Constantine VII - Wikipedia Constantine VII From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Byzantine emperor from 913 to 959 This article includes a list of general references, but it remains largely unverified because it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (January 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this template message) Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Constantine VII Emperor and Autocrat of the Romans Byzantine emperor Reign 6 June 913 – 9 November 959 Predecessor Alexander Successor Romanos II Co-emperors Romanos I Lekapenos (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos and Constantine Lekapenos (924–945) Romanos II (945–959) Born 17 or 18 May 905[1] Constantinople Died 9 November 959 (aged 54)[1] Constantinople Spouse Helena Lekapene Issue Romanos II Theodora Names Konstantinos Flavios Porphyrogennetos ("the Purple-born") Dynasty Macedonian dynasty Father Leo VI the Wise Mother Zoe Karbonopsina Constantine VII Flavius Porphyrogenitus (Greek: Κωνσταντῖνος Φλάβιος Πορφυρογέννητος, translit. Kōnstantinos Flāvios Porphyrogennētos; 17/18 May 905 – 9 November 959) was the fourth Emperor of the Macedonian dynasty of the Byzantine Empire, reigning from 6 June 913 to 9 November 959. He was the son of Emperor Leo VI and his fourth wife, Zoe Karbonopsina, and the nephew of his predecessor Emperor Alexander. Most of his reign was dominated by co-regents: from 913 until 919 he was under the regency of his mother, while from 920 until 945 he shared the throne with Romanos Lekapenos, whose daughter Helena he married, and his sons. Constantine VII is best known for the Geoponika (τά γεοπονικά), an important agronomic treatise compiled during his reign, and his four books, De Administrando Imperio (bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον υἱὸν Ῥωμανόν),[2] De Ceremoniis (Περὶ τῆς Βασιλείου Τάξεως), De Thematibus (Περὶ θεμάτων Άνατολῆς καὶ Δύσεως), and Vita Basilii (Βίος Βασιλείου).[3][4] The epithet porphyrogenitus alludes to the Purple chamber of the imperial palace, decorated with porphyry, where legitimate children of reigning emperors were normally born. Constantine was also born in this room, although his mother Zoe had not been married to Leo at that time. Nevertheless, the epithet allowed him to underline his position as the legitimate son, as opposed to all others, who claimed the throne during his lifetime. Sons born to a reigning Emperor held precedence in the Eastern Roman line of succession over elder sons not born "in the purple". Contents 1 Life 1.1 Regency 1.2 Senior emperor 2 Literary activity 3 Family 4 See also 5 References 6 Sources 7 External links Life[edit] Gold solidus of Leo VI and Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, 908–912 Regency[edit] Constantine was born in Constantinople in 905, an illegitimate son of Leo VI before an uncanonical fourth marriage.[5] To help legitimize him, his mother gave birth to him in the Purple Room of the imperial palace, hence his nickname Porphyrogennetos. He was elevated to the throne as a two-year-old child by his father and uncle on May 15, 908.[5] In June 913, as his uncle Alexander lay dying, he appointed a seven-man regency council for Constantine.[6] It was headed by the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, the two magistroi John Eladas and Stephen, the rhaiktor John Lazanes, the otherwise obscure Euthymius and Alexander's henchmen Basilitzes and Gabrielopoulos.[7] Following Alexander's death, the new and shaky regime survived the attempted usurpation of Constantine Doukas,[8] and Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos quickly assumed a dominant position among the regents.[9] Follis of Constantine and his mother Zoe minted during Zoe's regency Patriarch Nicholas was presently forced to make peace with Tsar Simeon of Bulgaria, whom he reluctantly recognized as Bulgarian emperor.[10] Because of this unpopular concession, Patriarch Nicholas was driven out of the regency by Constantine's mother Zoe. She was no more successful with the Bulgarians, who defeated her main supporter, the general Leo Phokas, in 917.[11] In March 919, she was replaced as regent by the admiral Romanos Lekapenos, who married his daughter Helena Lekapene to Constantine.[12] Romanos used his position to advance to the ranks of basileopatōr in May 919, to kaisar (Caesar) in September 920, and finally to co-emperor in December 920.[13] Thus, just short of reaching nominal majority, Constantine was eclipsed by a senior emperor. Constantine's youth had been a sad one due to his unpleasant appearance, his taciturn nature, and his relegation to the third level of succession, behind Christopher Lekapenos, the eldest son of Romanos I Lekapenos.[14][15] Nevertheless, he was a very intelligent young man with a large range of interests, and he dedicated those years to studying the court's ceremonial. Senior emperor[edit] Constantine and Simeon dining Romanos kept and maintained power until December 944, when he was deposed by his sons, the co-emperors Stephen and Constantine.[16][17] Romanos spent the last years of his life in exile on the Island of Prote as a monk and died on June 15, 948.[18] With the help of his wife, Constantine VII succeeded in removing his brothers-in-law, and on January 27, 945, Constantine VII became sole emperor at the age of 39, after a life spent in the shadow.[19] Several months later, Constantine VII crowned his own son Romanos II co-emperor.[20] Having never exercised executive authority, Constantine remained primarily devoted to his scholarly pursuits and relegated his authority to bureaucrats and generals, as well as to his energetic wife Helena Lekapene. In 947, Constantine VII ordered the immediate restitution of all peasant lands, without compensation; by the end of his reign, the condition of the landed peasantry, which formed the foundation of the whole economic and military strength of the Empire, was better off than it had been for a century.[21] The Madrid Skylitzes' depiction of Constantine on his deathbed In 949, Constantine launched a new fleet of 100 ships (20 dromons, 64 chelandia, and 10 galleys) against the Arab corsairs hiding in Crete, but like his father's attempt to retake the island in 911, this attempt also failed. On the Eastern frontier things went better, even if with alternate success. In the same year, the Byzantines conquered Germanicea, repeatedly defeated the enemy armies, and in 952 they crossed the upper Euphrates. But in 953, the Hamdanid amir Sayf al-Daula retook Germanicea and entered the imperial territory. The land in the east was eventually recovered by Nikephoros Phokas, who conquered Hadath, in northern Syria, in 958, and by the general John Tzimiskes, who one year later captured Samosata, in northern Mesopotamia. An Arab fleet was also destroyed by Greek fire in 957. Constantine's efforts to retake themes lost to the Arabs were the first such efforts to have any real success. Constantine had active diplomatic relationships with foreign courts, including those of the caliph of Cordoba Abd ar-Rahman III and of Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor. In the autumn of 957 Constantine was visited by Olga of Kiev, regent of the Kievan Rus'. The reasons for this voyage have never been clarified; but she was baptised a Christian with the name Helena, and sought Christian missionaries to encourage her people to adopt Christianity. According to legends, Constantine VII fell in love with Olga, but she found a way to refuse him by tricking him into becoming her godfather. When she was baptized, she said it was inappropriate for a godfather to marry his goddaughter.[22] Constantine VII died at Constantinople in November 959 and was succeeded by his son Romanos II.[23] It was rumored that Constantine had been poisoned by his son or his daughter-in-law Theophano. Literary activity[edit] A gardening calendar from the Geoponika, MS.Laur.Plut.59.32 f.171v Constantine VII was recognized as a writer and scholar. He gathered a circle educated people and they are written several unfinished books with the completed book Life of Basil, grandfather of Constantine VII.[3] He wrote, or had commissioned, the works Geoponika ("On Agriculture", in Greek Τὰ γεοπονικά), a compilation of agronomic works from earlier Greek and Punic texts that are otherwise lost; De Ceremoniis ("On Ceremonies", in Greek, Περὶ τῆς βασιλείου τάξεως), describing the kinds of court ceremonies (also described later in a more negative light by Liutprand of Cremona); De Administrando Imperio ("On the Administration of the Empire", bearing in Greek the heading Πρὸς τὸν ἴδιον ὑιὸν Ρωμανόν),[2] giving advice on running the Empire internally and on fighting external enemies; a history of the Empire covering events following the death of the chronographer Theophanes the Confessor in 817; and Excerpta Historica ("Excerpts from the Histories"), a collection of excerpts from ancient historians (many of whose works are now lost) in four volumes (1. De legationibus. 2. De virtutibus et vitiis. 3. De insidiis. 4. De sententiis). In The Manuscript Tradition of Polybius, John Michael Moore (CUP, 1965) provides a useful summary of the commission by Porphyrogenitus of the Constantine Excerpts: He felt that the historical studies were being seriously neglected, mainly because of the bulk of the histories. He therefore decided that a selection under fifty-three titles should be made from all the important historians extant in Constantinople; thus he hoped to assemble in a more manageable compass the most valuable parts of each author. ... Of the fifty-three titles into which the excerpts were divided, only six have survived: de Virtutibus et Vitiis; de Sententiis; de Insidiis; de Strategematis; de Legationibus Gentium ad Romanos; de Legationibus Romanorum ad Gentes. The titles of only about half the remaining forty-seven sections are known.[24] Also amongst his historical works is a history eulogizing the reign and achievements of his grandfather, Basil I (Vita Basilii, Βίος Βασιλείου). These books are insightful and of interest to the historian, sociologist, and anthropologist as a source of information about nations neighbouring the Empire. They also offer a fine insight into the Emperor himself. In his book, A Short History of Byzantium, John Julius Norwich refers to Constantine VII as "The Scholar Emperor".[25] Norwich describes Constantine: He was, we are told, a passionate collector—not only of books and manuscripts but works of art of every kind; more remarkable still for a man of his class, he seems to have been an excellent painter. He was the most generous of patrons—to writers and scholars, artists and craftsmen. Finally, he was an excellent Emperor: a competent, conscientious and hard-working administrator and an inspired picker of men, whose appointments to military, naval, ecclesiastical, civil and academic posts were both imaginative and successful. He did much to develop higher education and took a special interest in the administration of justice.[26] Family[edit] By his wife Helena Lekapene, the daughter of Emperor Romanos I, Constantine VII had several children, including: Leo, who died young. Romanos II. Zoe, sent to a convent. Theodora, who married Emperor John I Tzimiskes. Agatha, sent to a convent. Theophano, sent to a convent. Anna, sent to a convent. See also[edit] Byzantine Empire portal List of Byzantine emperors References[edit] ^ a b "Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos" in The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium, Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 502. ISBN 0195046528 ^ a b Moravcsik 1967. ^ a b Logos 2019, pp. 10, 10B. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. p. 10. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ a b Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 260. ^ Treadgold 1997, p. 473. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 47–48. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 49–50. ^ Runciman 1988, pp. 49ff.. ^ Runciman 1930, p. 275. ^ Garland 1999, p. 121. ^ Garland 1999, p. 123. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 264. ^ Logos 2019, pp. 10, 10B and note 9. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. pp. 10 and note 9. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ Logos 2019, pp. 11-12, 11-12B. ^ Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. pp. 11–12. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 278. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 278-279. ^ Ostrogorsky 1969, p. 279. ^ Norwich, 182-83. ^ S. H. Cross and O. P. Sherbowizt-Wetzor (trans.) (1953). The Russian Primary Chronicle: Laurentian Text. Cambridge, MA: Medieval Academy of America. pp. 82–83. ISBN 9780915651320. ^ Ostrogorsky 1956, p. 283. ^ Moore, 127. ^ Norwich, John Julius. (1997) A Short History of Byzantium. London: Viking, p. 180. ISBN 0-679-45088-2 ^ Norwich, 181. Sources[edit] Constantine VII, De ceremoniis, ed. J. Reiske (2 vols., 1829, 1830). English translation 'The Book of Ceremonies' accompanying the Greek text in 2 volumes by Ann Moffatt and Maxeme Tall, Canberra 2012 (Byzantina Australiensia 18). Constantine VII, 'Story of the Image of Edessa', tr. B. Slater, J. Jackson, in I. Wilson, The Turin Shroud (1978), p. 235-51 Garland, Lynda (1999). Byzantine Empresses: Women and Power in Byzantium, AD 527-1204. Routledge. Constantine VII, Three treatises on Imperial military expeditions, ed. tr. J.F. Haldon (1990). Ферјанчић, Божидар (1959). "Константин VII Порфирогенит". Византиски извори за историју народа Југославије. 2. Београд: Византолошки институт. pp. 1–98. Kazhdan, Alexander, ed. (1991). The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium. Oxford University Press. Moravcsik, Gyula, ed. (1967) [1949]. Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio (2nd revised ed.). Washington D.C.: Dumbarton Oaks Center for Byzantine Studies. ISBN 9780884020219. Ostrogorsky, George (1956). History of the Byzantine State. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. Ostrogorsky, George (1969). History of the Byzantine State. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press. ISBN 0-8135-0599-2. Runciman, Steven (1988) [1929]. The Emperor Romanus Lecapenus and His Reign: A Study of Tenth-Century Byzantium. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521357227. Runciman, Steven (1930). A History of the First Bulgarian Empire. G. Bell & sons Ltd.275 Toynbee, Arnold (1973). Constantine Porphyrogenitus and his world. Oxford. ISBN 0-19-215253-X. Treadgold, Warren T. (1997). A History of the Byzantine State and Society. Stanford University Press. Živković, Tibor (2006). "Constantine Porhyrogenitus and the Ragusan Authors before 1611" (PDF). Историјски часопис. 53: 145–164. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-24. Retrieved 2018-12-30. Živković, Tibor (2008). "Constantine Porphyrogenitus' Kastra oikoumena in the Southern Slavs Principalities" (PDF). Историјски часопис. 57: 9–28. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-03-24. Retrieved 2018-12-30. Živković, Tibor (2010). "Constantine Porphyrogenitus' Source on the Earliest History of the Croats and Serbs". Radovi Zavoda Za Hrvatsku Povijest U Zagrebu. 42: 117–131. Živković, Tibor (2012). De conversione Croatorum et Serborum: A Lost Source. Belgrade: The Institute of History. Logos, Aleksandar (2019), "De administrando imperio: Time of creation and some corrections for translation", academia.edu, retrieved 2020-11-15 Aleksandar Logos (2019). Istorija Srba 1 - Dopuna 4; Istorija Srba 5. Beograd: ATC. ISBN 978-86-85117-46-6. External links[edit] Wikisource has original works written by or about: Konstantinos VII Wikimedia Commons has media related to Konstantinos VII Porphyrogennetos. Cawley, Charles, Listing of Constantine VII and his family in "Medieval Lands", Medieval Lands database, Foundation for Medieval Genealogy Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes De administrando Imperio chapters 29–36 at the Internet Archive Constantine VII Macedonian Dynasty Born: September 905 Died: 9 November 959 Regnal titles Preceded by Alexander Byzantine emperor 6 June 913 –9 November 959 with Romanos I (920–944) Christopher Lekapenos (921–931) Stephen Lekapenos (924–945) Constantine Lekapenos (924–945) Succeeded by Romanos II v t e Roman and Byzantine emperors and ruling empresses Principate 27 BC – AD 235 Augustus Tiberius Caligula Claudius Nero Galba Otho Vitellius Vespasian Titus Domitian Nerva Trajan Hadrian Antoninus Pius Marcus Aurelius Lucius Verus Commodus Pertinax Didius Julianus (Pescennius Niger) (Clodius Albinus) Septimius Severus Caracalla Geta Macrinus Diadumenian Elagabalus Severus Alexander Crisis 235–285 Maximinus Thrax Gordian I Gordian II Pupienus Balbinus Gordian III Philip the Arab Philip II Decius Herennius Etruscus Hostilian Trebonianus Gallus Volusianus Aemilianus Valerian Gallienus Saloninus Claudius Gothicus Quintillus Aurelian Ulpia Severina Tacitus Florian Probus Carus Carinus Numerian Gallic emperors Postumus (Laelianus) Marius Victorinus (Domitianus II) Tetricus I with Tetricus II as caesar Palmyrene emperors Vaballathus Zenobia Septimius Antiochus Dominate 284–395 Diocletian Maximian Galerius Constantius I Severus Constantine the Great Maxentius Licinius Maximinus Daza (Valerius Valens) (Martinian) Constantine II Constantius II Constans I Magnentius Vetranio Julian Jovian Valentinian I (west) Valens (east) Gratian (west) Valentinian II (west) Theodosius I Magnus Maximus Victor (Eugenius) Western Empire 395–480 Honorius Constantine III with son Constans II Constantius III Joannes Valentinian III Petronius Maximus Avitus Majorian Libius Severus Anthemius Olybrius Glycerius Julius Nepos Romulus Augustulus Eastern/ Byzantine Empire 395–1204 Arcadius Theodosius II Marcian Leo I Leo II Zeno Basiliscus Marcus Anastasius I Dicorus Justin I Justinian I Justin II Tiberius II Constantine Maurice with son Theodosius as co-emperor Phocas Heraclius Constantine III Heraklonas Constans II Constantine IV with brothers Heraclius and Tiberius and then Justinian II as co-emperors Justinian II (first reign) Leontios Tiberius III Justinian II (second reign) with son Tiberius as co-emperor Philippikos Anastasios II Theodosius III Leo III the Isaurian Constantine V Artabasdos Leo IV the Khazar Constantine VI Irene Nikephoros I Staurakios Michael I Rangabe with son Theophylact as co-emperor Leo V the Armenian with Symbatios-Constantine as junior emperor Michael II the Amorian Theophilos Michael III Basil I the Macedonian Leo VI the Wise Alexander Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos Romanos I Lekapenos with sons Christopher, Stephen and Constantine as junior co-emperors Romanos II Nikephoros II Phokas John I Tzimiskes Basil II Constantine VIII Zoë (first reign) and Romanos III Argyros Zoë (first reign) and Michael IV the Paphlagonian Michael V Kalaphates Zoë (second reign) with Theodora Zoë (second reign) and Constantine IX Monomachos Constantine IX Monomachos (sole emperor) Theodora Michael VI Bringas Isaac I Komnenos Constantine X Doukas Romanos IV Diogenes Michael VII Doukas with brothers Andronikos and Konstantios and son Constantine Nikephoros III Botaneiates Alexios I Komnenos John II Komnenos with Alexios Komnenos as co-emperor Manuel I Komnenos Alexios II Komnenos Andronikos I Komnenos with John Komnenos as co-emperor Isaac II Angelos Alexios III Angelos Alexios IV Angelos Nicholas Kanabos (chosen by the Senate) Alexios V Doukas Empire of Nicaea 1204–1261 Constantine Laskaris Theodore I Laskaris John III Doukas Vatatzes Theodore II Laskaris John IV Laskaris Byzantine Empire 1261–1453 Michael VIII Palaiologos Andronikos II Palaiologos with Michael IX Palaiologos as co-emperor Andronikos III Palaiologos John V Palaiologos John VI Kantakouzenos with John V Palaiologos and Matthew Kantakouzenos as co-emperors John V Palaiologos Andronikos IV Palaiologos John VII Palaiologos Andronikos V Palaiologos Manuel II Palaiologos John VIII Palaiologos Constantine XI Palaiologos Italics indicates a junior co-emperor, while underlining indicates a usurper. v t e Byzantine historians 5th century Annianus of Alexandria Eunapius John Rufus Malchus Olympiodorus of Thebes Panodorus of Alexandria Philostorgius Priscus Sabinus of Heraclea Socrates of Constantinople Sozomen Theodoret 6th century Agathias Cyril of Scythopolis Eustathius of Epiphania Evagrius Scholasticus Hesychius of Miletus John Diakrinomenos John of Ephesus John of Epiphania Pseudo-Joshua the Stylite Jordanes John Malalas Liberatus of Carthage Marcellinus Comes Menander Protector Nonnosus Peter the Patrician Procopius Theodorus Lector Theophanes of Byzantium Zacharias Rhetor Zosimus 7th century Chronicon Paschale John of Antioch Trajan the Patrician Theophylact Simocatta 8th century Hippolytus of Thebes 9th century Theophanes the Confessor George Syncellus Nikephoros I of Constantinople George Hamartolos Scriptor Incertus 10th century Chronicle of Monemvasia Constantine VII Joseph Genesius John Kaminiates Leo the Deacon Pseudo-Simeon Symeon the Logothete Theophanes Continuatus 11th century Michael Attaleiates George Kedrenos Michael Psellos John Skylitzes John Xiphilinus Yahya of Antioch 12th century Nikephoros Bryennios the Younger Niketas Choniates Eustathius of Thessalonica Michael Glykas Anna Komnene John Kinnamos Constantine Manasses Joannes Zonaras 13th century George Akropolites Theodore Skoutariotes 14th century Nicephorus Gregoras Nikephoros Kallistos Xanthopoulos John VI Kantakouzenos George Kodinos George Pachymeres Michael Panaretos 15th century John Anagnostes John Cananus Laonikos Chalkokondyles Michael Critobulus Doukas George Sphrantzes v t e Byzantine music List of composers Composers Romanos the Melodist Andrew of Crete John of Damascus Cosmas of Maiuma Stephen the Sabaite Theodore the Studite Theophanes the Branded Kassia Joseph the Hymnographer Joseph the Confessor Leo VI the Wise Constantine VII Nikephoros Ethikos Gregorios Glykys John Koukouzelis Xenos Korones Joannes Glykys John Kladas Manuel Chrysaphes* Janus Plousiadenos Theorists Manuel Bryennios Liturgy Paschal troparion Octoechos Associated forms Aposticha Canon Cherubikon Byzantine Rite Kathisma Koinonikon Kontakion Akathist Troparion Sticheron Theory Petasti 72 equal temperament Byzantine Musical Symbols Echos Octoechos Nenano Neobyzantine Octoechos Hagiopolitan Octoechos Papadic Octoechos Nana (echos) Ison Instruments Byzantine lyra Cretan lyra Thaboura Organon See also Protopsaltes Cappella Romana Museum of Ancient Greek, Byzantine and Post-Byzantine Musical Instruments School of Ecclesiastic Music *also music theorist Category Authority control General Integrated Authority File ISNI 1 VIAF 1 WorldCat National libraries Norway Spain France (data) Catalonia Italy United States Latvia Czech Republic Greece Croatia Netherlands Poland Sweden Vatican Art research institutes Artist Names (Getty) Scientific databases CiNii (Japan) Other Faceted Application of Subject Terminology RERO (Switzerland) 1 SUDOC (France) 1 Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constantine_VII&oldid=1027090718" Categories: Constantine VII 905 births 959 deaths 10th-century Byzantine emperors 10th-century Byzantine writers Macedonian dynasty Byzantine hymnographers Patrons of literature Medieval child rulers Porphyrogennetoi 910s in the Byzantine Empire 920s in the Byzantine Empire 930s in the Byzantine Empire 940s in the Byzantine Empire 950s in the Byzantine Empire 960s in the Byzantine Empire 970s in the Byzantine Empire Sons of Byzantine emperors Hidden categories: Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles lacking in-text citations from January 2018 All articles lacking in-text citations Articles containing Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text Commons category link is on Wikidata Wikipedia articles incorporating an MLCC template as an external link Wikipedia articles with GND identifiers Wikipedia articles with ISNI identifiers Wikipedia articles with VIAF identifiers Wikipedia articles with BIBSYS identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNE identifiers Wikipedia articles with BNF identifiers Wikipedia articles with CANTIC identifiers Wikipedia articles with ICCU identifiers Wikipedia articles with LCCN identifiers Wikipedia articles with LNB identifiers Wikipedia articles with NKC identifiers Wikipedia articles with NLG identifiers Wikipedia articles with NSK identifiers Wikipedia articles with NTA identifiers Wikipedia articles with PLWABN identifiers Wikipedia articles with SELIBR identifiers Wikipedia articles with VcBA identifiers Wikipedia articles with ULAN identifiers Wikipedia articles with CINII identifiers Wikipedia articles with FAST identifiers Wikipedia articles with RERO identifiers Wikipedia articles with SUDOC identifiers Wikipedia articles with WORLDCATID identifiers Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Wikisource Languages Afrikaans Alemannisch العربية Aragonés Asturianu تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Bosanski Català Čeština Deutsch Eesti Ελληνικά Español Esperanto Euskara فارسی Français Galego 한국어 Հայերեն Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Latina Lietuvių Magyar Македонски مصرى Bahasa Melayu Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча Polski Português Română Русский Shqip Simple English Slovenčina Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 吴语 Zazaki 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 6 June 2021, at 01:41 (UTC). Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization. Privacy policy About Wikipedia Disclaimers Contact Wikipedia Mobile view Developers Statistics Cookie statement