Probus (emperor) - Wikipedia Probus (emperor) From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Roman emperor from 276 to 282 Roman emperor Probus Over-life-sized marble bust in the Capitoline Museums, Rome[1][2] Roman emperor Reign c. June 276 – September 282[3] Predecessor Tacitus and Florianus Successor Carus Born 19 August 232[4] Sirmium, Pannonia Inferior (Sremska Mitrovica, Serbia) Died September 282 (aged 50)[4] Sirmium Issue Had descendants[4] Names Marcus Aurelius Probus Father Dalmatius[5] Marcus Aurelius Probus (/ˈproʊbəs/; 19 August 232 – September 282) was Roman emperor from 276 to 282. Probus was an active and successful general as well as a conscientious administrator, and in his reign of six years he secured prosperity for the inner provinces while withstanding repeated invasions of barbarian tribes on almost every sector of the frontier.[6] After repelling the foreign enemies of the empire Probus was forced to handle several internal revolts, but demonstrated leniency and moderation to the vanquished wherever possible.[7] In his reign the facade of the constitutional authority of the Roman Senate was fastidiously maintained, and the conqueror, who had carried his army to victory over the Rhine, professed himself dependent on the sanction of the Senate.[8] Upon defeating the Germans, Probus re-erected the ancient fortifications of emperor Hadrian between the Rhine and Danube rivers, protecting the Agri Decumates,[9] and exacted from the vanquished a tribute of manpower to resettle depopulated provinces within the empire and provide for adequate defense of the frontiers.[10] Despite his widespread popularity, Probus was killed in a mutiny of the soldiers while in the middle of preparations for the Persian war, which would be carried out under his successor Carus.[11] Contents 1 Early life 2 Military career 3 As emperor 3.1 Assassination 4 Legacy 5 Family tree 6 References 7 Sources 7.1 Primary sources 7.2 Secondary sources 8 External links Early life[edit] Probus was born between 230 and 235 (exact date of birth unknown) in Sirmium (modern day Sremska Mitrovica), Pannonia Inferior,[12] the son of Dalmatius.[5] According to the Alexandrian Chronicle, he was born sometime in the year 232.[13] Military career[edit] Probus entered the army around 250 upon reaching adulthood. He rose rapidly through the ranks, repeatedly earning high military decorations. Appointed as a military tribune by the emperor Valerian, at a very young age, in recognition of his latent ability,[citation needed] he justified the choice by a distinguished victory over the Sarmatians on the Illyrian frontier.[14] During the chaotic years of the reign of Valerian, Illyria was the only province, generaled by such officers as Claudius, Aurelian and Probus, where the barbarians were kept at bay, while Gaul was overrun by the Franks, Rhaetia by the Alemans, Thrace and the Mediterranean by the Goths, and the east by Shapur I.[15] Probus became amongst the highest placed lieutenants of Aurelian, reconquering Egypt from Zenobia in 273 A.D. Emperor Tacitus, upon his accession in 275, appointed Probus supreme chief of the east, granting him extraordinary powers in order to secure a dangerous frontier.[16] Though the details are not specified, he is said to have fought with success on almost every frontier of the empire, before his election as emperor by the troops upon Tacitus' death of old age in 276, in his camp in Asia Minor.[17][18] As emperor[edit] Florianus, the half-brother of Tacitus, also proclaimed himself emperor, and took control of Tacitus' army in Asia Minor, but was killed by his own soldiers after an indecisive campaign against Probus in the mountains of Cilicia.[19][20] In contrast to Florianus, who ignored the wishes of the senate, Probus referred his claim to Rome in a respectful dispatch. The senate enthusiastically ratified his pretensions.[21] Probus next travelled west, defeating the Goths along the lower Danube in 277, and acquiring the title of Gothicus.[12] However, the Goths came to respect his ability and implored a treaty with the empire.[22] Antoninianus of Probus minted in 280. Depicts the solar divinity Sol Invictus riding a quadriga. Probus issued many different coins during his six years of rule.Legend: PROBVS P. F. AVG. Gilded bronze head of Probus from Brescia in northern Italy[23] In 278, Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and Longiones; both tribes had advanced through the Neckar valley and across the Rhine into Roman territory.[24] Meanwhile, his generals defeated the Franks and these operations were directed to clearing Gaul of Germanic invaders (Franks and Burgundians), allowing Probus to adopt the titles of Gothicus Maximus and Germanicus Maximus.[12] Reportedly, 400,000 barbarians were killed during Probus' campaign, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated.[25] After the defeat of the Germanic invaders in Gaul, Probus crossed the Rhine to campaign successfully against the Barbarians in their homeland, forcing them to pay homage. In the aftermath of the campaign, Probus repaired the ancient fortifications erected by Hadrian in the vulnerable space between the Rhine and Danube, in the territory of Swabia. More significantly, Probus, by forcing from the vanquished tribes a tribute of manpower, established the precedent of settling barbarians within the empire as auxiliaries on a large scale. The provinces were depopulated by war, disease and the chaotic administration, heavy taxation, and extensive army recruitment, during the crisis of the Third century, and the barbarian colonies, at least in the short term, helped to restore frontier defense and the practice of agriculture.[26] The army discipline which Aurelian had repaired was cultivated and extended under Probus, who was however more shy in the practice of cruelty.[27] One of his principles was never to allow the soldiers to be idle, and to employ them in time of peace on useful works, such as the planting of vineyards in Gaul, Pannonia and other districts,[28] in order to restart the economy in these devastated lands.{"120-Interregnum," The History of Rome} In 279–280, Probus was, according to Zosimus, in Raetia, Illyricum and Lycia, where he fought the Vandals.[20] In the same years, Probus' generals defeated the Blemmyes in Egypt. Either then, or during his previous command in Egypt, he ordered the reconstruction of bridges and canals along the Nile, where the production of grain for the Empire was centered.[29][30] In 280–281, Probus put down three usurpers, Julius Saturninus, Proculus and Bonosus.[31] The extent of these revolts is not clear, but there are clues that they were not just local problems (an inscription with the name of Probus erased has been found as far as Spain).[32] Following this, Probus then put down a revolt by an unnamed rebel in Britain with the assistance of a certain Victorinus, who was later made consul in 282.[33][34] During the winter of 281, the emperor was in Rome, where he celebrated his well-deserved triumph.[34] Radiate of Probus. Legend: IMPerator Caesar Marcus AVrelius PROBVS Pius Felix AVGustus. Gold coin of Probus in military armour. Legend: IMP. PROBVS AVG. Probus was eager to start his eastern campaign, delayed by the revolts in the west.[35] He left Rome in 282, travelling first towards Sirmium, his birth city. Assassination[edit] Different accounts of Probus's death exist. According to Joannes Zonaras, the commander of the Praetorian Guard Marcus Aurelius Carus had been proclaimed, more or less unwillingly, emperor by his troops.[36] Probus sent some troops against the new usurper, but when those troops changed sides and supported Carus, Probus' remaining soldiers assassinated him at Sirmium (September/October 282).[37] According to other sources, however, Probus was killed by disgruntled soldiers, who rebelled against his orders to be employed for civic purposes, like draining marshes.[38] Allegedly, the soldiers were provoked when they overheard him lamenting the necessity of a standing army.[39] Carus was proclaimed emperor after Probus' death and avenged the murder of his predecessor.[40] Legacy[edit] According to the favorable treatment of Gibbon (whose account is largely derived from the Augustan History), Probus was the last of the benevolent constitutional emperors of Rome.[41] While his successor Carus (Imp. 282-284) simply disdained to seek the senate's confirmation of his title, the latter's successor Diocletian (Imp. 284-305) took active measures to undermine its authority, and established the autocratic nature and divine derivation of the Imperial power. Never again, after Diocletian's reforms, would the Roman senate play an active role in the management of the empire. On the military sphere, Probus' victories continued the succession of martial Illyrian emperors begun by Claudius Gothicus, which restored the military supremacy of Rome after defeats sustained during the crisis of the third century.[42] Family tree[edit] previous Aurelian Roman Emperor 270-275 ∞ Ulpia Severina Marcus Claudius Tacitus Roman Emperor 275-276 Florianus Roman Emperor 276 Probus Roman Emperor 276-282 Carus Roman Emperor 282-283 next Diocletian Roman Emperor 284-305 ∞ Prisca Carinus Roman Emperor 282-284 Galeria Valeria References[edit] ^ Wood, p. 128 (note 70). ^ Fittschen & Zanker. ^ Peachin, p. 47. ^ a b c Jones, Martindale & Morris, p. 736. ^ a b Victor, 37:1 ^ Edward Gibbon, The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, (The Modern Library, 1932), ch. XII. p. 284 ^ Gibbon, pp. 289, 290 ^ Gibbon, p. 283 ^ Gibbon, p. 287 ^ Gibbon, p. 288 ^ Gibbon, p. 292 ^ a b c "Roman Emperors - DIR probus". roman-emperors.org. ^ Gibbon, p. 282, note ^ Gibbon, p. 282 ^ Gibbon, ch. X., pp. 226, 227 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 6–7 ^ Gibbon, p. 282 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 10:1 ^ Gibbon, p. 281 ^ a b Zosimus, 1:32 ^ Gibbon, p. 283 ^ Gibbon, p. 284 ^ McCann, p. 90 n. 34. ^ Southern, pg. 129 ^ Gibbon, p. 286 ^ Gibbon, pp. 286-288 ^ Gibbon, p. 291 ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 408. ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 9:3–4 ^ Gibbon, Ibid. ^ Victor, 37:2 ^ "Roman Emperors - DIR probus". roman-emperors.org. ^ Crees, James (1911). The reign of the Emperor Probus. University of London Press. p. 122. ^ a b Kreucher, Gerald (2003). Der Kaiser Marcus Aurelius Probus und seine Zeit. Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag. pp. 164. ISBN 3515083820. ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 20:1 ^ Zonaras, 12:29 ^ Victor, 37:4 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Probi, 20:2-3 ^ Gibbon, p. 292 ^ Historia Augusta, Vita Cari, 6:1 ^ Gibbon, p. 293 ^ Gibbon, p. 282 Sources[edit] Primary sources[edit] Aurelius Victor, Epitome de Caesaribus Eutropius, Breviarium ab urbe condita Historia Augusta, Life of Probus Joannes Zonaras, Compendium of History extract: Zonaras: Alexander Severus to Diocletian: 222–284 Zosimus, Historia Nova Secondary sources[edit] Mc Mahon, Robin, "Probus (276–282 A.D.) and Rival Claimants (Proculus, Bonosus, and Saturninus) of the 280s", DIR Dennis, Anthony J., "Antoniniani of the Roman Emperor Probus", Vol. 9, No. 11 The Celator November, 1995. Fittschen, Klaus & Zanker, Paul (1985). Katalog der römischen Porträts in den Capitolinischen Museen und den anderen kommunalen Sammlungen der Stadt Rom. 1. Kaiser-und Prinzenbildnisse [Catalogue of Roman Portraits in the Capitoline Museums and other Municipal Museums of the City of Rome] (in German). Mainz: Philipp von Zabern. ISBN 3-8053-0596-6. Jones, A.H.M.; J.R. Martindale & J. Morris (1971). The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire Volume 1: A.D. 260–395. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-07233-6. McCann, Anna Marguerite (1968). The Portraits of Septimius Severus (A.D. 193–211). Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome. 30. American Academy in Rome, University of Michigan Press. pp. 4–222. doi:10.2307/4238661. ISSN 0065-6801. JSTOR 4238661. Peachin, Michael (1990). Roman Imperial Titulature and Chronology, A.D. 235–284. Amsterdam: Gieben. ISBN 90-5063-034-0. Southern, Pat. The Roman Empire from Severus to Constantine, Routledge, 2001 Gibbon. Edward Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire (1888) Wood, Susan (1987). "Child-Emperors and Heirs to Power in Third-Century Portraiture". In Jiří Frel; Arthur Houghton & Marion True (eds.). Ancient Portraits in the J. Paul Getty Museum: Volume 1. Occasional Papers on Antiquities. 4. Malibu, CA, US: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 115–136. ISBN 0-89236-071-2. Attribution:  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain:  Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Probus, Marcus Aurelius". Encyclopædia Britannica. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 408. External links[edit] Wikimedia Commons has media related to Probus. Hoeber, Karl (1911). "Marcus Aurelius Probus" . Catholic Encyclopedia. 12. Probus, article at NumisWiki Regnal titles Preceded by Florianus Roman emperor 276–282 Succeeded by Carus Political offices Preceded by M. Claudius Tacitus Aemilianus Roman consul 277–279 with Paulinus, Virius Lupus, Nonnius Paternus Succeeded by Messalla Gratus Preceded by Messalla Gratus Roman consul 281–282 with Junius Tiberianus, Victorinus Succeeded by Carus Carinus v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. 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