Palmyrene Empire - Wikipedia Palmyrene Empire From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Former country This article is about the political history of the Palmyrene empire between 270 and 273. For the general political, cultural and economic history of the city, see Palmyra. For other uses, see Palmyra (disambiguation). Palmyrene Empire 270–273 The Palmyrene Empire in 271 Capital Palmyra Largest city Alexandria[note 1] Common languages Palmyrene Aramaic[4] Greek[4] Government Monarchy Monarch   • 267/270–272 Vaballathus • 272–273 Zenobia • 273–273 Antiochus Historical era Late Antiquity • Established 270 • Disestablished 273 Preceded by Succeeded by Roman Empire Roman Empire The Palmyrene Empire was a short-lived splinter state of the Roman Empire resulting from the Crisis of the Third Century. Named after its capital city, Palmyra, it encompassed the Roman provinces of Syria Palaestina, Arabia Petraea, and Egypt, as well as large parts of Asia Minor. The Palmyrene Empire was ruled by Queen Zenobia, officially as regent for her son Vaballathus, who inherited the throne in 267 at age ten. In 270, Zenobia rapidly conquered most of the Roman east, attempting to maintain relations with Rome as a legitimate power. In 271 she claimed the imperial title for both herself and her son, fighting a short war with the Roman emperor Aurelian, who conquered Palmyra and captured the self-proclaimed Empress. A year later the Palmyrenes rebelled, which led Aurelian to destroy Palmyra. Despite its brief existence, the Palmyrene Empire is remembered for having been ruled by one of the most ambitious and powerful women in late antiquity. It is also hailed in Syria, where it plays an important role as an icon in Syrian nationalism. Contents 1 Background 2 Establishment 3 Reconquest by Rome 3.1 Aftermath 4 Evaluation and legacy 5 See also 6 Notes 7 References 8 Bibliography Background[edit] Main article: Crisis of the Third Century Following the murder of Roman emperor Alexander Severus in 235,[5] general after general squabbled over control of the empire,[6] the frontiers were neglected and subjected to frequent raids by Carpians, Goths and Alemanni,[7][8] in addition to outright attacks from the aggressive Sassanids in the east.[9] Finally, Shapur I of Persia inflicted a disastrous defeat upon the Romans at the Battle of Edessa in 260,[10] capturing the Roman emperor Valerian and soon, Quietus and Macrianus rebelled against Valerian's son Gallienus and usurped the imperial power in Syria.[11] The Palmyrene leader Odaenathus was declared king,[12] and remained nominally loyal to Gallienus, forming an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants to attack Shapur.[note 2][10] In 260, Odaenathus won a decisive victory over Shapur in a battle near the Euphrates.[11] Next, Odaenathus defeated the usurpers in 261,[11] and spent the remainder of his reign fighting the Persians.[14][15][16] Odaenathus received the title Governor of the East,[11] and ruled Syria as the imperial representative,[17] and declared himself King of Kings.[note 3][20] Odaenathus was assassinated along with his son Hairan in 267;[11] according to Joannes Zonaras and the Augustan History, he was killed by his cousin, whose name is given by the latter source as Maeonius.[21] The Augustan History also claims that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a very brief period, before being executed by the soldiers.[21][22][23] No inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius' reign, and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus.[24][25] Odaenathus was succeeded by his minor son with Zenobia, the ten-year-old Vaballathus.[26] Under the regency of Zenobia,[26][27] Vaballathus was kept in the shadow while his mother assumed actual rule and consolidated her power.[26] The queen was careful not to provoke Rome and took for herself and her son the titles that her husband had, while working on guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia, and pacifying the dangerous Tanukhid tribes in Hauran.[26] Establishment[edit] See also: Sack of Bostra and Palmyrene invasion of Egypt Vaballathus (right) as king on the obverse of an Antoninianus. To the left, Aurelian as Augustus on the reverse. Zenobia started an expedition against the Tanukhids in the spring of 270, during the reign of emperor Claudius Gothicus[28] aided by her generals, Septimius Zabbai (a general of the army) and Septimius Zabdas (the chief general of the army)[29] Zabdas sacked Bosra, killed the Roman governor, and marched south securing Roman Arabia.[28][30] According to the Persian geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, Zenobia herself attacked Dumat Al-Jandal but could not conquer its castle.[31] However, Ibn Khordadbeh is confusing Zenobia with al-Zabbā, a semi-legendary Arab queen whose story is often confused with Zenobia's story.[32][33][34][35] In October of 270,[36] a Palmyrene army of 70,000 invaded Egypt,[37][38] and declared Zenobia queen of Egypt.[39] The Roman general Tenagino Probus was able to regain Alexandria in November, but was defeated and escaped to the fortress of Babylon, where he was besieged and killed by Zabdas, who continued his march south and secured Egypt.[40] Afterward, in 271, Zabbai started the operations in Asia Minor, and was joined by Zabdas in the spring of that year.[41] The Palmyrenes subdued Galatia,[41] and occupied Ankara, marking the greatest extent of the Palmyrene expansion.[42] However, the attempts to conquer Chalcedon were unsuccessful.[41] The Palmyrene conquests were done under the protective show of subordination to Rome.[43] Zenobia issued coinage in the name of Claudius' successor Aurelian with Vaballathus depicted as king,[note 4] while the emperor allowed the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the Palmyrene royal titles.[44] However, toward the end of 271, Vaballathus took the title of Augustus (emperor) along with his mother.[43] Reconquest by Rome[edit] Vaballathus as Augustus, on the obverse of an Antoninianus. Zenobia as Augusta, on the obverse of an Antoninianus. Aurelian-Zenobia war. In 272, Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia.[45] According to one account, Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra,[note 5][46] while the emperor continued his march and reached Tyana.[47] The fall of Tyana lent itself to a legend; Aurelian to that point had destroyed every city that resisted him, but he spared Tyana after having a vision of the great philosopher Apollonius of Tyana, whom he respected greatly, in a dream.[48] Apollonius implored him, stating: "Aurelian, if you desire to rule, abstain from the blood of the innocent! Aurelian, if you will conquer, be merciful!".[49] Whatever the reason for his clemency, Aurelian's sparing of Tyana paid off; many more cities submitted to him upon seeing that the emperor would not exact revenge upon them.[48] Entering Issus and heading to Antioch, Aurelian defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae.[50] Zenobia retreated to Antioch then fled to Emesa while Aurelian advanced and took the former.[51] After regrouping, the Romans first destroyed a Palmyrene garrison stationed at the fort of Daphne,[note 6][53] and headed south to Apamea,[54] then continued to Emesa and defeated Zenobia again at the Battle of Emesa, forcing her to evacuate to the capital.[55] Aurelian marched through the desert and was harassed by Bedouins loyal to Palmyra, but as soon as he arrived at the city gates, he negotiated with the Bedouins, who betrayed Palmyra and supplied the Roman army with water and food.[56] Aurelian besieged Palmyra in the summer of 272,[57] and tried to negotiate with Zenobia, on the condition that she surrender herself in person to him, to which she answered with refusal.[42] The Romans tried to breach the city defenses several times but were repelled,[58] however, as the situation deteriorated, Zenobia left the city and headed east to ask the Persians for help.[59] The Romans followed the empress, captured her near the Euphrates and brought her back to the emperor. Soon after, the Palmyrene citizens asked for peace,[59] and the city capitulated.[57][60] Aftermath[edit] Aurelian, personification of Sol, defeats the Palmyrene Empire, and celebrates ORIENS AVG, the Augustus Rising Sun. Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers led by a certain Sandarion, as a peacekeeping force.[61] The defenses were destroyed and most of the military equipment was confiscated.[62] Zenobia and her council were taken to Emesa and put on trial. Most of the high-ranking Palmyrene officials were executed,[63] while Zenobia's and Vaballathus's fates are uncertain.[64] In 273, Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of a citizen named Septimius Apsaios,[65] and contacted the Roman prefect of Mesopotamia, Marcellinus, offering to help him usurp the imperial power.[65] Marcellinus delayed the negotiations and sent word to the Roman emperor,[65] while the rebels lost their patience and declared a relative of Zenobia named Antiochus as Augustus.[66] Aurelian marched against Palmyra and was helped by a Palmyrene faction from inside the city, headed by a man with a senatorial rank named Septimius Haddudan.[67][68] Aurelian spared Antiochus,[68] but razed Palmyra.[69] The most valuable monuments were taken by the emperor to decorate his Temple of Sol,[60] while buildings were smashed, people were clubbed and cudgeled and Palmyra's holiest temple pillaged.[60] Evaluation and legacy[edit] The ultimate motive behind the revolt is debated; when dealing with the rise of Palmyra and the rebellion of Zenobia, historians most often interpreted the ascendancy as an indication of cultural, ethnic or social factors.[70] Andreas Alföldi viewed the rebellion as a completely native ethnic opposition against Rome.[70] Irfan Shahîd considered Zenobia's revolt a pan-Arab movement that was a forerunner of the Arab expansion of the Caliphates;[70] an opinion shared by Franz Altheim,[70] and an almost universal view amongst Arab and Syrian scholars such as Philip Khuri Hitti.[71][72] Mark Whittow disagreed that the revolt was ethnic in its nature and emphasized that it was a reaction to the weakness of Rome and its inability to protect Palmyra from the Persians.[73] Warwick Ball viewed the rebellion as aimed at Rome's throne, not just Palmyrene independence.[74] Vaballathus' inscriptions indicated the style of a Roman emperor; according to Ball, Zenobia and Vaballathus were contenders for the Roman imperial throne, following a plan similar to that of Vespasian, who ascended the throne after building his power-base in Syria.[74][73] Andrew M. Smith II considered the revolt as a bid for both independence and the Roman throne.[75] The Palmyrene royalty used Eastern titles such as king of kings, which had no relevance in Roman politics, while the conquests were in the interest of Palmyrene commerce.[75] Finally, it was only in the last regnal year of Zenobia and Vaballathus that the Roman imperial rank was claimed.[75] Fergus Millar, although tending toward the view that it wasn't only an independence movement, believes there is not yet enough evidence to draw a conclusion on the nature of Palmyra's revolt.[76] During the mid-twentieth century, interest in the Palmyrene Empire was briefly revived by the advent of Syrian nationalism.[77] Modern Syrian nationalists viewed the empire as a uniquely Syrian civilization which attempted to liberate the masses of the Levant from Roman tyranny.[78] A Syrian TV show was produced based on Zenobia's life, and she was the subject of a biography written by Syria's former minister of defense Mustafa Tlass.[78] See also[edit] Gallic Empire Notes[edit] ^ Alexandria was the second largest city in the Roman Empire (after Rome itself),[1] with a population of around 500,000–600,000, during the principate.[2] The population of Palmyra in the middle of the 3rd century is estimated to have been 150,000–200,000.[3] ^ No evidence exists for Roman units serving in the ranks of Odaenathus; whether Roman soldiers fought under Odaenathus or not is a matter of speculation.[13] ^ The first decisive evidence for the use of this title for Odaenathus is an inscription dated to 271, posthumously describing Odaenathus as king of kings.[10][18] Odaenathus' son Hairan I is directly attested as "King of Kings" during his lifetime. Hairan I was proclaimed by his father as co-ruler; it is unlikely that Odaenathus was simply a king while his son held the King of Kings title.[19] ^ Claudius died in August 270, shortly before Zenobia's invasion of Egypt.[36] ^ All other accounts indicate that a military action was not necessary, as it seems that Zenobia had withdrawn her forces in order to defend Syria.[46] ^ Daphne was a garden located six miles south of Antioch.[52] References[edit] ^ Koester, Helmut (2012). History and Literature of Early Christianity. p. 225. ^ Delia, Diana (1988). "The Population of Roman Alexandria". Transactions of the American Philological Association. 118: 275–292. doi:10.2307/284172. JSTOR 284172. ^ "Rise and fall of Palmyra , Syria". Bulletin of the Department of Geography of University of Tokyo. 27: 9. 1995. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 280. ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 3. ^ Averil Cameron (1993). The Later Roman Empire, AD 284-430. Harvard University Press. p. 4. ^ Yann Le Bohec (2013). Imperial Roman Army. p. 196. ^ Patrick J. Geary (2003). The Myth of Nations: The Medieval Origins of Europe. Princeton University Press. p. 81. ^ Nic Fields (2008). The Walls of Rome. p. 12. ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 177. ^ a b c d e David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 398. ^ Beate Dignas; Engelbert Winter (2007). Rome and Persia in Late Antiquity: Neighbours and Rivals. p. 159. ^ Pat Southern (17 November 2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 60. ISBN 978-1-4411-7351-5. ^ Edward Gibbon (2004). The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. p. 501. ^ Clifford Ando (2012). Imperial Rome AD 193 to 284: The Critical Century. p. 237. ^ Lukas De Blois (1976). The Policy of the Emperor Gallienus. p. 3. ^ Nathanael J. Andrade (2013). Syrian Identity in the Greco-Roman World. p. 333. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 78. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 72. ^ Maurice Sartre (2005). The Middle East Under Rome. p. 354. ^ a b Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra s Rebel Queen. p. 78. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 292. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 108. ^ Edward Gibbon; Thomas Bowdler (1826). History of the decline and fall of the Roman empire for the use of families and young persons: reprinted from the original text, with the careful omission of all passagers of an irreligious tendency, Volume 1. p. 321. ^ George C. Brauer (1975). The Age of the Soldier Emperors: Imperial Rome, A.D. 244-284. Noyes Press. p. 163. ^ a b c d Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 299. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 114. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2004). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 302. ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 48. ^ Watson, Alaric (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. Routledge. p. 61. ISBN 9781134908158. ^ Khaleel Ibrahim Muaikel (1994). Dirasah li-āthār Mintaqat al-Jawf. p. 43. ^ Fergus Millar (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. p. 433. ^ Roxani Eleni Margariti; Adam Sabra; Petra Sijpesteijn (2010). Histories of the Middle East: Studies in Middle Eastern Society, Economy and Law in Honor of A.L. Udovitch. p. 148. ^ Mohammad Rihan (2014). The Politics and Culture of an Umayyad Tribe: Conflict and Factionalism in the Early Islamic Period. p. 28. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 296. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 62. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 133. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 303. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 304. ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 63. ^ a b c Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 64. ^ a b Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 80. ^ a b Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 179. ^ David L. Vagi (2000). Coinage and History of the Roman Empire, C. 82 B.C.--A.D. 480: History. p. 365. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 307. ^ a b Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 308. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 71. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 72. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 167. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 309. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 74. ^ John Carne; William Purser (1836). Syria, the Holy Land, Asia Minor, &c. illustrated: In a series of views drawn from nature. Fisher, Son, & Co.; London, Paris, & America. p. 31. ^ Pat Southern (2008). Empress Zenobia: Palmyra's Rebel Queen. p. 138. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 75. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 310. ^ Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 76. ^ a b Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 52. ^ Richard Stoneman (1994). Palmyra and Its Empire: Zenobia's Revolt Against Rome. p. 175. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 77. ^ a b c Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81. ^ Trevor Bryce (2014). Ancient Syria: A Three Thousand Year History. p. 313. ^ Alaric Watson (2014). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 78. ^ William Ware (1846). Zenobia, Or, The Fall of Palmyra: A Historical Romance in Letters from L. Manlius Piso from Palmyra, to His Friend Marcus Curtius at Rome. p. 242. ^ Warwick Ball (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. p. 81. ^ a b c Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 180. ^ Andrew M. Smith II (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. p. 181. ^ Butcher, Kevin (2003). Roman Syria and the Near East. Getty Publications. p. 60. ISBN 9780892367153. ^ a b Alaric Watson (2004). Aurelian and the Third Century. p. 81. ^ Alan Bowman; Peter Garnsey; Averil Cameron (2005). The Cambridge Ancient History: Volume 12, The Crisis of Empire, AD 193-337. p. 515. ^ a b c d Nakamura 1993, p. 133. ^ Hitti 2002, p. 73. ^ Zahrān 2003, p. 36. ^ a b Whittow 2010, p. 154. sfn error: no target: CITEREFWhittow2010 (help) ^ a b Ball 2002, p. 82. ^ a b c Smith II 2013, p. 180. ^ Millar 1993, p. 334. ^ Manley, John (2013). The Romans: All That Matters. John Murray Press. p. 15. ISBN 9781444183887. ^ a b Christian Sahner (2014). Among the Ruins: Syria Past and Present. p. 153. Bibliography[edit] Nakamura, Byron (1993). "Palmyra and the Roman East". Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies. Duke University, Department of Classical Studies. 34. ISSN 0017-3916. Hitti, Philip K. (2002) [1937]. History of The Arabs (10 ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-137-13032-7. Zahrān, Yāsamīn (2003). Zenobia between reality and legend. BAR (British Archaeological Reports) International Series. 1169. Archaeopress. ISBN 978-1-84171-537-7. Whittow, Mark (2010). "The late Roman/early Byzantine Near East". In Robinson, Chase F. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam, Volume 1: The Formation of the Islamic World, Sixth to Eleventh Centuries. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83823-8. Ball, Warwick (2002). Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-82387-1. Smith II, Andrew M. (2013). Roman Palmyra: Identity, Community, and State Formation. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-986110-1. Millar, Fergus (1993). The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.-A.D. 337. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-77886-3. Coordinates: 34°33′36″N 38°16′2″E / 34.56000°N 38.26722°E / 34.56000; 38.26722 v t e Rulers of the Ancient Near East Territories/ dates [1][2][3][4] Egypt Canaan Ebla Mari Akshak/ Akkad Kish Uruk Adab Umma Lagash Ur Elam Preceded by: Chronology of the Neolithic period 4000–3200 BCE Naqada culture (4000–3100 BCE) Proto-Cannaanites Ubaid period (6500–3800 BCE) Susa I Naqada I Naqada II Egypt-Mesopotamia relations Uruk period (4000-3100 BCE) (Anonymous "King-priests") Susa II (Uruk influence or control) 3200–3100 BCE Proto-Dynastic period (Naqada III) Early or legendary kings: Upper Egypt Finger Snail Fish Pen-Abu Animal Stork Canide Bull Scorpion I Shendjw Iry-Hor Ka Scorpion II Narmer / Menes Lower Egypt Hedju Hor Ny-Hor Hsekiu Khayu Tiu Thesh Neheb Wazner Nat-Hor Mekh Double Falcon Wash 3100–2900 BCE Early Dynastic Period First Dynasty of Egypt Narmer Menes Neithhotep♀ (regent) Hor-Aha Djer Djet Merneith♀ (regent) DenAnedjib Semerkhet Qa'a Sneferka Horus Bird Canaanites Jemdet Nasr period Proto-Elamite period (Susa III) (3100-2700 BCE) 2900 BCE Second Dynasty of Egypt Hotepsekhemwy Nebra/Raneb Nynetjer Ba Nubnefer Horus Sa Weneg-Nebty Wadjenes Senedj Seth-Peribsen Sekhemib-Perenmaat Neferkara I Neferkasokar Hudjefa I Khasekhemwy Early Dynastic Period I (2900–2700 BCE) First Eblaite Kingdom First kingdom of Mari Kish I dynasty Jushur, Kullassina-bel Nangishlishma, En-tarah-ana Babum, Puannum, Kalibum 2800 BCE Kalumum Zuqaqip Atab Mashda Arwium Etana Balih En-me-nuna Melem-Kish Barsal-nuna Uruk I dynasty Mesh-ki-ang-gasher Enmerkar ("conqueror of Aratta") 2700 BCE Early Dynastic Period II (2700–2600 BCE) Zamug, Tizqar, Ilku Iltasadum Lugalbanda Dumuzid, the Fisherman Enmebaragesi ("made the land of Elam submit")[5] Aga of Kish Gilgamesh Old Elamite period (2700–1500 BCE) Indus-Mesopotamia relations 2600 BCE Third Dynasty of Egypt Djoser Sekhemkhet Sanakht Nebka Khaba Qahedjet Huni Early Dynastic Period III (2600–2340 BCE) Sagisu Abur-lim Agur-lim Ibbi-Damu Baba-Damu Kish II dynasty (5 kings) Uhub Mesilim Ur-Nungal Udulkalama Labashum Lagash En-hegal Lugalshaengur Ur A-Imdugud Ur-Pabilsag Meskalamdug (Queen Puabi) Akalamdug Enun-dara-anna Mes-he Melamanna Lugal-kitun Adab Nin-kisalsi Me-durba Lugal-dalu 2575 BCE Old Kingdom of Egypt Fourth Dynasty of Egypt Snefru Khufu Djedefre Khafre Bikheris Menkaure Shepseskaf Thamphthis Ur I dynasty Mesannepada "King of Ur and Kish", victorious over Uruk 2500 BCE Phoenicia (2500-539 BCE) Second kingdom of Mari Ikun-Shamash Iku-Shamagan Ansud Sa'umu Ishtup-Ishar Ikun-Mari Iblul-Il Nizi Akshak dynasty Unzi Undalulu Kish III dynasty Ku-Baba Uruk II dynasty Enshakushanna Mug-si Umma I dynasty Pabilgagaltuku Lagash I dynasty Ur-Nanshe Akurgal A'annepada Meskiagnun Elulu Balulu Awan dynasty Peli Tata Ukkutahesh Hishur 2450 BCE Fifth Dynasty of Egypt Userkaf Sahure Neferirkare Kakai Neferefre Shepseskare Nyuserre Ini Menkauhor Kaiu Djedkare Isesi Unas Enar-Damu Ishar-Malik Ush Enakalle Elamite invasions (3 kings)[6] Shushuntarana Napilhush 2425 BCE Kun-Damu Eannatum (King of Lagash, Sumer, Akkad, conqueror of Elam) 2400 BCE Adub-Damu Igrish-Halam Irkab-Damu Urur Kish IV dynasty Puzur-Suen Ur-Zababa Lugal-kinishe-dudu Lugal-kisalsi E-iginimpa'e Meskigal Ur-Lumma Il Gishakidu (Queen Bara-irnun) Enannatum Entemena Enannatum II Enentarzi Ur II dynasty Nanni Mesh-ki-ang-Nanna II Kiku-siwe-tempti 2380 BCE Sixth Dynasty of Egypt Teti Userkare Pepi I Merenre Nemtyemsaf I Pepi II Merenre Nemtyemsaf II Netjerkare Siptah Adab dynasty Lugalannemundu "King of the four quarters of the world" 2370 BCE Isar-Damu Enna-Dagan Ikun-Ishar Ishqi-Mari Invasion of Mari Anbu, Anba, Bazi, Zizi of Mari, Limer, Sharrum-iter[6] Ukush Lugalanda Urukagina Luh-ishan 2350 BCE Puzur-Nirah Ishu-Il Shu-Sin Uruk III dynasty Lugalzagesi (Governor of Umma, King of all Sumer) 2340 BCE Akkadian Period (2340–2150 BCE) Akkadian Empire Sargon of Akkad Rimush Manishtushu Akkadian Governors: Eshpum Ilshu-rabi Epirmupi Ili-ishmani 2250 BCE Naram-Sin Lugal-ushumgal (vassal of the Akkadians) 2200 BCE First Intermediate Period Seventh Dynasty of Egypt Eighth Dynasty of Egypt Menkare Neferkare II Neferkare Neby Djedkare Shemai Neferkare Khendu Merenhor Neferkamin Nikare Neferkare Tereru Neferkahor Neferkare Pepiseneb Neferkamin Anu Qakare Ibi Neferkaure Neferkauhor Neferirkare Second Eblaite Kingdom (Vassals of UR III) Third kingdom of Mari Shakkanakku dynasty Ididish Shu-Dagan Ishma-Dagan (Vassals of the Akkadians) Shar-Kali-Sharri Igigi, Imi, Nanum, Ilulu (3 years) Dudu Shu-turul Uruk IV dynasty Ur-nigin Ur-gigir Lagash II dynasty Puzer-Mama Ur-Ningirsu I Pirig-me Lu-Baba Lu-gula Ka-ku Hishep-Ratep Helu Khita Puzur-Inshushinak 2150 BCE Ninth Dynasty of Egypt Meryibre Khety Neferkare VII Nebkaure Khety Setut Ur III period (2150–2000 BCE) Nûr-Mêr Ishtup-Ilum Ishgum-Addu Apil-kin Gutian dynasty (21 kings) La-erabum Si'um Kuda (Uruk) Puzur-ili Ur-Utu Umma II dynasty Lugalannatum (vassal of the Gutians) Ur-Baba Gudea Ur-Ningirsu Ur-gar Nam-mahani Tirigan 2125 BCE Tenth Dynasty of Egypt Meryhathor Neferkare VIII Wahkare Khety Merykare Iddi-ilum Ili-Ishar Tura-Dagan Puzur-Ishtar Hitial-Erra Hanun-Dagan (Vassals of Ur III)[7] Uruk V dynasty Utu-hengal 2100 BCE Ur III dynasty "Kings of Ur, Sumer and Akkad" Ur-Nammu Shulgi Amar-Sin Shu-Sin Ibbi-Sin 2050 BCE 2000 BCE Middle Kingdom of Egypt Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt Mentuhotep I Intef I Intef II Intef III Mentuhotep II Mentuhotep III Mentuhotep IV circa 2000 BCE Amorite invasions Elamite invasions Kindattu (Shimashki Dynasty) 2025-1763 BCE Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt Amenemhat I Senusret I Amenemhat II Senusret II Senusret III Amenemhat III Amenemhat IV Sobekneferu♀ Third Eblaite Kingdom Ibbit-Lim Immeya Indilimma Lim Dynasty Yaggid-Lim Yahdun-Lim Yasmah-Adad Zimri-Lim (Queen Shibtu) Isin-Larsa period (Amorites) Dynasty of Isin: Ishbi-Erra Shu-Ilishu Iddin-Dagan Ishme-Dagan Lipit-Eshtar Ur-Ninurta Bur-Suen Lipit-Enlil Erra-imitti Enlil-bani Zambiya Iter-pisha Ur-du-kuga Suen-magir Damiq-ilishu Dynasty of Larsa: Naplanum Emisum Samium Zabaia Gungunum Abisare Sumuel Nur-Adad Sin-Iddinam Sin-Eribam Sin-Iqisham Silli-Adad Warad-Sin Rim-Sin I (...) Rim-Sin II Uruk VI dynasty: Alila-hadum Sumu-binasa Naram-Sin of Uruk Sîn-kāšid Sîn-iribam Sîn-gāmil Ilum-gamil Anam of Uruk Irdanene Rim-Anum Nabi-ilišu Sukkalmah dynasty Siwe-Palar-Khuppak 1800–1595 BCE Thirteenth Dynasty of Egypt Fourteenth Dynasty of Egypt Abraham (Biblical) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Yamhad Old Assyrian Empire (2025–1378 BCE) Puzur-Ashur I Shalim-ahum Ilu-shuma Erishum I Ikunum Sargon I Puzur-Ashur II Naram-Sin Erishum II Shamshi-Adad I Ishme-Dagan I Mut-Ashkur Rimush Asinum Ashur-dugul Ashur-apla-idi Nasir-Sin Sin-namir Ipqi-Ishtar Adad-salulu Adasi Bel-bani Libaya Sharma-Adad I Iptar-Sin Bazaya Lullaya Shu-Ninua Sharma-Adad II Erishum III Shamshi-Adad II Ishme-Dagan II Shamshi-Adad III Ashur-nirari I Puzur-Ashur III Enlil-nasir I Nur-ili Ashur-shaduni Ashur-rabi I Ashur-nadin-ahhe I Enlil-Nasir II Ashur-nirari II Ashur-bel-nisheshu Ashur-rim-nisheshu Ashur-nadin-ahhe II First Babylonian dynasty ("Old Babylonian Period") (Amorites) Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sin-muballitSabium Apil-Sin Sin-muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-eshuh Ammi-ditana Ammi-saduqa Samsu-Ditana Early Kassite rulers Second Babylonian dynasty ("Sealand Dynasty") Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Second Intermediate Period Sixteenth Dynasty Abydos Dynasty Seventeenth Dynasty Fifteenth Dynasty of Egypt ("Hyksos") Semqen 'Aper-'Anati Sakir-Har Khyan Apepi Khamudi Mitanni (1600–1260 BCE) Kirta Shuttarna I Parshatatar 1531–1155 BCE New Kingdom of Egypt Eighteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ahmose I Amenhotep I Third Babylonian dynasty (Kassites) Agum-Kakrime Burnaburiash I Kashtiliash III Ulamburiash Agum III Karaindash Kadashman-harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burnaburiash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliashu IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak II Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Elamite period (1500–1100 BCE) Kidinuid dynasty Igehalkid dynasty Untash-Napirisha Thutmose I Thutmose II Hatshepsut♀ Thutmose III Amenhotep II Thutmose IV Amenhotep III Akhenaten Smenkhkare Neferneferuaten♀ Tutankhamun Ay Horemheb Hittite Empire Ugarit Nineteenth Dynasty of Egypt Ramesses I Seti I Ramesses II Merneptah Amenmesses Seti II Siptah Twosret♀ Elamite Empire Shutrukid dynasty Shutruk-Nakhunte 1155–1025 BCE Twentieth Dynasty of Egypt Setnakhte Ramesses III Ramesses IV Ramesses V Ramesses VI Ramesses VII Ramesses VIII Ramesses IX Ramesses X Ramesses XI Third Intermediate Period Twenty-first Dynasty of Egypt Smendes Amenemnisu Psusennes I Amenemope Osorkon the Elder Siamun Psusennes II Phoenicia Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Kingdom of Israel Saul Ish-bosheth David Solomon Syro-Hittite states Middle Assyrian Empire Eriba-Adad I Ashur-uballit I Enlil-nirari Arik-den-ili Adad-nirari I Shalmaneser I Tukulti-Ninurta I Ashur-nadin-apli Ashur-nirari III Enlil-kudurri-usur Ninurta-apal-Ekur Ashur-dan I Ninurta-tukulti-Ashur Mutakkil-Nusku Ashur-resh-ishi I Tiglath-Pileser I Asharid-apal-Ekur Ashur-bel-kala Eriba-Adad II Shamshi-Adad IV Ashurnasirpal I Shalmaneser II Ashur-nirari IV Ashur-rabi II Ashur-resh-ishi II Tiglath-Pileser II Ashur-dan II Fourth Babylonian dynasty ("Second Dynasty of Isin") Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur Neo-Elamite period (1100–540 BCE) 1025–934 BCE Fifth, Sixth, Seventh, Eighth Babylonian dynasties ("Period of Chaos") Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna Mar-biti-apla-usur Nabû-mukin-apli 911–745 BCE Twenty-second Dynasty of Egypt Shoshenq I Osorkon I Shoshenq II Takelot I Osorkon II Shoshenq III Shoshenq IV Pami Shoshenq V Pedubast II Osorkon IV Twenty-third Dynasty of Egypt Harsiese A Takelot II Pedubast I Shoshenq VI Osorkon III Takelot III Rudamun Menkheperre Ini Twenty-fourth Dynasty of Egypt Tefnakht Bakenranef Kingdom of Samaria Kingdom of Judah Neo-Assyrian Empire Adad-nirari II Tukulti-Ninurta II Ashurnasirpal II Shalmaneser III Shamshi-Adad V Shammuramat♀ (regent) Adad-nirari III Shalmaneser IV Ashur-Dan III Ashur-nirari V Ninth Babylonian Dynasty Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina (five kings) Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-shuma-ukin II Nabu-mukin-zeri Humban-Tahrid dynasty Urtak Teumman Ummanigash Tammaritu I Indabibi Humban-haltash III 745–609 BCE Twenty-fifth Dynasty of Egypt ("Black Pharaohs") Piye Shebitku Shabaka Taharqa Tanutamun Neo-Assyrian Empire (Sargonid dynasty) Tiglath-Pileser† Shalmaneser† Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon† Sennacherib† Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Ashur-nadin-shumi† Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Esarhaddon† Ashurbanipal Ashur-etil-ilani Sinsharishkun Sin-shumu-lishir Ashur-uballit II Assyrian conquest of Egypt 626–539 BCE Late Period Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt Necho I Psamtik I Necho II Psamtik II Wahibre Ahmose II Psamtik III Neo-Babylonian Empire Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Median Empire Deioces Phraortes Madius Cyaxares Astyages 539–331 BCE Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt (Achaemenid conquest of Egypt) Kings of Byblos Kings of Tyre Kings of Sidon Achaemenid Empire Cyrus Cambyses Darius I Xerxes Artaxerxes I Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Darius III Twenty-eighth Dynasty of Egypt Twenty-ninth Dynasty of Egypt Thirtieth Dynasty of Egypt Thirty-first Dynasty of Egypt 331–141 BCE Ptolemaic dynasty Ptolemy I Soter Ptolemy Keraunos Ptolemy II Philadelphus Arsinoe II♀ Ptolemy III Euergetes Berenice II Euergetis♀ Ptolemy IV Philopator Arsinoe III Philopator♀ Ptolemy V Epiphanes Cleopatra I Syra♀ Ptolemy VI Philometor Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator Cleopatra II Philometor Soter♀ Ptolemy VIII Physcon Cleopatra III♀ Ptolemy IX Lathyros Cleopatra IV♀ Ptolemy X Alexander Berenice III♀ Ptolemy XI Alexander Ptolemy XII Auletes Cleopatra V♀ Cleopatra VI Tryphaena♀ Berenice IV Epiphanea♀ Ptolemy XIII Ptolemy XIV Cleopatra VII Philopator♀ Ptolemy XV Caesarion Arsinoe IV♀ Hellenistic Period Argead dynasty: Alexander I Philip Alexander II Antigonus Seleucid Empire: Seleucus I Antiochus I Antiochus II Seleucus II Seleucus III Antiochus III Seleucus IV Antiochus IV Antiochus V Demetrius I Alexander III Demetrius II Antiochus VI Dionysus Diodotus Tryphon Antiochus VII Sidetes 141–30 BCE Kingdom of Judea Simon Thassi John Hyrcanus Aristobulus I Alexander Jannaeus Salome Alexandra Hyrcanus II Aristobulus II Antigonus II Mattathias Alexander II Zabinas Seleucus V Philometor Antiochus VIII Grypus Antiochus IX Cyzicenus Seleucus VI Epiphanes Antiochus X Eusebes Antiochus XI Epiphanes Demetrius III Eucaerus Philip I Philadelphus Antiochus XII Dionysus Antiochus XIII Asiaticus Philip II Philoromaeus Parthian Empire Mithridates I Phraates Hyspaosines Artabanus Mithridates II Gotarzes Mithridates III Orodes I Sinatruces Phraates III Mithridates IV Orodes II Phraates IV Tiridates II Musa Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Tiridates III Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Meherdates Vonones II Vologases I Vardanes II Pacorus II Vologases II Artabanus III Osroes I 30 BCE–116 CE Roman Empire (Roman conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Judea Syria 116-117 CE Province of Mesopotamia under Trajan Parthamaspates of Parthia 117–224 CE Syria Palaestina Province of Mesopotamia Sinatruces II Mithridates V Vologases IV Osroes II Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV 224–270 CE Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Ardashir I Shapur I Hormizd I Bahram I Bahram II Bahram III Narseh Hormizd II Adur Narseh Shapur II Ardashir II Shapur III Bahram IV Yazdegerd I Shapur IV Khosrow Bahram V Yazdegerd II Hormizd III Peroz I Balash Kavad I Jamasp Kavad I Khosrow I Hormizd IV Khosrow II Bahram VI Chobin Vistahm 270–273 CE Palmyrene Empire Vaballathus Zenobia Antiochus 273–395 CE Roman Empire Province of Egypt Syria Palaestina Syria Province of Mesopotamia 395–618 CE Byzantine Empire Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 618–628 CE (Sasanian conquest of Egypt) Province of Egypt Shahrbaraz Sahralanyozan Shahrbaraz Sasanian Empire Province of Asoristan Khosrow II Kavad II 628–641 CE Byzantine Empire Ardashir III Shahrbaraz Khosrow III Boran Shapur-i Shahrvaraz Azarmidokht Farrukh Hormizd Hormizd VI Khosrow IV Boran Yazdegerd III Peroz III Narsieh Byzantine Egypt Palaestina Prima, Palaestina Secunda Byzantine Syria Byzantine Mesopotamia 639–651 CE Muslim conquest of Egypt Muslim conquest of the Levant Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia and Persia Rulers of Ancient Central Asia ^ W. Hallo; W. Simpson (1971). The Ancient Near East. New York: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. pp. 48–49. ^ "Rulers of Mesopotamia". cdli.ox.ac.uk. University of Oxford, CNRS. ^ Thomas, Ariane; Potts, Timothy (2020). Mesopotamia: Civilization Begins. Getty Publications. p. 14. ISBN 978-1-60606-649-2. ^ Roux, Georges (1992). Ancient Iraq. Penguin Books Limited. pp. 532–534 (Chronological Tables). ISBN 978-0-14-193825-7. ^ Per Sumerian King List ^ a b Per Sumerian King List ^ Unger, Merrill F. (2014). Israel and the Aramaeans of Damascus: A Study in Archaeological Illumination of Bible History. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-62564-606-4. v t e Syria articles History Timeline Prehistorical Syria Levantine corridor Natufian culture Halaf culture Uruk period Abu Hureyra Aswad Yarmukian culture Ancient Syria Amorites Akkadian Empire Arameans Canaanites Old Assyrian Empire Middle Assyrian Empire Ebla Yamhad Qatna Mari Ugarit Aram-Damascus Syro-Hittite states Neo-Assyrian Empire Neo-Babylonian Empire Achaemenid Syria Seleucid Syria Roman Syria Palmyrene Empire Byzantine Syria Medieval Syria Muslim conquest (636) Caliphal Syria (Bilad al-Sham) Tulunid dynasty Ikhshidid dynasty Zengid dynasty Hamdanid dynasty Mirdasid dynasty Fatimid Syria Seljuk Syria Crusader states County of Edessa Principality of Antioch County of Tripoli Ayyubid Syria (1174–1260) Mamluk Syria (1260–1516) Early modern Syria Ottoman Syria (1516–1918) Modern Syria Arab kingdom (1920) Haj Fadel Government French Mandate Syrian Federation (1922–25) State of Syria (1925–30) Mandatory Republic (1930–46) independent First Republic (1946–50) Second Republic (1950–1963) Civil war Geography Borders Cities Districts Governorates Rivers Volcanoes Features Al-Jazira Anti-Lebanon Mountains Euphrates Golan Heights Hauran Hermon Orontes Syrian Desert Related Syria (region) Southern Syria Fertile Crescent Levant Politics Constitution Council of Ministers Prime Minister list Elections Foreign relations Golan Heights claim Iskandaron Government ministries Human rights LGBT Judiciary High council Supreme Constitutional Court Parliament Speakers nationalism Greater Syria Political parties Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party national / regional command National Progressive Front Popular Front for Change and Liberation Political status of the Golan Heights President list Terrorism Vice President Military Army Air force air defense Navy Weapons of mass destruction Economy Agriculture Central Bank Companies Industry International rankings Pound (currency) Securities Exchange (stock exchange) Infrastructure Energy and mineral resources Petroleum industry Telecommunications Transport Water supply and sanitation Society Demographics Education Health People diaspora refugees (2011–present) Public holidays Scouting Culture Anthem Coat of arms Cuisine Films Flag Media television Music Religion Smoking Outline Index Category Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palmyrene_Empire&oldid=1018959607" Categories: Palmyrene Empire Roman Syria Crisis of the Third Century Former countries in the Middle East Former empires History of Homs Governorate 270s in the Roman Empire 270 establishments States and territories disestablished in the 3rd century 273 disestablishments History of the Levant Hidden categories: Harv and Sfn no-target errors Articles with short description Short description matches Wikidata Coordinates on Wikidata Navigation menu Personal tools Not logged in Talk Contributions Create account Log in Namespaces Article Talk Variants Views Read Edit View history More Search Navigation Main page Contents Current events Random article About Wikipedia Contact us Donate Contribute Help Learn to edit Community portal Recent changes Upload file Tools What links here Related changes Upload file Special pages Permanent link Page information Cite this page Wikidata item Print/export Download as PDF Printable version In other projects Wikimedia Commons Languages العربية تۆرکجه Беларуская Български Català Čeština Ελληνικά Español Euskara فارسی Français 한국어 हिन्दी Hrvatski Bahasa Indonesia Italiano עברית ქართული Lingua Franca Nova मराठी Nederlands 日本語 Norsk bokmål Polski Português Română Русский Slovenščina Српски / srpski Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски Suomi Svenska தமிழ் ไทย Türkçe Українська Tiếng Việt 中文 Edit links This page was last edited on 20 April 2021, at 19:51 (UTC). 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