Severus Alexander - Wikipedia Severus Alexander From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 222 to 235 Roman emperor Severus Alexander Bust, Musei Capitolini Roman emperor Reign 13 March 222 – 19 March 235 Predecessor Elagabalus Successor Maximinus Thrax Born 1 October 208 Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia (modern Akkar, Lebanon) Died 19 March 235 (aged 26) Moguntiacum, Germania Superior (Mainz, Germany) Spouse Sallustia Orbiana Sulpicia Memmia Names Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander[1] Dynasty Severan Father Uncertain, possibly Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus Mother Julia Avita Mamaea Religion Syncretism of pagan, Orphic and Christian beliefs Roman imperial dynasties Bust of Julia Mamaea, Alexander's mother Severan dynasty Chronology Septimius Severus 193–211 Caracalla 198–217 Geta 209–211 Interlude: Macrinus 217–218 —with Diadumenian 218 Elagabalus 218–222 Severus Alexander 222–235 Dynasty Severan dynasty family tree All biographies Succession Preceded by Year of the Five Emperors Followed by Crisis of the Third Century Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander (1 October 208 – 19 March 235) was the last Roman emperor from the Severan dynasty, ruling from 222 to 235. Alexander was the heir to his cousin, the 18-year-old Emperor Elagabalus. The latter had been murdered along with his mother Julia Soaemias by his own guards, who, as a mark of contempt, had their remains cast into the Tiber river.[2] Alexander and his cousin were both grandsons of Julia Maesa, the sister of empress Julia Domna, who had arranged for Elagabalus's acclamation as emperor by the Third Gallic Legion. It was the rumor of Alexander's death that triggered the assassination of Elagabalus and his mother.[3] Alexander's 13-year reign was the longest reign of a sole emperor since Antoninus Pius.[4] He was also the second-youngest ever sole legal Roman emperor during the existence of the united empire, the youngest being Gordian III. Alexander's peacetime reign was prosperous. However, Rome was militarily confronted with the rising Sassanid Empire and growing incursions from the tribes of Germania. He managed to check the threat of the Sassanids. But when campaigning against Germanic tribes, Alexander attempted to bring peace by engaging in diplomacy and bribery. This alienated many in the Roman army, leading to a conspiracy that resulted in the assassination of Alexander, his mother Julia Avita Mamaea, and his advisors. After their deaths, the accession of Maximinus Thrax followed. Alexander's death marked the epoch event for the Crisis of the Third Century—nearly 50 years of civil wars, foreign invasion, and collapse of the monetary economy. Contents 1 Early reign 2 Domestic achievements 3 Persian War 4 Military discipline 5 Germanic War 6 Death 7 Legacy 8 Personal life 9 Ancestry 10 Severan dynasty family tree 11 See also 12 References 13 Bibliography 13.1 Primary 13.2 Secondary 14 External links Early reign[edit] The future emperor Severus Alexander was born on 1 October 208 in Arca Caesarea, Phoenicia.[5] Of his birth name, only two cognomina are known, from literary sources: Bassianus (Greek: Βασσιανός) according to the historian Cassius Dio, and Alexianus (Greek: Αλεξιανός) according to Herodian. It seems likely that Bassianus was his family name, since several of his relatives were also called as such, and Alexianus his actual given name, which was later converted to Alexander.[6] The historian Cassius Dio thought Alexianus was the son of Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus, but Icks disputes this, saying the latter could not have married the emperor's mother before 212 and that Alexianus must've been fathered by his mother's first husband, who is of unknown name but of certain existence.[7] Severus Alexander became emperor when he was around 14 years old, making him the youngest emperor in Rome's history, until the ascension of Gordian III.[8] Alexander's grandmother Maesa believed that he had more potential to rule and gain support from the Praetorian Guard than her other grandson, the increasingly unpopular emperor Elagabalus.[9] Thus, to preserve her own position, she had Elagabalus adopt the young Alexander and then arranged for Elagabalus' assassination, securing the throne for Alexander.[10] The Roman army hailed Alexander as emperor on 13 March 222, immediately conferring on him the titles of Augustus, pater patriae and pontifex maximus.[11] Throughout his life, Alexander relied heavily on guidance from his grandmother, Maesa, before her death in 224, and mother, Julia Mamaea.[12] As a young, immature, and inexperienced adolescent, Alexander knew little about government, warcraft, or the role of ruling over an empire. In time, however, the army came to admire what Jasper Burns refers to as "his simple virtues and moderate behavior, so different from [Elagabalus]".[13] Domestic achievements[edit] Bust of Alexander Severus, Louvre. Under the influence of his mother, Alexander did much to improve the morals and condition of the people, and to enhance the dignity of the state.[14] He employed noted jurists, such as Ulpian,[15] to oversee the administration of justice.[15][citation needed] His advisers were men like the senator and historian Cassius Dio, and historical sources claimed that with the help of his family, he created a select board of 16 senators,[16] although this claim is sometimes disputed.[17] Some scholars have rejected Herodian's view that Alexander expanded senatorial powers.[18] He also created a municipal council of 14 who assisted the urban prefect in administering the affairs of the 14 districts of Rome.[19] Excessive luxury and extravagance at the imperial court were diminished,[20] and he restored the Baths of Nero in 227 or 229; consequently, they are sometimes also known as the Baths of Alexander after him. He extended the imperial residence at the Horti Lamiani with elaborate buildings and created the Nymphaeum of Alexander (known as the Trophies of Marius) which still stands in the Piazza Vittorio Emanuele. This was the great fountain he built at the end of the Aqua Claudia aqueduct. Upon his accession he reduced the silver purity of the denarius from 46.5% to 43%—the actual silver weight dropped from 1.41 grams to 1.30 grams; however, in 229 he revalued the denarius, increasing the silver purity and weight to 45% and 1.46 grams. The following year he decreased the amount of base metal in the denarius while adding more silver, raising the silver purity and weight again to 50.5% and 1.50 grams.[21] Additionally, during his reign taxes were lightened; literature, art and science were encouraged;[22] and, for the convenience of the people, loan offices were instituted for lending money at a moderate rate of interest.[23] In religious matters, Alexander preserved an open mind. According to the Historia Augusta, he wished to erect a temple to Jesus but was dissuaded by the pagan priests; however, this claim is unreliable as the Historia Augusta is considered untrustworthy by historians, containing significant amounts of information that is false and even invented, even extending to when it was written and the number of authors it was written by.[24][25] He allowed a synagogue to be built in Rome, and he gave as a gift to this synagogue a scroll of the Torah known as the Severus Scroll.[26] In legal matters, Alexander did much to aid the rights of his soldiers. He confirmed that soldiers could name anyone as heirs in their will, whereas civilians had strict restrictions over who could become heirs or receive a legacy.[27] He also confirmed that soldiers could free their slaves in their wills,[28] protected the rights of soldiers to their property when they were on campaign,[29] and reasserted that a soldier's property acquired in or because of military service (his castrense peculium) could be claimed by no one else, not even the soldier's father.[30] Persian War[edit] On the whole, Alexander's reign was prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids[31] under Ardashir I.[32] In 231 AD, Ardeshir invaded the Roman provinces of the east, overrunning Mesopotamia and penetrating possibly as far as Syria and Cappadocia, forcing from the young Alexander a vigorous response.[33] Of the war that followed there are various accounts. According to the most detailed authority, Herodian, the Roman armies suffered a number of humiliating setbacks and defeats,[34] while according to the Historia Augusta[35] as well as Alexander's own dispatch to the Roman Senate, he gained great victories.[36] Making Antioch his base, he organized in 233 a three-fold invasion of the Sassanian Empire; at the head of the main body he himself advanced to recapture northern Mesopotamia, while another army invaded Media through the mountains of Armenia, and a third advanced from the south in the direction of Babylon. The northernmost army gained some success, fighting in mountainous territory favorable to the Roman infantry, but the southern army was surrounded and destroyed by Ardashir's skilful horse-archers, and Alexander himself retreated after an indecisive campaign, his army wracked by indiscipline and disease.[37][38] Further losses were incurred by the retreating northern army in the inclement cold of Armenia as it retired into winter quarters, due to an incompetent failure to establish adequate supply lines.[39][40] Still, Mesopotamia was retaken, and Ardashir was not thereafter able to extend his conquests, though his son, Shapur, would obtain some success later in the century.[41] Although the Sassanids were checked for the time,[36] the conduct of the Roman army showed an extraordinary lack of discipline. In 232, there was a mutiny in the Syrian legion, which proclaimed Taurinus emperor.[42] Alexander managed to suppress the uprising, and Taurinus drowned while attempting to flee across the Euphrates.[43] The emperor returned to Rome and celebrated a triumph in 233.[36] Military discipline[edit] IMP. ALEXANDER PIVS AVG. IMP. ALEXANDER PIVS AVG. Denarii of Severus Alexander Alexander's reign was also characterized by a significant breakdown of military discipline.[44] In 228, the Praetorian Guard murdered their prefect, Ulpian,[44] in Alexander's presence. Alexander could not openly punish the ringleader of the riot, and instead removed him to nominal post of honor in Egypt and then Crete, where he was "quietly put out of the way" sometime after the excitement had abated.[45] The soldiers then fought a three-day battle against the populace of Rome, and this battle ended after several parts of the city were set on fire.[46] Dio was among those who gave a highly critical account of military discipline during the time, saying that the soldiers would rather just surrender to the enemy.[46] Different reasons are given for this issue; Campbell points to "...the decline in the prestige of the Severan dynasty, the feeble nature of Alexander himself, who appeared to be no soldier and to be completely dominated by his mother's advice, and lack of real military success at a time during which the empire was coming under increasing pressure."[46] Herodian, on the other hand, was convinced that "the emperor's miserliness (partly the result of his mother's greed) and slowness to bestow donatives" were instrumental in the fall of military discipline under Alexander.[46] Germanic War[edit] After the Persian war, Alexander returned to Antioch with Origen, one of the Fathers of the Christian Church. Alexander's mother, Julia Mamaea, asked for Origen to tutor Alexander in Christianity.[47] While Alexander was being educated in the Christian doctrines, the northern portion of his empire was being invaded by Germanic and Sarmatian tribes. A new and menacing enemy started to emerge directly after Alexander's success in the Persian war. In 234, the barbarians crossed the Rhine and Danube in hordes that caused alarm as far as Rome. The soldiers serving under Alexander, already demoralized after their costly war against the Persians, were further discontented with their emperor when their homes were destroyed by the barbarian invaders.[48] As word of the invasion spread, the emperor took the front line and went to battle against the Germanic invaders. The Romans prepared heavily for the war, building a fleet to carry the entire army across. However, at this point in Alexander's career, he still knew little about being a general. Because of this, he hoped the mere threat of his armies would be sufficient to persuade the hostile tribes to surrender.[49] Severus enforced a strict military discipline in his men that sparked a rebellion among his legions.[50] Due to incurring heavy losses against the Persians, and on the advice of his mother, Alexander attempted to buy the Germanic tribes off, so as to gain time.[51] It was this decision that resulted in the legionaries looking down upon Alexander. They considered him dishonorable and feared he was unfit to be Emperor. Under these circumstances the army swiftly looked to replace Alexander.[52] Gaius Julius Verus Maximinus was the next best option. He was a soldier from Thrace who had a golden reputation and was working hard to increase his military status.[50] He was also a man with superior personal strength, who rose to his present position from a peasant background. With the Thracian's hailing came the end of the Severan Dynasty,[53] and, with the growing animosity of Severus' army towards him, the path for his assassination was paved. Death[edit] Alexander was forced to face his German enemies in the early months of 235. By the time he and his mother arrived, the situation had settled, and so his mother convinced him that to avoid violence, trying to bribe the German army to surrender was the more sensible course of action.[54] According to historians, it was this tactic combined with insubordination from his own men that destroyed his reputation and popularity.[55] Alexander was assassinated on 19 March 235, together with his mother, in a mutiny of the Legio XXII Primigenia at Moguntiacum (Mainz) while at a meeting with his generals.[56] These assassinations secured the throne for Maximinus.[14] Lampridius documents two theories that elaborate on Severus's assassination. The first claims that the disaffection of Mamaea was the main motive behind the homicide. However, Lampridius makes it clear that he is more supportive of an alternative theory, that Alexander was murdered in Sicilia (located in Britain).[57] This theory has it that, in an open tent after his lunch, Alexander was consulting with his insubordinate troops, who compared him to his cousin Elagabalus, the divisive and unpopular Emperor whose own assassination paved the way for Alexander's reign. A German servant entered the tent and initiated the call for Alexander's assassination, at which point many of the troops joined in the attack. Alexander's attendants fought against the other troops but could not hold off the combined might of those seeking the Emperor's assassination. Within minutes, Alexander was dead. His mother Julia Mamaea was in the same tent with Alexander and soon fell victim to the same group of assassins.[55] Alexander's body was buried together with the body of his mother Julia Manaea in a mausoleum in Rome. The actual mausoleum, called Monte di Grano, is the third largest in Rome behind those of Hadrian and Augustus. It is still visible in Piazza dei Tribuni, in the Quadraro area in Rome, where it resembles a large earth mound. The large sarcophagus found inside the tomb in the 16th century, and which contained the emperor's remains, is in the Palazzo dei Conservatori Museum in Rome. According to some sources inside the same sarcophagus in 1582 a precious glass urn was found, the Portland Vase, currently on display at the British Museum in London. Legacy[edit] 15th-century depiction of Severus Alexander Alexander's death marked the end of the Severan dynasty. He was the last of the Syrian emperors and the first emperor to be overthrown by military discontent on a wide scale.[58] After his death his economic policies were completely discarded, and the Roman currency was devalued; this signaled the beginning of the chaotic period known as the Crisis of the Third Century, which brought the empire to the brink of collapse.[53] Alexander's death at the hands of his troops can also be seen as the heralding of a new role for Roman emperors. Though they were not yet expected to personally fight in battle during Alexander's time, emperors were increasingly expected to display general competence in military affairs.[59] Thus, Alexander's taking of his mother's advice to not get involved in battle, his dishonorable and unsoldierly methods of dealing with the Germanic threat, and the relative failure of his military campaign against the Persians were all deemed highly unacceptable by the soldiers.[59] Indeed, Maximinus was able to overthrow Alexander by "harping on his own military excellence in contrast to that feeble coward".[59] Yet by arrogating the power to dethrone their emperor, the legions paved the way for a half-century of widespread chaos and instability. Although the Senate declared the emperor and his rule damned upon the report of his death and the ascension of a replacement emperor, Alexander was deified after the death of Maximinus in 238.[60] His damnatio memoriae was also reversed after Maximinus's death. Perhaps his most tangible legacy was the emergence in the 16th Century of the 'Barberini vase'. This was allegedly found at the mausoleum of the Roman Emperor Alexander Severus and his family at Monte Del Grano. The discovery of the vase is described by Pietro Santi Bartoli and referenced on page 28 of a book on The Portland Vase.[61] Pietro Bartoli indicates that the vase contained the ashes of Severus Alexander. However, this together with the interpretations of the scenes depicted are the source of countless theories and disputed 'facts'. The vase passed through the hands of Sir William Hamilton Ambassador to the Royal Court in Naples and was later sold to the Duke and Duchess of Portland, and has subsequently been known as the Portland Vase.[62] Following catastrophic damage in 1845, this vase (1-25BC) has been reconstructed three times and resides in the British Museum. The Portland vase itself was borrowed and near copied by Josiah Wedgewood who appears to have added modesty drapery. The vase formed the basis of Jasperware. Portland Vase Personal life[edit] Denarius of Sallustia Orbiana. Inscription: SALL. BARBIA ORBIANA AVG. His first wife was Sallustia Orbiana, Augusta, whom he married in 225 when she was 16 years old. Their marriage was arranged by Alexander's mother, Mamaea.[15] According to historian Herodian, however, as soon as Orbiana received the title of Augusta, Mamaea became increasingly jealous and resentful of Alexander's wife due to Mamaea's excessive desire of all regal female titles.[14] Alexander divorced and exiled Orbiana in 227, after her father, Seius Sallustius, was executed after being accused of treason.[63] According to Historia Augusta, Alexander married Sulpicia Memmia, a member of one of the most ancient Patrician families in Rome and a daughter to a man of consular rank; her grandfather's name was Catulus. She is mentioned as his wife only in this later text, thus the marriage has been questioned.[64][65] Alexander did not father any children. According to the Historia Augusta, a late Roman work containing biographies of emperors and others, and considered by scholars to be a work of dubious historical reliability,[66] Alexander prayed every morning in his private chapel. He was extremely tolerant of Jews and Christians alike. He continued all privileges towards Jews during his reign,[67][68] and the Augustan History relates that Alexander placed images of Abraham and Jesus in his oratory, along with other Roman deities and classical figures.[69][70] Also according to the Historia Augusta, Alexander's "chief amusement consisted in having young dogs play with little pigs."[71] Herodian portrays him as a mother's boy. Ancestry[edit] Ancestors of Severus Alexander 2. Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus 1. Severus Alexander 6. Julius Avitus Alexianus[citation needed] 3. Julia Avita Mamaea 14. Julius Bassianus[citation needed] 7. Julia Maesa[citation needed] Severan dynasty family tree[edit] v t e Severan family tree Septimius Macer Gaius Claudius Septimius Aper Fulvius Pius Lucius Septimius Severus Publius Septimius Aper Gaius Septimius Aper Fulvia Pia Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Polla Julius Bassianus Septimius Publius Septimius Geta Septimia Octavilla Paccia Marciana (1) Septimius Severus (r. 193–211)[i] Julia Domna (2) Julia Maesa Gaius Julius Avitus Alexianus Gaius Septimius Severus Aper Fulvia Plautilla Caracalla (r. 197–217)[ii] Geta (r. 209–211)[iii] Julia Soaemias Sextus Varius Marcellus Julia Avita Mamaea Marcus Julius Gessius Marcianus[iv] (2) Julia Cornelia Paula (1) Aquilia Severa (2 and 4) Elagabalus (r. 218–222)[v] Annia Faustina (3) Sallustia Orbiana Severus Alexander (r. 222–235)[vi] (1) = 1st spouse (2) = 2nd spouse (3) = 3rd spouse (4) = 4th spouse Dark green indicates an emperor of the Severan dynasty Notes: Except where otherwise noted, the notes below indicate that an individual's parentage is as shown in the above family tree. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. i. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 216. ^ Burrell, Barbara (2004). Neokoroi: Greek Cities and Roman Emperors. p. 247. ^ Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. p. 217. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 45. ^ Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 47. Bibliography: Birley, Anthony R. (1999). Septimius Severus: The African Emperor. London: Routledge. ISBN 0415165911. Gibbon, Edward; Smith, William (1889). The Student's Gibbon: The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. London: Murray. OCLC 993285639. See also[edit] Severan dynasty family tree References[edit] ^ Cooley, p. 496. ^ Dio, 60:20:2 ^ Herodian, 5:8:5 ^ A handful of emperors since Antoninus Pius reigned for longer than 13 years, but for some or most of their reign they were co-emperors with others and therefore they were sole emperor for less than 13 years. ^ Benario. ^ Groebe, col. 2526–2527. ^ Icks, pp. 57–58. ^ "Alexander Severus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 27 January 2021. ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 215. ISBN 1134131852 ^ Wells, pg. 266 ^ John S. McHugh, Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection, AD 222–235 (London: Pen and Sword, 2017), 131-32. ISBN 1473845823 ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 217. ISBN 1134131852 ^ Jasper Burns, Great Women of Imperial Rome: Mothers and Wives of the Caesars (London: Routledge, 2006), 214. ISBN 1134131852 ^ a b c Benario, Alexander Severus ^ a b c "Alexander Severus". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 28 January 2021. ^ Southern, p. 60 ^ de Blois, Lukas (2006). "Administrative Strategies of the Emperor Severus Alexander and his Advisers". In Kolb, Anne (ed.). Herrschaftsstrukturen und Herrschaftspraxis. Konzepte, Prinzipien und Strategien der Administration im römischen Kaiserreich. Akademie Verlag. pp. 45–52. ^ Davenport, Caillan (2011). "Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 177: 282. JSTOR 41291183. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 33:1 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 15:1 ^ Tulane University "Roman Currency of the Principate" ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 21:2 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 43:6–7 ^ "Historia Augusta - Livius". Livius.org. October 10, 2020. Retrieved April 28, 2021. ^ 1901–1906 Jewish Encyclopedia article "Alexander Severus" ^ Campbell, p. 221 ^ Campbell, p. 224 ^ Campbell, p. 239 ^ Campbell, p. 234 ^ Southern, p. 61 ^ "Severus Alexander". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014. ^ Arthur E.R. Boak, A History Of Rome To 565 A.D., (The Macmillan Company, 1921, New York), chap. XVIII., p. 258 ^ Herodian, 6:5–6:6 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 55:1–3 ^ a b c Southern, p. 62 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline And Fall Of The Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), chap. VIII., p. 182 ^ Herodian, 6:5:10 ^ Herodian, 6:6:3 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Victor, 24:2 ^ McHugh, John S (2017). Emperor Alexander Severus: Rome's Age of Insurrection AD222-235. Pen and Sword. p. 184. ISBN 9781510708754. ^ a b Campbell, p. 196 ^ Ledlie, James Crawford (1903). "Ulpian". Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation. 5 (1): 19. JSTOR 751768. ^ a b c d Campbell, p. 197 ^ Shahan, T. (1912). Alexander Severus. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved August 25, 2020 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/13743a.htm ^ Campbell, 54 ^ "Alexander Severus". Capitoline Museums. ^ a b Library of World History: Containing a Record of the Human Race from the Earliest Historical Period to the Present Time; Embracing a General Survey of the Progress of Mankind in National and Social Life, Civil Government, Religion, Literature, Science and Art, Volume 3. New York Public Library: Western Press Association. p. 1442. ^ Herodian, Roman history, book 6, chapter 7 ^ Herodian, Roman history, book 6, chapter 8 ^ a b "Severus Alexander (222–235 AD): The Calm before the Storm" (PDF). The Saylor Foundation. ^ "Severus Alexander | Roman emperor". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-06-04. ^ a b Valentine Nind Hopkins, Sir Richard (1907). The Life of Alexander Severus. Princeton University: The University Press. pp. 240. ^ Southern, p. 63 ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 59:6 ^ Campbell, p. 55 ^ a b c Campbell, p. 69 ^ "Severus Alexander". Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc., 2014. Retrieved 2 May 2014. ^ Brooks, Robin (Robin Jeremy) (2004). The Portland Vase : the extraordinary odyssey of a mysterious Roman treasure (1st ed.). New York, NY: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-051099-4. OCLC 54960357. ^ "The Portland Vase". British Museum. Retrieved 2020-01-10. ^ Davenport, Caillan (2011). "Iterated Consulships and the Government of Severus Alexander". Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik. 177: 281–288. JSTOR 41291183. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 20:3 ^ Kosmetatou, Elizabeth, The Public Image of Julia Mamaea. An Epigraphic and Numismatic Inquiry, in Latomus 61, 2002, pp. 409 note 38 ^ Browning, Robert (1983). The Cambridge History of Classical Literature: Volume 2, Latin Literature, Part 5, The Later Principat. Cambridge University Press. pp. 41–50. ISBN 978-0-521-27371-8. ^ "Alexander Severus". Jewish Encyclopedia. ^ Grant, Michael (1973). Jews In The Roman World. Macmillan Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0684133409. ^ "Alexander Severus". Catholic Encyclopedia. ^ Novak, Ralph Martin (2001). Christianity and the Roman Empire: Background Texts. Bloomsbury T&T Clark. ISBN 978-1563383472. ^ Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander, 41:5 Bibliography[edit] Primary[edit] Cassius Dio, Roman History, Book 80 Herodian, Roman History, Book 6 Historia Augusta, Life of Severus Alexander Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary[edit] Benario, Herbert W., "Alexander Severus (A.D. 222–235)", De Imperatoribus Romanis Birley, A.R., Septimius Severus: The African Emperor, Routledge, 2002 Cooley, Alison E. (2012). The Cambridge Manual of Latin Epigraphy. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-84026-2. Groebe, Paul, "Aurelius 221", Realencyclopädie der classischen Altertumswissenschaft (RE, PW), volume II.2, Stuttgart, 1896, columns 2526–2542. Icks, Martijn (2011). The Crimes of Elagabalus: The Life and Legacy of Rome's Decadent Boy Emperor. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd. ISBN 978-1-84885-362-1. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Campbell, J.B., The Emperor and the Roman Army 31 BC – AD 235, Clarenden, 1984 Wells, Colin, The Roman Empire, Harvard University Press, 1997  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Alexander Severus". Encyclopædia Britannica. 1 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 567. Although a few phrases appear to be copied from this encyclopedia, all of them are attributed here to primary sources. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Alexander Severus Media related to Severus Alexander at Wikimedia Commons "Alexander Severus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 1913. Severus Alexander on NumisWiki Coins of Severus Alexander Severus Alexander Severan dynasty Born: 1 October 208 Died: 19 March 235 Regnal titles Preceded by Elagabalus Roman emperor 222–235 Succeeded by Maximinus Thrax Political offices Preceded by G. Vettius Gratus Sabinianus M. Flavius Vitellius Seleucus Roman consul 222 with Elagabalus Succeeded by Marius Maximus L. Roscius Aelianus Paculus Salvius Julianus Preceded by Ti. Manilius Fuscus Ser. Calpurnius Domitius Dexter Roman consul 226 with Gaius Aufidius Marcellus Succeeded by M. Nummius Senecio Albinus M. Laelius Fulvius Maximus Aemilianus Preceded by Q. Aiacius Modestus Crescentianus M. Pomponius Maecius Probus Roman consul 229 with Cassius Dio Succeeded by Lucius Virius Agricola Sex. Catius Clementinus Priscillianus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 2 WorldCat National libraries Spain France (data) United States Czech Republic Australia Israel Netherlands Poland 2 Vatican Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 2 SUDOC (France) 1 Trove (Australia) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Severus_Alexander&oldid=1026831922" Categories: Severus Alexander 208 births 235 deaths 3rd-century Semitic people 3rd-century Roman emperors 3rd-century murdered monarchs Ancient child rulers Ancient Roman adoptees Aurelii Crisis of the Third Century Deified Roman emperors Emesene dynasty Imperial Roman consuls Murdered Roman emperors People from Homs People of Roman Syria Severan dynasty Roman emperors to suffer posthumous denigration or damnatio memoriae Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from August 2018 Articles with unsourced statements from March 2019 Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles incorporating text from the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica Commons link is defined as the pagename Articles incorporating a citation from the 1913 Catholic Encyclopedia with Wikisource reference Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLA identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLI identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with Trove identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Wikipedia articles with multiple identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans العربية Aragonés تۆرکجه Bân-lâm-gú Беларуская Български Bosanski Brezhoneg Català Čeština Cymraeg Dansk Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Frysk Galego 客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Íslenska Italiano עברית ქართული Kiswahili Kurdî Latina Latviešu Lietuvių Magyar Македонски Malagasy मराठी مصرى Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Norsk nynorsk Occitan Piemontèis Polski Português Română Русский Scots Sicilianu Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska Tagalog ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Yorùbá 粵語 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 4 June 2021, at 14:06 (UTC). 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