Parent - Wikipedia Parent From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search For other uses, see Parent (disambiguation). A parent with her child. A parent is a caregiver of the offspring in their own species. In humans, a parent is the caretaker of a child (where "child" refers to offspring, not necessarily age). A biological parent is a person whose gamete resulted in a child, a male through the sperm, and a female through the ovum. Biological parents are first-degree relatives and have 50% genetic meet. A female can also become a parent through surrogacy. Some parents may be adoptive parents, who nurture and raise an offspring, but are not biologically related to the child. Orphans without adoptive parents can be raised by their grandparents or other family members. A parent can also be elaborated as an ancestor removed one generation. With recent medical advances, it is possible to have more than two biological parents.[1][2][3] Examples of third biological parents include instances involving surrogacy or a third person who has provided DNA samples during an assisted reproductive procedure that has altered the recipients' genetic material.[4] The most common types of parents are mothers, fathers, step-parents, and grandparents. A mother is, "a woman in relation to a child or children to whom she has given birth."[5] The extent to which it is socially acceptable for a parent to be involved in their offspring's life varies from culture to culture, however one that exhibits too little involvement is sometimes said to exhibit child neglect,[6] while one that is too involved is sometimes said to be overprotective, cosseting, nosey, or intrusive.[7] Contents 1 Types 1.1 Biological 1.2 Mother 1.3 Father 1.4 Grandparent 2 Paternity issues 3 Roles and responsibilities 3.1 Guardianship 3.2 Parenting 4 Gender and gender mix 5 Genetics 5.1 Parent–offspring conflict 5.2 Empathy 6 Having children and happiness 7 See also 8 References 9 External links Types[edit] Biological[edit] Obama family portrait, 2011 An individual's biological parents are the persons from whom the individual inherits his or her genes. The term is generally only used if there is a need to distinguish an individual's parents from their biological parents, For example, an individual whose father has remarried may call the father's new wife their stepmother and continue to refer to their mother normally, though someone who has had little or no contact with their biological mother may address their foster parent as their mother, and their biological mother as such, or perhaps by her first name.[citation needed] Mother[edit] Main article: Mother Postpartum baby A mother is a female who has a maternal connection with another individual, whether arising from conception, by giving birth to, or raising the individual in the role of a parent.[8] More than one female may have such connections with an individual. Because of the complexity and differences of a mother's social, cultural, and religious definitions and roles, it is challenging to define a mother to suit a universally accepted definition. The utilization of a surrogate mother may result in explication of there being two biological mothers.[9] Father[edit] Main article: Father Timothy L. Pesto and Kaitlyn E. Pesto play football as their father watches, Tuscaloosa, Alabama. A father is a male parent of any type of offspring.[10] It may be the person who shares in the raising of a child or who has provided the biological material, the sperm, which results in the birth of the child. Grandparent[edit] Main article: Grandparent Grandparents are the parents of a person's own parent, whether that be a father or a mother. Every sexually reproducing creature who is not a genetic chimera has a maximum of four genetic grandparents, eight genetic great-grandparents, sixteen genetic great-great-grandparents and so on. Rarely, such as in the case of sibling or half-sibling incest, these numbers are lower. Paternity issues[edit] Main article: DNA paternity testing A paternity test is conducted to prove paternity, that is, whether a male is the biological father of another individual. This may be relevant in view of rights and duties of the father. Similarly, a maternity test can be carried out. This is less common, because at least during childbirth and pregnancy, except in the case of a pregnancy involving embryo transfer or egg donation, it is obvious who the mother is. However, it is used in a number of events such as legal battles where a person's maternity is challenged, where the mother is uncertain because she has not seen her child for an extended period of time, or where deceased persons need to be identified. Although not constituting completely reliable evidence, several congenital traits such as attached earlobes, the widow's peak, or the cleft chin, may serve as tentative indicators of (non-) parenthood as they are readily observable and inherited via autosomal-dominant genes. A more reliable way to ascertain parenthood is via DNA analysis (known as genetic fingerprinting of individuals, although older methods have included ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). For the most part, however, genetic fingerprinting has all but taken over all the other forms of testing. Roles and responsibilities[edit] Guardianship[edit] Main article: Legal guardian A legal guardian is a person who has the legal authority (and the corresponding duty) to care for the personal and property interests of another person, called a ward. Guardians are typically used in three situations: guardianship for an incapacitated senior (due to old age or infirmity), guardianship for a minor, and guardianship for developmentally disabled adults. Most countries and states have laws that provide that the parents of a minor child are the legal guardians of that child, and that the parents can designate who shall become the child's legal guardian in the event of death, subject to the approval of the court. Some jurisdictions allow a parent of a child to exercise the authority of a legal guardian without a formal court appointment. In such circumstances the parent acting in that capacity is called the natural guardian of that parent's child. Parenting[edit] Main article: Parenting Parenting or child rearing is the process of promoting and supporting the physical, emotional, social, financial, and intellectual development of a child from infancy to adulthood. Parenting refers to the aspects of raising a child aside from the biological relationship.[11] Gender and gender mix[edit] A child has at least one biological father and at least one biological mother, but not every family is a traditional nuclear family. There are many variants, such as adoption, shared parenting, stepfamilies, and LGBT parenting, over which there has been controversy. The social science literature rejects the notion that there is an optimal gender mix of parents or that children and adolescents with same-sex parents suffer any developmental disadvantages compared with those with two opposite-sex parents.[12][13] The professionals and the major associations now agree there is a well-established and accepted consensus in the field that there is no optimal gender combination of parents.[14] The family studies literature indicates that it is family processes (such as the quality of parenting and relationships within the family) that contribute to determining children's well-being and "outcomes," rather than family structures, per se, such as the number, gender, sexuality and co-habitation status of parents.[13] Genetics[edit] Parent–offspring conflict[edit] Main article: Parent–offspring conflict An offspring who hates their father is called a misopater, one that hates their mother is a misomater, while a parent that hates their offspring is a misopedist.[15][16] Parent–offspring conflict describes the evolutionary conflict arising from differences in optimal fitness of parents and their offspring. While parents tend to maximize the number of offspring, the offspring can increase their fitness by getting a greater share of parental investment often by competing with their siblings. The theory was proposed by Robert Trivers in 1974 and extends the more general selfish gene theory and has been used to explain many observed biological phenomena.[17] For example, in some bird species, although parents often lay two eggs and attempt to raise two or more young, the strongest fledgling takes a greater share of the food brought by parents and will often kill the weaker sibling, an act known as siblicide. Empathy[edit] David Haig has argued that human fetal genes would be selected to draw more resources from the mother than it would be optimal for the mother to give, a hypothesis that has received empirical support. The placenta, for example, secretes allocrine hormones that decrease the sensitivity of the mother to insulin and thus make a larger supply of blood sugar available to the fetus. The mother responds by increasing the level of insulin in her bloodstream, the placenta has insulin receptors that stimulate the production of insulin-degrading enzymes which counteract this effect.[18] Having children and happiness[edit] Sinatra family 1949 In Europe, parents are generally happier than non-parents. In women, happiness increases after the first child, but having higher-order children is not associated with further increased well-being. Happiness seems to increase most in the year before and after the first childbirth.[19] See also[edit] Adoption Bateman's principle Child abuse Cinderella effect Egg and sperm donation Foster care Infant Infanticide Narcissistic parent Non-paternity event Parental abuse by children Parental age (disambiguation) Parental bullying of children Parental investment Parental narcissistic abuse Parents bullying teachers Paternal bond Paternity (law) Reciprocal socialization Stepparent Surrogate mother Teachers bullying parents References[edit] ^ Gallagher, James (2013-06-28). "UK government backs three-person IVF". BBC News. Retrieved 30 June 2013. ^ Nadine Taub; Beth Anne Wolfson; Carla M. Palumbo. The Law of Sex Discrimination. p. 374. ^ Browne C. Lewis (2012). Papa's Baby: Paternity and Artificial Insemination. p. 136. ^ Louise I. Gerdes (2009). Reproductive Technologies. p. 25. ^ "mother definition". www.oxforddictionaries.com. Oxford Dictionaries. ^ Marian S Harris (2014). Racial Disproportionality in Child Welfare. p. 2. ^ Bernard Roberts (2005). Evidence in the Psychological Therapies: A Critical Guidance for Practitioners. p. 149. ^ "Definition from". Allwords.com. 2007-09-14. Retrieved 2011-11-04. ^ Bromham, David (1990). Philosophical Ethics in Reproductive Medicine. p. 57. ^ "TheFreeDictionary". Retrieved 2014-10-07. ^ Davies, Martin (2000). The Blackwell encyclopedia of social work. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 245. ISBN 978-0-631-21451-9. ^ Lamb, Michael (2009). Affidavit – United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts[permanent dead link] ^ a b Short, Elizabeth; Riggs, Damien W.; Perlesz, Amaryll; Brown, Rhonda & Kane, Graeme. "Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender (LGBT) Parented Families – A Literature Review prepared for The Australian Psychological Society" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-03-04. Retrieved 2011-11-04. ^ "In The Supreme Court of Iowa No. 07–1499" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2011-11-04. ^ Francis, Darryl. "Iatrologs and Iatronyms." Word Ways 4.2 (1971): 8. ^ Davies, Jon. "Imagining intergenerationality: Representation and rhetoric in the pedophile movie." GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies 13.2 (2007): 369-385. ^ Trivers, R.L. (1974). "Parent–offspring conflict". Integrative and Comparative Biology. 14 (1): 249–264. doi:10.1093/icb/14.1.249. JSTOR 3881986. ^ Haig, D. (1993). "Genetic conflicts in human pregnancy" (PDF). The Quarterly Review of Biology. 68 (4): 495–532. doi:10.1086/418300. JSTOR 3037249. PMID 8115596. S2CID 38641716. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-07-19. ^ Nicoletta Balbo; Francesco C. Billari; Melinda Mills (2013). "Fertility in Advanced Societies: A Review of Research". European Journal of Population. 29 (1): 1–38. doi:10.1007/s10680-012-9277-y. PMC 3576563. PMID 23440941. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Parents. Look up parent in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. National Educational Network, Inc. (NENI) – free online resources for parent education, curriculum. They also have a parent blog with information about child care, after-school, trends in education, tutoring, college, grants, etc. Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Parents" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. – A Roman Catholic view of the position of parents. v t e Family History Household Nuclear family Extended family Conjugal family Immediate family Matrifocal family First-degree relatives Parent father mother Child son daughter Sibling brother sister Second-degree relatives Grandparent Grandchild Aunt Uncle Niece and nephew Third-degree relatives Great-grandparent Great-grandchild Grandniece and grandnephew Great-Uncle Great-Aunt Cousin Family-in-law Spouse wife husband Parent-in-law Sibling-in-law Child-in-law Stepfamily Stepfather Stepmother Stepchild Stepsibling Kinship terminology Kinship Australian Aboriginal kinship Adoption Affinity Consanguinity Disownment Divorce Estrangement Fictive kinship Marriage Nurture kinship Hawaiian kinship Sudanese kinship Eskimo kinship Iroquois kinship Crow kinship Omaha kinship Genealogy and lineage Bilateral descent Common ancestor Family name Heirloom Heredity Inheritance Lineal descendant Matrilineality Patrilineality Progenitor Clan Royal descent Family trees Pedigree chart Ahnentafel Genealogical numbering systems Seize quartiers Quarters of nobility Relationships Agape (parental love) Eros (marital love) Philia (brotherly love) Storge (familial love) Filial piety Polyfidelity Holidays Mother's Day U.S. Father's Day Father-Daughter Day Siblings Day National Grandparents Day Parents' Day Children's Day Family Day Canada American Family Day International Day of Families National Family Week UK National Adoption Day Related Wedding anniversary Sociology of the family Museum of Motherhood Incest Dysfunctional family v t e Parenting Kinship terminology Adoptive Alloparenting Coparenting Extended family Foster care Kommune 1 Noncustodial Nuclear family Orphaned Shared parenting Single parent Blended family Surrogacy In loco parentis Theories · Areas Attachment theory Applied behavior analysis Behaviorism Child development Cognitive development Developmental psychology Human development Love Maternal bond Nature versus nurture Parental investment Paternal bond Pediatrics Social psychology Styles Attachment parenting Baby talk Concerted cultivation Gatekeeper parent Helicopter parent Nurturant parenting Slow parenting Soccer mom Strict father model Taking children seriously Tiger parenting Work at home parent Techniques After-school activity Allowance Bedtime Child care Co-sleeping Homeschooling Latchkey kid Parent management training Play (date) Role model Spoiled child Television The talk Toy (educational) Child discipline Blanket training Corporal punishment in the home Curfew Grounding Positive discipline Tactical ignoring Time-out Abuse Child abandonment Child abuse Child labour Child neglect Cinderella effect Incest Narcissistic parent Parental abuse by children Legal and social aspects Child custody Child support Cost of raising a child Deadbeat parent Disownment Marriage Parental alienation Parental responsibility Paternity Shared parenting Experts T. Berry Brazelton Rudolf Dreikurs David Elkind Jo Frost Haim Ginott Thomas Gordon Alan E. Kazdin Truby King Annette Lareau Penelope Leach William Sears B. F. Skinner Benjamin Spock Organizations Families Need Fathers Mothers Apart from Their Children Mothers' Union National Childbirth Trust National Parents Organization Parent–teacher association Parents Against Child Sexual Exploitation Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Parent&oldid=991343499" Categories: Family Motherhood Fatherhood Infancy Parenting Positions of authority Hidden categories: All articles with dead external links Articles with dead external links from June 2017 Articles with permanently dead external links All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019 Commons category link is on Wikidata Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages Akan العربية Azərbaycanca বাংলা Banjar Bân-lâm-gú Български Čeština ChiShona Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Gàidhlig 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Ido বিষ্ণুপ্রিয়া মণিপুরী Bahasa Indonesia IsiXhosa Italiano Jawa Kaszëbsczi Қазақша Kiswahili Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Lingála La .lojban. Македонски Malagasy Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄ Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk ਪੰਜਾਬੀ Polski Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Soomaaliga Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Sunda Svenska Tagalog தமிழ் Татарча/tatarça ไทย Türkçe Українська اردو Tiếng Việt Winaray 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 29 November 2020, at 15:45 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement