Socrates - Wikipedia Socrates From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Classical Greek Athenian philosopher (c. 470 – 399 BC) This article or section is in the process of an expansion or major restructuring. You are welcome to assist in its construction by editing it as well. If this article or section has not been edited in several days, please remove this template. If you are the editor who added this template and you are actively editing, please be sure to replace this template with {{in use}} during the active editing session. Click on the link for template parameters to use. This article was last edited by Bhagya sri113 (talk | contribs) 11 seconds ago. (Update timer) This article is about the classical Greek philosopher. For other uses of Socrates, see Socrates (disambiguation). For the Attic orator, see Isocrates. Socrates A marble head of Socrates in the Louvre Born c. 470 BC[1] Deme Alopece, Athens Died 399 BC (aged approximately 71) Athens Cause of death Execution by forced suicide by poisoning Spouse(s) Xanthippe Era Ancient Greek philosophy Region Western philosophy School Classical Greek philosophy Notable students Plato Xenophon Antisthenes Aristippus Alcibiades Critias Main interests Epistemology, ethics, teleology Notable ideas Social gadfly Socratic dialogue Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony Socratic method Socratic paradox Socratic questioning "The unexamined life is not worth living" Influences Prodicus, Anaxagoras, Archelaus, Diotima, Damon Influenced Virtually all subsequent Western philosophy, especially his followers, e.g., Plato, Xenophon, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Euclid of Megara, Phaedo of Elis Part of a series on Socrates "I know that I know nothing" "The unexamined life is not worth living" gadfly · Trial of Socrates Eponymous concepts Socratic dialogue · Socratic intellectualism Socratic irony · Socratic method Socratic paradox · Socratic questioning Socratic problem · Socratici viri Disciples Plato · Xenophon Antisthenes · Aristippus · Aeschines Related topics Academic Skepticism · Megarians · Cynicism · Cyrenaics · Platonism · Aristotelianism · Stoicism · Virtue ethics · The Clouds Category v t e Socrates (/ˈsɒkrətiːz/;[2] Ancient Greek: Σωκράτης Sōkrátēs [sɔːkrátɛːs]; c. 470 – 399 BC[3][4]) was a Greek philosopher from Athens who is credited as one of the founders of Western philosophy, and as being the first moral philosopher[5][6] of the Western ethical tradition of thought.[7][8][9] An enigmatic figure, he authored no texts, and is known chiefly through the accounts of classical writers composing after his lifetime, particularly his students Plato and Xenophon. Other sources include the contemporaneous Antisthenes, Aristippus, and Aeschines of Sphettos. Aristophanes, a playwright, is the main contemporary author to have written plays mentioning Socrates during Socrates' lifetime, although a fragment of Ion of Chios' Travel Journal provides important information about Socrates' youth.[10][11] Plato's dialogues are among the most comprehensive accounts of Socrates to survive from antiquity, from which Socrates has become renowned for his contributions to the fields of ethics and epistemology. It is this Platonic Socrates who lends his name to the concepts of Socratic irony and the Socratic method, or elenchus. However, questions remain regarding the distinction between the real-life Socrates and Plato's portrayal of Socrates in his dialogues.[12] Socrates exerted a strong influence on philosophers in later antiquity and in the modern era. Depictions of Socrates in art, literature and popular culture have made him one of the most widely known figures in the Western philosophical tradition.[13] Contents 1 Sources and the Socratic problem 2 Reconstruction of Socrates 2.1 Socrates as a figure 2.2 Socrates as a philosopher 3 Biography 4 Trial of Socrates 5 Philosophy 5.1 Socratic method 5.2 Socrates and the priority of definition 5.3 Socratic ignorance 5.4 Socratic irony 5.5 Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism 5.6 Religion 5.7 Beliefs 5.8 Paradoxes 5.9 Virtue and Knowledge 5.10 Politics 5.11 Covertness 6 Satirical playwrights 7 Prose sources 7.1 The Socratic dialogues 8 Legacy 8.1 Immediate influence 8.2 Later historical influence 8.3 Criticism 8.4 In film 9 See also 10 Notes 11 References 12 Sources 13 External links Sources and the Socratic problem Statue of Socrates in front of the modern-day Academy of Athens Socrates didn't write down any of his teachings and what we know of him comes from the accounts of others; mainly his pupils, the philosopher Plato and the historian Xenophon, the comedian Aristophanes (Socrates's contemporary), and lastly Aristotle, who was born after Socrates’s death. The often contradictory stories of the ancient sources make it incredibly difficult to reliably reconstruct Socrates’s thoughts in the proper context; this dilemma is called the Socratic problem.[14] Xenophon was a well educated, honest man but he lacked the intelligence of a trained philosopher and couldn't conceptualize or articulate Socrates’s arguments.[15] Xenophon admired Socrates for his intelligence, patriotic stance during wartimes, and courage.[16] Xenophon discusses Socrates in four of his works: the Memorabilia, the Oeconomicus, the Symposium, and the Apology of Socrates—he also mentions a story with Socrates in his Anabasis.[17] Oeconomicus hosts a discussion on practical agricultural issues.[18] Apologia offers the speeches of Socrates during his trial but is unsophisticated compared to Plato's work of the same title.[19] Symposium is a dialogue of Socrates with other prominent Athenieans after dinner—quite different than Plato's Symposium—differing even in the names of those attending, let alone Socrates’s presented ideas.[20] In Memorabilia, he defends, as he proclaimed, Socrates from the accusations against him of corrupting the youth and being against State religion. Essentially, it is a collection of various stories and constituted an apology of Socrates.[21] In a seminal work of 1818, philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher attacked Xenophon’s accounts, and his attack was widely accepted and gave rise to the Socratic problem.[22] Schleiermacher criticized Xenophon on his naïve representation of Socrates—the latter was a soldier and was unable to articulate Socratic ideas. Further, Xenophon is biased in favor of his friend, believing Socrates was unfairly treated by Athens, and sought to prove his points of view rather than reconstruct an impartial account—with the result being the portrayal of an uninspiring philosopher.[23] By early 20th century, Xenophon’s account was largely rejected.[24] Plato's representation of Socrates is not straightforward.[25] Plato was a pupil of Socrates and outlived him by five decades.[26] How trustworthy Plato is on representing Socrates is a matter of debate; the view that he wouldn't alter Socratic thought (known as Tailor-Burket thesis) isn't shared by many contemporary scholars.[27] A driver of this doubt is the inconsistency of the character of Socrates he presents.[28] One common explanation of the inconsistency is that Plato initially tried to accurately represent the historical Socrates, but later inserted his views on Socrates’s sayings—under this understanding, there is a distinction among the early writing of Plato as Socratic Socrates, whereas late writing represent Platonic Socrates—a definitive line between the two being blurred.[29] The works of Xenophon and Plato on Socrates are in the form of dialogue and provide the main source of information on Socrates's life and thought and compose the major part of Logoi Socraticoi, a term coined by Aristotle to describe its contemporary newly formed literature genre on Socrates.[30] As Aristotle first noted, authors imitate Socrates, but the extent to which they represent the real Socrates or are works of fiction is a matter of debate.[31] Xenophon’s and Plato’s accounts differ in their presentations of Socrates as a person—in Xenophon’s portrait, he is more dull, and less humorous and ironic.[16] Plato's Socrates is far from conservative Xenophon's Socrates.[32] Generally, Logoi Socraticoi can not help us reconstruct historical Socrates even in cases where their narratives overlap due to possible intertextuality.[33] Aristotle was not a contemporary of Socrates; he studied under Plato at the latter’s Academy for twenty years.[34] Aristotle treats Socrates without the bias of Xenophon and Plato, who had an emotional bias in favor of Socrates—he scrutinizes Socrates’s doctrines as a philosopher.[35] Aristotle was familiar with the various written and unwritten stories of Socrates.[36] Athenian comedians, including Aristophanes, commented on Socrates. His most important comedy with respect to Socrates, Clouds, where Socrates is a central character of the play, is the only one to survive today.[37] Aristophanes limns a caricature of Socrates that leans towards sophistism.[38] Current literature does not deem Aristophanes’s work as helpful to reconstruct the historical Socrates, except with respect to some characteristics of his personality.[39] Other ancient authors on Socrates were Aeschines of Sphettus, Antisthenes, Aristippus, Bryson, Cebes, Crito, Euclid of Megara, and Phaedo; all of whom wrote after Socrates's death.[40] Reconstruction of Socrates Two factors emerge from all sources pertaining to the character of Socrates: that he was “ugly” (at least as an older man), and had a brilliant intellect.[41][42] He wore tattered clothes and went barefoot (the latter characteristic made its way into the play The Clouds by Aristophanes).[43][44] He lived entirely within ancient Athens (at least from his late 30s, and other than when serving on military campaigns in Potidaea, Delium, etc.); he made no writings;[45] and he was executed by being made to drink hemlock.[46] Socrates as a figure The character of Socrates as exhibited in Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium concurs with other sources to an extent to which it seems possible to rely on the Platonic Socrates, as demonstrated in the dialogues, as a representation of the actual Socrates as he lived in history.[47] At the same time, however, many scholars believe that in some works, Plato, being a literary artist, pushed his avowedly brightened-up version of "Socrates" far beyond anything the historical Socrates was likely to have done or said. Also, Xenophon, being a historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. It is a matter of much debate over which Socrates it is whom Plato is describing at any given point—the historical figure, or Plato's fictionalization. As British philosopher Martin Cohen has put it, "Plato, the idealist, offers an idol [Socrates], a master figure, for philosophy. A Saint, a prophet of 'the Sun-God', a teacher condemned for his teachings as a heretic."[48] It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts, that Socrates was not simply a character, nor an invention, of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, alongside some of Aristophanes' work (especially The Clouds), is useful in fleshing out a perception of Socrates beyond Plato's work. According to one source, the name Σωκρᾰ́της (Sōkrátēs), has the meaning "whole, unwounded, safe" (the part of the name corresponding to σῶς, sôs) and "power" (the part of the name corresponding to κράτος, krátos).[49][50] Socrates as a philosopher The problem with discerning Socrates' philosophical views stems from the perception of contradictions in statements made by the Socrates in the different dialogues of Plato; in later dialogues Plato used the character, Socrates, to give voice to views that were his own. These contradictions produce doubt as to the actual philosophical doctrines of Socrates, within his milieu and as recorded by other individuals.[51] Aristotle, in his Magna Moralia, refers to Socrates in words which make it patent that the doctrine virtue is knowledge was held by Socrates. Within the Metaphysics, Aristotle states Socrates was occupied with the search for moral virtues, being the "first to search for universal definitions for them".[52] The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopher is shown in the following: In Xenophon's Symposium, Socrates is reported as saying he devotes himself only to what he regards as the most important art or occupation, that of discussing philosophy. However, in The Clouds, Aristophanes portrays Socrates as running a Sophist school with Chaerephon. Also, in Plato's Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting payment for teaching. More specifically, in the Apology, Socrates cites his poverty as proof that he is not a teacher. Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault (1791) Two fragments are extant of the writings by the Pyrrhonist philosopher Timon of Phlius pertaining to Socrates.[53] Both appear to be from Timon's Silloi in which Timon ridiculed and lampooned dogmatic philosophers.[54][55] Biography Battle of Potidaea (432 BCE): Athenians against Corinthians (detail). Scene of Socrates (center) saving Alcibiades. 18th century engraving. According to Plato, Socrates participated in the Battle of Potidaea, the retreat of Battle of Delium and the battle of Amphipolis (422 BCE)[56] Socrates was born in 469 or 470 BCE in Alopece, a deme of Athens, with both of his parents, Sophroniscus and Phaenarete being wealthy Athenians, thus he was an Athenian citizen.[57] Sophroniscus was a stoneworker while Phaenarete was a midwife.[58] He was raised living close to his father's relatives and inherited, as it was the custom in Ancient Athens, part of his father estate, that secured a life without financial scourges.[59] His education was according to laws and custums of Athens, he learned the basic skills to read and write, as all Athenians and also, as most wealthy Athenians received extra lessons in various other fields such as gymnastic, poetry and music.[60] He married once or twice. One of his marriages was with Xanthippe when Socrates was in his 50s, the other one was with the daughter of Aristides, an Athenian statesman.[61] He had 3 sons with Xanthippe.[62] Socrates fulfilled his military service during the Peloponnesian War and distinguished in three campaigns.[56] During 406 Socrates participated as a member of the Boule to the trial of six commanders since his tribe (the Antiochis) comprised the prytany. The generals were accused that they had abandoned the survivors of foundered ships to pursue the defeated Spartan navy. The generals were seen by some to have failed to uphold the most basic of duties, and the people demanded their capital punishment by having them under trial all together- not separately as the law of Athens dictated. While other members of the prytany bow to public pressure, Socrates stand alone not accepting an illegal suggestion.[63] Another incident that illustrates Socrates attachment to the law, is the arrest of Leon. As Plato describes in his Apology Socrates and four others were summoned to the Tholos, and told by representatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oligarchy began ruling in 404 BC) to go to Salamis to arrest Leon the Salaminian, who was to be brought back to be subsequently executed. However, Socrates was the only one of the five men who chose not to go to Salamis as he was expected to, because he did not want to be involved in what he considered a crime and despite the risk of subsequent retribution from the tyrants.[64] As a character Socrates was a fascinating man, attracting the interest of Athenian crowd and especially youth like a magnet.[65] He was notoriously ugly—having flat turned-up nose, bulky eyes and a belly—his friends used to joke with his appearance.[66] On top of being ugly, Socrates didn't pay any attention to his personal appearance. He walked barefoot, had only one, torn coat and didn't bathed frequently, friends called him "the unwashed". He restrained from excesses such as food and sex despite his high sex drive, also he did consumed much wine but never was he drunk.[67] Socrates was physically attracted by both sexes- common and accepted in ancient Greece- but resisted his passion towards young men as he was interested in educating their souls.[68] Socrates was known for his self control and never sought to gain sexual favors from his disciplines, as it happened with other older men while teaching adolescents.[69] Politically, he was sitting on the fence in terms of the rivalry between the democrats and the oligarchs in the ancient Athens- he criticizes sharply both while they were on power.[70] Trial of Socrates Main article: Trial of Socrates In 399 BCE, Socrates went on trial for corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens and for impiety.[71] Socrates defended himself but was subsequently found guilty by a jury of 500 male Athenian citizens (280 vs 220 votes).[72] According to the then custom, he proposed a penalty (in his case Socrates offered some money) but jurors declined his offer and commanded the death penalty.[72] The official charges were corrupting youth, worshipping false gods and not worshipping the state religion.[73] In 404 BCE, Athenians were crushed by Spartans at the decisive naval Battle of Aegospotami, and subsequently, Spartans sieged Athens. They replaced the democratic government with a new, pro-oligarchic government, named the Thirty Tyrants.[74] Because of their tyrannical measures, some Athenians organized to overthrow the Tyrants – and indeed they managed in doing so briefly – but as the Spartan request for aid from the Thirty arrived, a compromise was sought. But as Spartans left again, democrats seized the opportunity to kill the oligarchs and reclaim the government of Athens.[74] Under this politically tense climate in 399, Socrates was charged.[74] The accusations against Socrates were initiated by a poet, Meletus, who asked for the death penalty because of Asebeia.[74] Other accusers were Anytus and Lycon, of which Anutus was a powerful democratic politician who was despised by Socrates, and his pupils, Critias and Alkiviadis.[74] After a month or two, in late Spring or early Summer, the trial started and lasted a day.[74] The charges stood true; indeed Socrates criticized the anthropomorphism of traditional Greek religion, describing it in several cases as a daimonion, an inner voice. [74] The Socratic apology (meaning the defense of Socrates) started with Socrates answering the various rumors against him that gave rise to the indictment.[75] Firstly, Socrates defended against the rumor that he was an atheist naturalist philosopher, as portrayed in Aristophanes' The Clouds, or a sophist – a category of professional philosophy teachers notorious for their relativism.[76] Against these corruption allegations, Socrates answered that he did not corrupt anyone intentionally, since corrupting someone would mean that one would be corrupted back, and that corruption is not desirable.[77] On the second charge, Socrates asked for clarification. Meletus, one of the accusers, clarified that the accusation was that Socrates was a complete atheist. Socrates was quick to note the contradiction with the next accusation: worshipping false gods.[78] After that, Socrates claimed that he was God's gift, and since his activities ultimately benefited Athens, by condemning him to death, Athens would lose.[79] After that, he claimed that even though no human can reach wisdom, philosophizing is the best thing someone can do, implying money and prestige are not as precious as commonly thought.[80] After jurors convicted him and sentenced him to death, he warned Athenians that criticism by his many disciplines was inescapable, unless they became good men.[72] The Death of Socrates, by Jacques-Louis David (1787). Socrates was visited by friends in his last night at prison, his discussion with them gave rise to Plato's Crito and Phaedo.[81] Socrates had the chance to offer alternative punishments for himself after being found guilty. He could have requested permission to flee Athens and live in exile, however he didn't bring it up. Instead, according to Plato, he asked for free meals daily, or alternatively, to pay a small fine, while Xenophon says he made no proposals.[82] Jurors decided upon the death penalty, to be carried out the next day.[82] Socrates spent his last day in the prison, with his friends visiting him and offering him an escape; however, he declined.[81] The question of what motivated Athenians to choose to convict Socrates remains a point of controversy among scholars.[83] The two notable theories are, first, that Socrates was convicted on religious grounds and, second, on to political ones.[83] The case for being a political persecution is usually objected to by the existence of the amnesty that was granted in 403 BCE to prevent escalation to civil war; but, as the text from Socrates' trial and other texts reveals, the accusers could have fueled their rhetoric using events prior to 403.[84] Also, later, ancient authors claimed in various unrelated events that the prosecution was political. For example, Aeschines of Sphettus (ca. 425–350 BCE) writes: I wonder how one ought to deal with the fact that Alcibiades and Critias were the associates of Socrates, against whom the many and the upper classes made such strong accusations. It is hard to imagine a more pernicious person than Critias, who stood out among the Thirty, the most wicked of the Greeks. People say that these men ought not be used as evidence that Socrates corrupted the youth, nor should their sins be used in any way whatsoever with respect to Socrates, who does not deny carrying on conversations with the young."[85] It was true that Socrates did not stand for democracy during the reign of Thirty, and that most of his pupils were anti-democrats.[86] The argument for religious persecution is supported by the fact that the accounts of the trial by both Plato and Xenophon mostly focused on the charges of impiety. And, while it was true that Socrates didn't believe in Athenian gods, he did not dispute this while he was defending himself. On the other hand, there were many skeptics and atheist philosophers during that time that evaded prosecution, notably demonstrated in the political satire of The Clouds by Aristophanes that was staged years before the trial.[87] Yet another interpretation, more contemporary and more convincing, synthesises religious and political arguments, since during those times, religion and state were not separated.[88] Philosophy Part of a series on Platonism Plato from Raphael's The School of Athens (1509–1511) Early life Works Epistemology Idealism / Realism Demiurge Theory of forms Theory of soul Transcendentals Form of the Good Third man argument Euthyphro dilemma Five regimes Philosopher king Plato's unwritten doctrines Political philosophy Allegories and metaphors Atlantis Ring of Gyges The Cave The Divided Line The Sun Ship of State Myth of Er The Chariot Related articles Commentaries The Academy in Athens Socratic problem Academic skepticism Middle Platonism Neoplatonism and Christianity Allegorical interpretations of Plato Related categories ► Plato  Philosophy portal v t e Socratic method Main article: Socratic method A fundamental characteristic of Plato's Socrates is the Socratic method or method of "elenchus (elenchus or elenchos, in Latin and Greek respectively, means refutation).[89] It is most prominent in the early works of Plato, such as Apology, Crito, Gorgias, Republic I and other.[90] Socrates would initiate a discussion about a topic with a known expert on the topic, then by dialogue will prove them wrong by detecting inconsistencies in his reasoning.[91] Firstly, Socrates asks his interlocutor for a definition of the subject, then Socrates will ask more questions where the answers of the interlocutor will be in odds with his first definition, with the conclusion the opinion of the expert is wrong.[92] Interlocutor may came up with a different definition which again be placed under the scrutiny of Socrates questions repeatedly, with each round approaching truth even more or realizing the ignorance on the matter.[93] Since the definition of interlocuter represent most commonly, the mainstream opinion on a matter, the discussion places doubt in the shared opinion. Also, another key component of Socratic method, is that he also tests his own opinions, exposing their weakness as with others, thus Socrates is not teaching or even preaching ex cathedra a fixed philosophical doctrine, but rather he humbly acknowledging the man's ignorance while participating himself in searching the truth with his pupils and interlocutors. [94] Scholars have questioned the validity and the exact nature of socratic method or even if there is one indeed.[95] In 1982, preeminent scholar of ancient philosophy Gregory Vlastos identified a problem on Socratic method- he claimed that even when you disparaging the premises of an argument, you can now conclude that the conclusion is fault.[96] There have been two main lines of replying to Vlastos arguments, depending on whether is accepted if Socrates is seeking to prove wrong a claim. .[97] According to the first line, known as the constructivist, Socrates indeed seeks to refute a claim by his method, and it actually helps us reaching positive statements.[98] The non-constructivism approach holds that Socrates merely wants to establish the inconsistency among the premises and conclusion of the initial argument.[99] Socrates and the priority of definition Socrates used to start its discussion with his interlocutor with the search for definitions.[100] Socrates, in most cases, expects for an someone, who claims expertly on a subject, to have knowledge of the definition of his subject, ie Virtue, or Goodness, before further discussing it.[101] Giving definition a priority to any kind of knowledge, is profound in various of his dialogues, as in Hippias Major or Euthyphro.[102] Some scholars thought have argued that Socrates does not endorse this usualness as a principle, either because they can locate examples of not doing so (ie in Laches, when searching examples of courage in order to define it).[103] In this line, Gregory Vlastos, and other scholars, have argued that the endorsement of the priority principle, actually is a platonic endorsement. [104] Philosophy professor Peter Geach who accepts that Socrates endorses the priority of definitions, finds it though fallacious and he comments: "We know heaps of things without being able to define the terms in which we express our knowledge".[105] Vlastos also, discussing the "Socratic fallacy", detects an inconsistency of Socrates since on one hand he portrays himself as a strong opinioned moral philosopher, on the other hand he is not sure whether his doctrines are true or not.[106] The debate on the issue is still unsettled.[107] Socratic ignorance Plato's Socrates often claims that he is aware of his own lack of knowledge, especially when discussing ethics (such as areté, goodness, courage) since he does not possess the knowledge of essential nature of such concepts.[108] For example, Socrates says during his trial, when his life was at stake: "I thought Evenus a happy man, if he really possesses this art ( technē ), and teaches for so moderate a fee. Certainly I would pride and preen myself if I knew ( epistamai ) these things, but I do not know ( epistamai ) them, gentlemen".[109] In another case, when he was informed that the prestigious Oracle of Delphi declare that there is no-one wiser than Socrates, he concluded "So I withdrew and thought to myself: ‘I am wiser ( sophoteron ) than this man; it is likely that neither of us knows ( eidenai ) anything worthwhile, but he thinks he knows something when he does not, whereas when I do not know, neither do I think I know; so I am likely to be wiser than he to this small extent, that I do not think I know what I do not know".[110] But, in some Plato's dialogue, Socrates appears to credit himself with some knowledge and also he seems strongly opinioned which is weird of a man to hold a strong belief when he posses he has no knowledge at all.[111] For example, at his apology, he says "It is perhaps on this point and in this respect, gentlemen, that I differ from the majority of men, and if I were to claim that I am wiser than anyone in anything, it would be in this, that, as I have no adequate knowledge ( ouk eidōs hikanōs ) of things in the underworld, so I do not think I have. I do know ( oida ), however, that it is wicked and shameful to do wrong ( adikein ), to disobey one’s superior, be he god or man. I shall never fear or avoid things of which I do not know, whether they may not be good rather than things that I know ( oida ) to be bad."[112] This antiphasis has puzzled scholars.[113] There are varying explanations of the inconsistency, mostly by interpreting knowledge with a different meaning but there is a consensus that Socrates holds that realizing one's lack of knowledge is the first step towards wisdom.[114] While Socrates claims he acquired cognitive achievement in some domains of knowledge, in most important domains in ethics he denies any wisdom.[115] Socratic irony There is a widespread assumption that Socrates is an ironist, this is mostly based on the depiction of Socrates by Plato and Aristotle.[116] Irony of Socrates is so subtle and slightly humorous, that often leaves reader wondering if Socrates is making an intentional pun.[117] Plato's Euthyphro is filled with Socratic irony. The story begins when Socrates, is meeting with Euthyphro, a man that has accused his own father for murder- then turning your father to authorities was pretty unpopular. Socrates bites Euthyphro several times, without his interlocutor understanding the irony of Socrates. When Socrates first hears the details of the story, he comments, "It is not, I think, any random person who could do this [prosecute one’s father] correctly, but surely one who is already far progressed in wisdom". When Euthyphro is boasting about his understanding of divinity, Socrates responds "most important that I become your student".[118] Socrates is seen as an ironist ironic commonly when using praises to flatter or when addressing his interlocutors.[119] Socratic irony was detected by Aristotle, but linked to a different meaning. Aristotle used the term eirōneia (a greek world, later latinized and ending up us the english word irony) to describe Socrates self-deprecation. Eironeia, then, contrary to modern meaning, meant to conceal a narrative that was not stated, while today's irony, the message is clear, even though untold literally.[116] Explanation of why Socrates uses irony divides scholars. The mainstream opinion is that has been around since Cicero, perceives irony is adding a playful note to Socrates that grasp the attention of the audience.[120] Another line is that Socrates conceals his philosophical message with irony, making it accessable only to those who can separate what parts of his thought are ironic and what is not.[121] Gregory Vlastos identified a more complex pattern of irony in Socrates, where his words have double meaning, in which one meaning is being ironical, the other is not- an opinion that didn't convinced many other scholars though.[122] Not everyone were amused by Socratic irony. Epicourians, the only post-Socrates philosophical school in ancient times that didn't identified themselves as antecessors of Socrates, based their criticism to Socrates to his ironic spirit, while they preferred a more direct approach of teaching. Centuries later, Nietzsche commented on the same issue: "dialectics lets you act like a tyrant; you humiliate the people you defeat"[123] Socratic eudaimonism and intellectualism For Socrates, the pursuit of eudaimonia is the cause of all human action, directedly or indirectly- eudaimonia is a Greek word standing for happiness or well-being.[124] For Socrates, virtue and knowledge are closely linked to eudaimonia- how close Socrates consider this relation, is still debatable. Some argue that Socrates though virtue, knowledge and eudaimonia are identical, another opinion holds that for Socrates virtue serves as a mean to eudaimonism (identical and sufficiency thesis respectively).[125] Another point of debate is whether, according to Socrates, people desire actual good- or rather what they perceive as good.[125] Socrates total rejection of acting against your impulses or beliefs (named akrasia ) has puzzled scholars. Most scholars believe that Socrates leaves no space for irrational desires, even though some claim that Socrates acknowledge the existence of irrational motivations but do not have a primary role when someone is judging what action would he take.[126] No-one errs willingly is the hallmark of socratic intellectualism.[127] Socrates intellectualist, giving prominent role to virtue and knowledge. He is also a motivational intellectualist, since he believes that humans actions are guided by their cognitive power to comprehend what they desire, while diminishing the role of impulses.[128] Socratic priority to intellect as the mean to live a good life, diminishing or placing aside irrational beliefs or passions, is the hallmark of Socratic moral philosophy.[129] Text that support Socrates intellectual motivism, as Socrates thesis is named, are mainly the Gorgias 467c–468e (where Socrates discuss the actions of a tyrant actions that do not benefit him) and Meno 77d-78b (where Socrates explains to Meno his view that no-one wants bad things, unless he doesn't have knowledge of what is good and bad. [130] Socrates total rejection of akrasia (acting because of your irrational passions contrary to your knowledge or beliefs) has puzzled scholars. Most scholars believe that Socrates leaves no space for irrational desires, even though some claim that Socrates acknowledge the existence of irrational motivations but do not have a primary role when someone is judging what action would he take.[126] Religion Socrates religious nonconformity challenged views of his times and his critique reshaped religious discourse for the coming centuries.[131] It was an era when religion was quite different from today- no organized religion and sacred text with the religion intermingling with daily life of citizen who performed their religious duties mainly with sacrifices το gods.[132] Whether Socrates have been piety, a man of religion or a provocateur atheist has been a point of debate since ancient times, his trial included impiety accusations, and the controversy haven't yet ceased.[133] Socrates discusses divinity and soul mostly in Alciviades, Eythyphro and Plato's Apology.[134] In Alciviades he links human soul to divinity. He is discussing and concludes "Then this part of her resembles God, and whoever looks at this, and comes to know all that is divine, will gain thereby the best knowledge of himself."[135] Socrates discussions on religion, are under the scope of his rationalism.[136] Socrates, at Eythyphro, discussing piety where reaches a revolutionary conclussion far from the age's ussual practice. Socrates deems sacrifices to Gods useless, especially that are reward-driven. Instead he calls for philosophising and pursuit of knowledge as a mean to worship gods, [137] The rejection of traditional forms of piety placed moral burden to ordinary Athenians- who also were his jurors at his trial.[138] Also, Socrates reasoning was providing an wise and just Gods, a perception far from traditional religion that.[138] Belief in Gods is affirmed by Socrates in Plato's Apology, where Socrates says to the jurors that he recognize gods more than his accusers.[139] For Plato's Socrates, the existence of gods is taken for granded, in no of his dialogues did he examined whether gods did exist or not. [140] On Apology, a case for Socrates being agnostic can be made based on Socrates talk of the unknown after death.[141], and in Phaedo (the dialogue with his students in his last day) Socrates hinds on his hopes of the immortality of the soul. [142] In Xenophon's Memorabilia, Socrates constructs an argument resonating with the argument of intelligent design. He claims that since there are lot of features in the universe that exhibit "signs of forethought" (ie eyelids), a Maker should have created universe.[140] He then rationally deduce that the Maker should be omniscient and omnipotent and also, created the universe on the advance of humankind, since we naturally have many skills other animals do not.[140] Worthnoting is also that Socrates did speak sometimes of a single deity, other times of gods; meaning he either believed that a supreme deity was in command of other gods, or the various gods were manifestations of the single deity.[143] Beliefs The unexamined life is not worth living Socrates The beliefs of Socrates, as distinct from those of Plato, are difficult to discern. Little in the way of concrete evidence exists to demarcate the two. The lengthy presentation of ideas given in most of the dialogues may be the ideas of Socrates himself, but which have been subsequently deformed or changed by Plato, and some scholars think Plato so adapted the Socratic style as to make the literary character and the philosopher himself impossible to distinguish. Others argue that Socrates did have his own theories and beliefs distinct from Plato.[144] There is a degree of controversy inherent in the identifying of what these might have been, owing to the difficulty of separating Socrates from Plato and the difficulty of interpreting even the dramatic writings concerning Socrates. Consequently, distinguishing the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from those of Plato and Xenophon has not proven easy, so it must be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates might actually be more the specific concerns of these two thinkers instead. The matter is complicated because the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming to lack wisdom concerning the subjects about which he questioned others.[145] If anything in general can be said about the philosophical beliefs of Socrates, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he is on trial for heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he uses his method of elenchos to demonstrate to the jurors that their moral values are wrong-headed. He tells them they are concerned with their families, careers, and political responsibilities when they ought to be worried about the "welfare of their souls". Socrates' assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine emissary seemed to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the Sophistic doctrine that arete (virtue) can be taught. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the prominent military general Pericles) did not produce sons of their own quality. Socrates argued that moral excellence was more a matter of divine bequest than parental nurture. This belief may have contributed to his lack of anxiety about the future of his own sons. Also, according to A. A. Long, "There should be no doubt that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing, Socrates had strong beliefs about the divine", and, citing Xenophon's Memorabilia, 1.4, 4.3,: According to Xenophon, he was a teleologist who held that god arranges everything for the best.[146] Socrates frequently says his ideas are not his own, but his teachers'. He mentions several influences: Prodicus the rhetor and Anaxagoras the philosopher. Perhaps surprisingly, Socrates claims to have been deeply influenced by two women besides his mother: he says that Diotima (cf. Plato's Symposium), a witch and priestess from Mantinea, taught him all he knows about eros, or love; and that Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, taught him the art of rhetoric.[147] John Burnet argued that his principal teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus but his ideas were as Plato described them; Eric A. Havelock, on the other hand, did not accept the view that Socrates' view was identical with that of Archelaus, in large part due to the reason of such anomalies and contradictions that have surfaced and "post-dated his death."[clarification needed][148] Paradoxes Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they seem to conflict with common sense. The following are among the so-called Socratic paradoxes:[149] No one desires evil. No one errs or does wrong willingly or knowingly. Virtue—all virtue—is knowledge. Virtue is sufficient for happiness. The term, "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, originating in Socrates' utterance, "what I do not know I do not think I know",[150] often paraphrased as "I know that I know nothing." Virtue and Knowledge Socrates is known for disavowing knowledge, a relevant well known comment is his axiom "I know that I know nothing" which often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato's Apology; the same view is repeatedly found elsewhere in early Plato writings on Socrates.[151] But it contradicts other statements of Socrates, when he claims he has knowledge. For example, in Plato's Apology Socrates says: "...but that to do injustice and disobey my superior, god or man, this I know to be evil and base...".(Ap. 29B6-7)[152] Or at his debate with Callicles: "...I know well that if you will agree with me on those things which my soul believes, those things will be the very truth..."[152]But does it reflect a truthful opinion of Socrates or is he pretending he lacks knowledge, is a matter of debate. A usual interpretation is that he is not telling the truth. According to Norman Gulley, Socrates is trying to entice his interlocutors to a discussion. On the opposite side, Irwin Terrence claims that Socrates words should be taken literally. [153] Vlastos after exploring text, he argues that there is enough evidence to refute both claims. Vlastos claims that for Socrates, knowledge can take two separate meanings, Knowledge-C and Knowledge-E (C stands for Certain, and E stands for Elenchus-ie the socratic method). Knowledge-C is the something unquestionable whereas Knowlegde-E is the result of his elenchus, his way of examining things.[154] So, Socrates speaks the truth when he says he knows-C something, and he is also true when he knows-E that is evil for someone to disobey his superiors, as he claimed in Plato's Apology [155] Not everyone was impressed by Vlastos semanic dualism, J.H. Lesher argued that Socrates claimed in various dialogues that one word is linked to one meaning (ie in Hippias major, Meno, Laches).[156] Lesher way out of the problem is by suggesting that Socrates claim that he had no knowledge referred to the nature of virtues, but also Socrates thought that in some cases, someone could have knowledge on some ethical propositions.[157] Socrates theory of virtue stands that all virtues are essentially one since they are a form of knowledge.[158] In Protagoras Socrates makes the case for the unity of virtues using the example of courage: if someone has knowledge of the danger, he can undertake risky tasks- for example a well trained diver can swim in a deep sea cave.[159] Aristotle comments: "...Socrates the elder thought that the end of life was knowledge of virtue, and he used to seek for the definition of justice, courage, and each of the parts of virtue, and this was a reasonable approach, since he thought that all virtues were sciences, and that as soon as one knew [for example] justice, he would be just..."[160] Politics It is argued that Socrates believed "ideals belong in a world only the wise man can understand",[161] making the philosopher the only type of person suitable to govern others. In Plato's dialogue the Republic, Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ran Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy: Socrates found short of ideal any government that did not conform to his presentation of a perfect regime led by philosophers, and Athenian government was far from that. It is, however, possible that the Socrates of Plato's Republic is colored by Plato's own views. During the last years of Socrates' life, Athens was in continual flux due to political upheaval. Democracy was at last overthrown by a junta known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative, Critias, who had once been a student and friend of Socrates. The Tyrants ruled for about a year before the Athenian democracy was reinstated, at which point it declared an amnesty for all recent events. Socrates' opposition to democracy is often denied, and the question is one of the biggest philosophical debates when trying to determine exactly what Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who claim Socrates did not actually believe in the idea of philosopher kings is that the view is expressed no earlier than Plato's Republic, which is widely considered one of Plato's "Middle" dialogues and not representative of the historical Socrates' views. Furthermore, according to Plato's Apology of Socrates (an "early" dialogue), Socrates refused to pursue conventional politics; he often stated he could not look into others' matters or tell people how to live their lives when he did not yet understand how to live his own. He believed he was a philosopher engaged in the pursuit of Truth, and did not claim to know it fully. Socrates' acceptance of his death sentence after his conviction can also be seen to support this view. It is often claimed much of the anti-democratic leanings are from Plato, who was never able to overcome his disgust at what was done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear Socrates thought the rule of the Thirty Tyrants was also objectionable; when called before them to assist in the arrest of a fellow Athenian, Socrates refused and narrowly escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. He did, however, fulfill his duty to serve as prytanis when a trial of a group of Generals who presided over a disastrous naval campaign were judged; even then, he maintained an uncompromising attitude, being one of those who refused to proceed in a manner not supported by the laws, despite intense pressure.[162] Judging by his actions, he considered the rule of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the Democratic Senate that sentenced him to death. Socrates' apparent respect for democracy is one of the themes emphasized in the 2008 play Socrates on Trial by Andrew David Irvine. Irvine argues that it was because of his loyalty to Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the verdict of his fellow citizens. As Irvine puts it, "During a time of war and great social and intellectual upheaval, Socrates felt compelled to express his views openly, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is remembered today, not only for his sharp wit and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends, and his city—even during times of war—is by being loyal to, and by speaking publicly about, the truth."[163] Covertness In the Dialogues of Plato, though Socrates sometimes seems to support a mystical side, discussing reincarnation and the mystery religions, this is generally attributed to Plato.[164] Regardless, this view of Socrates cannot be dismissed out of hand, as we cannot be sure of the differences between the views of Plato and Socrates; in addition, there seem to be some corollaries in the works of Xenophon. In the culmination of the philosophic path as discussed in Plato's Symposium, one comes to the Sea of Beauty or to the sight of "the beautiful itself" (211C); only then can one become wise. (In the Symposium, Socrates credits his speech on the philosophic path to his teacher, the priestess Diotima, who is not even sure if Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.) In the Meno, he refers to the Eleusinian Mysteries, telling Meno he would understand Socrates' answers better if only he could stay for the initiations next week. Further confusions result from the nature of these sources, insofar as the Platonic Dialogues are arguably the work of an artist-philosopher, whose meaning does not volunteer itself to the passive reader nor again the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger in his Life of Plato,[165] Plato himself "received instruction from the writers of tragedy" before taking up the study of philosophy. His works are, indeed, dialogues; Plato's choice of this, the medium of Sophocles, Euripides, and the fictions of theatre, may reflect the ever-interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called a "dramatist of reason". What is more, the first word of nearly all Plato's works is a significant term for that respective dialogue, and is used with its many connotations in mind. Finally, the Phaedrus and the Symposium each allude to Socrates' coy delivery of philosophic truths in conversation; the Socrates of the Phaedrus goes so far as to demand such dissembling and mystery in all writing. The covertness we often find in Plato, appearing here and there couched in some enigmatic use of symbol and/or irony, may be at odds with the mysticism Plato's Socrates expounds in some other dialogues. These indirect methods may fail to satisfy some readers. Perhaps the most interesting facet of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called his "daimōnic sign", an averting (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering into politics. In the Phaedrus, we are told Socrates considered this to be a form of "divine madness", the sort of insanity that is a gift from the gods.[citation needed] Alternately, the sign is often taken to be what we would call "intuition"; however, Socrates' characterization of the phenomenon as daimōnic may suggest that its origin is divine, mysterious, and independent of his own thoughts. Socrates practiced and advocated divination.[166] Xenophon was thought skilled at foretelling from sacrifices, and attributed many of his knowledges to Socrates within his writing "The Cavalry Commander".[166] Satirical playwrights He was prominently lampooned in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, produced when Socrates was in his mid-forties; he said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theatre was a harder task to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than those of his students. In the play, Socrates is ridiculed for his dirtiness, which is associated with the Laconizing fad; also in plays by Callias, Eupolis, and Telecleides. Other comic poets who lampooned Socrates include Mnesimachus and Ameipsias. In all of these, Socrates and the Sophists were criticized for "the moral dangers inherent in contemporary thought and literature". Prose sources Plato, Xenophon, and Aristotle are the main sources for the historical Socrates; however, Xenophon and Plato were students of Socrates, and they may idealize him; however, they wrote the only extended descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us in their complete form. Aristotle refers frequently, but in passing, to Socrates in his writings. Almost all of Plato's works center on Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be more his own philosophy put into the mouth of his mentor. The Socratic dialogues Main article: Socratic dialogue Statue of Socrates in the Irish National Botanic Gardens The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and other persons of his time, or as discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Plato's Phaedo is an example of this latter category. Although his Apology is a monologue delivered by Socrates, it is usually grouped with the Dialogues. The Apology professes to be a record of the actual speech Socrates delivered in his own defence at the trial. In the Athenian jury system, an "apology" is composed of three parts: a speech, followed by a counter-assessment, then some final words. "Apology" is an anglicized transliteration, not a translation, of the Greek apologia, meaning "defense"; in this sense it is not apologetic according to our contemporary use of the term. Plato generally does not place his own ideas in the mouth of a specific speaker; he lets ideas emerge via the Socratic Method, under the guidance of Socrates. Most of the dialogues present Socrates applying this method to some extent, but nowhere as completely as in the Euthyphro. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations of refining the answer to Socrates' question, "What is the pious, and what the impious?" (see Euthyphro dilemma). In Plato's Dialogues, learning appears as a process of remembering. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of Ideas (very similar to the Platonic "Forms"). There, it saw things the way they truly are, rather than the pale shadows or copies we experience on earth. By a process of questioning, the soul can be brought to remember the ideas in their pure form, thus bringing wisdom.[167] Especially for Plato's writings referring to Socrates, it is not always clear which ideas brought forward by Socrates (or his friends) actually belonged to Socrates and which of these may have been new additions or elaborations by Plato—this is known as the Socratic Problem. Generally, the early works of Plato are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, whereas the later works—including Phaedo and Republic—are considered to be possibly products of Plato's elaborations.[168] Legacy Immediate influence Immediately, the students of Socrates set to work both on exercising their perceptions of his teachings in politics and also on developing many new philosophical schools of thought. Some of Athens' controversial and anti-democratic tyrants were contemporary or posthumous students of Socrates including Alcibiades and Critias. Critias' cousin, Plato, would go on to found the Academy in 385 BC, which gained so much renown that "Academy" became the standard word for educational institutions in later European languages such as English, French, and Italian.[169] While "Socrates dealt with moral matters and took no notice at all of nature in general",[170] in his Dialogues, Plato would emphasize mathematics with metaphysical overtones mirroring that of Pythagoras—the former who would dominate Western thought well into the Renaissance. Plato's protégé, another important figure of the Classical era, Aristotle went on to tutor Alexander the Great and also to found his own school in 335 BC—the Lyceum—whose name also now means an educational institution.[171] Aristotle himself was as much of a philosopher as he was a scientist with extensive work in the fields of biology and physics. Socratic thought which challenged conventions, especially in stressing a simplistic way of living, became divorced from Plato's more detached and philosophical pursuits. This idea was inherited by one of Socrates' older students, Antisthenes, who became the originator of another philosophy in the years after Socrates' death: Cynicism. The idea of asceticism being hand in hand with an ethical life or one with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle and somewhat dealt with by the Cynics, formed the core of another philosophy in 281 BC—Stoicism when Zeno of Citium would discover Socrates' works and then learn from Crates, a Cynic philosopher.[172] Socrates' student, Aristippus, rejected the asceticism of the Cynics and instead embraced ethical hedonism, founding Cyrenaicism. Another of Socrates' students, Euclides of Megara, founded the Megarian school of philosophy. Its ethical teachings were derived from Socrates, recognizing a single good, which was apparently combined with the Eleatic doctrine of Unity. Some of Euclides' successors developed logic to such an extent that they became a separate school, known as the Dialectical school. Their work on modal logic, logical conditionals, and propositional logic played an important role in the development of logic in antiquity. Later historical influence Depiction of Socrates by 13th century Seljuk illustrator While some of the later contributions of Socrates to Hellenistic Era culture and philosophy as well as the Roman Era have been lost to time, his teachings began a resurgence in both medieval Europe and the Islamic Middle East alongside those of Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue Kuzari by Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi in which a Jew instructs the Khazar king about Judaism.[173] Al-Kindi, a well-known Arabic philosopher, introduced and tried to reconcile Socrates and Hellenistic philosophy to an Islamic audience,[174] referring to him by the name 'Suqrat'. Socrates influence grew in Western Europe during the fourteenth century as Plato's dialogues were made available in Latin by Marsilio Ficino and Xenophon's Socratic writings were translated by Basilios Bessarion.[175] Voltaire even went so far as to write a satirical play about the trial of Socrates. There were a number of paintings about his life including Socrates Tears Alcibiades from the Embrace of Sensual Pleasure by Jean-Baptiste Regnault and The Death of Socrates by Jacques-Louis David in the later 18th century. To this day, different versions of the Socratic method are still used in classroom and law school discourse to expose underlying issues in both subject and the speaker. He has been recognized with accolades ranging from frequent mentions in pop culture (such as the movie Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure and a Greek rock band called Socrates Drank the Conium) to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contribution to education. Over the past century, numerous plays about Socrates have also focused on Socrates' life and influence. One of the most recent has been Socrates on Trial, a play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, all adapted for modern performance. Criticism Evaluation of and reaction to Socrates has been undertaken by both historians and philosophers from the time of his death to the present day with a multitude of conclusions and perspectives. Although he was not directly prosecuted for his connection to Critias, leader of the Spartan-backed Thirty Tyrants, and "showed considerable personal courage in refusing to submit to [them]", he was seen by some as a figure who mentored oligarchs who became abusive tyrants, and undermined Athenian democracy. The Sophistic movement that he railed at in life survived him, but by the 3rd century BC, was rapidly overtaken by the many philosophical schools of thought that Socrates influenced.[176] Socrates' death is considered iconic, and his status as a martyr of philosophy overshadows most contemporary and posthumous criticism. However, Xenophon mentions Socrates' "arrogance" and that he was "an expert in the art of pimping" or "self-presentation".[177] Lactantius wrote: "Socrates therefore had something of human wisdom ... But many of his actions are not only undeserving of praise, but also most deserving of censure, in which things he most resembled those of his own class. Out of these I will select one which may be judged of by all. Socrates used this well-known proverb: 'That which is above us is nothing to us.' ... The same man swore by a dog and a goose ... Oh buffoon (as Zeno the Epicurean says), senseless, abandoned, desperate man! If he wished to scoff at religion—madman, if he did this seriously, so as to esteem a most base animal as God! For who can dare to find fault with the superstitions of the Egyptians, when Socrates confirmed them at Athens by his authority? But was it not a mark of consummate vanity, that before his death he asked his friends to sacrifice for him a cock which he had vowed to Aesculapius? He evidently feared lest he should be put upon his trial before Rhadamanthus, the judge, by Aesculapius on account of the vow. I should consider him most mad if he had died under the influence of disease. But since he did this in his sound mind, he who thinks that he was wise is himself of unsound mind."[178] Direct criticism of Socrates the man almost disappears after his death,[citation needed] but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle over the elements of Socratic philosophy distinct from those of his students, even into the Middle Ages.[citation needed] Some modern scholarship[citation needed] holds that, with so much of his own thought obscured and possibly altered by Plato, it is impossible to gain a clear picture of Socrates amid all the contradictory evidence. That both Cynicism and Stoicism, which carried heavy influence from Socratic thought, were unlike or even contrary to Platonism further illustrates this.[citation needed] The ambiguity and lack of reliability serve as the modern basis of criticism—that it is nearly impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists about Socrates' attitude towards homosexuality[179] and as to whether or not he believed in the Olympian gods, was monotheistic, or held some other religious viewpoint.[180] However, it is still commonly taught and held with little exception that Socrates is the progenitor of subsequent Western philosophy, to the point that philosophers before him are referred to as pre-Socratic.[citation needed] In film Socrates is played by Peter Ustinov in the 1966 film Barefoot in Athens.[181] Socrates is played by Victor Buono in the 1971 film The Trial of Socrates.[182] Socrates is played by Tony Steedman in the 1989 cult classic Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure.[183] See also Philosophy portal De genio Socratis List of speakers in Plato's dialogues Myrto Socratic fallacy Socratic Letters Notes ^ Kraut, Richard (16 August 2017). "Socrates". Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2017. ^ Jones, Daniel; Roach, Peter, James Hartman and Jane Setter, eds. Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary. 17th edition. Cambridge UP, 2006. ^ Easterling, P. E. (1997). The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy. Cambridge University Press. p. 352. ISBN 978-0-521-42351-9. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017. ^ Smith, Nicholas D.; Woodruff, Paul (2000). Reason and Religion in Socratic Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 154. ISBN 978-0-19-535092-0. Archived from the original on 1 December 2017. Retrieved 19 November 2017. 469 or 468 (corresponding to the fourth year of the 77th Olympiad), according to Apollodorus...But the year of Socrates's birth is probably only an inference from...Plato [who] has Socrates casually describe himself as having lived seventy years. ^ James Rachels, The Legacy of Socrates: Essays in Moral Philosophy Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Columbia University Press, 2007 ISBN 0-231-13844-X Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Gregory Vlastos (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cornell University Press. p. 43. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2. ^ Moral Philosophy – The Discovery of Ethics : Socrates Archived 18 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine Jacques Maritain Center Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Peter Singer (1985) – Encyclopædia Britannica Archived 20 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine Chicago, 1985, pp. 627–648 Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Anne Rooney – The Story of Philosophy: From Ancient Greeks to Great Thinkers of Modern Times Archived 1 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine (search page) Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Arcturus Publishing, 2014 ISBN 1-78212-995-2 Accessed 24 November 2017 ^ Charles H. Kahn (1998) – Ethics Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – p. 42 Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press. 1998 ISBN 0-521-38832-5 Accessed 22 December 2017 ^ Stern, T (2013) – Philosophy and Theatre: An Introduction Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine – ix Archived 22 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Routledge 2013 ISBN 1-134-57591-2 Accessed 22 December 2017 ^ Kofman, Sarah (1998). Socrates: Fictions of a Philosopher. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-8014-3551-5. ^ Garner., Dwight (14 March 2014). "Who's More Famous Than Jesus?". NY Times. Archived from the original on 1 April 2021. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 5-7; Dorion 2011, pp. 1-2; May 2000, p. 9; Waterfield 2013, p. 1. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 13-15. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, p. 15. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 15-16 & 28. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 15-16. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 18. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 20-23. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 25-26. ^ Dorion 2011, p. 1-3. ^ Dorion 2011, pp. 2-3. ^ Dorion 2011, p. 5. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 29-31; Dorion 2011, p. 6. ^ Guthrie 1972. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 29-33; Waterfield 2013, p. 3-4. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Dorion 2011, p. 6. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Waterfield 2013, p. 3-4. ^ May 2000, p. 20; Dorion 2011, p. 7; Kahn 1998, p. xvii; Waterfield 2013, p. 1. ^ Dorion 2011, pp. 7-9. ^ May 2000, pp. 19-20. ^ Waterfield 2013, pp. 10-11. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 35-36. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 38. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 38-39. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 39-41. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 39-51. ^ Waterfield 2013, p. 5. ^ Vlastos 1991, p. 52; Kahn 1998, pp. 1-2. ^ Morrison, D.R. (2011). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates (p. xiv). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. ^ Nails, D. Socrates:Socrates' strangeness. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2014 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.). Archived from the original on 7 May 2015. Retrieved 16 April 2015. ^ Soccio, Douglas J. (2009). Archetypes of Wisdom: An Introduction to Philosophy. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-0-495-60382-5. ^ Gilead, Amilhud (1994). The Platonic Odyssey: A Philosophical-literary Inquiry Into the Phaedo. Rodopi. ISBN 978-9-051-83746-9. ^ El Murr, Dimitri (27 July 2016). "Socrates". Oxford Bibliographies. doi:10.1093/obo/9780195389661-0211. ISBN 978-0-19-538966-1. ^ Peter J. Ahrensdorf – The Death of Socrates and the Life of Philosophy: An Interpretation of Plato's Phaedo p. 17 Archived 15 December 2018 at the Wayback Machine SUNY Press, 1995 ISBN 0-7914-2634-3 Accessed 23 November 2017 ^ CH Kahn, Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form (p. 75), Cambridge University Press, 1998, ISBN 0-521-64830-0. ^ Cohen, M., Philosophical Tales: Being an Alternative History Revealing the Characters, the Plots, and the Hidden Scenes That Make Up the True Story of Philosophy, John Wiley & Sons, 2008, p. 5, ISBN 1-4051-4037-2. ^ Socrates Archived 1 December 2017 at the Wayback Machine Behind the Name Accessed 28 November 2017 ^ Google translation – Greek for Socrates Archived 5 August 2019 at the Wayback Machine Accessed 28 November 2017 ^ D Nails Archived 27 March 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Agora, Academy, and the Conduct of Philosophy (p. 9), Springer, 1995, ISBN 0-7923-3543-0. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S., Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed (p. 2 and footnote 10 on pp. 157–58), A&C Black, 2009. ^ Bett, R. (11 May 2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 299–30. ISBN 978-1-4051-9260-6. (A translation of one fragment reads: "But from them the sculptor, blatherer on the lawful, turned away. Spellbinder of the Greeks, who made them precise in language. Sneerer trained by rhetoroticians, sub-Attic ironist.") ^ Lieber, F. Encyclopedia Americana (pp. 266–67), published 1832 (original from Oxford University). ^ CS. Celenza (2001), Angelo Poliziano's Lamia: Text, Translation, and Introductory Studies (note 34), Brill, 2010, ISBN 90-04-18590-9. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, p. 2. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 159-160; Ahbel-Rappe 2011, p. 1; Guthrie 1972, p. 58; Dorion 2011, p. 12. ^ Nails 2020, A Chronology of the historical Socrates in the context of Athenian history and the dramatic dates of Plato’s dialogues; Guthrie 1972, pp. 1-2. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 160-161. ^ Ober 2011, pp. 161-162. ^ Ober 2011, p. 161; Vasiliou 2013, p. 33. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 65. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 59. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 65; Ober 2011, pp. 167-171. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 78. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 66-67. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 69. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 73-75; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ O'Connor 2011, pp. 211; Obdrzalek 2013, p. 210-211; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 89-94; Nails 2020, Socrates’s strangeness. ^ May 2000, p. 30. ^ a b c May 2000, pp. 47-48. ^ May 2000, p. 41. ^ a b c d e f g Nails 2020, A Chronology of the historical Socrates. ^ May 2000, p. 31. ^ May 2000, p. 33-39. ^ May 2000, pp. 41-42. ^ May 2000, p. 42. ^ May 2000, p. 43. ^ May 2000, pp. 45-46. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, pp. 65-66. ^ a b Guthrie 1972, pp. 64-65. ^ a b Ralkowski 2013, p. 302. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 303-304. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 306-307. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 307-308. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 319-322. ^ Ralkowski 2013, pp. 323. ^ Benson 2011, p. 179; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35. ^ Wolfsdorf 2013, p. 34:Other are Charmides, Crito, Euthydemus, Euthyphro, Hippias Major, Hippias Minor, Ion, Laches, Lysis, Protagoras. Benson (2011) also adds parts of Meno p.179 ^ Benson 2011, p. 182-184; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35. ^ Benson 2011, p. 184. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 125-127. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 128-129. ^ Benson 2011, p. 179,185-193. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185; Wolfsdorf 2013, pp. 34-35; Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185; Wolfsdorf 2013, p. 44; Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter. ^ Benson 2011, p. 185. ^ Ambury 2020, The Elenchus: Socrates the Refuter: Benson (2011) names in a note scholars that are of constructivist and non-constructivism approach: "Among those “constructivists” willing to do so are Brickhouse and Smith 1994 , ch. 6.1; Burnet 1924 , pp. 136–137; McPherran 1985 ; Rabinowitz 1958 ; Reeve 1989 , ch. 1.10; Taylor 1982 ; and Vlastos 1991 , ch. 6. Those who do not think a Socratic account of piety is implied by the text (“anticonstructivists”) include Allen 1970 , pp. 6–9, 67; and Grote 1865 , pp. 437–57. Beckman 1979 , ch. 2.1; Calef 1995 ; and Versényi 1982" p=118 ^ Benson 2013, p. 136. ^ Benson 2013, p. 137-139. ^ Benson 2013, p. 139-141. ^ Benson 2013, pp. 143-145; Bett 2011, p. 228. ^ Benson 2013, pp. 143-145, 147; Bett 2011, p. 229. ^ Benson 2013, p. 145. ^ Vlastos 1994, p. 67. ^ Benson 2013, p. 155. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 222; Bett 2011, p. 215; McPartland 2013, p. 94-95. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 98. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 99. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 108-109. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 109. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 117. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 118-119. ^ McPartland 2013, p. 135. ^ a b Lane 2011, p. 239. ^ Vasiliou 2013, p. 20. ^ Vasiliou 2013, p. 24; Lane 2011, p. 239. ^ Lane 2011, p. 249-251. ^ Lane 2011, pp. 241-242. ^ Lane 2011, p. 243. ^ Vasiliou 2013, pp. 28-29. ^ Lane 2011, p. 244. ^ Penner 2011, pp. 259-261; Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185; Vlastos 1991, p. 203. ^ a b Reshotko 2013, p. 159. ^ a b Brickhouse & Smith 2013, pp. 190-191. ^ Segvic 2006, p. 190. ^ Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185. ^ Segvic 2006, p. 171. ^ Brickhouse & Smith 2013, p. 185-186. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 257. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 259-260. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 257-258. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 151-153. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 153. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 260-262. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 265. ^ a b McPherran 2013, p. 266. ^ McPherran 2013, pp. 272-273. ^ a b c McPherran 2013, pp. 270-271. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 157-158. ^ Guthrie 1972, pp. 159-172. ^ McPherran 2013, p. 272. ^ Cohn, Dorrit (2001). "Does Socrates Speak for Plato? Reflections on an Open Question". New Literary History. 32 (3): 485–500. doi:10.1353/nlh.2001.0030. ISSN 1080-661X. S2CID 170977228. ^ Plato, Republic 336c and 337a, Theaetetus 150c, Apology 23a; Xenophon, Memorabilia 4.4.9; Aristotle, Sophistical Refutations 183b7. ^ Long, AA., in Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. p. 59. ISBN 978-1-4051-9260-6. ^ Plato, Menexenus 235e ^ Anton, John P. (1983). ""The Socratic Problem: Some Second Thoughts" by Eric A. Havelock". Essays in Ancient Greek Philosophy Volume Two. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. pp. 147–73. ISBN 978-0-87395-623-9. ^ p. 14, Terence Irwin, The Development of Ethics, vol. 1, Oxford University Press 2007; p. 147, Gerasimos Santas, "The Socratic Paradoxes", Philosophical Review 73 (1964), pp. 147–64. ^ Apology of Socrates 21d Archived 17 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. ^ Vlastos 1985, p. 1. ^ a b Vlastos 1985, pp. 6-7. ^ Vlastos 1985, p. 1-2; Lesher 1987, p. 275. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 276. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 276; Vasiliou 2013, p. 28. ^ Lesher 1987, p. 278; McPartland 2013, p. 123. ^ McPartland 2013, pp. 123-124. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131; Ahbel-Rappe 2011, pp. 183-184. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131. ^ Guthrie 1972, p. 131; Ahbel-Rappe & Kamtekar 2009, p. 72 sfnm error: multiple targets (4×): CITEREFAhbel-RappeKamtekar2009 (help). ^ Attributed to "Solomon" in 100 Most Influential People of All Times for Smartphones and Mobile Devices. Mobile Reference. 2007. ^ Kagen (1978). ^ Irvine, Andrew D. "Introduction," Socrates on Trial, Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2008, p. 19. ^ McPherran, M.L. (1998). The Religion of Socrates. Penn State Press. p. 268. ^ Olympiodorus the Younger, Life of Plato, in The Works of Plato: A New and Literal Version Chiefly from the Text of Stallbaum, p. 234, Bohm, 1854. ^ a b J. Mikalson (June 2010). Greek Popular Religion in Greek Philosophy. OUP Oxford. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-19-161467-5. Archived from the original on 29 April 2016. Retrieved 16 December 2015. ^ Khan, C.H. (1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ^ Morrison, D.R. (2011). "1". The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 306–09. ^ Carruccio, E. (2006). Mathematics And Logic in History And in Contemporary Thought. Transaction Publishers. p. 44. ^ Magee, B (2000). The Great Philosophers: An Introduction to Western Philosophy. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ^ Long, A.A. (1996). Stoic Studies. Cambridge University Press. pp. 31–32. ISBN 9780521482639. ^ Hughes, Bettany (2011). The Hemlock Cup: Socrates, Athens and the Search for the Good Life. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ^ von Dehsen, C. (2013). Philosophers and Religious Leaders. Routledge. ^ Ahbel-Rappe, S.; Kamtekar, R. (2009). A Companion to Socrates. John Wiley & Sons. pp. xix–xx. ^ Wilson, E.R. (2007). The Death of Socrates: Hero, Villain, Chatterbox, Saint. Profile Books. pp. 61–62. ^ Danzig, G. (2010). Apologizing for Socrates: How Plato and Xenophon Created Our Socrates. Lexington Books. pp. 66–67. ^ Institutiones Divinae, b. 3, c. 20. ^ W. K. C. Guthrie, Socrates Archived 28 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Cambridge University Press, 1971, p. 70. ^ A.A. Long "How Does Socrates' Divine Sign Communicate with Him?", Chapter 5 in: A Companion to Socrates Archived 28 September 2015 at the Wayback Machine, John Wiley & Sons, 2009, p. 63. ^ "Barefoot in Athens". 11 November 1966. Archived from the original on 1 June 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ "The Trial of Socrates". 1971. Retrieved 10 November 2019. ^ "Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure". De Laurentiis Entertainment Group (DEG). 17 February 1989. Archived from the original on 10 November 2019. Retrieved 10 November 2019. References Brun, Jean (1978). Socrate (sixth ed.). Presses universitaires de France. pp. 39–40. ISBN 978-2-13-035620-2. (in French) Ong, Walter (2002). Orality and Literacy. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-28129-4. Kagan, Donald. The Fall of the Athenian Empire. First. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press, 1987. Pausanias, Description of Greece. W.H.S. Jones (translator). Loeb Classical Library. 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ISBN 978-0-8020-9783-5 (cloth); ISBN 978-0-8020-9538-1 (paper); ISBN 978-1-4426-9254-1 (e-pub) Kamtekar, Rachana (2004). Plato's Euthyphro, Apology, and Crito: Critical Essays. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-3325-7. Kierkegaard, Søren (1968). The Concept of Irony: with Constant Reference to Socrates. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-20111-9. Levinson, Paul (2007). The Plot to Save Socrates. New York: Tor Books. ISBN 978-0-7653-1197-9. Luce, J.V. (1992). An Introduction to Greek Philosophy, Thames & Hudson, NY. Maritain, J. (1930, 1991). Introduction to Philosophy, Christian Classics, Inc., Westminster, MD. Robinson, R (1953). Plato's Earlier Dialectic. Oxford: Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-824777-7. Ch. 2: "Elenchus", Ch. 3: "Elenchus: Direct and Indirect" Taylor, C.C.W., Hare, R.M. & Barnes, J. (1998). Greek Philosophers – Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, NY. Taylor, C.C.W. (2001). Socrates: A very short introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Sources Ahbel-Rappe, Sara; Kamtekar, Rachana (2009). A Companion to Socrates. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. Ahbel-Rappe, Sara (2011). Socrates: A Guide for the Perplexed. A&C Black. ISBN 978-0-8264-3325-1. Ambury, James M. (2020). "Socrates". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved 2 June 2021. Benson, Hung H. (2011). "Socratic Method". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 179–200. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Benson, Hung H. (3 January 2013). "The priority of definition". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 136–155. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Bett, Richard (2011). "Socratic Ignorance". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 215–236. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Brickhouse, Thomas C.; Smith, Nicholas D. (3 January 2013). "Socratic Moral Psychology". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 185–209. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Dorion, Louis André (2011). "The Rise and Fall of the Socratic Problem". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–23. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Guthrie, W. K. C. (1972). A History of Greek Philosophy: Volume 3, The Fifth Century Enlightenment, Part 2, Socrates. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-09667-6. Kahn, Charles H. (4 June 1998). Plato and the Socratic Dialogue: The Philosophical Use of a Literary Form. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-64830-1. May, Hope (2000). On Socrates. Wadsworth/Thomson Learning. ISBN 978-0-534-57604-2. McPherran, Mark L. (3 January 2013). "Socratic theology and piety". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 257–277. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Lane, Josiah (2011). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Lesher, J. H. (James H.) (1987). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". Journal of the History of Philosophy. Project Muse. 25 (2): 275–288. doi:10.1353/hph.1987.0033. ISSN 1538-4586. S2CID 171007876. McPartland, Melissa (3 January 2013). "Reconsidering Socratic Irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 237–259. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Nails, Debra (2020). Edward N. Zalta (ed.). "Socrates". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Ober, Josiah (2011). "Socrates and Democratic Athens". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–178. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. O'Connor, David K. (2011). "Xenophon and the Enviable Life of Socrates". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 48–74. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Obdrzalek, Suzanne (3 January 2013). "Socrates on Love". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 210–232. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Penner, Terry (2011). "Socratic Ethics and the Socratic Psychology of Action: A Philosophical Framework". In Donald R. Morrison (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Socrates. Cambridge University Press. pp. 260–292. ISBN 978-0-521-83342-4. Ralkowski, Mark (3 January 2013). "The politics of impiety why was Socrates prosecuted by the Athenian democracy ?". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 301–327. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Reshotko, Naomi (3 January 2013). "Socratic eudaimonism". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 136–155. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Segvic, Heda (2006). "No One Errs Willingly: The Meaning of Socratic Intellectualism". In Sara Ahbel-Rappe (ed.). A Companion to Socrates. Rachana Kamtekar. Wiley. ISBN 978-1-4051-5458-1. Vasiliou, Iakovos (3 January 2013). "Socratic irony". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 20–33. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Vlastos, Gregory (1985). "Socrates' Disavowal of Knowledge". The Philosophical Quarterly. Oxford University Press (OUP). 35 (138): 1–31. doi:10.2307/2219545. ISSN 0031-8094. JSTOR 2219545. Vlastos, Gregory (1991). Socrates, Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-9787-2. Vlastos, Gregory (1994). Socratic Studies. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-44735-5. Waterfield, Robin (3 January 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. A&C Black. pp. 1–19. ISBN 978-1-4411-1284-2. Wolfsdorf, David (3 January 2013). "Quest for the historical Socrates". In Nicholas D. Smith (ed.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Socrates. John Bussanich. 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