india lawn is a calendered fabric, about yards to the pound and to inches wide in book-fold or inches in long-fold. victoria lawn has a very stiff finish. bishop's lawn is slightly heavier in weight than "linon" or "india linon," bleached and finished to a bluish tint, and derives its name from the style of finish. the same fabric finished differently would be known under other names. white lawn is a bleached material. =white muslin.=--muslin is a light-weight, open, plain-weave cotton fabric made generally of low-count yarns, that is to say, of fairly coarse yarn. muslins, lawns, and cambrics are all materials which are similar in construction but vary by their quality, muslin being the lowest grade of the three. a very common kind of muslin is known as butter muslin or cheese cloth. muslins vary in width from to inches and in length from to yards per piece. foundation muslin, book muslin, and butcher's muslin are varieties of muslin so dissimilar to the true muslin that they should not be considered as coming under the classification of true muslin, which, whilst it varies considerably, should always answer to the description of "a fine, soft, thin, open, plain-woven cotton fabric." white muslin is a bleached material. =white sheetings.=--a bleached light or medium weight plain-woven all-cotton fabric. under the heading "grey sheeting" will be found a description of the two distinct varieties of fabric known as sheeting. where such grey sheetings have been rendered white by being bleached and are no longer in their loom state, they are known as white sheetings. =white shirtings.=--essentially a bleached all-cotton fabric woven with a plain one-under and one-over weave, having the warp and weft threads approximately equal in number of threads and counts. it differs from grey shirtings only in finish, white shirting having been subjected to a bleaching process after leaving the loom, whereas grey shirting remains in its loom state, _i.e._, in the same condition as when it was taken off the loom. the same remarks as to the similarity between a grey shirting and a grey sheeting applies to white shirtings and white sheetings. similarly, a white shirting may be termed a white calico, which is a term used to designate practically any cotton cloth coarser than muslin. varying in width and weight, they are generally put up in pieces of from to yards. the length marked on the outside of the piece may not always correspond to the number of yards in the piece if the yard is taken as one of inches. =white spotted shirtings.=--like white striped shirtings, the ornamentation in this class of fabric would be produced by combination of weave and would not be the result of printing or be due to the presence of coloured yarns. the essentials of this class of fabric are similar to those of white striped shirtings, _i.e._, the fabric is all cotton and the ornamentation due to weave and weave only. =white striped shirtings.=--the fabric which would properly come under this classification would be essentially all-cotton fabrics containing stripes, produced by a combination of weave and not the result of printing or due to the presence of coloured yarns. a plain-weave ground may be combined with a sateen-weave stripe. such a fabric would not be called a fancy shirting, which in the trade is generally understood to be "either printed on the woven, bleached fabric, or of fast colours, dyed upon the warp, or combination of each." white striped shirtings are mostly made on a jacquard loom, and in the white condition the woven pattern constitutes the only effect or ornamentation in the finished cloth. =white t-cloth.=--a bleached all-cotton fabric, plain woven from low-quality yarns. an ordinary _t_-cloth which has been bleached. generally sold in lengths of yards and varying in width from to inches. the name is said to be derived from the mark @t@ of the original exporters. =white venetians.=--what has been said of white italians holds good _mutatis mutandis_ of white venetians. such fabrics are in reality white warp-faced sateens, and, white not being considered a colour, they do not come under the classification of dyed plain cottons. =widow's lawn.=--a better quality of lawn made from linen, well woven, very clear and even in texture. =width.=--the practice has grown up in the trade to refer to the width of a fabric either as "actual" or "nominal." the former term explains itself and means that the width as given is actually that of the piece referred to, and that it is not less than stated. "nominal," on the other hand, is understood to mean that the fabric referred to may vary by as much as half an inch below the width specified on the contract. =window holland.=--a plain-woven all-cotton cloth, stiffened after weaving with about one-fifth of its weight in starch or other sizing material. it is used as window shades. =wolsey.=--a proprietary name applied to certain all-wool materials, especially underwear. =wool.=--wool is the soft, curly covering which forms the fleecy coat of the sheep and other similar animals, such as the goat, alpaca, llama, vicuña, and camel. the chief characteristic of wool is its felting or shrinking power. this felting property, from which wool derives its chief value and which is its special distinction from hair, depends in part upon the kinks in the fibre but mainly upon the scales with which the fibre is covered. the process of felting consists in the fibres becoming entangled with each other, and the little projecting scales hooking into each other and holding the fibres closely interlocked. the wool of commerce is divided into three great classes:-- . short wool, or clothing wool (also called carding wool), seldom exceeds a length of to inches. . long wool, or combing wool, varying from to inches. . carpet and knitting wools, which are long, strong, and very coarse. combing wools take their name from the process of "combing" which they undergo when being prepared for spinning into yarn. combing wools are longer than carding wools; they are also harder or more wiry and less inclined to be spiral or kinky. carding wools--made to cross and interlace and interlock with one another--are shorter than combing, and, in addition, they possess the power of felting (that is to say, of matting together in a close, compact mass) to a much greater degree. the first and finest clip of wool is called lamb's wool; it is taken from the young sheep at the age of eight to twelve months and, never having been clipped before, it is naturally pointed at the end. all subsequent cut fleeces are known as wether wool and are less valuable than the first clip. the ends of such wool are thick and blunted on account of having been previously cut. wool, unlike cotton, is not capable of being worked into a yarn without first being thoroughly cleansed of its impurities. =wool-dyed.=--a term applied to fabrics dyed in the loose or top form--as distinct from yarn-dyed or piece-dyed. =woollen.=--this term is used in contradistinction to worsted, and implies difference of material and method of manufacture. wastes, shoddy, and blends of material other than wool are referred to as "woollen," in opposition to "all wool." =woollen and cotton flannel.=--a fabric answering to the description of true flannel, usually woven with either a plain or twill weave, soft finished, but which is made from carded union yarn, _i.e._, yarn composed of wool and cotton in varying proportions according to the quality of the material it is intended to produce. if a woollen and cotton flannel were described as a union flannel it would be composed of distinct yarns, some of which were all cotton and some all wool. in its broad acceptance the term is applicable to any fabric woven partly of wool and partly of cotton to resemble true all-wool flannel. =woollen and cotton mixtures.=--this term is used to designate fabrics which are composed of the fibres of wool and cotton which have been blended or scribbled together rather than to fabrics composed of distinct threads which are all-cotton and all-wool yarns woven together. a cotton warp and wool weft fabric is a union, not a mixture. mixtures may be recognised, when dyed, by a careful examination of the fibres constituting the yarn. when such fibres are not of the same colour, it will be found to have been due to the difference of affinity for the dye between cotton and wool. the burning test is not close enough. carbonising is the surest test that can be applied to determine the presence and percentage of cotton in any woollen and cotton mixture fabric. =woollen fabric.=--the typical woollen is a full-handling fabric in which structure and colouring cannot always be defined on account of the threads and picks, and even the fibres, having become thoroughly intermingled in passing through the operations of finishing. strictly speaking, a woollen fabric should be made of fine wool (possibly noils included); but in the english law courts a definition of "woollen" fabrics as being composed of mungo, shoddy, cotton, etc., has been accepted. =woollen lastings, craped.=--a fabric similar in the main to a plain lasting, but which, owing either to special process of weaving, chemical process during finishing, or to the action of suitably engraved rollers through which the material is made to pass, has a face finish resembling crape cloth, plain, under which heading will be found the distinctive characteristics of crape cloth. =woollen lastings, figured.=--like cotton lastings, this fabric is essentially a plain twill or kindred weave fabric, firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. it is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, but smooth in appearance and ornamented by the introduction of a figure, pattern, or design produced either by means of an extra thread or by combination of warp and weft threads. =woollen lastings, plain.=--a plain twill or kindred weave fabric firmly woven from hard-twisted yarns. it is woven from strong wool and can be described as a fine, durable fabric of a somewhat hard handle, smooth in appearance, and free from any ornamentation produced either by weaving or printing. used extensively in the manufacture of boot and shoe uppers. =woollen yarn= in appearance possesses a fringe-like covering which gives it a fuzzy appearance. this is arrived at by using shorter wool than in the manufacture of worsted yarn and by giving it a twist. this fuzzy appearance distinguishes it from worsted yarn, which is a straight yarn in which the component fibres lie smoothly and parallel to each other. woollen yarn is particularly suitable for the manufacture of cloths in which the colourings require to be blended, the fibres napped, as in tweed, cheviot, doeskin, broadcloth, beaver, frieze, chinchilla, blanket, and flannel. woollen yarn may be said to be a thread in which all the component fibres are entangled into each other and are in all different directions: this results in a yarn which is rough in appearance, non-lustrous, and more irregular than worsted yarn. it is only in this type of yarn that low-grade materials, such as mungo, shoddy, or extract, can be utilised. the fibres which constitute a woollen yarn are not as readily separated from the body of the yarn or cloth as in the case of worsted. in the case of woollen yarn there are numerous systems for denoting the count, varying with the locality in which it is spun and the character of the product. in the united states there are two systems employed, but the one in most general use is known as the "american run counts." this is based on the number of "runs," each containing , yards, to the pound. thus, a yarn running , yards to the pound is called a " -run" yarn, a yarn with , yards to the pound is equal to a " ¼-run." in the vicinity of philadelphia woollen yarn is based on the "cut," each cut consisting of yards, and the count is the number of cuts in a pound. thus, no. cut yarn consists of , yards to the pound. a similar system prevails in england, where yards go to the "cut," and the number of "cuts" per pound equals the count. in certain parts of england (yorkshire) yards go to the hank. the count is also arrived at on the basis that the number of yards per dram equals the count. =worsted diagonal.=--the name explains itself and is applied to a worsted cloth having as its chief characteristic a prominent weave effect running diagonally--from left to right--across the face of the cloth. generally in solid colours and finished so as to bring the weave into prominence. =worsted lastings.=--a smooth, warp-faced, sateen-weave fabric woven from worsted warp and weft, having a plain-weave effect on the back of the fabric. generally piece-dyed black. worsted lastings average to inches in width and to yards in length per piece. met with in three grades of quality. average bradford price for the best grade was, for the years ended , about _s._ _d._ per piece. =worsted yarn= is a straight yarn, _i.e._, a yarn produced from straight fibres; it is invaluable in the production of textile fabrics in which lustre and uniformity of surface are the chief characteristics. they enter into the manufacture of zephyr, saxony, serge, bunting, rep, etc. yarn is measured by a system of "counts"--the number of yards of yarn to the pound. it is put up in hanks of yards each, and the number of such hanks that are necessary to weigh pound determines the count, so that if no. yarn is mentioned, it is a yarn hanks of which, or , yards, weigh pound. the main characteristic of worsted yarn is the arrangement of the fibres, which are so arranged that they are parallel to each other in a longitudinal direction. the yarn thus produced is a smooth, lustrous, and level yarn, these qualities being absent in woollen yarn. the fibres which constitute a worsted yarn are more readily separated from the body of the yarn or cloth than in the case of a woollen yarn. =w-pile.=--this term is used to designate a fast pile and originates in the form taken by a piece of fast pile when removed from the fabric. in a fast-pile fabric the pile cannot be driven out through the back of the fabric by pressure applied to the pile, owing to the fact that the pile is virtually bound into the material and held in place by two threads from the top and one from behind. _see_ pile weave. =wright's underwear, imitation.=--this class of underwear is essentially a knit cotton underwear made from a combination of bleached cotton yarn and dyed yarn. the knit fabric is raised on the inside. the dyed yarn used in the manufacture of this class of underwear is often of a blue or brown colour. =yarn, cotton, grey or bleached.=--in its unqualified form the term cotton yarn is used to describe "single" yarns, and cotton yarn, grey or bleached, is understood to be cotton thread and carded yarn, warps or warp yarns, in singles, whether in bundles, skeins, or cops, not advanced beyond the condition of singles by grouping or twisting two or more single yarns together and not advanced beyond the condition of bleached by dyeing, colouring, printing, gassing, or mercerising. cotton yarn is subdivided into three groups,--coarse, medium, and fine--according to count:-- no. 's count and under = coarse. nos. 's to 's = medium. no. 's and over = fine. cotton yarn is sometimes found as a mercerised grey yarn. the fact that cotton yarn is in the unbleached state does not necessarily mean that it has not been advanced beyond that stage; it may be in the grey and at the same time be mercerised. _see_ "cabled yarns" and "folded yarn." =yarn-dyed.=--yarn-dyed goods are made of yarns that are dyed before being woven or yarns spun from wool that has previously been dyed. yarn-dyed may be distinguished from piece-dyed fabrics by unravelling the threads of each kind. yarn-dyed fabrics show that the dye-stuff has penetrated through the yarn, while in the case of piece-dyed fabrics the dye-stuff has not the same chance of penetrating the yarn as completely. =zephyrs.=--lightly constructed, coloured, plain-woven cloths, well finished, in the pure state, principally woven from fine cotton yarns. there are also silk and cotton woven zephyrs and woollen zephyrs. _see_ madras. =zibeline.=--the french name for sable, used to designate a dress or cloaking material having a hairy surface. index. index. a. _page._ actual, agaric, albatross, alhambra quilt, all wool; _see_ woollen, all-over leno; _see_ dyed lenos, alpaca, alpaca wool, alpacianos, american run counts; _see_ woollen yarn, american sheetings, angola, angola yarn or wool, angora, angora goat, animalised cotton, armure, artificial silk, astrakhan, b. back cloth, backed cloth, baffetas, baize, balbriggan, bale of cotton, baline, balzarine brocades, dyed, balzarines, bandanna, barré, basket cloth, batiste, bayadère, bayetas, beavers, beaverteen, bedford cords, beetle finish; _see_ silesia, beige, bengal stripes, bengaline, binding cloth, bishop's lawn; _see_ white lawn, bleached, bleached domestics, bolting cloth; _see_ Étamine, bolton sheeting; _see_ grey sheeting, bombazine, book muslin; _see_ white muslin, book-fold muslin, botany, bouclé, bourette, broadcloth, brocade, brocades, white; _see_ white brocades, brocatelle, broché, broken twill; _see_ twill weave, brown sheeting, brown shirting, bugis, "bump" yarns, bundle; _see_ cotton yarn measures, bunting, burlaps, butcher's linen, butcher's muslin; _see_ white muslin, c. cabled yarns, cabot, cabot; _see_ american sheetings, calico, cambric; _see_ white cambric, cambrics, dyed; _see_ dyed cambrics, camel's hair, camlets (woollen), camlets, dutch (woollen), camlets, english (woollen), caniche, canton flannel, canvas, carbonising, carded union yarns; _see_ union yarns, carding wools; _see_ wool, casement cloth, cashmere, cashmere double, cashmere wool, castor, cellular cloth, ceylon or ceylon flannel, challis, chambray, charmeuse, checks, cheese cloth, cheviot, chiffon, china grass; _see_ ramie, chinchilla, chiné, chinese customs definition of nankeen; _see_ nankeen, chintz, classification of samples; _see_ samples, clip spots, coated cotton cloths, collarette, coloured, coloured crimp cloth, coloured lists, coloured sateens; _see_ printed sateens, coloured woollen and worsted yarns, combination twill; _see_ twill weave, combing wool; _see_ wool, continuous or pad-dyeing process; _see_ dyeing, corduroy, corkscrew twill; _see_ twill weave, côtelé, cotton, cotton, animalised; _see_ animalised cotton, cotton duck, cotton flannel, cotton plush, cotton velvet, plain; _see_ plain velvet (cotton), cotton yarn, coarse, medium, and fine; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, cotton yarn, grey or bleached; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, cotton yarn measures, counts, counts of spun silk; _see_ silk yarns, coutil, covert, crabbing, crape cloth, plain, crape weave; _see_ crape cloth, plain, crash, cravenette, crêpe de chine, crêpe meteor, crepoline, crépon, cretonne, cretonne, shadow; _see_ shadow cretonne, crimp cloth, plain, or crimps, crinkle, or seersucker, cross-dyed, crossover, cut; _see_ woollen yarn, cut goods, cuttling, d. damask, damassé, delaine, denim, derby rib, descriptions of standard cloth; _see_ market descriptions of standard cloth, diagonal, diaper, diced; _see_ diaper, dimity, discharge printing, dobbie, or dobby, domestics, domet, dorneck; _see_ diaper, double cloth weave, double sole, heel, and toe, double warps, drap d'Été, dresden, drill, pepperell; _see_ pepperell drill, drills, drills, grey; _see_ grey drills, drillette, drilling; _see_ white drills, or drilling, duchesse, duck, dungaree, duplex prints, dyeing, dyed and printed, dyed alpacianos, dyed balzarines, dyed cambrics, dyed corduroys (cotton), dyed cotton lastings, dyed cotton spanish stripes, dyed crimp cloth, dyed drills, dyed figured cottons, dyed figured cotton italians, dyed figured cotton lastings, dyed figured cotton reps, dyed figured ribs, dyed fustians, dyed imitation turkey reds, dyed in the grey; _see_ dyed in the piece, dyed in the grey; _see_ union cloth, dyed in the piece, or piece-dyed, dyed lawns, dyed lenos, dyed leno brocade, dyed muslins, dyed plain cottons, dyed plain cottons; _see_ white italian, dyed plain cotton italians, dyed real turkey reds, dyed reps, dyed ribs, dyed sheetings, dyed shirtings, dyed _t_-cloths, dyed velvet cords (cotton), dyed velveteen cords (cotton), e. elongated twill; _see_ twill weave, embossed velvet (cotton), embossed velveteen (cotton), embroideries, end, english foot, english system of silk cords; _see_ silk yarns, eolienne, Éponge, equestrienne tights, Étamine, extract, extracted, f. face-finished cashmere; _see_ velour, façonné, faille, fancies, fancy shirtings; _see_ white striped shirtings, fancy silk seal; _see_ silk seal, fancy twill; _see_ twill weave, fast pile; _see_ pile weave, fents, figured, figured cretonne; _see_ cretonne, figured muslin, figured twill; _see_ twill weave, figure weaving, filled cotton cloth, filling, filling (finishing term), flannel (woollen), flannel, cotton; _see_ cotton flannel, flannelette, flat underwear, fleece-lined, flocks; _see_ waste and flocks, floconné, florentine drills, folded yarn, foulard, foundation muslin; _see_ white muslin, french cambric; _see_ white cambric, french foot, french system of cotton counts; _see_ cotton yarn measures, french system of silk counts; _see_ silk yarns, full regular, full-fashioned, fustian, g. galatea, gauge, gauze weave, genoa plush; _see_ cotton plush, gingham, gingham, madras; _see_ madras gingham, gingham, silk; _see_ silk gingham, glacé, granité, grenadine, grey, in the grey, or grey cloth, grey drills, grey jeans, grey sheeting, grey shirting, grey _t_-cloths, grosgrain, h. habit cloth (woollen), habutai, hair-cord muslin, hand looms and power looms, handle, hank; _see_ cotton yarn measures, hank; _see_ counts, hard waste; _see_ waste and flocks, harvard shirting, henrietta, herring-bone, hessian, hog, or hoggett wool, honeycomb, huckaback, i. imitation oxford; _see_ oxford shirting, imitation rabbit skin, imitation wright's underwear; _see_ wright's underwear, imitation, india lawn; _see_ white lawn, india linon; _see_ white lawn, india mull; _see_ mull, indigo print; _see_ printed, ingrain, irishes, irish cambric, italian cloth, italian cloth, figured, cotton warp and wool weft, italian cloth, plain, cotton warp and wool weft, j. jaconet, jaconettes; _see_ jaconet, jacquards, jaeger, jean, jean; _see_ galatea, jeanette, jouy, k. kerseymere, khaiki, khaki, l. ladies' cloth, lamb's wool; _see_ wool, lappet weave, lastings, lawn; _see_ white lawn, lawns, dyed; _see_ dyed lawns, leas, leather cloth, leno, leno brocades, dyed; _see_ dyed leno brocade, liberty, linen cambric; _see_ white cambric, linen, tests for; _see_ tests for linen, linen thread; _see_ thread, linen yarn, lingerie, lining, linon; _see_ white lawn, lisle thread, list; _see_ selvedge, loading worsted and woollens, longcloth, long ells (woollen), long stick, loom state; _see_ grey, louisine, lustre dress fabrics, lustre orleans; _see_ orleans, m. maco, madapolams, madras, madras gingham, madras handkerchiefs, make; _see_ reed and pick, maline, market descriptions of standard cloth, marl, marquisette, matelassé, matt weave, medium cloth (woollen), mélange, mélanges (yarns); _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, melton, mercerised cotton, mercerising, merino, mesh underwear, messaline, mexican; _see_ _t_-cloth, milled finish; _see_ schreiner finish, millerayes; _see_ grosgrain, mixed cloths; _see_ union cloth, mixed dyeing; _see_ cross-dyed, mixture yarn, mixtures (yarns); _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, mock leno, mock seam, mohair, mohair beaver plush, mohair brilliantine, mohair coney seal, mohair sicilian, moiré, moleskin, mottles, mousseline de soie, mule-twist yarn, mull, mungo and shoddy, muslin; _see_ white muslin, n. nainsook, nankeen, nankeen; _see_ galatea, nankeen, chinese customs definition of, native cotton cloth; _see_ nankeen, native cotton cloth; _see_ unclassed native cotton cloth (china), net silk yarn; _see_ silk yarns, noils, nominal; _see_ actual, o. ombré, opera hose, organzine, orleans, ottoman, outsize, oxford, oxford shirting, p. padded back linings, pad-dyeing, panne, panung, panama canvas, papoon, paramatta, pastel, pastille, peau de cygne, peau de soie, pekiné, or pekin stripes, pepperell drill, pepperell drill; _see_ grey drills, percale, percaline, persian cord, pick, piece goods, pile fabrics, pile weave, piqué, "p.k.", plain, plain velvet (cotton), plain velveteen (cotton), plain (or homespun) weave, plated, plissé, plumetis, plumety; _see_ plumetis, plush, plush of silk mixed with other fibres, plush velveteen, pointillé, pompadour, poncho cloth, pongee, pony skin, poplin, print cloth; _see_ printers, printed, printed balzarines, printed calico, printed cambrics, printed chintzes, printed cotton drill, printed cotton italians, printed cotton lastings, printed crapes, printed crimp cloth, printed furnitures, printed lawns, printed leno, printed muslin, printed oxford; _see_ oxford shirting, printed reps, printed sateens, printed satinets, printed sheetings, printed shirtings, printed _t_-cloth, printed turkey reds, printed twills, printed velvet (cotton), printed velveteen (cotton), printed warp; _see_ warp print, printers, pure silk plush, pure silk velvet, r. raised back cloths, raised cotton cloth, ramie, rhea, china grass, ratine, rattine; _see_ ratine, rattinet; _see_ ratine, rayé, reed and pick, regatta twill; _see_ galatea, regular twill; _see_ twill weave, rembrandt rib, remnant; _see_ fents, rep, resist or reserve printing, reversible cretonnes, rhea; _see_ ramie, rib, rib crape effect, richelieu rib, right and wrong side of fabrics, ring-spun yarn, robes, russian cloth (woollen), russian prints, s. samples and their classification, sateens, satin, satin drill, satin weave, satinet, or satinette, satin faced velvet; _see_ panne, schreiner finish, scribbled, seamless, seamless bags, seersucker; _see_ crinkle, or seersucker, selvedge, serge (cotton), sett; _see_ reed and pick, sewing thread; _see_ thread, shadow cretonne, shantung, sheeting, sheetings, american; _see_ american sheetings, sheetings, dyed; _see_ dyed sheetings, sheetings, grey; _see_ grey sheeting, sheetings, white; _see_ white sheetings, shirtings, shirtings, dyed; _see_ dyed shirtings, shirtings, grey; _see_ grey shirting, shirtings, white; _see_ white shirtings, short stick, shot, shot silks; _see_ glacé, sicilienne, sifting cloth; _see_ Étamine, silence cloth, silesia, silk beaver, silk gingham, silk mull, silk plush; _see_ pure silk plush, silk pongee, silk seal (cotton back), silk velvet; _see_ pure silk velvet, silk yarns, silver seal; _see_ mohair coney seal, singles; _see_ yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, sliver, soft waste; _see_ waste and flocks, spanish stripes, cotton, spanish stripes, woollen, spanish stripes, wool and cotton, split foot, sponge cloth, spool cotton; _see_ thread, spun silk, spun-silk yarns; _see_ silk yarns, standard cloth; _see_ market descriptions of standard cloth, staples, stock-dyed; _see_ ticks, or ticking, striped; _see_ rayé, surah, swansdown, swiss embroidery, swiss mull; _see_ mull, swivel figures, t. tabby; _see_ watering, tabby plush; _see_ cotton plush, table felting; _see_ silence cloth, tapestry, _t_-cloth, _t_-cloths, dyed; _see_ dyed _t_-cloths, _t_-cloths, grey; _see_ grey _t_-cloths, teasels, or teazels, terry cloth, tests by burning, test for artificial silk, tests for linen, test for mercerised cotton, tests for silk, test for wool, textile fibres, thickness of woollen cloths; _see_ weight and thickness of woollen cloths, thickset, thread, three-quarter hose, ticks, or ticking, tire cloth, tram, trunk length, tubular cloth, tucks; _see_ plissé, tulle, turkey reds, dyed real; _see_ dyed real turkey reds, turkish towelling, tussore, or tussah, tweed, twill weave, twin needle, twists; _see_ coloured woollen and worsted yarns, u. unclassed native cotton cloth (china), union broadcloth, union cloth, union flannel; _see_ woollen and cotton flannel, union yarns, u-pile; _see_ pile weave, v. velour, velveret; _see_ velveteen, velvet, velvet (cotton), printed; _see_ printed velvet (cotton), velvet finish, velvet of silk mixed with other fibres, velveteen, venetian coverts; _see_ covert, venetians, venetians, white; _see_ white venetians, vesting, victoria lawn; _see_ white lawn, vigogne, vigoreux, viyella, voile, w. wadding pick, wale, warp, warp pile, warp print, warp ribs, warp sateen, warp welt, warp-faced cloth, waste and condenser wefts, waste and flocks, waste and spun silk yarns; _see_ silk yarns, waste cloths, waste sheeting; _see_ grey sheeting, watered; _see_ watering, watering, weaving, web, weft, weft pile, weft ribs, weft sateen, weft-faced cloth, weight and thickness of woollen cloths, weighting, welt, wether wool; _see_ wool, whip thread, whipcord, white, white brocades, white cambric, white drills, or drilling, white goods, white irishes, white italian, white jean, white lawn, white mercerised sateen; _see_ white italian, white muslin, white sheetings, white shirtings, white spotted shirtings, white striped shirtings, white _t_-cloth, white venetians, widow's lawn, width, window holland, wolsey, wool, wool, alpaca; _see_ alpaca wool, wool-dyed, woollen, woollen and cotton flannel, woollen and cotton mixtures, woollen fabric, woollen flannel; _see_ flannel (woollen), woollen lastings, craped, woollen lastings, figured, woollen lastings, plain, woollen yarn, worsted diagonal, worsted lastings, worsted yarn, w-pile, wright's underwear, imitation, y. yarn, cotton, grey or bleached, yarn-dyed, z. zephyrs, zibeline, transcriber's note italic text is denoted by _underscores_. bold text is denoted by =equal signs=. large-size letters used to describe shapes or trade marks are denoted by @at-signs@. the original book had a set of blank ledger pages to allow the reader to catalog his collection of fabric samples, preceded by a repeated list of the main fabric groups found on pages - . these pages numbered - have been omitted from the etext. the index begins at the following page . obvious typographical errors and punctuation errors have been corrected after careful comparison with other occurrences within the text and consultation of external sources. except for those changes noted below, all misspellings in the text, and inconsistent or archaic usage, have been retained. for example, all-silk, all silk; dyestuff, dye-stuff; vicuna, vicuña. pg , 'scheriner finish' replaced by 'schreiner finish'. none north devon pottery and its export to america in the th century _by c. malcolm watkins_ paper , pages - , from contributions from the museum of history and technology united states national museum bulletin smithsonian institution · washington, d.c., contributions from the museum of history and technology: paper north devon pottery and its export to america in the th century _c. malcolm watkins_ [illustration: figure .--north devon sgraffito cup, deep dish, and jug restored from fragments excavated from fill under brick drain at may-hartwell site, jamestown, virginia. the drain was laid between and . colonial national historical park.] by c. malcolm watkins north devon pottery and its export to america in the th century _recent excavations of ceramics at historic sites such as jamestown and plymouth indicate that the seaboard colonists of the th century enjoyed a higher degree of comfort and more esthetic furnishings than heretofore believed. in addition, these findings have given us much new information about the interplay of trade and culture between the colonists and their mother country._ _this article represents the first work in the author's long-range study of ceramics used by the english colonists in america._ the author: _c. malcolm watkins is curator of cultural history, united states national museum, smithsonian institution._ pottery sherds found archeologically in colonial sites serve a multiple purpose. they help to date the sites; they reflect cultural and economic levels in the areas of their use; and they throw light on manufacture, trade, and distribution. satisfying instances of these uses were revealed with the discovery in of two distinct but unidentified pottery types in the excavations conducted by the national park service at jamestown, virginia, and later elsewhere along the eastern seaboard. one type was an elaborate and striking yellow sgraffito ware, the other a coarse utilitarian kitchen ware whose red paste was heavily tempered with a gross water-worn gravel or "grit." included in the latter class were the components of large earthen baking ovens. among the literally hundreds of thousands of sherds uncovered at jamestown between and , these types occurred with relatively high incidence. for a long time no relationship between them was noted, yet their histories have proved to be of one fabric, reflecting the activities of a th-century english potterymaking center of unsuspected magnitude. the sgraffito pottery is a red earthenware, coated with a white slip through which designs have been incised. an amber lead glaze imparts a golden yellow to the slip-covered portions and a brownish amber to the exposed red paste. the gravel-tempered ware is made of a similar red-burning clay and is remarkable for its lack of refinement, for the pebbly texture caused by protruding bits of gravel, and for the crude and careless manner in which the heavy amber glaze was applied to interior surfaces. once seen, it is instantly recognizable and entirely distinct from other known types of english or continental pottery. a complete oven (fig. ), now restored at jamestown, is of similar paste and quality of temper. it has a roughly oval beehive shape with a trapezoidal framed opening in which a pottery door fits snugly. [illustration: figure .--sketch of sherd of sgraffito-ware dish, dating about , that was found during excavations of c. h. brannam's pottery in barnstaple. (_sketch by mrs. constance christian, from photo._)] following the initial discoveries at jamestown there was considerable speculation about these two types. worth bailey, then museum technician at jamestown, was the first to recognize the source of the sgraffito ware as "devonshire."[ ] henry chandlee forman, asserting that such ware was "undoubtedly made in england," felt that it "derives its inspiration from majolica ware ... especially that of the early renaissance period from faenza."[ ] bailey also noted that the oven and the gravel-tempered utensils were made of identical clay and temper. however, in an attempt to prove that earthenware was produced locally, he assumed, perhaps because of their crudeness, that the utensils were made at jamestown. this led him to conjecture that the oven, having similar ceramic qualities, was also a local product. he felt in support of this that it was doubtful "so fragile an object could have survived a perilous sea voyage."[ ] since these opinions were expressed, much further archeological work in colonial sites has revealed widespread distribution of the two types. bailey himself noted that a pottery oven is intact and in place in the john bowne house in flushing, long island. a fragment of another pottery oven recently has been identified among the artifacts excavated by sidney strickland from the site of the john howland house, near plymouth, massachusetts; and gravel-tempered utensil sherds have occurred in many sites. the sgraffito ware has been unearthed in virginia, maryland, and massachusetts. such a wide distribution of either type implies a productive european source for each, rather than a local american kiln in a struggling colonial settlement like jamestown. bailey's attribution of the sgraffito ware to devonshire was confirmed in when j. c. harrington, archeologist of the national park service, came upon certain evidence at barnstaple in north devon, england. this evidence was found in the form of sherds exhibited in a display window of c. h. brannam's barnstaple pottery that were uncovered during excavation work on the premises. these are unmistakably related in technique and design to the american examples. a label under a fragment of a large deep dish (fig. ) in the display is inscribed: "piece of dish found in site of pottery. in sgraffiato. about ." this clue opened the way to the investigation pursued here, the results of which relate the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens to the north devon towns and to a busy commerce in earthenware between barnstaple, bideford, and the new world. this study, conducted at first hand only on the american side of the atlantic, is admittedly incomplete. later, it is planned to consider sherd collections in england, comparative types of sgraffito wares, and possible influences and sources of techniques and designs. for the present, it is felt the immediate evidence is sufficient to warrant the conclusions drawn here. [illustration: figure .--map of the area around bideford and barnstaple. reproduced from j. b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, .] the author is under special obligation to j. c. harrington, chief of interpretation, region i, national park service, who discovered the north devon wares and whose warm encouragement led to this paper. also, the author is greatly indebted to the following for their help and cooperation: e. stanley abbott, superintendent, j. paul hudson, curator, and charles hatch, chief of interpretation, colonial national historical park; worth bailey, historic american buildings survey; robert a. elder, jr., assistant curator, division of ethnology, u.s. national museum; miss margaret franklin of london; henry hornblower ii and charles strickland of plimoth plantation, inc.; ivor noel hume, chief archeologist, colonial williamsburg, inc.; miss mildred e. jenkinson, librarian and curator, borough of bideford library and museum; frederick h. norton, professor of ceramics, massachusetts institute of technology; and mrs. edwin m. snell of washington. historical background barnstaple and its neighbor bideford are today quiet market centers and summer resorts. in the th and early th centuries, by contrast, they were deeply involved in trade with america and with the whole west of england interest in colonial settlement. bideford was the home of sir richard grenville, who, with sir walter raleigh, was one of the first explorers of virginia. as the leading citizen of bideford, grenville obtained from queen elizabeth a modern charter of incorporation for the town. consequently, according to the town's th-century chronicler, "bideford rose so rapidly as to become a port of importance at the latter end of queen elizabeth's reign ... when the trade began to open between england and america in the reign of king james the first, bideford early took a part in it."[ ] its orientation for a lengthy period was towards america, and the welfare of its inhabitants was therefore largely dependent upon commerce with the colonies. in common with other west of england ports, barnstaple and bideford engaged heavily in the newfoundland fishing trade. however, "the principal part of foreign commerce that bideford was ever engaged in, was to maryland and virginia for tobacco.... its connections with new england were also very considerable."[ ] during the first half of the th century bideford's imports of tobacco were second only to london's, but the wars with france caused a decline about the year .[ ] barnstaple, situated farther up the river taw, followed the pattern of bideford in the rise and decline as well as the nature of its trade. although rivals, both towns functioned in effect as a single port; barnstaple and bideford ships sailed from each other's wharves and occasionally the two ports were listed together in the port books. as early as seven ships, some of bideford and some of barnstaple registry, sailed from barnstaple for america,[ ] but the height of trade between north devon and the colonies occurred after the restoration and lasted until the early part of the th century. in , for example, the _samuel_ of bideford and the _philip_ of barnstaple sailed for virginia, despite the dangers of dutch warfare.[ ] the following year, on august , , it was reported that ships of the virginia fleet, "bound to bideford, barnstaple, and bristol have passed into the severn in order to escape dutch men-of-war."[ ] later, in , we find that the _susanna_ of barnstaple, as well as the _victory_, _zunt_, _devonshire_, _laurell_, _blackstone_, and _mary and hannah_, all of bideford, were anchored in hampton roads off kecoughtan. they comprised one-ninth of a fleet of ships from various english ports.[ ] [illustration: figure .--old pottery in torrington lane (formerly potter's lane), east-the-water section of bideford. the photo was taken in , just before the buildings were razed. (_courtesy of miss m. e. jenkinson._)] aside from such indications of a well-established mercantile trade, the entrenchment of north devon interests in the colonies is repeatedly shown in other ways. before , thomas fowle, a boston merchant, was doing business with his brother-in-law, vincent potter, who lived in barnstaple.[ ] in , john selden, a barnstaple merchant, died after consigning a shipment of goods to william burke, a merchant of chuckatuck, virginia. john's widow and administratrix, sisely selden, brought suit to recover these goods, which were "left to the sd. w{m} burke, &c, for the use of my late husband."[ ] burke was evidently an agent, or factor, who acted in virginia on selden's behalf. in northampton county, alone, there resided six bideford factors, remarkable when one considers the isolated location of this virginia eastern shore county and the sparseness of its population in the th century.[ ] john watkins, the bideford historian, adds further evidence of mercantile involvement with the colonies, stating of bideford that "some of its chief merchants had very extensive possessions in virginia and maryland."[ ] both in new england and the southern colonies, local merchants acted as resident agents for merchants based in the mother country. often tied to the latter by bonds of family relationship, the factors arranged the exchange of american raw materials for the manufactured goods in which their english counterparts specialized. that there was a large and important commerce in north devon earthenware to account for many of the relationships between bideford, barnstaple, and the colonies seems to have remained unnoticed. indeed, the fact that the two towns comprised an important center of earthenware manufacture and export in the th century has hitherto received little attention from ceramic historians, and then merely as sources of picturesque folk pottery. yet in the excavations of colonial sites and in the british public records office are indications that the north devon potters, for a time at least, rivaled those of staffordshire. the earliest record of north devon pottery reaching america occurs in the port book entry for barnstaple in , when the _truelove_, vivian limbry, master, sailed on march for new england with " doz. earthenware," consigned to john boole, merchant.[ ] the following year the same ship sailed for new england with a similar amount. after the stuart restoration larger shipments of earthenware are recorded, as illustrated by sample listings (below) chosen from port books in the british public records office. typical shipments of earthenware from north devon (sample entries from port books, verbatim) barnstaple [ ] --------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master for in cargo subsidy --------------------------------------------------------------------- s d aug exchange of w{m} titherly new england doz. of - biddeford earthenware sept philipp of edmond virginia doz. of - biddeford prickard earthenware nov providence nicholas virginia doz. of - of taylor earthenware barnstaple --------------------------------------------------------------------- barnstaple and bideford, [ ] --------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master shipment --------------------------------------------------------------------- aug {th} forester of christopher browning twenty dozen of barnstaple, earthenware for maryland subsidy / sept loyalty of philip greenslade dozen earthenware barnstaple andrew hopkins, merchant subsidy / --------------------------------------------------------------------- barnstaple, [ ] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to goods & merchants ----------------------------------------------------------------------- may seafare of bartholomew new forty-two hundred [weight] bideford shapton england parcells of earthenware subsidy / june hopewell of peter prust virginia cwt. parcells of bideford earthenware peter luxeron merchant subsidy / aug. beginning john limbry virginia cwt. parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy / richard corkhill merchant[ ] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- bideford, [ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ date ship master to goods ------------------------------------------------------------------------ june beginning thomas virginia thirty hundred of bideford phillips pclls of earthenware joseph conor merchant subsidy / july john & mary thomas maryland parcells of of bideford courtis earthenware john barnes, merchant subsidy / aug exchange of george maryland dozen earthenware bideford ewings william titherly merchant subsidy / aug. merchants william virginia parcells delight of britten earthenware bideford henry guiness merchant subsidy / aug. hart of henry virginia parcells of bideford penryn earthenware john lord merch{t} subsidy / ------------------------------------------------------------------------ --barnstaple[ ] ----------------------------------------------------------------------- date ship master to cargo, etc. ----------------------------------------------------------------------- michaelmas robert & john esh maryland dozen earthenware quarter william of subsidy / north{am} william bishop merchant ----------------------------------------------------------------------- bideford --outwards[ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ date ship master to cargo, etc. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ may seafare of john titherley new cwt. parcells of bideford england earthenware barth. shapton merchant subsidy / july john & mary thomas courtis maryland cwt parcells of of bideford earthenware john barnes merchant subsidy / july merchant's william maryland cwt parcells of delight of bruston earthenware bideford samuel donnerd merchant sept. exchange of mark chappell maryland cwt. parcells of bideford earthenware subsidy / william titherly merchant ------------------------------------------------------------------------ barnstaple/bideford outwards [ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ date ship master to cargo, etc. ------------------------------------------------------------------------ aug. yarmouth roger jones maryland parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy {d} sept. expedition humphrey maryland , parcells of of bideford bryant earthenware subsidy / sept. integrity john tucker maryland parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy {d} sept. happy return john rock maryland parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy / sept. sea faire tym. brutton maryland parcells of of bideford earthenware subsidy / ------------------------------------------------------------------------ barnstaple & bideford [ ] ------------------------------------------------------------------------ date ship master to cargo, etc. subsidy ------------------------------------------------------------------------ dec. happy returne john hartwell maryland parcels of d earthen ware ------------------------------------------------------------------------ another source shows that the _eagle_ of bideford arrived at boston from her home port on october , , with a cargo consisting entirely of , parcels of earthenware, while on july , , the _freindship_ (sic) of bideford landed , parcels of earthenware and one hogshead of malt. on august of the same year the _delight_ brought a cargo of " , parcels of earthenware and fardells of dry goods" from bideford.[ ] it will be noted that there was a close relationship between vessel, shipmaster, and factor, suggesting that there may have been an equally close connection between all of them and the owners of the potteries. the _exchange_, for instance, seems to have been regularly employed in the transport of earthenware. in , according to the listings, she sailed to new england under command of william titherly. by titherly had become a maryland factor to whom the exchange's earthenware was consigned then and in . in the same way bartholomew shapton in sailed as master on the _sea faire_ with earthenware to new england, becoming in the following year the factor for earthenware sent on the same ship under command of john titherly. the proportion of earthenware cargo to the carrying capacity of the usual th-century ocean-going ship, which ranged from about to tons, is difficult to estimate. a ton and a half of milk pans nested in stacks would be compact and would occupy only a small amount of space. a similar weight of ovens might require a much larger space. when earthenware shipments are recorded in terms of parcels, we are again left in doubt, since the sizes of the parcels are not indicated. we know, however, that the _eagle_, which was a -ton ship, carried , parcels of earthenware as her sole cargo in , in contrast to the much smaller amounts shown in the sample listings where the parcel standard is used. yet even a typical shipment of , parcels, with each parcel containing an indeterminate number of pots, must have filled the needs of many kitchens when delivered in virginia in . certainly a shipment such as this suggests a vigorous rate of production and an active trade. the export of earthenware from north devon was not solely to america. as early as there were shipped from barnstaple to "dublyn-- dozen earthen pottes of all sorts." in later years, selected at random, we find the following shipments to ireland from barnstaple listed in the public record office port books: , dozen; , dozen; , dozen; , dozen; , dozen; , dozen; , dozen; , dozen. typical of the destinations were kinsale, youghal, limerick, cork, galway, coleraine, and waterford. as the century advanced, this trade increased enormously. in , separate earthenware shipments totaling , parcels were made from barnstaple and bideford to dublin, wexford, and waterford.[ ] it is possible that some of these cargoes were shipped to america, since it was necessary to list only the first port of entry. however, the rapid turnaround of many of the ships shows this was not usually the case. besides ireland, bristol and exeter were destinations in a busy coastwise trade. in , for example, large quantities of earthenware, tobacco pipes, and pipe clay were sent to these places.[ ] bristol merchants probably re-exported some of the earthenware to america. [illustration: figure .--map of barnstaple. reproduced from j. b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, .] the coastwise trade appears to have diminished very little as time passed. in , _the gentlemen's magazine_ carried an account of bideford, stating:[ ] great quantities of potters ware are made, and exported to wales, ireland, and bristol.... in the parish of fremington are great quantities of reddish potters' clay, which are brought and manufactured at biddeford, whence the ware is sent to different places by sea. john watkins, in , wrote:[ ] the potters here, for making coarse brown earthenware, are pretty considerable, and the demand for the articles of their manufacture in various parts of the kingdom, is constantly great ... the profits to the manufacturers of this article are very great, which is evidenced by several persons having risen within a few years, from a state of the greatest obscurity and poverty, to wealth and consequence of no small extent. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered oven of the th or early th century, acquired in bideford. (_usnm ._)] [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered oven from th-century house on bideford quay. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] not only was coastwise trade in earthenware maintained throughout the th century but it was continued, in fact, until the final decline of the potteries at the turn of the present century. although great antiquity attaches to the origins of north devon pottery manufacture--barnstaple has had its crock street for years[ ]--the principal evidence of early manufacture falls into the second half of the th century. we have seen that a growing america provided an increasing market for north devon's ceramic wares. in crocker's pottery was established at bideford, and it is in the period following that bideford's importance as a pottery center becomes noticeable. crocker's was operated until , its dated th-century kilns then still intact after producing wares that varied little during all of the pottery's years of existence.[ ] in barnstaple the oldest pottery to survive until modern times was situated in the north walk. when it was dismantled in , sherds dating from the second half of the th century were found in the surroundings, as was a potter's guild sign, dated , which now hangs in brannam's pottery in litchdon street, barnstaple. a pair of fire dogs, dated and shaped by molds similar to one from the north walk site, was excavated near the north walk pottery. both bideford and barnstaple had numerous potteries in addition to crocker's and brannam's. one, in potter's lane in the east-the-water section of bideford, was still making "coarse plain ware" in ;[ ] its buildings were still standing in . we have already observed that the litchdon street works of c. h. brannam, ltd., remains in operation in a modern building on the site of its th-century forerunner. outside the limits of the two large towns there were "a number of small pot works in remote districts," including the parish of fremington, where fishley's pottery, established in the th century, flourished until .[ ] jewitt states that the remains of five old potteries were found in the location of fishley's.[ ] [illustration: figure .--views of opening of oven in figure , photographed before its removal from house. this illustrates how oven was built into corner of fireplace and concealed from view. at right, the oven door is in place. (_photos by a. c. littlejohns._)] the clay with which all the potters worked came from three similar deep clay deposits in a valley running parallel with the river taw in the parishes of tawstock and fremington between bideford and barnstaple. a geologist in wrote that the clay is "perfectly homogeneous ... exceedingly tough, free from slightest grit and soft as butter."[ ] when fired at too high a temperature, he wrote, the clay would become so vesicular that it would float on water. the kilns were bottle-shaped and, according to tradition, originally were open at the top, like lime kilns; the contents were roofed over with old crocks.[ ] apparently all the potteries made the same types of wares, "coarse" or common earthenware having comprised the bulk of their product. the utilitarian red-ware was indeed coarse, since it was liberally tempered with bideford gravel in order to insure hardness and to offset the purity and softness of the fremington clay. an anonymous historian wrote in :[ ] just above the bridge [over the river torridge] is a little ridge of gravel of a peculiar quality, without which the potters could not make their ware. there are many other ridges of gravel within the bar, but this only is proper for their use. john watkins wrote that bideford earthenware "is generally supposed to be superiour to any other of the kind, and this is accounted for, from the peculiar excellence of the gravel which this river affords, in binding the clay." his claim that "this is the true reason, seems clear, from the fact that though the potteries at barnstaple make use of the same sort of clay, yet their earthenware is not held in such esteem at bristol, &c. as that of bideford"[ ] is scarcely supportable, since the barnstaple potters also used the same bideford gravel. the fire dogs found in barnstaple with the date , referred to above, were tempered with this gravel, as were "ovens, tiles, pipkins, etc.," in order "to harden the ware," according to charbonnier, who also observed that "the ware generally was very badly fired.... from the fragments it can be seen that the firing was most unequal, parts of the body being grey in colour instead of a rich red, as the well-fired portions are." he noted that the potters applied "the galena native sulphide of lead for the glaze, no doubt originally dusted on to the ware, as with the older potters elsewhere."[ ] a sherd of gravel-tempered ware is displayed in the window of brannam's barnstaple pottery, while a small pan from bideford, probably of th-century origin, is in the smithsonian collections (usnm ). [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered oven made at crocker pottery, bideford, in the th century. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] [illustration: figure .--restored gravel-tempered oven from jamestown. colonial national historical park. (_national park service photo._)] the most remarkable form utilizing gravel-tempered clay is found in the baking ovens which remained a north devon specialty for over two centuries. these ovens vary somewhat in shape, and were made in graduated sizes. most commonly they are rectangular with domed superstructures, having been molded or "draped" in sections, with their parts joined together, leaving seams with either tooled or thumb-impressed reenforcements. an oven obtained in bideford has a flat top, without visible seams (usnm ; fig. ). an early example occurs in barnstaple, where, in a recently restored inn, an oven was found installed at the side of a fireplace which is "late sixteenth century in character." pipes and a pair of woman's shoes, all dating from the first half of the th century, were found in the fireplace after it had been exposed, thus indicating the period of its most recent use.[ ] an oven discovered intact behind a wall during alteration of a bideford house is believed to date from between and .[ ] that oven (figs. , ) is now exhibited in the bideford museum. at the other extreme, c. h. brannam of barnstaple in was still making ovens in the ancient north walk pottery.[ ] the following year h. w. strong wrote of fishley's fremington pottery that "shiploads of the big clay ovens in which the cornishman bakes his bread ... meet with a ready sale in the fishing towns on the rugged coast of north cornwall."[ ] fremington ovens also were shipped to wales,[ ] and, according to jewitt, those made in the crocker pottery in bideford "are, and for generations have been, in much repute in devonshire and cornwall, and in the welsh districts, and the bread baked in them is said to have a sweeter and more wholesome flavour than when baked in ordinary ovens."[ ] [illustration: figure .--sgraffito-ware platters from jamestown. the platter shown above has a diameter of inches; the others, inches. colonial national historical park.] of ovens made at barnstaple there is much the same kind of evidence. in , thomas brannam exhibited an oven at the crystal palace, where it was described as "generally used in devonshire for baking bread and meat."[ ] in , "barnstaple ovens" were advertised for sale in bristol at m. ewers' "staffordshire, broseley, and glass warehouse."[ ] thirty-six years earlier, in , dr. pococke, who indefatigably entered every sort of observation in his journal, noted that in devonshire and cornwall "they make great use here of cloume ovens,[ ] which are of earthen ware of several sizes, like an oven, and being heated they stop 'em up and cover 'em over with embers to keep in the heat."[ ] pococke visited calstock, "where they have a manufacture of coarse earthenware, and particularly of earthenware ovens."[ ] we have encountered only one other instance of ovens having been made at any place other than the north devon communities around the fremington clay beds. calstock lies some miles below bideford in the southeast corner of cornwall, just over the devonshire boundary. as for evidence concerning the manner in which these ovens were used in england, we have already seen that they were built into houses. jewitt wrote that they "are simply enclosed in raised brickwork, leaving the mouth open to the front." they were heated until red hot by sticks or logs, which were then raked out with long iron tongs.[ ] a bundle of gorse, or wood, according to jewitt,[ ] was sufficient to "thoroughly bake three pecks of dough." pococke's remarks to the effect that the ovens were covered over with embers to keep in the heat suggests that they were sometimes freestanding. however, this could also have been the practice when ovens were built into fireplaces. from an esthetic point of view, the crowning achievement of the north devon potters was their sgraffito ware, examples of which in brannam's window display have already been noted. further evidence in the form of th-century sherds was found by charbonnier around the site of the north walk pottery in barnstaple. these consisted of "plates and dishes of various size and section.... extensive as the demand for these dishes must have been, judging from the heap of fragments, not a single piece has to my knowledge been found above ground."[ ] the apparently complete disappearance of the sgraffito table wares suggests that they ceased to be made about . they were apparently forced from the market by the refinement of taste that developed in the th century and by the delftware of bristol and london and liverpool that was so much more in keeping with that taste. however, certain kinds of sgraffito ware continued to be made without apparent interruption until early in the present century. instead of useful tableware, decorated with symbols and motifs characteristic of th-century english folk ornament, we find after only presentation pieces, particularly in the form of large harvest jugs. the harvest jugs were made for annual harvest celebrations, when they were passed around by the farmers among their field hands in a folk ritual observed at the end of harvest.[ ] unlike the sgraffito tablewares, where style and taste were deciding factors in their survival, these special jugs were intended to be used only in annual ceremonies. thus they were carefully preserved and passed on from generation to generation, with a higher chance for survival than that which the sgraffito tablewares enjoyed. the style of the harvest jugs is in sharp contrast to that of the tablewares, the jugs having been decorated in a pagan profusion of fertility and prosperity symbols, mixed sometimes with pictorial and inscriptive allusions to the sea, particularly on jugs ascribed to bideford. the oldest dated examples embody characteristics of design and techniques that relate them unmistakably to the tablewares, while later specimens made throughout the th and th centuries show an increasing divergence from the th-century style. an especially elaborate piece was made for display at the great exhibition of in the crystal palace.[ ] less complicated pieces, with a minimum of incising, were made for ordinary use, as were plain pieces whose surfaces were covered with slip without decoration. the trailing and splashing of slip designs on the body of the ware, practiced in staffordshire and many of our colonial potteries, apparently was not followed in north devon.[ ] sites yielding north devon types excepting the bowne house oven and a jug (see p. ), no example of north devon pottery used in america is known to have survived above ground. archeological evidence, however, provides a sufficient record of north devon wares and the tastes and customs they reflected. following are descriptions of the principal sites in which these wares were found. jamestown, virginia: may-hartwell site. the site of jamestown, first permanent english settlement in north america, has been excavated at intervals by the national park service. the early excavations were under the supervision of several archeological technicians directing civilian conservation corps crews. in september , j. c. harrington became supervising archeologist of the project, and until world war ii he continued the work as funds permitted. except for the privately sponsored excavation of the jamestown glasshouse site by harrington in , no extensive archeological work was thereafter undertaken until , when john l. cotter was appointed chief archeologist. thorough exploration of jamestown was his responsibility until .[ ] one of the most interesting subsites in the jamestown complex was the two and one-half acres of lots which belonged successively to william may, nicholas merriweather, william white, and henry hartwell. the site was first explored in . on this occasion there was disclosed a meandering brick drain that had been built on top of a fill of artifactual refuse, mostly pottery sherds. the richness of this yield was unparalleled elsewhere at jamestown; from it comes our principal evidence about the north devon types sent to america. [illustration: figure .--sgraffito-ware cup and plate from jamestown. the cup is inches high; the plate is inches in diameter. colonial national historical park.] the may-hartwell site was explored further and in far greater detail in and by harrington, whose unpublished typescript report is on file with the national park service.[ ] harrington's excavation, in the light of historical documentation, led to the conclusion that the brick drain had been laid during henry hartwell's occupancy of the site between and . this was supported by the inclusion in the fill of many bottle seals bearing hartwell's initials, "h. h." hartwell married the widow of william white, who had purchased the property from nicholas merriweather in . that was the year following bacon's rebellion, when merriweather's house presumably was destroyed. [illustration: figure .--sgraffito-ware jugs, about inches high, from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] there were many hundreds of sherds in the fill under and around the brick drain, as well as in other ditches in the site. the north devon types were found here in association with numerous classes of pottery. the most readily identifiable were sherds of english delftware of many forms and styles of decoration related to the second half of the th century. there were occasional earlier th-century examples, also, as might be expected. no th-century intrusions were noted in the brick drain area, and only a scattering in other portions; none was found in association with the north devon sherds. jamestown, virginia: other sites. north devon wares occur in the majority of sites at jamestown, but it is not always possible to date them from contextual evidence because precise archeological records were not always kept in the early phases of the excavations. nevertheless, narrow dating is easily possible in enough sites to suggest date horizons for the wares. the earliest evidence occurs in material from a well (w- )--excavated in [ ]--that contained an atypical sgraffito sherd described below (p. ). the sherd lay beneath a foot-deep deposit that included dutch majolica, italian sgraffito ware, and tobacco pipes, all dating in form or decoration prior to . this sherd is unique among all those found at jamestown, but it is essentially characteristic of north devon work. presumably it is a forerunner of the typical varieties found in the may-hartwell site and elsewhere. no gravel-tempered sherds occur in contexts that can positively be dated prior to . a sizable deposit of gravel-tempered sherds was found between the depth of one foot and the level of the cellar floor of the mansion house site (structure ) located near the pitch-and-tar swamp. this house was built before , but burned, probably during bacon's rebellion in .[ ] the sherds were doubtless part of the household equipment of the time. all other ceramic fragments, with one exception, were associated with objects dating earlier than . [illustration: figure .--sgraffito-ware jug and cups from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] in sites dating from before about , no north devon wares are found, excepting the early sgraffito sherd mentioned above. such was the case with a brick kiln (structure ) of early th-century date and two sites (structure and kiln c) in the vicinity of the pottery kiln. in structure all the ceramics date from before .[ ] the latest occurrence of gravel-tempered wares is in contexts of the early and middle th century. a pit near the ambler property (refuse pit )[ ] yielded a typical early th-century deposit with flat-rimmed gravel-tempered pans of characteristic type. associated with these were pieces of blue delft (before ), staffordshire "combed" ware (made throughout the th century, but mostly about - ), nottingham stoneware (throughout the th century), gray-white höhr stoneware (last quarter, th century), buckley black-glazed ware (mostly - ), and staffordshire white salt-glazed ware ( - ). hampton, virginia: kecoughtan site. in , joseph b. and alvin w. brittingham, amateur archeologists of hampton, virginia, excavated several refuse pits on the site of what they believed to be an early th-century trading post located at the original site of kecoughtan, an indian village and colonial outpost settlement which later became elizabeth city, virginia. rich artifactual evidence, reflecting on a small scale what was found at jamestown, indicates a continuous occupancy from the beginning of settlement in to about .[ ] the collection was given to the smithsonian institution in . [illustration: figure .--this sgraffito-ware chamber pot, from jamestown, has incised on the rim _wr .._, probably in reference to the king. height, - / inches. colonial national historical park.] [illustration: figure .--sgraffito-ware harvest jug made in bideford, with the date " " inscribed. borough of bideford public library and museum. (_photo by a. c. littlejohns._)] james city county, virginia: green spring plantation. in sir william berkeley arrived in virginia to be its governor. seven years later he built green spring, about five miles north of jamestown. the house remained standing until after . its site was excavated in by the national park service under supervision of louis r. caywood, park service archeologist.[ ] the project, supported jointly by the jamestown-williamsburg-yorktown celebration commission and the virginia th anniversary commission, was executed under supervision of colonial national historical park at yorktown, virginia. williamsburg, virginia: early th-century deposits. a small amount of north devon gravel-tempered ware was found in sites excavated in williamsburg by colonial williamsburg, inc. these excavations have been carried out as adjuncts to the williamsburg restoration program over a -year period. few of the north devon sherds found can be closely dated, having occurred primarily in undocumented ditches, pits, and similar deposits. however, it is unlikely that any of the material dates earlier than the beginning of the th century, since williamsburg was not authorized as a town until . it is significant, in the light of this, that north devon pan sherds in the williamsburg collection have characteristics like those of specimens from other th-century sites. also significant is the fact that no sgraffito ware occurs here. a gravel-tempered pan (fig. ) from the coke-garrett house site was found in a context that can be dated about - . [illustration: figure .--views of north devon harvest jug used in sussex county, delaware. this jug, inches high and dated , is in the collection of charles g. dorman. the inscription reads: "kind s{r}: i com to gratifiey youre kindness love and courtisy and sarve youre table with strong beare for this intent i was sent heare: or if you pleas i will supply youre workmen when in harvist dry when they doe labour hard and swear{e} good drinke is better far then meat"] westmoreland county, virginia: site of john washington house. in the national park service became custodians for "wakefield," the george washington birthplace site on pope's creek in westmoreland county. about a mile to the west of "wakefield" itself, but within the park area, is the site of bridges creek plantation, purchased in by john washington, the earliest member of the family in america. it was occupied by john at least until his death in , and probably by lawrence washington until a few years later. much artifactual material was dug from the plantation house site, including the largest deposits of north devon types found outside of jamestown.[ ] stafford county, virginia: marlborough site. a short-lived town was built in at the confluence of potomac creek and the potomac river on potomac neck. the town was abandoned by , but six years later became the abode of john mercer, who developed a plantation there. the site of his house was excavated by the smithsonian institution in . two small sherds of north devon gravel-tempered ware were found there in a predominantly mid- th-century deposit. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered pan (top) and cooking pot with cover, all from jamestown. the pan has a height of - / inches and a diameter of inches. the pot is inches high and - / inches in diameter; the diameter of its cover is inches. colonial national historical park.] calvert county, maryland: angelica knoll site. since robert a. elder, jr., assistant curator of ethnology at the united states national museum, has been investigating the site on the chesapeake bay of a plantation or small settlement known as angelica knoll. this investigation has revealed a generous variety of gravel-tempered utensil forms, including both th and th century styles. the range of associated artifacts points to a site dating from the late th century to about . kent island, queen anne county, maryland. a small collection of late th-century and early th-century material--gathered by richard h. stearns near the shore of kent island, a quarter-mile south of kent island landing--includes both north devon types. the collection was given to the united states national museum. lewes, sussex county, delaware: townsend site. the townsend site was excavated by members of the sussex county archeological society in . this was primarily an indian site, but a pit or well contained european artifacts, including a north devon gravel-tempered jar (fig. ). the village of lewes, originally the dutch settlement of zwaanandael, was destroyed by the british, who occupied the area in .[ ] the european materials from the townsend site were given to the united states national museum. plymouth, plymouth county, massachusetts: "r.m." site. a site of a house believed to have been robert morton's, located south of the town of plymouth, was excavated by henry hornblower ii. it contained north devon gravel-tempered sherds. the collection is now in the archeological laboratory of plimoth plantation, inc., in plymouth. rocky nook, kingston, plymouth county, massachusetts: sites of john howland house and joseph howland house. the john howland house was built between and ; it burned about . the site was excavated between september and july under supervision of the late sidney t. strickland.[ ] several gravel-tempered utensil sherds were found here, as well as a piece of an oven (see fig. ). artifacts from this and the following site are at the plimoth plantation laboratory. the foundations of the joseph howland house, adjacent to the john howland house site, were excavated in by james deetz, archeologist at plimoth plantation. this is the only new england site of which we are aware that has yielded north devon sgraffito ware. two successive houses apparently stood on the site. statistical evidence of pipe-stem-bore measurements points to - as the first principal period of occupancy.[ ] marshfield, plymouth county, massachusetts: winslow site. this site, excavated by henry hornblower ii and tentatively dated - , yielded considerable quantities of gravel-tempered ware. cultural material is predominantly from about . flushing, long island, new york: the john bowne house. the john bowne house is a historic house museum at bowne street and fox lane, flushing, long island, maintained by the bowne house historical society. bowne was a quaker from derbyshire, who built his house in . a north devon oven is still in place, with its opening at the back of the fireplace. yorktown, virginia. the national park service has excavated at various locations in yorktown, both in the neighboring battlefield sites and the town itself. yorktown, like marlborough, was established by the act for ports in . in several of the areas excavated, occasional sherds of north devon gravel-tempered ware were found. in refuse behind the site of the swan tavern, opened as an inn in but probably occupied earlier, a single large fragment of a -inch sgraffito platter was discovered. no other pieces of this type were found, associated artifacts having been predominantly from the th century. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered bowl (top) and pipkins from jamestown. colonial national historical park.] descriptions of types north devon sgraffito ware sites: jamestown, kecoughtan, green spring, john washington house, kent island, yorktown, joseph howland house. paste manufacture: wheel-turned, with templates used to shape collars of jugs and to shape edges and sometimes ridges where plate rims join bezels. temper: fine, almost microscopic, water-worn sand particles. texture: fine, smooth, well-mixed, sharp, regular cleavage. color: dull pinkish red, with gray core usual. firing: two firings, one before glazing and one after. usually incomplete oxidation, shown by gray core. a few specimens have surface breaks or flakings incurred in the firing and most show warping (suggesting that "rejects," unsalable in england, were sent to the colonists, who had no recourse but to accept them). surfaces treatment: inner surfaces of plates and bowls and outer surfaces of jugs, cups, mugs, chamber pots, and other utensils viewed on the exteriors are coated with white kaolin slip. designs are scratched through the slip while wet and into the surface of the paste, exposing the latter. undersides of plates and chargers are often scraped to make irregular flat areas of surface. slip-covered portions are coated with amber glaze by sifting on powdered galena (lead sulphide). containers which are slipped externally are glazed externally and internally. slip and glaze do not cover lower portions of jugs, but run down unevenly. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered chafing dish from jamestown. colonial national historical park. (_smithsonian photo ._)] color: slipped surfaces are white where exposed without glaze. unglazed surfaces are a dull terra cotta. the glaze varies in tone from honey color to a dark greenish amber. when applied over the slip, the glaze ranges from lemon to a toneless brown-yellow, or, at best, a sparkling butter color. when applied directly over the paste and over the incised and abraided designs, the glaze appears as a rich mahogany brown or dark amber. forms plates, platters, and chargers: (a) diameter "- - / ". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. .) (b) diameter "; depth "- ". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. .) (c) diameter - / "- "; depth "- ". upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. (fig. .) all have wide rims, but of varying widths, raised bezels, and heavy, raised, curved edges. baluster wine cups: height - / "- ". slipped and decorated externally; glazed internally and externally. (figs. , .) concave-sided mugs: height about ". slipped and decorated externally; glazed internally and externally. (only complete specimen, at jamestown, had incised band around rim.) (fig. .) jugs: height - / " and "- - / ". globose bodies, vertical or slightly everted collars tooled in a series of ridged bands, with tooled rims at top. some have pitcher lips, some do not. slipped, decorated, and glazed externally above an incised line encircling the waist; glazed internally. (figs. , .) eating bowls: diameter, including handle, "- "; depth - / "- ". straight, everted sides, flat rims, with slightly raised edges, one small flat loop handle secured to rim. slipped, decorated, and glazed internally and on rim. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered baking pan from jamestown. length, inches; width, about inches. colonial national historical park.] chamber pots: height - / ". curving sides, terminating at heavy, raised, rounded band surmounted by concave, everted rim. rim " wide and flat. slipped, decorated, and glazed externally and internally. (fig. .) candlestick: unique specimen. height ". bell-shaped base with flange and shaft above with socket at top. handle from bottom of socket to bottom of shaft. upper portion slipped, decorated, and glazed. ripple-edged, shallow dish: unique specimen. diameter - / ". concave, rimless dish or plate with edge crimped as for a pie or tart plate. upper surface slipped, decorated, and glazed. decoration technique: ( ) incising through wet slip into paste with pointed tool for linear effects. ( ) excising of small areas to reveal paste and to strengthen tonal qualities of designs. ( ) incising with multiple-pointed tools having three to five points, to draw multiple-lined stripes. ( ) stippling with same tools. motifs: the motifs are varied and never occur in any one combination more than once. there are two general categories of design, geometric and floral, although in some cases these are joined in the same specimen. in the geometric category, the majority of plate rims are decorated with hastily drawn spirals and _guilloches_. the centers may have circles within squares, circles enclosing compass-drawn petals, circles within a series of swags embellished with lines. triple-lined chevrons decorate the border of one plate. a chamber pot is decorated with diagonal stripes of multiple lines, between which wavy lines are punctuated by small excised rectangles. some cups, jugs, and the candlestick are simply decorated with vertical stripes, between which are wavy lines, stippling, and excised blocks. the floral category includes elaborate and intricate stylized floral and vine motifs: tulips, sunflowers, leaves, tendrils, hearts, four-petaled flowers. one plate (fig. ) combines the geometric feeling of the first category with the floral qualities of the second in its swag-and-tassel rim and swagged band, which encloses a sunflower springing from a stalk between two leaves. the design motifs are unique in comparison with those found on other english pottery of the th century. the geometrical patterns and spiral ornaments, which also occur in hispanic majolica, have a moorish flavor. christian symbols--especially tulips, sunflowers, and hearts--are recurrent, as they are on contemporary west-of-england furniture, pewter, and embroidery and on the carved chests, and crewel work of puritan new england. there is considerable reason to believe that there was a connection between north devon sgraffito-ware manufacture and design on the one hand and the influx of huguenot and netherlands protestant artisans into southern and southwestern england on the other. low country immigrant potters were responsible for two other ceramic innovations elsewhere in england--stoneware and majolica. [illustration: figure .--slip-coated porringers and drinking bowl (center). colonial national historical park.] [illustration: figure .--north devon gravel-tempered pan with typical terra cotta paste and characteristic th-century flattened rim, slightly undercut on the interior. this pan, measuring - / inches in diameter and - / inches high, was found at the coke-garrett house site in williamsburg, virginia, in a context attributed to the period about - . colonial williamsburg, inc. (_colonial williamsburg photo -dw- - ._)] atypical specimen already mentioned is a large fragment of a dish found in a context not later than and cruder and simpler in treatment than the remainder of north devon sgraffito ware thus far seen. it nevertheless belongs to the same class. its paste has the same characteristics of color and fracture, while the firing has left the same tell-tale gray core found in a large proportion of north devon sherds. surface treatment techniques match those reflected in the typical dish sherds--glazed slip over the red paste on the interior; unglazed, scraped, and abraided surfaces on the underside. the yellow color is paler and the glazed surface is duller. the rim has a smaller edge and omits the heavy raised bezel usually occurring on the typical plates and chargers. the design motifs--crude and primitive in comparison with those described above--consist of a series of stripes on the rim, drawn at right angles to the edge with a four-pointed tool, and crude hook-like ornaments traced with the same tool in the bowl of the plate. this may be regarded as a forerunner of the developed sgraffito ware made in the second half of the th century. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered pan sherds from kecoughtan site, hampton, virginia. united states national museum.] unique feature the flat rim of a chamber pot from jamestown (fig. ) has "wr .." scratched through the slip. it is probable that the initials indicate "william rex," for william iii, who became king in . why the king should be memorialized in such an undignified fashion could be explained by the fact that barnstaple and bideford were strongly puritan and also huguenot centers. although william was a popular monarch, he was, nevertheless, head of the church of england, and an anti-royalist, calvinist potter might well have expressed an earthy contempt in this way. later, in the th century, george iii appears to have been treated with similar disrespect by staffordshire potters, who made saltglazed chamber pots in the style of rhenish westerwald drinking jugs, flaunting "gr" emblems on the sides. owners' initials or names do not occur on any of the north devon wares found in american sites, nor do the initials of the potters. otherwise, it would seem unlikely that the only exception would appear on the rim of a chamber pot. comparative evidence sherds owned by c. h. brannam, ltd., and excavated at the site of the litchdon street pottery in barnstaple.--the largest of these is part of a deep dish (fig. ). its border design seems to be a degenerate form of a beetle-like device found on portuguese majolica of the period. from a crude oval with a stippled line running the length of it, extends a spiral scroll, terminating in a heavy dot, reminiscent of the tendrils found on the portuguese examples. from incised lines near the rim and on the edge of the bezel are small linear "hooks." the interior has sunflower petals flanking a short, stylized palmette, with another stalk and pair of leaves above, reaching up to what may have been an elaborate floral center, now missing. this decoration resembles closely the interiors of the floral-type plates and chargers found at jamestown. a section of plate rim is similar to typical rims found in american sites. the surface color is the butter yellow found on the best jamestown pieces. paste color also matches. sherds from the north walk pottery in barnstaple, described by charbonnier.--these were found near the site, on the banks of the yeo and in a pasture. they include plates and dishes, some finished and others thrown out in the biscuit state. charbonnier illustrates a plate with a zig-zag or chevron border and an incised bird in the center. the chevron appears on jamestown specimens but the bird does not. harvest jugs.-- th-century north devon harvest jugs examined by the writer display the same characteristics of paste, slip, and glaze as the jamestown sherds. however, the jugs differ stylistically to a marked degree, suggesting that later potters were not affected by the influences that appear in the earlier work (fig. ). the earliest harvest jug of which we are aware is a hitherto unrecorded example, dated , that is in the collection of charles g. dorman. this is the only harvest jug yet encountered with a history of use in america and the only north devon sgraffito piece known to have survived above ground on this continent. it is a remarkably vigorous pot, having a great rotund body, a high flaring collar, and a lengthy inscription (see fig. ). a female figure under a wreath of pomegranates forms the central motif. the head is turned in left profile, with hair cascading to the shoulders. the bust is highly stylized in an oval shape, within which are intersecting curved lines forming areas decorated with diagonal incising or with rows of short dashes. the design here is strongly reminiscent of the geometrical decoration on jamestown plates and deep dishes. a pair of unicorns flanks the central figure, and behind each unicorn are a dove and swan, at left and right respectively. under these are sunflowers and tulips, while a tulip stands above rows of leaves on a stem below the handle. feather-like leaves flank the lower attachment of the handle. at the junction of the shoulder and collar is a narrow band of incised tulips. above this is a heavy ridge from which springs the flaring collar. under the spout is a male head, wearing a wig which is depicted in the same manner as the pomegranates on the wreath, and a stylized hat and stock-like collar. one suspects that the man is a clergyman, although his eyes are cast down in a most worldly manner upon the lady below. he is flanked by a pair of doves; behind each dove is a vertical tulip with stem and leaves. [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered food-storage jar from townsend site, lewes, delaware. height, inches; diameter at base, inches. (_usnm . ; smithsonian photo ._)] [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered sherds from plymouth, massachusetts: fragment of oven (left) and rim sherd (upper right), from john howland house site; and pan-rim sherd from "r. m." site. plimoth plantation, inc., plymouth. (_smithsonian photo -b._)] some of the shading is applied with a four-pointed tool, as in many of the jamestown pieces, although the tool was smaller. the handle bears the same characteristics as those on jugs found at jamestown--the same carelessly formed ridge, the same spreading, up-thrust reinforcement at the base of the handle. unlike the jamestown jugs, this one is covered completely on the exterior with slip and glaze. however, since this was a presentation piece, we could expect more careful treatment than was usual on pots made for commercial sale. the jug descended in a sussex county, delaware, family--on the distaff side, curiously. family recollection traces its ownership back to the early th century, with an unsubstantiated legend that it was used by british soldiers during the revolutionary war. we may conclude at least that the jug is not a recent import and surmise that it was probably brought to america as an heirloom by an emigrating devon family, perhaps before the revolution. sussex county has a stable population, mostly of old-stock english descent. it was settled during the second half of the th and first half of the th centuries. there is a strong possibility, therefore, that the jug was introduced into delaware at a comparatively early date. many other harvest jugs have been similarly cherished in england. an almost exact counterpart of the delaware jug, and obviously by the same potter, is in the glaisher collection in cambridge. this jug, dated " / ,"[ ] displays such variations as absence of the male head and a different inscription. another jug, with a hunting scene but with a similar neck and collar treatment, seems again to be by the same hand; it is dated " ."[ ] [illustration: figure .--gravel-tempered sherds from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland. united states national museum. (_smithsonian photo -a._)] from the standpoint of identifying and dating the archeologically recovered sgraffito ware, these jugs are important in showing certain traits similar to those found in the sherds, while displaying other characteristics that are distinctly different. they support the archeological evidence that the jamestown pieces are earlier than the jugs and that new design concepts were appearing by the turn of the century in a novel type of presentation piece. north devon plain slip-coated ware this is a plain variant of the sgraffito ware, differing only in the absence of decoration and in some of the forms. site: jamestown. forms plates: diameter "- - / ". profiles as in sgraffito plates. upper surface slipped and glazed. eating bowls: diameter "; height - / ". profile and handle same as in sgraffito bowls. slipped and glazed on interior and over rim. porringers: diameter - / "; height - / ". ogee profiles. horizontal loop handle applied / " below rim on each. slipped and glazed on interiors. (fig. .) drinking bowls: diameter of rim, including handle, "; height - / "- "; diameter of base ". in shape of mazer bowl, these have narrow bases and straight sides terminating in raised tooled bands at the junctions with vertical or slightly inverted rims " in height. each has a horizontal looped handle attached at bottom of rim. slipped and glazed on interiors. (fig. .) wavy-edge pans: diameter "- "; height ". flat round pans with vertical rims distorted in wide scallops or waves. purpose not known. slipped and glazed on interiors. north devon gravel-tempered ware sites: jamestown, kecoughtan, green spring, williamsburg, marlborough, john washington house, kent island, angelica knoll, townsend, john bowne house, "r. m.," winslow, john howland house. paste manufacture: wheel-turned, except ovens and rectangular pans, which are "draped" over molds. (see "forms," below.) temper: very coarse water-worn quartz and feldsparthic gravel up to one-half inch in length; also occasional sherds. proportion of temper - percent, except in ovens, which were about percent. texture: poorly kneaded, bubbly, and porous, with temper poorly mixed. temper particles easily rubbed out of matrix. very irregular and angular cleavage because of coarse temper. hard and resistant to blows, but crumbles at fracture when broken. color: dull pinkish red to deep orange-red. almost invariably gray at core, except in ovens. firing: carelessly fired, with incomplete oxidation of paste. surface treatment: glazed with powdered galena on interiors of containers, never externally. glaze very carelessly applied, with much evidence of dripping, running, and unintentional spilling. texture: very coarse and irregular, with gravel temper protruding. color: unglazed surfaces range from bright terra cotta to reddish buff. glazed surfaces on well-fired pieces are transparent yellow-green with frequent orange splotches. overtired pieces become dark olive-amber, sometimes approaching black. rare specimens have slipped interiors subsequently glazed, with similar butter-yellow color effect as in sgraffito and plain slip-coated types. forms all forms are not completely indicated, there being many rims not represented by complete or reconstructed pieces. the following are established forms. round, flat-bottomed pans: diameter ", height "; diameter ", height "; diameter ", height "; diameter ", height - / "; diameter - / ", height - / ". heavy rounded rims. glazed internally below rims. these were probably milk pans, but may also have served for cooking and washing. those lined with slip may have functioned as wash basins. (figs. , .) round, flat-bottomed pans: diameter approximately ", height unknown. (no complete specimen.) heavy rims, reinforced with applied strips of clay beneath external projection of rim. reinforcement strips are secured with thumb impressions or square impressions made by end of flat tool. (figs. , .) cooking pots: diameter ", height "; diameter ", height ". curving sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curving rim above. glazed inside. bowls: diameter ", height ". sides curved, with flattened-curve rims, tooled bands below rims. glazed internally. (fig. .) [illustration: figure .--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. top to bottom: bowl; pan; heavy pan with reinforced rim; and pan with th-century-type rim. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos -a, -a._)] cooking pots: diameter (including handles) - / ", height ". profile a segmented curve, with rim the same diameter as base. exterior flange to receive cover. small horizontal loop handles. band of three incised lines around waist. (fig. .) cooking pot covers: diameters ", ", - / ", ". flat covers, with downward-turned rims. off-center loop handles, probably designed to facilitate examination of contents of pot by permitting one to lift up one edge of cover. covers are sometimes numbered with incised numerals. unglazed. (fig. .) [illustration: figure .--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. pan (top) with th-century-type rim, and handle of heavy pan with reinforced rim. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos -c, -d._)] pipkins: diameter ", height "; diameter - / ", height - / "; diameter - / ", height "; diameter ", height ". curving sides, terminating at tooled concave band with flattened, slightly curved rim above. three stubby legs. stub handle crudely shaped and casually applied at an upward angle. glazed inside. used as a saucepan to stand in the coals. (fig. .) rectangular basting or baking pans: length ", width - / " (dimensions of single restored specimen at jamestown; many fragments in addition at jamestown and plymouth). drape-molded. reinforced scalloped rim. heavy horizontal loop handles are sometimes on sides, sometimes on ends. glazed inside. (fig. .) storage jars: various sizes. the one wholly restored specimen (lewes, delaware) has a rim diameter of " and a height of - / ". rims of largest examples (diameters ", ", ") have reinforcement strips applied below external projection. heavy vertical loop handles, with tops attached to rims. most have interior flanges to receive covers. glazed inside. such jars were essential for preserving and pickling foods and for brewing beer. (fig. .) plate warmer or chafing dish: unique specimen. diameter (including handle) ", height ". heavy, flaring pedestal foot supports wide bowl, glazed inside. flat rim with slight elevation on outer edge. protruding vertically from rim are three lugs or supports for holding plates. vertical loop handles extend from rim to lower sides of bowl. "spirits of wine" were probably burned in the bowl to heat the plate above. (fig. .) fragmentary pedestals, similar in profile to the one here (but smaller, having step turnings around base) may have been parts of smaller chafing dishes. (fig. .) [illustration: figure .--exteriors (left) and interiors of gravel-tempered sherds. top to bottom: rim of small bowl; rim of small jar with internal flange to receive cover; and pipkin handle. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos -c, -d._)] ovens: ( ) one wholly reconstructed oven at jamestown. made in sections on drape molds: base, two sides, two halves of top, opening frame, and door. side and top sections are joined with seams, reinforced by finger impressions, meeting at top of trapezoidal opening. the opening was molded separately and joined with thumb-impressed reinforcements. a flat door with heavy vertical handle, round in section, fits snugly into opening. thickness varies from / " to - / ". unglazed, although smears of glaze dripped during the firing indicate that the oven was fired with glazed utensils stacked above it. (fig. .) ( ) oven in place in bowne house, flushing, long island. similar in shape to jamestown oven. opening is arched. ( ) body sherd and handle sherds at jamestown, from additional oven or ovens. ( ) body sherd from dome-top oven similar to those at jamestown and flushing. john howland house site, rocky nook, kingston, plymouth county, massachusetts. (fig. .) comparative evidence paste color, temper, and texture are consistent when examined microscopically. resemblance is very close between oven sherds from the jamestown and howland house sites, and between these and a large chip obtained from the smithsonian's oven purchased in bideford. except for a somewhat lower proportion of temper, utensil sherds from various sites are consistent with the oven fragments. the smithsonian's th-century bideford pan also closely resembles these, except for the proportion of temper, which is somewhat less. further close resemblance of form exists between the jamestown and flushing ovens and those in the bideford museum. (figs. , .) in comparative tests were made by frederick h. norton, professor of ceramics at massachusetts institute of technology. jamestown clay was used for a control. thin sections, made of sherds found at jamestown, were fired at several temperatures and the results recorded in photomicrographs. of the gravel-tempered sherd submitted in these tests, professor norton commented, "the clay mass looks quite dissimilar from the jamestown clay." no other identifiable english ware of this period compares with the gravel-tempered pottery, the use of gravel for temper apparently being restricted to north devon. gravel is found in red earthenware sherds from spanish colonial sites and in olive oil jars of hispanic origin, but both the quality and proportion of temper differs, as do the paste characteristics, so that no possibility exists for confusion between them and the north devon ware. the north devon potteries produced gravel-tempered ovens that probably were unique in england. ceramic ovens were made elsewhere, to be sure; jewitt describes and illustrates an oven made in yearsley by the yorkshire wedgwoods in , but it is in no way related to the north devon form. we have mentioned dr. pococke's allusion to "earthenware ovens" made in the mid- th century at calstock on the cornish side of the devonshire border, about miles from bideford; however, one may suppose that these were the products of diffusion from the north devon center, if, indeed, they even resembled the north devon ovens. the closest comparisons with the north devon ovens are to be found in continental sources. a woodcut in ulrich von richental's _concilium zu constancz_ (fig. ), printed at augsburg in , shows an oven whose shape is similar to that of the jamestown specimen. the oven in the woodcut is mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by two men. a woman is removing a tart from the flame-licked opening while a couple sits nearby at a table in front of a shop. le moyne, a century later, depicted the huguenot fort caroline in florida.[ ] just outside the stockade, on a raised platform under a thatched lean-to appears an oven whose form is similar to that of typical north devon examples (fig. ). it is a safe assumption that the ovens in both richental's and le moyne's scenes were ceramic ovens, for both were used outdoors in a portable or temporary manner. no other material would have been suitable for such use. this portable usage gives support to bailey's conjecture that the jamestown oven may have been used indoors in the winter and outdoors in the summer. he noted that carbon had been ground into the base, as though the oven had lain on a fireplace hearth.[ ] sidney strickland, writing about his excavation of the john howland house site, noted that the stone fireplace foundation there had no provision for a built-in brick oven of conventional type.[ ] not having recognized the earthen oven sherd, he assumed that bread was baked on the stone hearth. the pottery oven may well have been placed on the hearth or have been set up in an outbuilding. that ovens of some sort, whether ceramic or brick, were used away from houses is borne out by occasional documentary evidence. in john andrews of ipswich, massachusetts, bequeathed a "bake house" worth pounds, shillings. in , henry short of newbury provided in his will that his widow should have "free egress and regress into the bakehouse for bakeing & washing." in the inventory of lt. george gardner's estate in salem listed his "dwelling house, bake house & out housing."[ ] bailey quotes the records of henrico county, virginia, to show a similar usage in the south.[ ] [illustration: figure .--pedestal bases of small chafing dishes or standing salts. top, exterior and interior of one sherd; bottom, exterior and top view of another sherd. colonial national historical park. (_from smithsonian photos -c, -d._)] the only unquestionable evidence of how these ovens were used remains in the bowne house, where the oven is built into the fireplace back. originally, the oven protruded outdoors from the back of the chimney.[ ] conclusions archeological, documentary, and literary evidences indicate that yellow sgraffito ware, gravel-tempered earthenware utensils, and gravel-tempered pottery ovens were made in several potteries in and around barnstaple and bideford in north devon. clay from the fremington clay beds was used. the north devon potteries manufactured for export, sending their wares to ireland as early as and to america by . the trade was particularly heavy in the years following the stuart restoration and was tied to the influential th-century west-of-england commerce with america. new england, maryland, and virginia received many shipments of north devon pottery, an entire cargo of it having been delivered in boston in . sgraffito ware found in colonial sites in virginia and maryland is from a common source. the style of decoration is unique to english pottery and reflects continental elements of design. it is reminiscent of decoration found on english and colonial new england furniture and embroideries. the only counterparts of this ware--matching it in style, paste color, and technique--are found among th-century sherds excavated from the sites of two potteries in barnstaple. the th-century and th-century north devon sgraffito ware surviving above ground differs considerably in style and form but in other respects it is the same as the ware found archeologically in virginia and maryland. the stylistic differences, noticeable on a piece in the glaisher collection dated as early as (in which traces of the earlier style remain), were introduced by the turn of the century, thus strengthening the conclusion that the sgraffito tablewares found archeologically in this country must date from before . [illustration: figure .--photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds enlarged twice natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. top left, pan sherd from jamestown (colonial national historical park); top right, pan sherd from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland (united states national museum); and oven sherd from bideford (united states national museum).] [illustration: figure .--photomicrographs of gravel-tempered sherds enlarged three times natural size, showing cross-sectional fractures. top, pan sherd from "r. m." site, plymouth, massachusetts (plimoth plantation, inc.); lower left, oven sherd from jamestown (colonial national historical park); and oven sherd from john howland house site, rocky nook, plymouth, massachusetts (plimoth plantation, inc.).] [illustration: figure .--rim profiles of north devon gravel-tempered earthenware pans. all are from the fill around and beneath the may-hartwell site drain at jamestown (constructed between and ) except those marked, as follows: _a_, from angelica knoll site, calvert county, maryland, late th century to about ; _b_, from john washington house site, westmoreland county, virginia, the period from about to about ; _c_, from "r. m." site, plymouth, massachusetts, about ; _d_, from site of george washington's birthplace, near the john washington house site; _e_, from winslow site, marshfield, massachusetts, which was occupied from about to about .] for kitchen utensils, tiles, and other objects subject to heat or breakage, the same fremington clay received an admixture of fine pebbles, or gravel, secured at a special place in the bed of the river torridge in bideford. the use of gravel was described by th-century writers as well as by later historians. as found in america, the gravel-tempered ware apparently is unique among the products of either english or colonial american potters. a specialty of the north devon potteries was the manufacture of ovens made of the same gravel-tempered clay as the kitchen utensils. the appearance of these ovens and the method of making them remained virtually the same from the th through the th centuries. at jamestown, a wholly reconstructed oven reveals typical north devon traits throughout, while a fragment of an oven from the john howland house site near plymouth displays, under a microscope, the same qualities of paste and temper as in a fragment of an oven obtained in bideford by the smithsonian institution. sherds of gravel-tempered utensils from several american sites also match the oven fragments. paste characteristics, exclusive of the temper, are the same in the sgraffito ware, the gravel-tempered ware, and the ovens. furthermore, the gravel-tempered ware occasionally is found with a plain coating of slip, which, under the glaze, has the same yellow color as the sgraffito ware, while an undecorated variant of the sgraffito ware also occurs with a similar plain slip. [illustration: figure .--baker's portable oven in a woodcut from ulrich von richenthal's _concilium zu constancz_, printed at augsburg, germany, in . lessing j. rosenwald collection, library of congress.] [illustration: figure .--detail from de bry's engraving of le moyne's painting of fort caroline, depicting an oven on a raised platform under a crude shed. fort caroline was a french hugenot settlement established in florida in . rare book room, library of congress.] all these wares, including the ovens, are interrelated--the specimens found in america having been shipped in a busy north devon-north american trade. the north devon towns, moreover, were an important pottery-making center for export markets in the west of england, ireland, and north america. thousands of parcels of earthenware were shipped to the american colonies from bideford and barnstaple during the th century. any doubts that ovens were among these overseas shipments are dispelled by the knowledge that they continually were being shipped in the english coastwise trade, and also by intrinsic and comparative evidence that oven sherds found on american sites are of north devon origin. the only known counterparts of the north devon ovens are continental. a th-century example appears in an augsburg woodcut, and a th-century specimen is depicted in de bry's engraving after le moyne's painting of fort caroline, the huguenot settlement in florida. there are many suggestions of huguenot and low country influences on north devon pottery. bideford and barnstaple both were puritan strongholds in the th century, and both became french huguenot centers, especially after the revocation of the edict of nantes in . the style of sgraffito decoration changed radically after about . after that date, decoration was confined mainly to harvest jugs and presentation pieces. gravel-tempered utensils and ovens continued to be made, but the north devon trade with america ceased by . archeological evidence indicates that gravel-tempered ware was used in america between about and about . an isolated example of sgraffito pottery, distinguished by crude design and glaze, dates from before . the typical sgraffito ware is illustrated by specimens found in the fill under and around the brick drain in the may-hartwell site at jamestown. this ware dates between and . no other sites provide a more certain dating than this. sgraffito ware found at bridge's creek, virginia (john washington house site), may date as early as , but may be as late as or a few years thereafter. the may-hartwell oven was also found in the drain fill, so presumably it also was used before . the oven fragment from the site of the john howland house dates between about and about , the lifetime of the house. the oven in the bowne house is no earlier than , the date of construction. typical sgraffito ware, therefore, dates from to , plus or minus a few years. gravel-tempered ware predominates in the same period, but extends well into the th century, probably to about . ovens date from between and . the concentrations of wares within the limits of the may-hartwell drain site correspond roughly with records of heavy shipments of the wares between and . the earliest shipment recorded was to new england in . the sgraffito ware probably served as much for decoration as for practical use. each piece was decorated differently, with elaborate designs, and in such a manner that it could provide a colorful effect on a court cupboard or a dresser, matching in style the carved woodwork or crewel embroidery of late th-century furnishings. although sgraffito ware represented a degree of richness and dramatic color, it did not match the elegance of contemporary majolica, decorated after the manner of chinese porcelain. heavy and coarse, the sgraffito ware essentially was a variant of english folk pottery, reflecting the less sophisticated tastes of rural west of england. it did not occur in the colonies after , by which time it was supplanted in public taste by the more refined majolica. gravel-tempered ware apparently was esteemed as a kitchen ware, much as is the modern "ovenware" or pyrex in the contemporary home. since gravel-tempered ovens were widely used in the west of england, they were accepted by settlers in america, especially where built-in brick ovens were lacking. unlike those of staffordshire or bristol, the north devon potteries failed to develop new techniques or to change with shifts in taste. the delftware of london and bristol and the yellow wares of bristol and staffordshire became preferable to the soft and imperfect sgraffito ware. in the same way, the kitchen ware of staffordshire and the adequate red-wares of american potters made obsolete the heavy, ugly, and incomparably crude gravel-tempered ware, while american bricklayers, having adopted the custom of building brick ovens into fireplaces, outmoded the portable ovens from north devon after . any chance of a renaissance of north devon's potteries was killed by the blockading of its ports in the mid- th century. from then on the potteries continued traditionally, their markets gradually shrinking at home in the face of modern production elsewhere. today, only brannan's litchdon street pottery in barnstaple has survived. other references consulted bemrose, geoffrey, _nineteenth-century english pottery and porcelain_, new york, n.d. (about ). blacker, j. f., _nineteenth-century english ceramic art_, london, . chaffers, william, _marks and monograms on pottery and porcelain_, th issue, london, . gribble, joseph b., _memorials of barnstaple_, barnstaple, . haggar, reginald, _english country pottery_, london, . honey, w. b., _european ceramic art from the end of the middle ages to about _, london, n.d. (about ). mankowitz, wolf, and haggar, reginald g., _the concise encyclopedia of english pottery and porcelain_, london, . meteyard, eliza, _the life of josiah wedgwood_, london, . u.s. government printing office: for sale by the superintendent of documents, u.s. government printing office, washington , d.c. price cents. footnotes: [ ] worth bailey, "concerning jamestown pottery--its past and present," _ceramic age_, october , pp. - . [ ] h. c. forman, _jamestown and saint mary's_, baltimore, , p. . [ ] worth bailey, "a jamestown baking oven of the seventeenth century," _william and mary college quarterly historical magazine_, , ser. , vol. , no. , pp. - . [ ] john watkins, _an essay towards a history of bideford in the county of devon_, exeter, , p. . [ ] _ibid._, pp. , - . [ ] _ibid._, p. . [ ] port book, barnstaple, , public record office, london (hereinafter referred to as _port book_), e / . [ ] _virginia magazine of history and biography_, , vol. , p. . [ ] _ibid._, quoting sainsbury abstracts, p. . [ ] _virginia magazine of history and biography_, , vol. , pp. - . [ ] bernard bailyn, _the new england merchants in the seventeenth century_, cambridge, massachusetts, , p. . [ ] isle of wight county (virginia) records, quoted in _william and mary college quarterly historical magazine_, , ser. , vol. , p. . [ ] p. a. bruce, _economic history of virginia in the seventeenth century_, new york, , vol. , p. . [ ] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] _port book_, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] richard corkhill was one of the six bideford factors residing in northampton county. bruce, _op. cit._ (see footnote ). [ ] _port book_, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] colonial office shipping records relating to massachusetts ports, typescript in essex institute, salem, massachusetts, , vol. , p. . [ ] _port book_, e / / ; / ; / ; . [ ] _ibid._, e / / . [ ] "some account of biddeford, in answer to the queries relative to a natural history of england," _the gentlemen's magazine_, , vol. , p. . [ ] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote ), pp. - . [ ] t. m. hall, "on barum tobacco-pipes and north devon clays," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, , vol. , pp. - . [ ] t. charbonnier, "notes on north devon pottery of the seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth centuries," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, , vol. , p. . [ ] _ibid._, p. . [ ] bernard rackham, _catalogue of the glaisher collection of pottery and porcelain in the fitzwilliam museum_, cambridge, , ed. , vol. , pp. - . [ ] llewellyn jewitt, _the ceramic art of great britain_, london, , ed. , pp. - . [ ] george maw, "on a supposed deposit of boulder-clay in north devon," _quarterly journal of the geological society of london_, , vol. , pp. - . [ ] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote ), pp. , . [ ] "supplement to the account of biddeford," _the gentlemen's magazine_, , vol. , p. . [ ] watkins, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . however, the "byelaws" of barnstaple for indicate that tempering materials were also obtained locally: "every one that fetcheth sand from the sand ridge, shall pay for each horse yearly {d}, and for every boat of crock sand {d}., according to the antient custome." (joseph b. gribble, _memorials of barnstaple_, barnstaple, , p. .) [ ] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] b. w. oliver, "the three tuns, barnstaple," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, torquay, devon, , vol. , pp. - . [ ] mildred e. jenkinson in personal correspondence from bideford, april , . [ ] hall, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] h. w. strong, "the potteries of north devon," _report and transactions of the devonshire association for the advancement of science, literature, and art_, devon, , vol. , p. . [ ] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote ), vol. , pp. - . [ ] _great exhibition . official, descriptive, and illustrated catalogue_, london, , p. , no. . [ ] w. j. pountney, _old bristol potteries_, bristol, n.d., pp. - . [ ] cloume = cloam: "in o. e. mud, clay. hence, in mod. dial. use: earthenware, clay ... b. _attr._ or _adj._" (j. a. h. murray, ed., _a new english dictionary on historic principles_, oxford, , vol. , p. .) [ ] j. j. cartwright, ed., _the travels through england of dr. richard pococke_, camden society publications, , new ser., no. , vol. , p. . [ ] _ibid._, vol. , p. . [ ] jenkinson correspondence (see footnote ). [ ] jewitt, _op. cit._ (footnote ), pp. - . [ ] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] jenkinson correspondence (footnote ). [ ] _made in devon. an exhibition of beautiful objects past and present_, dartington hall, , p. . [ ] charbonnier, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] john l. cotter, _archeological excavations at jamestown, virginia_. archeological research series, no. , national park service, u.s. department of the interior, washington, . [ ] j. c. harrington, _archeological report, may-hartwell site, jamestown: excavations at the may-hartwell site in , , and and ditch explorations east of the may-hartwell site in and _. [ ] cotter, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] _ibid._, pp. - . [ ] _ibid._, pp. - . [ ] _ibid._, pp. - . [ ] joseph b. brittingham and alvin w. brittingham, sr., _the first trading post at kicotan (kecoughtan), hampton, virginia_, hampton, . [ ] louis r. caywood, _excavations at green spring plantation_, yorktown, . [ ] j. paul hudson, "george washington birthplace national monument, virginia," national park service historical handbook series, no. , washington, . [ ] virginia cullen, _history of lewes, delaware_, lewes, ; c. a. bonine, "archeological investigation of the dutch 'swanendael' settlement under de vries, - ," _the archeolog. news letter of the sussex archeological association_, lewes, december , vol. , no. . [ ] s. t. strickland, _excavation of ancient pilgrim home discloses nature of pottery and other details of everyday life_, typescript, n.d. [ ] james deetz, _excavations at the joseph howland site (c ), rocky nook, kingston, massachusetts, : a preliminary report_. supplement, _the howland quarterly, _, vol. , nos. , . the pilgrim john howland society, inc. [ ] rackham, _op. cit._ (footnote ), vol. , p. , fig. d, no. . [ ] john eliot hodgkin and edith hodgkin, _examples of early english pottery, named, dated, and inscribed_. london, , p. . [ ] j. le moyne, _brevis narratio corum quae in florida ..._, frankfort, , pl. . [ ] bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote ), pp. - . [ ] strickland, _op. cit._ (footnote ). [ ] the probate records of essex county, massachusetts, salem, massachusetts, , vol. , p. ; vol. , p. ; vol. , p. . [ ] bailey, _op. cit._ (footnote ), p. . [ ] _bowne house; a shrine to religious freedom_, flushing, new york. pamphlet of the bowne house historical society, flushing, n.y., n.d. transcriber's notes: passages in italics are indicated by _italics_. superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}.